Structure & Properties of Water

STRUCTURE OF WATER

H H

1 molecule of water is made up of 2 hydrogen atoms bonded

with 1 oxygen atom
 STRUCTURE OF WATER

The bond that forms water is a covalent bond

 POLAR MOLECULE

• A molecule that has electrically charged areas.

• Also called a polar substance or polar compound.

• Non-polar substances do not have charged ends

+ H H +
O
-
 POLAR MOLECULE

The positive hydrogen ends of 1 molecule are attracted

to the negative end of the oxygen of another molecule.
H
O
H
 POLAR MOLECULE

THE PROPERTIES OF:

Cohesion, adhesion, specific heat, universal solvent,
capillary action, surface tension

ALL HAPPEN BECAUSE WATER IS A POLAR

SUBSTANCE!
• Molecular formula of water: H2O

• molar mass of water: 18.01528(33) g/mol

• density 1000 kg/m3, liquid (4 °C) or 917 kg/m3, solid. This is why ice floats on
water.

• melting point: 0 °C, 32 °F (273.15 K)

• boiling point: 100 °C, 212 °F (373.15 K)

• acidity (pKa): 15.74 , basicity (pKb): 15.74

• refractive index: (nD) 1.3330, viscosity: 0.001 Pa s at 20 °C

• crystal structure: hexagonal

• Pure liquid water at room temperature is odorless, tasteless and
nearly colorless. Water has a faint blue color, which becomes more
apparent in large volumes of water.

• Water has the second highest specific enthalpy of fusion of all

substance (after ammonia). The specific enthalpy of fusion of water
is 333.55 kJ·kg−1 at 0 °C.

• Water has the second highest specific heat capacity of all known
substances. (Ammonia has the highest specific heat.) Water also has
a high heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ·mol−1).

• The high specific heat and heat of vaporization result from the high
degree of hydrogen bonding between water molecules. One
consequence of this is that water is not subject to rapid temperature
fluctuations. On Earth, this helps to prevent dramatic climate
changes.
• CAPILLARY ACTION
• COHESION
• ADHESION
• SURFACE TENSION
• SPECIFIC HEAT
• BUOYANCY
Capillary action

• Capillary action can be defined as the ascension of liquids through

slim tube, cylinder or permeable substance due to adhesive and
cohesive forces interacting between the liquid and the surface.

• When intermolecular bonding of a liquid itself is substantially

inferior to a substances’ surface it is interacting, capillarity occurs.

• Also, the diameter of the container as well as the gravitational forces

will determine amount of liquid raised. While, water possesses this
unique property, a liquid like mercury will not display the same
attributes due to the fact that it has higher cohesive force than
adhesive force.
• Three main variables that determine whether a liquid possesses
capillary action are:

• Cohesive force: It is the intermolecular bonding of a substance

where its mutual attractiveness forces them to maintain a certain
shape of the liquid.

• Surface tension: This occurs as a result of like molecules, cohesive

forces, banding together to form a somewhat impenetrable surface
on the body of water. The surface tension is measured in
Newton/meter.

• Adhesive force: When forces of attraction between unlike

molecules occur, it is called adhesive forces.

• Capillary action only occurs when the adhesive forces are stronger
than the cohesive forces, which invariably becomes surface tension,
in the liquid.
CAPILLARY ACTION
SURFACE TENSION

• The tightness across the surface of water that is caused by the polar
molecules pulling on one another.

• Makes the surface act like a solid

• In a sample of water, there are two types of molecules. Those that

are on the outside, exterior, and those that are on the inside, interior.

• The interior molecules are attracted to all the molecules around

them, while the exterior molecules are attracted to only the other
surface molecules and to those below the surface.

• This makes it so that the energy state of the molecules on the interior
is much lower than that of the molecules on the exterior.

• Because of this, the molecules try to maintain a minimum surface

area, thus allowing more molecules to have a lower energy state.
This is what creates what is referred to as surface tension.
SURFACE TENSION
UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
 UNIVERSAL SOLVENT

• Water dissolves LOTS of things.

SOLVENT = the thing doing the dissolving

SOLUTE = the thing that dissolves away

• Because water is a polar molecule and is shaped like a wedge,

it is able to break up substances into smaller pieces (dissolve).

• Polar molecules can be dissolved by water.

• Non-polar substances DO NOT dissolve in water.

 COHESION

• Because water is a polar molecule, it is attracted to itself.

• Cohesion – is the attractive force between water molecules.
H
O
H
• Cohesion contributes to numerous processes in living
organisms, including the transport of water and dissolved
nutrients in plants.

• Cohesion helps plants draw water upwards from the root

through the stem's transport tubes (xylem) to the leaf.

• This transport occurs even in large trees and against gravity.

• Transpiration, evaporation of water from plant leaves, creates a

tension on water molecules being pulled up from the stem and
roots.

• Cohesion, along with adhesion and surface tension, creates a

capillary action that keeps water molecules interacting and
moving through the plants out to the leaf cells.
 ADHESION

• Because water is a polar molecule, it is attracted to

other substances.

• Adhesion – occurs when molecules of water are

attracted to other substances.

• Capillary action, meniscus - Adhesion

• Surface tension, capillary action and meniscus - Cohesion

 SPECIFIC HEAT

• Specific Heat = the amount of energy needed to increase the

temperature of something 1 degree C.

• Water has a really HIGH specific heat

• That means it takes a lot of energy for water to increase its

temperature.

• This is because of the STRONG ATTRACTION between

water molecules.

It’s POLAR!
Buoyancy
• Buoyancy is the upward force that an object feels from the
water and when compared to the weight of the object, it is
what makes an object float, sink, or remain neutrally buoyant
in the water.

• When an object floats, the upward buoyant force exerted by

the water is greater than the downward force of the weight of
the object

• If an object’s density is less than water’s density (1 g/cm³), it

will float.
Water and Its Impurities
• In nature, it is never totally pure.
• No matter how isolated it is from sources of contamination, it
will always have some chemicals. Gases or minerals in the air,
soil or rock are dissolved by the water.
• Some dissolved materials give water it’s characteristic taste –
“pure water” is generally considered to be flat and tasteless.
• On the other hand, minerals can cause hardness (calcium or
magnesium), color (iron), contamination (arsenic), and
radioactivity (radium, radon) in the water.
• Humans can cause contamination through the improper use of
pesticides or fertilizers and through the disposal of waste.
These impurities can dissolve in the water, causing it to be
contaminated.
• PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• ORGANIC CHARACTERISTICS
• BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• RADIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Temperature
• The most basic physical change is caused by temperature changes of
the water.
• The warmer the temperature of the water, the more rapid the settling
characteristics of the water.
• This occurs because the molecules of water become more active
with a rise in temperature.
• Any chemicals added will dissolve and react more readily with the
solids in the water.
• The temperature will affect the time required for mixing and
sedimentation when a chemical is added for coagulation.
• The reaction is accelerated considerably when the water is warmer.
The colder the water, the longer it will take for the floc to form.
• Fortunately, in winter when the temperature generally is colder, less
water is needed in the community and the water treatment plant flow
is lower.
• This lower flow lengthens the detention time and allows the floc to
form. Warmer temperatures also make disinfection of the water
much easier.
Turbidity
• Turbidity refers to the cloudiness of the water. It can be a
problem in surface-water sources.
• The materials causing the cloudiness can be inorganic--such as
clays, silts or sand--or organic, such as algae and leaf particles.
• Turbidity of drinking water is important for a number of
reasons.
• The turbidity in the water may shield bacteria, preventing
disinfection chemicals from attacking and destroying the cells.
• Another health concern relates to organic materials that cause
turbidity in the water, these materials, in conjunction with
chlorine, can form trihalomethanes and other potentially
harmful chemicals.
• From an aesthetic standpoint, turbidity in the water makes it
less appealing to many people
• Turbidity is normally tested using instruments that pass a light
through the water and measure the light refraction at a 90-degree
angle from the light source.
• This may be done by process meters that continuously measure the
water in line, or by using meters in the lab for grab samples.
• Most meters used today are of the nephelometric type. They are
calibrated by using formazin standards supplied with the meters.
• The turbidity is expressed in NTU units.
• Surface water sources usually have higher turbidity than
groundwater sources.
• Groundwater is filtered naturally as it passes through an aquifer.
• The turbidity of a surface water source can vary greatly from a low
of less than one to a high of over 200 NTU.
Color
• Color, a physical characteristic of water that is not noticed
unless it is very high, is measured by comparing a water
sample to a color standard.

• One color unit has no effect on the water and is usually not
detectable while 100 color units could be compared to the
color of light tea.

• There could be many reasons for excessive color in water.

• For example, in surface water, tannin--which makes the water

look brown--is caused by a chemical formed from organic
material.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• Chemicals--either organic or inorganic--that dissolve in water can change
its characteristics and may cause it to become contaminated.
PH
• pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in water.
• pH is measured on a scale ranging from 0 to 14 with seven considered
neutral. At a pH below 7, the water is acidic; at a pH above 7, the water
is alkaline.
• A change of one (1) pH means a ten-fold increase or decrease in the
hydrogen ion concentration.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2), which creates a “weak” acid (H2C03), lowers the
pH of the water, while lime, calcium hydroxide (Ca[OH]2), raise the pH.
• The normal range of pH for drinking water is 6.5 to 8.5. Water with a
lower pH tends to be more corrosive; at a higher pH it tends to produce
scale.
• The stability point of water is the point at which it is neither corrosive
nor scale forming. Softened water, for example, usually has a stability
point at slightly over 8 on the pH scale.
Hardness
• Hardness in water is caused by significant amounts of calcium
or magnesium components.
• The hardness is classified into carbonate or non-carbonate
hardness depending on what molecules are combined with the
calcium or magnesium.
• If they are combined with carbonate ions (CO3), the hardness
is carbonate hardness; if combined with other ions, it is non-
carbonate hardness.
• The operator needs some basic information about the water to
be able to determine if the hardness is carbonate or non-
carbonate.
• EBT dye is added to a sample solution containing calcium and
magnesium, and titrated with EDTA, which removes calcium
and magnesium from the dye complex, forming a wine red
colour.
 A  B 1000
• Hardness as mg CaCO3 / L = mLof sample

where A = mL titrant for sample

B = mg CaCO3 equivalent to 1.00 mL

• This information is useful for an operator of a softening plant

when selecting the type of chemical to use in removing
hardness from the water.

• If the carbonate hardness is high, the chemical of choice for

removal of the hardness would most likely be lime; if the non-
carbonate hardness is high, some soda ash or caustic soda may
need to be added to attack that hardness.
Dissolved Solids
• Inorganic salts: Calcium (Ca2+), Magnesium (Mg2+)
Chloride (Cl-), Nitrate (NO3-) Sulphate
(SO42-)
• Organic Matter: Humic and Fulvic Acids Pesticides,
Detergents, etc.

SUSPENDED Solids
• Colloidal (Organic and Inorganic) - Clays, Peat Acids
• Inorganic - Sand Particles
• Organic - Industrial, Domestic by-products

LIVING MATTER
• Micro-Organisms (Bacteria, Algae, Viruses, etc.)
• Macro-Organisms (Fish, Shrimps, Worms, Larvae, etc.)
• The total dissolved solids can have a significant impact on the
quality of water.
• The amount of dissolved solids affects the water for almost all
of its uses, whether for drinking, agricultural, or industrial use.
• The recommended maximum limit of dissolved solids in
drinking water is 500 ppm.
• The problems caused by dissolved material relate to taste and
odor, hardness, and corrosion and scaling in the distribution
system, among others.
• Several different types of dissolved solids could be toxic if the
levels become too high.
• These include barium, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead,
mercury, selenium, and silver.
• Each of these are regulated by the EPA and have maximum
contaminant levels assigned to them.
ORGANIC CHARACTERISTICS

• Organic material can cause problems in terms of health effects,

treatment and taste, odor, and color of water.

• Some organics are potential carcinogens, that is they may cause

cancer. Cancer-causing substances may be formed when naturally
occurring organic material formed by plant and animal
decomposition combines with chlorine.

• Chlorine which is used to keep water free of bacteria, causes another

problem by reacting with some organic material in the water to form
harmful chemicals like Chloroform, Trimethohalanes (TMHs),
Haloacetic Acids (HAA), Trihalomethanes (THMs) and other
"Disinfection by-products" (DBPs) or "Chlorination Disinfection
by-products" (CBPs), which are all environmental pollutants and
many considered 'carcinogenic', or suspected of causing Cancer.
BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
• Biological contamination of the water is caused by the
presence of living organisms, such as algae, bacteria,
protozoan or viruses. Each of these can cause distinctive
problems in the water.
Algae
• Algae (microscopic and larger) aquatic plants, some
microscopic, can be quite abundant in a surface water source,
especially during the summer months and especially if the
water contains nutrients that encourage their growth, such as
phosphorus from domestic run-off or industrial pollution.

• Algae may cause taste and odor problems, clog filters, and
produce nuisance slime growths on intake pipes and
equipment.
Bacteria
• Bacteria are microscopic one-celled organisms that multiple by
simple division.
• They are essential in the decomposition of dead organic
material. However, there are numerous disease-producing
bacteria that the water industry needs to guard against.
• These may cause typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera, and
gastroenteritis.
• Some bacteria, although not harmful, may cause taste and odor
problems. Examples of such bacteria are sulfur bacteria, which
may produce hydrogen sulfide.
• Disease-causing bacteria are called pathogenic bacteria.
• It is often hard to test for and identify them. Therefore, their
presence is determined by testing for the presence of an
indicator organism, usually coliform bacteria.
• This group of bacteria is found in the intestines of
warmblooded animals; it is also common in soil. A more
specific group of bacteria are the fecal coliforms, which are
directly associated with contamination from human or animal
wastes.
• Presence of coliform bacteria indicates general bacterial
contamination. The presence of fecal coliform indicates
contamination from a human or animal source.
Protozoans
• Protozoans are single celled, usually microscopic, organisms.
• Some protozoans, such as Giardia and Cryptosporidium, are
commonly found in rivers, lakes, and streams contaminated
with animal feces or which receive wastewater from sewage
treatment plants.
• When a water system uses a surface water as it’s source,
Giardia and Cryptosporidium must be removed in the
clarification process because they are very difficult to kill with
the usual forms of disinfection.
• Protozoans are very difficult to test for; 100 or more gallons of
water must be piped through a filter with openings less than
one micron in size at 1 gpm or less.
• The particles trapped by the filter are then analyzed using very
sophisticated methods to determine if any protozoa are present.
Viruses

• Virus are the smallest living organisms capable of producing

infection and causing disease.

• Virus that may be carried by water include the hepatitis and

polio virus.

• They are very difficult to test for; usually, large amounts of

water have to be tested by using very sophisticated methods.
 Algae Sulphur Bactria

Cryptosporidium Giardia Polio Virus

RADIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

• Radiological contaminants emit radioactivity as they

decompose. Sources of radioactive material could be the soils
or rocks the water moves through or some industrial waste.

• Radium 226, Radium 228 and radon are the most common
radioactive elements

• Radiological elements tend to be a greater problem in

groundwater than in surface water. Radon, for example, may
be elevated in groundwater in contact with granite.
Toxic Chemical Impurities in Water

• Salts of Arsenic, Barium, Cadmium, Chromium-6, Lead,

Mercury, Selenium, and Silver are regulated by the EPA and
almost all drinking water standards of the world including the
Indian water standards for drinking water.

• These water standards assign a maximum contaminant value

usually expressed in parts per million or mg per liter.
Aluminium:
• Aluminium in water is not regulated but recent research has
revealed a link between aluminum intake and possible adverse
effects on human health and its possible role as a cause of
Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.

• In this respect we must also point out that almost universally in

all municipal size plants Aluminium Sulphate or Alum is used
as a coagulating agent for the sedimentation of suspended
solids.

• For sure some of this aluminium will be present in the

municipal supplied waters. So an RO water purifier is the
safest bet against all water problems.
Arsenic:
• It is very unlikely that the Public water supplies being piped to your homes
will have Arsenic in it. People who use well or bore well water have to be
extremely careful

• They must have their water tested in a good laboratory. Arsenic occurs
naturally in rocks, soils, etc. and waters that come in contact with these
rocks and soils become contaminated

• Arsenic is odorless and tasteless, so there is no way of knowing if your

water is contaminated. Many parts of India have Arsenic problem, so it is
highly recommended to test your well and bore well waters once every 6
months

• Exposure to arsenic can cause severe damage to health. Arsenic poisoning

is cumulative, meaning that even very minute amount of arsenic in the
water is accumulated in the body over time
• What this means is that the body continues to absorb arsenic
without getting rid of any arsenic. If Arsenic contaminated
water is drunk continuously, then in a few months or years you
become very sick.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that the
maximum level of arsenic in drinking water should not exceed
0.01 mg/L (10 ppb or parts per billion - a billion is a thousand
times smaller than a million or 10 lakhs).
• So in effect they recommend that it should be zero. Arsenic
can be removed by oxidation with chlorine (Sodium
Hypochlorite) or potassium permanganate or coagulation with
ferric chloride and then filtering it.
• Activated alumina and ion exchange resins are also effective.
The best choice to purify water containing Arsenic is Reverse
Osmosis RO water purifier.
Chromium-6 or Hexavalent Chromium:

• Chromium is actually a micro nutrient required by our body in

minute quantity.

• This form of Chromium is the safe trivalent or 'Chromium-3'.

Chromium also exists in another very rare form known as
'Hexavalent Chromium' or 'Chromium-6'.

• Hexavalent Chromium-6 is usually introduced into ground

water when chemical industries using Chromium, discharge
their water without proper treatment.

• Hexavalent Chromium-6 is poisonous and should be guarded

against especially by people using well water.
• The famous movie "Erin Brockovich" starring Julia Roberts, is
about Hexavalent Chromium-6 and its poisonous effect on
some rural people.

• The Environment Protection Agency of USA – EPA has set the

Maximum Contaminant Level – MCL of Chromium at 0.1
ppm (parts per million).

• There are several methods of getting rid of Hexavalent

Chromium-6 from water, but the simplest one is to use is an
RO filter water purifier.

• RO water filter purifier for removing Chromium-6 in water is

the most effective treatment.
Fluorides in water:
• Fluorides are chemicals that contain the element fluorine.
Fluorides occur in many water sources naturally.

• In some countries fluorides are added to drinking water as a

health supplement for the protection of teeth and bones.

• Fluoride in water in very small quantities, about 1 to 1.5 mg

per Liter or ppm - parts per million, is beneficial to health, but
any excess is not good for health.

• Many toothpaste manufacturers add it in the toothpaste to

protect the teeth against cavities.
• The EPA has set a maximum limit of Fluorides in water as 4 mg per
Liter or ppm.

• Excess fluorides in water can have harmful effects ranging from

discoloration or pitting of teeth to bone and skeletal damage.

• RO water filter purifier for removing Fluorides in water is the most

effective treatment.

Lead:

• Lead is a heavy metal, and is harmful to health in the same way as

mercury. Some of the older pipes and fittings contain lead.

• RO is effective in removing all heavy metal contaminants. RO water

filter purifier for removing heavy metals like lead in water is the
most effective treatment.
Mercury:

• Mercury is a heavy metal and its compounds are sometimes

found in the natural deposits of certain areas of India.

• Batteries, fluorescent or tube lights, CFL bulbs, etc. usually

contains Mercury and it should not be disposed or thrown on
the ground or anywhere near your water supply.

• The maximum contaminant level for mercury set by BIS

(Bureau of Indian Standards), WHO (World Health
Organization), EPA (Environmental Protection Agency of
USA) and other well known standards is in parts per billion or
ppb.
• This very small negligible limit for mercury, is so set, because
it is a highly toxic chemical.

• Mercury causes kidney damage and also many other ill effects.
Activated Carbon filters and RO can remove Mercury from
water.

Nitrates in Water:

• The most common way Nitrates, Nitrites and Ammonia gets

into our water sources, is due to the leakage or seepage of
fertilizers or farm and animal wastes into the ground water
sources.
• Nitrates in water are especially dangerous to infants under 6
months, causing the ‘blue baby syndrome’ due to the infant’s
blood not being able to carry enough Oxygen from their lungs
to their body.

• Adults may also be affected by nitrates and nitrites in water

due to the formation of chemicals called nitrosamine in the
digestive tract.

• The EPA has set a maximum limit for Nitrates in water as 10

mg per Liter or ppm measured as NO3 or Nitrate. RO water
filter purifier for removing Nitrates in water is the most
effective treatment.
RADON:
• Certain minerals are radioactive and people who drink water
containing it over many years may have an increased risk of
getting cancer.

• Radon is naturally occurring and ground waters in some areas

of India may be contaminated with it.

• The only way to be certain is to get the ground or well water

tested.
• Activated Carbon filters are very good for the removal of
radon from water supplies and it is the most common way to
reduce Radon in the water.
Ecosystem
• An ecosystem consists of the biological community that occurs
in some locale, and the physical and chemical factors that
make up its non-living or abiotic environment.

• There are many examples of ecosystems -- a pond, a forest, an

estuary, a grassland.

• The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of

certain processes that link the living, or biotic, components to
the non-living, or abiotic, components.
• An ECOSYSTEM is an interacting system of plant, animals,
and humans and the surrounding environment.

• An ecosystem contains living and non-living things that

contribute to the functioning of other organisms.

• An ecosystem is NOT just a collection of organisms. It is a

system of interactions and interrelationships.
• Energy enters the biological system as light energy, or
photons, is transformed into chemical energy in organic
molecules by cellular processes including photosynthesis and
respiration, and ultimately is converted to heat energy.

• This energy is dissipated, meaning it is lost to the system as

heat; once it is lost it cannot be recycled.

• Without the continued input of solar energy, biological systems

would quickly shut down. Thus the earth is an open system
with respect to energy.
• Elements such as carbon, nitrogen, or phosphorus enter living
organisms in a variety of ways.

• Plants obtain elements from the surrounding atmosphere,

water, or soils.

• Animals may also obtain elements directly from the physical

environment, but usually they obtain these mainly as a
consequence of consuming other organisms.

• These materials are transformed biochemically within the

bodies of organisms, but sooner or later, due to excretion or
decomposition, they are returned to an inorganic state.
• Often bacteria complete this process, through the process
called decomposition or mineralization

• During decomposition these materials are not destroyed or

lost, so the earth is a closed system with respect to elements
(with the exception of a meteorite entering the system now and
then).

• The elements are cycled endlessly between their biotic and

abiotic states within ecosystems. Those elements whose supply
tends to limit biological activity are called nutrients.
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
• Abiotic, meaning not alive, are nonliving factors that affect
living organisms.
• Sunlight
• Temperature
• Precipitation
• Water or Soil moisture or water chemistry (e.g., P, NH4+) etc.
BIOTIC COMPONENTS
• Biotic, meaning of or related to life, are living factors.
• Primary producers
• Herbivores
• Carnivores
• Omnivores
• Detritivores etc.
Metabolism
• Metabolism is a term that is used to describe all chemical
reactions involved in maintaining the living state of the cells
and the organism.
• Metabolism can be conveniently divided into two categories:

– Catabolism - the breakdown of molecules to obtain energy

– Anabolism - the synthesis of all compounds needed by the cells

• Metabolism is closely linked to nutrition and the availability of

nutrients.
• Energy formation is one of the vital components of
metabolism.
• Essential nutrients supply energy (calories) and supply the
necessary chemicals which the body itself cannot synthesize.

• Food provides a variety of substances that are essential for the

building, upkeep, and repair of body tissues, and for the
efficient functioning of the body.

• The diet needs essential nutrients like carbon, hydrogen,

oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and around 20 other
inorganic elements.

• The major elements are supplied in carbohydrates, lipids, and

protein. In addition, vitamins, minerals and water are
necessary.
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

• Carbohydrates are the principal source of energy for the cell.

• Carbohydrates are converted in the digestive tract, into
absorbable glucose, galactose and fructose which enter the
blood stream through villi.
• Subsequently, glucose may be used for the immediate release
of energy or stores as glycogen mostly in the liver and
muscles. Hepatic cells can also convert galactose and fructose
into glucose.
• The processes of glycogen formation from glucose is called
glycogenesis.
• When the blood sugar level decreases, the liver glycogen is
reconverted into glucose, and this process is called
glycogenolysis.
• Synthesis of glucose form non-carbohydrate substances is
called gluconeogenesis.

• The glucose that diffuses into the cells finds its way into the
mitochondria and undergoes anaerobic and aerobic reactions.

• Glycolysis is a sequence of enzyme-catalysed anaerobic

reactions that convert glucose into pyurvate.

• Pyurvate is decarboxylated into a two carbon compound called

acetyl, which is fed into the Krebs’s cycle and undergoes
aerobic reactions producing the energy-rich compound namely
ATP.
GLYCOGENESIS

• During glcyogenesis, glucose is first phosphorylated in the

presence of the enzyme glucokinase and ATP.

• This results in the formation of glucose-6-phosphate, which

becomes glucose-1-phosphate by the transfer of the phosphate
molecule of the first carbon atom of glucose.

• This reaction is catalysed by the phosphoglucomutase.

Glucose-1-phosphate is converted to glycogen in the presence
of a key enzyme called glycogen synthetase of phosphorylase.

• This reaction involves a high-energy compound known as

uridine triphosphate (UTP).
GLYCOGENOLYSIS

• When the level of blood sugar decreases, the liver glycogen is

reconverted and this process is called glycogenolysis.

• During this process, the reactions occurring in glycogenesis are

reversed.

• Glycogen is converted into glucose-1-phosphate in the presence

of phosphorylase.

• Glucose-1-Phosphate is converted into glucose-6-phosphate.

• This is converted into glucose by the enzyme glucose-6-

phosphatase, which splits the phosphate away from glucose-6-
phosphate
• Glycogenolysis proceeds in the same manner in the muscles
too, but he reaction stops with the formation of glucose-6-
phosphate, because the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase is
absent in the muscles.

• The glucose that diffuses onto the cells finds its way into the
mitochondria and undergoes anaerobic reactions.

• The anaerobic reactions occur in the absence of oxygen and

these changes constitute glycolysis.
• During glycolysis, glucose is split into two molecules of
pyurvic acid.

• In muscles, glycolysis results in lactic acid.

• In yeast and anaerobic bacteria, glycolysis results in the

formation of ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide.

• Aerobic reactions inolve the Kreb’s cycle and oxygen is

utilized.

• The splitting of glucose in organisms may take place in three

different path ways.
• Based on the pattern of reactions undergone by the glucose
molecules, there are three pathways:

– Emben-Meyerhof Parners Pathway (EMP pathway)

– Hexose Monophosphate shunt (HMP shunt) or Hexose Monophosphate
pathway (HMP pathway)
– Entner-Doudroff pathway.

• While the first and third pathways constitute the preparatory

step in aerobic and anaerobic respirations, the second one
differs from them in being an independent respiratory cycle.
• During glycolysis each molecule of glucose, after
phosphroylation, is converted into two molecules of pyurvic
acid. The Chemical reactions involved in Embedden –
Maywerhof Pathway are as follows:
• The first step in glycolysis is the conversion of glucose -6-
phosphate in the presence of hexokinase. ATP provides the
phosphate as well as the energy for the synthetic reaction and
is converted to ADP. Magnesium ions are also required as
activators.
• The glucose-6-phosphate is converted to its isomer, fructose-6-
phopshate by the action of phosphohexone isomerase in the
presence of magnesium ions.
• The fructose-6-phosphate is converted to fructose 1-6-
diphosphate in the presence of phosphofructokinase. One more
molecule of ATP is broken down to ADP and magnesium ions
are required.
• The fructose-1-6-diphosphate is split up into two triose phosphate
molecules-glyceraldehyde -3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone
phosphate by the action of the enzymes.

• The triose phosphates are readily interconvertible by the action of

phosphotriose isomerase. Since subsequent steps utilize only
glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate, it can be considered that two
molecules of that substance are formed as result of reactions 4
and 5.

• Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate undergoes dehydrogenation and

phosphorylation to form 1-3-diphosphoglyceric acid by the action
of the enzyme glyceraldehydes-3-phosphodehydrogenase.

• Phosphoglycerate kinase in the presence of Mg++ transfers the

energy-rich phosphate from the C-1 of 1-3-diphosphoglyceric
acid to ADP to form ATP, leaving3-phosphoglyceric acid.
• The 3-phosphoglyceric acid is converted to 2-phosphoglyceric
acid by the action of phosphoglycericacidmutase.

• The enzyme enolase removes a molecule of water from 2-

phosphoglyceric acid to form 2-phosphoenol pyurvic acid.
This results in redistribution for energy to make the enolic
phosphate bond, an energy-rich one.

• 2-phosphoenol pyurvic acid is converted to enol pyurvic acid

in the presence of the enzyme pyurvate kinase. The energy-
rich phosphate of phosphenol pyurvate is transferred to ADP to
from ATP. Magnesium ions are required as activators.

• Enol pyurvic acid being unstable is spontaneously converted to

pyurvic acid (keto form). The reaction is non-enzymic.
• If conditions are aerobic, pyurvic acid will be further
converted to active acetate and gets oxidized in citric acid
cycle or used for lipogenesis.

• If conditions are anaerobic, it is converted to lactic acid by the

action of lactic dehydragenase by taking up hydrogen from
reduced NAD, which is formed in reaction 6.

• This will enable glycolysis to proceed under anaerobic

conditions by providing a continuous supply of NAD
(oxidized form) for the action of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
dehyderogenase in reaction.
ENERGETICS OF EMP PATHWAY

• During glycolysis (EMP pathway) ATP is produced in three

different sites.

• During the conversion of 3 phosphoglyceraldehyde into 1-3-

diphosphogluceric acid one mole of NADH is produced,
which on oxidation by electron transport chain yields three
moles of ATP

• During the conversion of 1-3-diphosphoglyceric acid into 3-

phosphoglyceric acid one mole of ATP is produced.

• The conversion of phosphoenol pyurvic acid into enol pyurvic

acid yields one mole of ATP.
• Thus 5 moles of ATP are produced during the breakdown of
one mole of triose phosphate, Since, two moles of triose
phosphate are formed from one mole of glucose, 10 moles of
ATP are produced during the EMP pathway.

• There are sites in glycolysis, where ATP is utilized for

activation purposes. One mole of ATP is utilized during the
activation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate.

• The second site of ATP utilization is in the formation of

fructose-1-6-diphosphate from fructrose-6-ohosphate. One
mole of ATP is utilized per mole of fructose-6-phosphate
phosphorylated.
 REACTION ATP used ATP gained

1 Formation of glucose-6-p 1 -

3 Formation of fructose-1-6-diphospohate 1 -

6 Formation of 1,3-diphosphoglyceric acid 2x3=6

7 Formation of 3-ohosphoglyceric acid 2x1=2

10 Formation of enol pyurvic acid 2x1=2

-2 +10

There is thus a net gain of 8 ATP molecules in glycolysis.

CITRIC ACID CYCLE (KREB’S CYCLE)
• Citric acid cycle starts with the formation of citrate by the condensation of
oxaloacetate with acetate, both of which can be formed from pyurvate.

• Thus, the conversion of pyurvate to acetate is an obligatory step in the

utilization of carbohydrate by this pathway.

• This is an oxidative step occupies a key position in glucose metabolism.

One of the carbons of pyurvate is removed as CO2 in the conversion.

• The remaining two carbons are removes as CO2 in the citric acid cycle.
There is a simultaneous oxidation of hydrogen through co enzymes in both.

• All the enzymes involves in the aerobic pathway are located mainly in the
mitochondria along with the respiratory chain. A few of them occur in
cytoplasm also.
CONVERSION OF PYURVATE TO ACETATE
• This reaction is called oxidative decarboxylation and is
brought about by the enzyme pyurvate dehydrogenase.

• During this reaction coenzyme A molecule is attached to

pyurvic acid to form acetyl coenzyme A, otherwise known as
active acetate.
CONVERSION OF ACETATE TO OXALOACETATE

• Active acetate can be formed not only from pyurvate but also by
oxidation of fatty acids and from other sources.

• The active acetate combines with a molecule of oxaloacetate to form

a molecule of citrate and this can be taken to the starting point to
Kreb’s cycle.

• The cycle starts with the condensation of a molecule of acetyl-CoA

with oxalocetate to form citric acid. The condensation is brought
about by citrate synthetase. Citrinyl-CoA is first formed and later
hydrolyzed to citric acid and coenzyme A.

• A molecule of water is removes from citrate to form cis aconitic

acid.
• The molecule of water is added again, but the H+ and OH- are
added at different sites to form a molecule of isocitric acid.

• Reaction 2 and 3 are brought about by the same enzyme

aconitase which requires iron as activator.

• Isocitric acid now undergoes dehydrogenation brought about

by isocitrate dehydrgenase to form oxalosuccinic acid.

• Mamalian tisues contain two distinct enzymes an enzymes

requiring NADP+ and Mn++ and another requiring NAD+ and
Mg+.
• The NAD+ dependent enzyme is located in the mitochondria and is
the one concerned in the citric acid cycle.

• The dehydration step produces oxalosuccinate. But this never

release form the enzyme. While still in the E-S complex it is further
decarboxylated and αketo glutaric acid is released, Isocitric
dehydrogenase is a regulatory enzyme in citric acid cycle.

• It is an allosteric enzyme inhibited by ATP and activated by ADP

• The α ketoglurate now undergoes oxidative decarboxylation by the

action of an enzyme complex α ketogularate dehydrogenase.

• It requires thiamine pyrophosphate (TTP), lipoic acid, NAD+. FAD,

coenzyme A and magnetism ions.
• The reactions is similar to the oxidative decarboxylation of
pyurvate to form acetyl-CoA.

• The product in this case is sucinyl-CoA. The bond linking CoA

to succine acid is energy rich.

• Succinate thiokinase converts succinyl CoA to succimic acid.

The energy released by hyrolysis of the CoA bond is utilized
for the conversation of a molecule of guanosine diphosphate or
inosine diphosphate or triphosphates, GTP or ITP.

• These can later interact with ADP to form ATP. This is the only
step in citric acid cycle resulting in substrate phosphorylation.
• Succinic acid losses two atoms of hydrogen to form fumaric
acid.

• The enzyme concerned is succine acid dehydrogenase. The

hydrogen is transferred directly to FAD contained in the
flavoprotein of the enzyme without the intervention of NAD+.

• Fumaric acid takes up a molecule by water by the action of

fumarase to form malic acid.

• Malic acid now undergoes dehydrogenation to form finally

oxaloacetic acid which is one of the two component that
formed citric acid to start the cycle. The other component
acetate has been oxidized in the cycle.
LIPID METABOLISM
• Lipid substances form an essential component of protoplasm
entering into the composition of cell membranes and
mitochondrial membranes and stored in tissues to be used
during starvation.

• Lipid plays an important role in metabolism as the fuel for the

production of ATP.

• The first step in lipid metabolism is hydrolysis of lipid into

fatty acids and glycerol through the action of lipolytic enzyme.

• Both fatty acids and glycerol are independently oxidized to

release energy.
OXIDATION OF GLYCEROL
• The glycerol on enzymatic reaction with ATP is converted to
glycerophosphate.

• This is followed by oxidation or dehydrogenation in which

hydrogen is removed by glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase
and a triose phosphate namely 3 phosphoglyceraldehyde is
formed.

• This three carbon compound enters glycolysis and Kreb’s

cycle and gets completely oxidized to CO2 and H20.
METABOLISM OF CHOLESTEROL
• Cholesterol is of major significance because of its relationship to
many physiologically active steroids, adrenal cortex hormones, bile
salts, etc. which are present in our body.

• It is an insoluble substance and along with other substances, tends to

precipitate in and along the lining of the blood vessels, thereby
restricting the flow.

• Ingested cholesterol is absorbed along with other lipids. It is

normally present in blood to the extent of 150 to 250 mg per 100 ml,
being equally distributed between the cells and the plasma.

• In the cells, cholesterol occurs in free form. While in the plasma

about 75% is found in the form of cholesterol esters.
PROTEIN METABOLISM
• Proteins are hydrolysed by proteases into amino acids. Amino
acids contain a nitrogen moiety, which is not completely
oxidised in the body.

• Generally, the amino group is transferred to a keto acid to

synthesise some non-essential amino acids or is removed or
converted to urea.

• The catabolic pathway of amino acids involves the following

reactions:
– Removal of amino group
– Metabolism of ammonia
– Metabolism of carbon skeleton
The States of Matter
 State characteristics

• Gases
– No definite shape or volume; flows
– Particles far apart; no interactions
• Liquids
– Definite volume, no fixed shape, flows
– Particle in contact; moderate interactions
• Solids
– Definite shape, volume; does not flow
– Particles in contact; strong interactions
Solid Liquid Gas

All particles Particles Particles do

touching touching not touch
No empty Some open Lots of empty
spaces spaces space between
between between them
them them
Strong Moderate No
Interactions interactions interactions
Gases Liquids Solids
Variable shape and Variable shape, fixed Fixed shape and
volume volume volume
May expand or May flow, not Non-compressible
compress compressible crystalline solids
Low densities High density High density

Mix to form Mix if soluble Do not mix by

homogeneous diffusion
mixtures
 Phase Transitions

Vaporization Liquid to gas transition

Melting Solid to liquid transition
Condensation gas to liquid transition
Freezing liquid to solid transition
Sublimation solid to gas transition
Deposition gas to solid transition
At its melting point, the chemical particles of a crystalline solid leave the orderly lattice and
achieve a greater freedom of movement in the liquid melt.
Liquids evaporate as molecules with high translational energies escape from the liquid into
the vapor.
• What factors determine state of a substance? i.e. liquid, gas,
solid?

• Intermolecular forces – the forces that hold atoms and

molecules together determines state of a substance

• Forces between molecules affect physical properties such as:

– Boiling point (bp)
– Melting point (mp)
– Solubility
 Intermolecular Forces

• Intermolecular force: attractive force between molecules

• Intramolecular force: hold atom together in a molecule

Ex: 41 kJ to vaporize 1 mole of water (inter)

930 kJ to break all O-H bonds in 1 mole of water (intra)

intramolecular forces > intermolecular forces

• Measure of intermolecular forces

–Boiling point, melting point, DHvap DHsub, DHfus
 Types of Intermolecular Forces

• Ion-Dipole Forces
– Attractive forces between an ion and a polar molecule

• Dipole-Dipole Forces
– Attractive forces between polar molecules

• Dispersion Forces
– Attractive forces that arise as a result of temporary dipoles induced in
atoms or molecules

• Hydrogen Bond
– Special dipole-dipole forces involving H and F, O, N

• van der Waals Forces

– includes dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole and dispersion forces
A. Dipole-Dipole Forces

Attractive forces between polar molecules

Orientation of Polar Molecules in a Solid

B. Ion-Dipole Forces

Attractive forces between an ion and a polar molecule

Ion-Dipole Interaction
C. Dispersion Forces
(1) Attractive forces that arise as a result of temporary dipoles induced in atoms
or molecules (exist in all molecules)
(2) Resulted from electron cloud distortion

ion-induced dipole interaction

dipole-induced dipole interaction

(3) Related to the polarizability of the molecule
Polarizability is the ease with which the electron distribution in the atom
or molecule can be distorted.

Polarizability generally increases with:

• greater number of electrons
• more diffuse electron cloud
• larger molar mass
 (4) Depend on the molecular shape

Ex: C5H12 two isomers

H H H CH3
H3C - C - C - C - C H3 > H3C - C - CH3
H H H CH3
D. Hydrogen Bond
The hydrogen bond is a special dipole-dipole interaction between they
hydrogen atom in a polar N-H, O-H, or F-H bond and an electronegative O, N,
or F atom.

A H… B or A H… A
• Hydrogen bond: a hydrogen covalently bonded to an atom of high
electronegativity (O, N, F) is attracted to another O, N or F
• Affects bp, mp and solubility

hydrogen hydrogen
bond bond
H - +
- +
O H O
H H

(a) (b ) (c)
 Gases

• Gas pressure: the force per unit area exerted

against a surface
– most commonly measured in millimeters of mercury
(mm Hg), atmospheres (atm), and torr

1 atm = 760 m m Hg
= 760 torr
= 101,325 pascals
= 28.96 in. Hg
 Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

• Gas particles have negligible volume compared to volume gas

occupies
• No attraction between particles
• Particles move through space in straight lines
• Kinetic energy (KE) proportional to temperature (K)
• Can collide with container or each other
• Total KE before collision = KE after collision
• Collisions with walls of container exert pressure
 Gas Laws

• Boyle’s law: Volume and pressure are inversely proportional

(fixed mass and gas at a constant temperature)
PV = constant or P1 V1 = P2V 2

• Charles’s Law: Temperature and volume are directly

proportional (fixed mass and pressure); Temperature is in
kelvins (K)

V V1 V2
= a constant or =
T T1 T2
• Gay-Lussac’s Law: Pressure and temperature are directly
proportional (fixed mass and volume); Temperature in kelvins
(K)

P P1 P2
= a constant or =
T T1 T2

• Boyle’s law, Charles’s law and Gay-Lussac’s law can be

combined into one law called the combined gas law

PV P1 V 1 P2 V 2
= a constant or =
T T1 T2
• Avogadro’s law: volume of gas is directly proportional to its
molar amount at a constant pressure and temperature
– Volume  number of moles (n)

V/n = constant

– One mole of ANY gas at STP occupies 22.4 L

– Standard temperature and pressure (STP)
are 0°C (273 K) and 1 atm pressure
• Ideal gas law: Can be used for a single sample
that does not change
PV = nRT
P = pressure of the gas in atmospheres (atm)
V = volume of the gas in liters (L)
n = moles of the gas (mol)
T = temperature in kelvins (K)
R = ideal gas constant (a constant for all gases)
• The value of R is determined using the fact that one mol of any
gas at STP occupies 22.4 L

R = PV = (1.00 atm)(22.4 L) = 0.0821 L• atm

nT (1.00 mol)(273 K) mol• K

• Dalton’s law of partial pressures: the total pressure, PT, of a

mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures of each
individual gas

PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + . . .
 Solids

– Upon cooling, molecules come so close together and

attractive forces between them become so strong that
random motion stops and a solid is formed :
crystallization

– Can be crystalline or amorphous

 Types of Solids

Type Made u p of Characteris tics Examples

Ion ic ions in a crystal high melting points N aCl, K2S O 4

lattice
Molecular molecules in low melting points ice, as pirin
a crystal lattice
Polymeric giant molecu les; low melting points rubb er,
can be crystalline, or cannot be melted; plas tics,
semicrystalline, or soft or hard proteins
amorph ou s
N etw ork a very large n umb er very hard; very diamond,
of atoms connected high melting or qu artz
by covalent bonds can not be melted

Amorp hous randomly arran ged mos tly soft, can b e soot,
atoms or molecu les made to flow , but tar,
no meltin g p oin t glass
Mass transfer

• The movement of molecules within a phase or between phases

is referred to as Mass Transfer.

• Any catalytic reaction, be it chemical or biological, consists of

two main steps:

• a mass transfer step

• a catalytic step

• The rate of the catalytic step is dependent on the catalyst and

– environmental factors that affect the catalyst, eg. pH and

temperature.
• The importance of interfacial mass transfer in Biotechnology

• Gas-Liquid mass transfer is important when considering the

transfer of oxygen from a gaseous to a dissolved phase.

– Other examples of processes involving gas-liquid mass

transfer are carbon dioxide removal from the fermentation
broth and distillation of volatile products during
downstream processing.
• Liquid-liquid mass transfer is of importance in
– steroid transformation
– breakdown and biological conversion of oils and alkanes
– and in downstream processing operations involving solvent
extraction.
DIFFUSION

• Phenomenon of material transport by atomic or particle

transport from region of high to low concentration

• Interdiffusion: In an alloy or “diffusion couple”, atoms tend

to migrate from regions of large to lower concentration.
• Self-diffusion: In an elemental solid, atoms also
migrate.

C
A
D
B
• DIFFUSION MECHANISMS
• Diffusion at the atomic level is a step-wise migration of atoms
from lattice site to lattice site

• Conditions for diffusion:

– there must be an adjacent empty site
• atom must have sufficient energy to break bonds with its neighbors and
migrate to adjacent site (“activation” energy)

• Higher the temperature, higher is the probability that an atom

will have sufficient energy hence, diffusion rates increase with
temperature
• Types of atomic diffusion mechanisms:
– substitutional (through vacancies)
• interstitial
• Substitutional Diffusion:
• applies to substitutional impurities
• atoms exchange with vacancies
• rate depends on:
- number of vacancies
- temperature
- activation energy to exchange.
• Dispersion
• A dispersion is a system in which particles are dispersed in a
continuous phase of a different composition

London Dispersion Forces

• The London dispersion force is the weakest intermolecular

force.
• The London dispersion force is a temporary attractive force
that results when the electrons in two adjacent atoms occupy
positions that make the atoms form temporary dipoles.
• This force is sometimes called an induced dipole-induced
dipole attraction.

• London forces are the attractive forces that cause nonpolar

substances to condense to liquids and to freeze into solids
when the temperature is lowered sufficiently.

• Because of the constant motion of the electrons, an atom or

molecule can develop a temporary (instantaneous) dipole when
its electrons are distributed unsymmetrically about the nucleus.
Molecular Size
• Dispersion forces are present between all molecules, whether
they are polar or nonpolar.
• Larger and heavier atoms and molecules exhibit stronger
dispersion forces than smaller and lighter ones.
• In a larger atom or molecule, the valence electrons are, on
average, farther from the nuclei than in a smaller atom or
molecule. They are less tightly held and can more easily form
temporary dipoles.
• The ease with which the electron distribution around an atom
or molecule can be distorted is called the polarizability.
• London dispersion forces tend to be:
– stronger between molecules that are easily polarized.
– weaker between molecules that are not easily polarized.
Suspension
• A suspension is a mixture in which the suspended particles are
usually visible to the naked eye.

• In a suspension, the particles exceed 100 nanometers in size,

and may cause the mixture to appear cloudy or opaque.

• The particles found within a suspension are too large to pass

through selectively permeable membranes and are too heavy to
remain suspended.

• If a suspension is allowed to settle, the particles will separate

from the solvent.
Colloids
• Colloids are mixtures in which the particles are larger than a
molecule, but too small to be seen by the naked eye.
• Many colloids are capable of changing from a liquid state, to a
gel-like state.
• Colloid particles range from 1 to 100 nanometers in size.
• Colloid particles scatter light, giving the mixture a cloudy
appearance.
• The particles found within a colloid are usually too large to
pass through a selectively permeable membrane, but small
enough that they do not separate from the solvent.
Emulsion
An emulsion is a suspension of a liquid within another liquid.
An oil and vinegar salad dressing is a good example of an
emulsion, as is the fat within breast milk. Butter, margarine
and mayonnaise are also good examples of emulsions, as fats
continually surround droplets of water.