3) Geometric Unsharpness (radiographic)

Don't forget these important points when calculating the Ug Factor........

Ug = F (t / d)

Where:

Ug (unsharpness due to geometry)

= F(focal spot size - cross dia.) X (top-of-specimen to film distance /
distance - measure from the source to the top-of-specimen)
1. The trick is to remember measuring to-and-from the top-side of the
specimen for the t / d. If this is a thick piece, the difference can be great
from a thin section..........this is what we are limiting........right?

2. Don't forget to use the same measuring UNITS for all calculations.
(inches or mm, etc.)

3. Maximum Geometric Unsharpness:

Material Thickness
Under 2 in. (50mm) = max. Ug. 0.020in (0.50mm)
2 in. through 3 in. (50 - 75mm) = max. Ug. 0.030in (0.75mm)
Over 3 in. - 4 in. (75 - 100mm) = max. Ug. 0.040in (1.00mm)
Over 4 in. (100mm) = 0.070in. (1.75mm)

4) The Notch Effect

Notches - Defects in Design and their Consequences

Notches are responsible for much damage in many components. A notch

produces local stress concentrations points at the 'notch' tip and promotes the
formation of service, fatique and stress corrosion cracks.

At the same time, a notch can produce a three (3) dimensional state of
tensile stress that restricts the plastic deformability and favors 'cleavage'
fracture.

The stresses can then stretch elastically the 'lattice' of the material and
promote hydrogen embrittlement.

Fatigue fractures can be initiated by these notches.

So don't forget to smooth those edges and remove those undercuts

5) Magnetism? Magic?

Magnetism can be found anywhere and everywhere on earth and

possibly the universe. It penetrates your body, bone and flesh. It was first
noticed in Magnesia in 1200 AD and observed in an iron ore called
lodestone.

All magnetism is based on electron spin and rotation. Atoms have

random orientations of electron spin and rotation. If an object is susceptible
to magnetism and is placed into a magnetic field, its spins and rotations align
themselves to be in line with the applied field.

Magnetism can be artificially or naturally induced. When a magnetizing

force is removed, the remaining magnetism is referred to as residual
magnetism. The measurement of the 'flux density' is expressed in gauss or
teslas (volt seconds per sq.m.). The magnetizing 'force' is expressed in
amperes (turns per centimeter).

Polarity is the I.D. of magnetic north and south poles in the otherwise
continuous invisible magnetic field lines, similar to earth's magnetic field.

Magnetism is not visible and can be damaging to equipment if left

behind. If using intense circular magnetization, don't forget it is difficult to
remove, can generate damaging electrical currents and cannot be measured
accurately. Check your tested piece and ensure of complete removal with a
reliable meter.

6) FCAW (in a nutshell)

Flux Cored Arc Welding Process

FCAW uses the same types of wire feeders and power sources as the
GMAW process. However, the FCAW process uses a tubular electrode
with its core (inner) containing the deoxidizers, scavengers, and (protectant)
slag and vapor forming ingrediants.

If used under windy conditions, the FCAW-G (added external gas shielding)
process requires some barriers to prevent the gas from being dissipated. The
FCAW-S (self shielded - from the core) process is commonly used on mild
steel, but the electrodes can be manufactured to contain a number of alloying
elements in the core for welding stainless steels and other low-alloys.

FCAW is noted for its high-deposition rates and somewhat forgiving arc
characteristics. Its overall efficiency is about the same as the GMAW
process, but significantly better than the SMAW process. It is a veratile
process, adaptable to welding both thick and thin Steels.

7) How Hydrogen Cracks Occur

Whenever hydrogen cracks are generated, three things occur (are

present) simultaneously:

1. Dissolved Hydrogen
2. Tensile Stresses
3. Low Ductility

This is the sequence of events leading to this deadly cracking.

a) Hydrogen enters the arc either by the shielding gas, flux or material
contamination and dissolves into the weld metal itself.

b) As the weld cools, it becomes saturated in hydrogen, all of which

diffuses out into the HAZ.

c) If cooled quickly (rapid), the hydrogen is retained in the 'austenite'

instead of escaping.

d) The Hydrogen is trapped and seeks rifts and discontinuities in the

material lattice and concentrates at these points.

e) The external stresses generated due to transformation act with the

hydrogen to enlarge the 'discontinuities' to 'crack' size. This hydrogen may
contribute to cracking by lowering the strength of the lattice and/or by
adding to the stresses at the discontinuity level.

f) Crack growth takes the crack-root away for the hydrogen concentration
and may be interrupted until the hydrogen diffuses to a new root
location. This leads to the time-dependent behavior of the cracking
phenomenon.

The Main Defence:

Preheat - The main reason for this heat is to assist in removing hydrogen
from the weld by allowing the weld to cool slower; (diffusing hydrogen
out) and remaining more ductile, thus resisting cracking.

8) LPI Dwell Times

How many times have you looked for an easy number to remember
regarding a minimum or maximum time for penetrant and/or
developers.

Well here it is:

According to ASTM E-165, fluorescent and visible penetrants within
ambient temperature ranges (50 to 100 F) are similar enough to say:

Penetrant Dwell times of 5 minutes (for all but wrought, forgings, plate,
then it is 10 minutes 8.5.2)

Developer Dwell times of 10 minutes (after drying, 8.8.6)

Simple enough!!! But don't forget outside the normal temperature range,
longer dwell times for both may apply.

This is a general rule of thumb, as the classrooms teach 10 to 30 minutes

(temp's applied)

9) MPI Hints

Coatings

Unfortunately, ASTM E-1444 specifies that Magnetic Particle testing shall

not be performed with nonmagnetic coatings (paint, etc.) in place that
exceed 0.003" (0.08mm) in thickness, or ferromagnetic coatings
(electroplated nickel, etc.) that exceed 0.001" (0.03mm) in thickness.

That is not very thick! So be careful on those painted surfaces.......don't

forget the chance of poor bonding on those thin coatings.

Current Types

ASTM E-1444 recommends:

Half-wave rectified AC is best for the dry particle method.

For defects open to the surface use AC only.

When using Wet particle method for subsurface defects, use full-wave
rectified AC.

Yokes

Funny, but look at the difference, Standards can make on a procedure:

ASTM E-1444 requires DC yokes to have a lifting force of at least 30 lbs.

(small spacing) and a 50 lbs. lift for a large spacing of legs.

ASTM A-275 requires DC yokes have a lifting power of at least 40 lbs at 3

to 6" spacing of legs.

The ASME Boiler Code requires a DC yoke to have at least 40 lbs of lift at
the maximum pole spacing.

There is a misconception in the 'field' that one can take a yoke and
proceed with magnitizing an object by dragging the yoke along the
object's surface. Wrong!!!

If you are dragging an AC yoke, you are in fact not magnetizing the
object but rather you are doing a lovely job of DEMAGNETIZING the
object. As in ASTM E-1444 above, paragraph 6.7.1.1, demagnetizing
using a coil (yoke) by moving the object through........(which is what you
are doing).

To correctly magnetize an object, position the yoke and apply

magnetizing force for 2 - 5 seconds before moving the unit to the next
position.

So watch which specification and procedure is being applied to your

project.
 10) ISO 9001 (simply explained)

How-to-build an ISO 9001 system/program (in one page)

1. The quality manual is a formal statement from management, closely

linked to the business and marketing plan and to customer needs. The quality
manual is understood and followed at all levels and by all employees. Each
employee needs measurable objectives to work towards.

2. Decisions about the quality system are made based on recorded data, and
the system is regularly audited and evaluated for conformance and
effectiveness.

3. You need a documented procedure to control quality documents in your

company. Everyone must have access to up-to-date documents and be aware
of how to use them.

4. To maintain the quality system and produce conforming product, you

need to provide suitable infrastructure, resources, information, equipment,
measuring and monitoring devices, and environmental conditions.

5. You need to map out all key processes in your company; control them by
monitoring, measurement, and analysis; and ensure that product quality
objectives are met. If you can't monitor a process by measurement, then
make sure the process is well enough defined that you can make adjustments
if the product does not meet user needs.

6. For each product your company makes, you need to establish quality
objectives; plan processes; and document and measure results to use as a
tool for improvement. For each process, determine what kind of procedural
documentation is required. (Note: a "product" is hardware, software,
services, processed materials, or a combination of these.)

7. You need to determine key points where each process requires monitoring
and measurement, and ensure that all monitoring and measuring devices are
properly maintained and calibrated.

8. You need to have clear requirements for purchased product. Select

suppliers appropriately and check that incoming product meets requirements.

9. You need to determine the skills required for each job in your company,
suitably train employees, and evaluate the effectiveness of the training.

10. You need to determine customer requirements and create systems for
communicating with customers about product information, inquiries,
contracts, orders, feedback, and complaints.

11. When developing new products, you need to plan the stages of
development, with appropriate testing at each stage. You need to test and
document whether the product meets design requirements, regulatory
requirements, and user needs.

12. You need to regularly review performance through internal audits and
meetings. Determine whether the quality system is working and what
improvements can be made. Deal with past problems and potential
problems. Keep records of these activities and the resulting decisions, and
monitor their effectiveness. (Note: you need a documented procedure for
internal audits.)

13. You need documented procedures for dealing with actual and potential
nonconformances (problems involving suppliers or customers, or internal
problems). Make sure no one uses bad product, determine what to do with
bad product, deal with the root cause of the problem, and keep records to use
as a tool to improve the system.
DR. ESTRELLA D. RELUNIA
NDT, Coordinator

Philippine Nuclear Research Institute

Commonwealth Avenue, Diliman, Q. C.
Tel. Nos. 929-60-11-19 local 236 Fax No. 920-8788

Mr. Rodolfo C. Hizon

President
Philippine Welding Society
Room 302 JVR Building
5782 Felipe St., Bel-air
Makati City, Philippines
Telephone: 011-63-2-635-3641 work
011-63-2-939-0483 home
Facsimile: 011-63-2-635-0609
011-63-2-636-5371
Email: [email protected]