I. K. Kikoin, A. Zilberman-Physics in Your Kitchen Lab (Science For Everyone Series) - Mir Publishers, Moscow (1985)
I. K. Kikoin, A. Zilberman-Physics in Your Kitchen Lab (Science For Everyone Series) - Mir Publishers, Moscow (1985)
I. K. Kikoin, A. Zilberman-Physics in Your Kitchen Lab (Science For Everyone Series) - Mir Publishers, Moscow (1985)
KITCHEN LAB
IN YOUR
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Physics in Your
Kitchen Lab
Edited by
Academician I.K. Kikoin
til !\ Hi
ypj
Mir
Publishers
Moscow
First published 1985
Revised from the 1980 Russian edition
EDITORIAL BOARD
Ha amjiuucKOM aaune
E d i t o r ' s Note 7
A Demonstration of Weightlessness 9
by A. Dozorov
A Cartesian Diver 12
by A. Vilenkin
An A u t o m a t i c S i p h o n 13
by V. Mayer and N. Nazarov
Exercises 17
Vortex R i n g s 17
by R.W. Wood
On Vortex R i n g s 23
by S. Shabanov and V. Shubin
Tornado Models 33
by V. Mayer
The Aerodynamics of Boomerangs 37
by Felix Hess
A H y d r o d y n a m i c Mechanism in a
F a l l i n g Test T u b e 51
by G.I. Pokrovsky
A n Instructive E x p e r i m e n t w i t h a
Cumulative Jet 53
by V. Mayer
Exercises 54
Magic w i t h Physics 56
by V. Mayer and E. Mamaeva
A D r o p on a H o t Surface 58
by M. Golubev and A. Kagalenko
Surface Tension Draws a Hyperbola 61
by I. Vorobiev
Experiments w i t h a Spoonful of Broth 64
by V. Mayer
H o w to Grow a Crystal 71
by M. Kliya
Crystals Made of Spheres 74
by G. Kosourov
A Bubble Model of Crystal 85
by Ya. Geguzin
Contents
Editor's Note
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
12
A Cartesian Diver
by A. Vilenkin
A toy ship made of paper w i l l float easily, but
if the paper gets soaked, the ship sinks. W h e n
the paper is dry, it traps air between its bell
and the surface of the water. If the bell gets
soaked and begins to disintegrate, the air escapes
the bell and the ship sinks. B u t is it possible
to make a ship whose bell alternately keeps or
releases air, making the ship float or sink as we
wish? I t is, indeed. The great French scholar and
philosopher Rene Descartes was the first to make
such a toy, now commonly called the 'Cartesian
Diver* (from Cartesius, the L a t i n spelling of
Descartes). Descartes' toy resembles our paper
ship except that the 'Diver' compresses and
expands the air instead of letting it in and out.
A design of the 'Diver' is shown in Fig. 5.
Take a m i l k bottle, a small medicine bottle and
a rubber balloon (the balloon will have to be
spoiled). Fill the m i l k bottle with water almost
to its neck. Then lower the medicine bottle into
the water, neck down. Tilt the medicine bottle
slightly to let some of the water in. The amount
of water inside the smaller bottle should be regu-
lated so that the bottle floats on the surface and
a slight push makes it sink (a straw can be used
to blow air into the bottle while it is underwater).
Once the medicine bottle is floating properly,
seal the m i l k bottle with a piece of rubber cut
from the balloon and fastened to the bottle with
a thread~wound' r around the neck.
""Press down the piece of rubber, and the 'Diver*
will sink. Release it, and the 'Diver' will rise.
An Automatic Siphon 13
Fig. 5
A n Automatic Siphon
by V. Mayer and N. Nazarov
Most o you probably studied the workings of
the siphon, the simplest device for pumping
liquids, while still in grade school. The famous
American physicist Robert Wood is said to have
begun his scientific career when still a boy with
just such a siphon. This is how W . Seabrook
14 V. Mayer and N. Nazarov
Fig. 6 Fig. 7
EXERCISES
Show experimentally that water floods the ball at a
slower rate than the tube. Explain why.
2. To be certain that the explanation of the operation of
the siphon is correct, replace the opaque ball with a
small glass bottle with a rubber stopper. The design of
the setup with the bottle should be an exact replica of
the original. The glass tube should go through the rubber
stopper. Since the bottle is transparent, you will be able
to see the air/water mixture forming in the tube.
3. Determine whether the rise of the column of water
depends on the water depth o£ the ball.
4. Make an automatic siphon by replacing the glass tube
with a rubber hose.
Vortex Rings
by R. W. Wood
I n the course of some experiments preparatory
to a lecture on vortex rings I have introduced
certain modifications which may be of interest
to teachers and students of science.
The classic vortex-box is too well known to
require much description. Our apparatus, which
is rather larger than those in common use, is
a pine box measuring about a metre each way,
* Nature, February 28, 1901, pp. 418-420.
2-01544
18 R. W. Wood
Fig. 8
2*
20 R. W. Wood
Fig. 10 Fig. 11
u s u a l l y attained after q u i t e a n u m b e r of a t t e m p t s
h a v e been m a d e . A d r a w i n g of one of these
smoke-cores is shown i n F i g . 10. The a c t u a l size
of the vortex being i n d i c a t e d by dotted lines,
it is instructive as showing t h a t the air w h i c h
grazes the edge of the aperture goes to t h e core
of the ring. The experiment does not work very
well on a large scale, t h o u g h I have had some
success by v o l a t i l i s i n g sal a m m o n i a c around t h e
upper edge of the aperture b y means of a zig-zag
iron wire heated by a current.
B y t a k i n g proper precautions we can locate
the smoke elsewhere, f o r m i n g a perfect half-ring,
as is shown i n F i g . 11, i l l u s t r a t i n g i n a s t r i k i n g
22 S. Shabanov and V. Shubin
Fig. 12
On Vortex Rings
by S. Shnbanov and V. Shubin
Membrane Diaphragm
HC1 NH4OH
Fig. 13 Fig. 14
tapping the membrane, we impart a certain veloc-
ity to the smoke layer close to it. As this layer
moves forward, it compresses^the next layer,
which, in turn, compresses the layer followinglit,
in a chain reaction that reaches the diaphragm
where smoke escapes through the opening and
sets formerly still air in motion. Viscous friction
against the edge of the opening twists the smoky
air into a vortex ring.
The edge of the opening is not the m a i n factor
in the formation of the vortex ring, however.
W e can prove this by fitting a sieve over the
opening in the Tait's apparatus. If the edge were
On Vortex Rings 25
i m p o r t a n t , m a n y s m a l l vortex rings w o u l d f o r m .
Y e t they do not. Even w i t h a sieve, we s t i l l
observe a single, large vortex r i n g (Fig. 14).
I f the m e m b r a n e is substituted b y a plunger
t h a t is set to m o t i o n , a continuous smoke jet w i l l
appear on the edge of the opening instead of
vortex rings. I t is essential t o provide for t h e
Fig. 15 Fig. 16
Fig. 17
that it passes the candle but misses the flame
narrowly. The flame will either go out or flicker
violently, proving that the movement of the
vortex involves not only the visible part of the
ring, but also adjacent layers of the air.
How do these layers move? Take two pieces
of cloth, and soak one in hydrochloric acid, and
the other in ammonia solution. Hang them up
about 10-15 centimetres apart. The space between
them w i l l immediately be' filled with smoke
(ammonium chloride vapour). Now shoot a smoke
ring from the apparatus into the vapour cloud.
As the ring passes through the cloud, the ring
expands while the cloud starts moving circularly.
From this we can conclude that the air close to
t,he vortex ring is circulating (Fig. 17).
On Vortex Rings 27
Fig. 18
Smoke R i n g Scattering
W e conducted several experiments to study
interaction between the smoke ring and the
opening of different diameter. W e also studied
the relationship between the ring and a surface
at various angles. (We called these experiments
scattering tests.)
On Vortex Rings 29
Consider a r i n g h i t t i n g a d i a p h r a g m whose
aperture is smaller t h a n the ring. Let us e x a m i n e
two cases. First, the r i n g m a y collide w i t h t h e
d i a p h r a g m when t h e forward m o t i o n v e l o c i t y of
the ring is perpendicular to the d i a p h r a g m p l a n e
and the centre of t h e r i n g passes t h r o u g h the
centre of the d i a p h r a g m . Collision, on the other
h a n d , m a y be off-centre if the centre of t h e r i n g
does not a l i g n w i t h t h e centre of the d i a p h r a g m .
I n the first case, t h e r i n g scatters when it h i t s
Diaphragm Fig. 19
Fig. 20
Interaction of Rings
Fig. 22
of each aperture (I is less t h a n d) the two air
currents m i x and produce a single vortex ring.
I f d < I < 1.5d, no ring appears at a l l . I n all
other cases two rings appear. I f I is more t h a n 4d,
the rings do not interact. I f 1.5d < I < 4d, the
rings converge at first, a l t h o u g h they occasionally
separate again before d i s i n t e g r a t i n g . The forma-
tion of an " i m a g i n a r y " ring i n the space between
the rings explains this convergence (Fig. 22).
The i m a g i n a r y ring moves i n the opposite direc-
tion from the planes of the real rings, which
begin to t u r n toward one another and g r a d u a l l y
move closer.
W e were not able to determine why the rings
eventually disintegrate c o m p l e t e l y .
Tornado Models 33
Tornado Models
by V. Mayer
The tornado is one of the most awesome a n d
mysterious p h e n o m e n a in nature. I t s power is so
great t h a t almost n o t h i n g can w i t h s t a n d its force.
H o w are tornadoes able to carry heavy objects
over such considerable distances? H o w do they
form? Modern science has yet to answer these
and m a n y other questions completely.
Is it possible t o s i m u l a t e a tornado i n t h e labo-
ratory? W i t h the f o l l o w i n g two experimental
setups, y o u can m a k e a water model of a t o r n a d o
even at home.
1. Solder a brass-or tin-plate disc about 40 m m
in diameter and 0.5-1 m m thick to the shaft of
a micromotor l i k e those c o m m o n l y used i n toy
machines. The disc m u s t be exactly perpendicular
to the shaft to ensure t h a t the disc w i l l r u n true.
Use grease or m i n e r a l oil to seal the bearings of
the shaft. The contact studs and t h e soldered
wires leading to t h e m should be protected w i t h
a plasticine layer.
A t t a c h a plasticine cake about 5 m m t h i c k t o
the bottom of a glass (or jar) about 9 cm i n dia-
meter and 18 cm h i g h . A t t a c h the m i c r o m o t o r
to i t , a l l o w i n g a clearance between the lower end
of its shaft and the plasticine cake. The wires
from the m i c r o m o t o r should be fastened t o t h e
inside w a l l of the glass w i t h adhesive or plasti-
cine. Fig. 23 shows the setup ready for operation.
F i l l the glass w i t h water. Then pour in a layer
of sunflower oil 1-2 cm t h i c k . W h e n the wires
from the m i c r o m o t o r are connected to a flashlight
3-01544
34 V. Mayer
Fig. 23
Fig. 27
Fig. 28
Lift (L)
Velocity (r)
Fig. 29 Fig. 30
Center
mass
lo
Fig. 31 Fig. 32
Fig. 33 Fig. 34
An Instructive Experiment
with a Cumulative Jet
by V. Mayer
I n Professor G . I . Pokrovsky's s i m p l e a n d
elegant experiment on the h y d r o d y n a m i c s i n a
test tube, a t u b e p a r t i a l l y filled w i t h water is
dropped from a few centimetres above a hard
surface, t h u s p r o d u c i n g a jet of water from the
tube u p o n i m p a c t . Since the water at the edges
clings s l i g h t l y to the glass of the t u b e , t h e me-
niscus is concave. U p o n i m p a c t t h e t u b e and
the water in it stop sharply, w h i c h causes t h e
water to accelerate r a p i d l y . The water behaves
as if it were very heavy and its surface levels
out. The water around the edges resides, a n d
a t h i n jet of water gushes out from the center of
the tube for a short t i m e .
Y o u can set up a s i m i l a r , perhaps even more
striking experiment. Carefully cut off the b o t t o m
of a test t u b e to m a k e a glass p i p e 15 m m i n
diameter and about 100 m m long. Seal the fluted
end of the p i p e w i t h a piece of rubber cut from
a toy b a l l o o n . F i l l the pipe w i t h water a n d ,
covering the open end w i t h your finger, lower
that end i n t o a glass of water. Remove your finger
and adjust the p i p e so t h a t about a centimetre of
water is left inside the pipe. The water inside
the pipe should be level with the water surface
in the glass. Fix the pipe vertically to a s u p p o r t .
Now s l i g h t l y t a p the piece of rubber stretched
over the pipe. A c u m u l a t i v e jet of water w i l l
i m m e d i a t e l y rise inside the pipe and reach the
piece of rubber itself.
54 V. Mayer
EXERCISES
Fig. 39
Fig. 40
56 V. Mayer and E. Mamaeva
Pig. 43
Fig. 44
o --= l / 2 p g y D ,
or
2 aL 1 ,9*.
Fig. 47 Fig. 48
stick. Use a deep t u b like those photographers use
in developing pictures to hold the water. For
ease in reading the results, attach a piece of
graph paper to one of the plates. Once we have
a graph drawn by the water, we can check whether
the curve is actually a hyperbola. A l l the rectan-
gulars under the curve should have the same
area (Fig. 47).
64 V. Mayer
1'
Fig. 49
I F 1 2 | =O 1 2 AZ,
I Fi3 I =°- 13 AZ
and 2 and 3:
I F23\=g23M.
Here o 1 3 a n d a 2 3 are the appropriate surface
tensions.
O b v i o u s l y , the drop reaches e q u i l i b r i u m if the
total of all these forces equals zero
F12 + Fl3 + F23 = 0
Ol =CT2+ °12
W h e n Ox > o 2 + a 1 2 there are no angles 0 j
a n d 0 2 for w h i c h E q . (1) w o u l d h o l d true. There-
fore, l i q u i d 2 does not m a k e a drop on the sur-
face of l i q u i d 1 in this case, b u t diffuses on its sur-
face i n a t h i n layer.
N o w let us try to e x p l a i n the results of our ex-
periment w i t h a spoonful of b r o t h . Drops of f a t
Experiments with a Spoonful of Broth 07
Fig. 50
Fig. 52
Fig. 53
1
Fig. 54
by M. Kliya
Fig. 57
Fig. 58 Fig. 59
Fig. 60
Fig. 61 Fig. 62
Fig. 66 Fig. 67
6«
84 Va. Geguzin
Fig. 68 Fig. 69
for example, you can s i m u l a t e the heat-induced
m o t i o n of atoms. ( Y o u w i l l see how 'a rise i n
temperature' destroys the p a c k i n g of the spheres.)
Since eac' hexagonal layer occupies relatively
shallow holes of t h e next layer, the layers are
loosely b o u n d , and slippage develops easily. I f
you slide one hexagonal layer against another,
you w i l l see t h a t easy slippage, i n w h i c h the lay-
ers m o v e as a whole, occurs i n three directions.
A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n can be observed i n real crys-
tals, w h i c h explains the specifics of plastic de-
f o r m a t i o n i n crystals.
Models can be b u i l t from any k i n d of sphere.
I f you do not h a v e b a l l bearings, use large
necklace beads or even s m a l l apples. Figures 68
and 69 show u n i t cells of cubic and hexagonal
A Bubble Model of Crystal 85
On Simulation
f I n t h e difficult process of i n t e r p r e t i n g experi-
m e n t a l facts or theoretical propositions, almost
everyone needs a n image, a v i s i b l e presentation,
a simplified m o d e l of the subject. Perhaps one
of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t skills a scholar or teacher
needs is t h e a b i l i t y to construct images, analo-
gies, a n d models, w h i c h can i l l u s t r a t e certain
physical p h e n o m e n o n a n d , t h u s , enlarge our
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m . W h a t s h o u l d such a
model be? W h a t m u s t it be able t o show? W h a t
can one expect from the m o d e l a n d w h a t are
its constraints? First, we expect our m o d e l t o
be a learning a i d . I t must c o n t a i n no false d a t a
b u t m u s t i n c l u d e at least a fraction of the
t r u t h p e r t i n e n t t o the subject. I n everyday life,
of course, we scorn h a l f t r u t h . B u t ' h a l f t r u t h '
is a term of h i g h a p p r o b a t i o n i n relation to
models. F i n a l l y , t h e m o d e l s h o u l d be clear a n d
easily comprehensible w i t h o u t d u l l c o m m e n t a r y .
86 Va. Geguzin
W h a t Do W e W a n t to Simulate?
The answer is clear: real crystal. Real crystal
is a vast set of identical atoms or molecules ar-
ranged in strict order to form a crystal lattice.
Occasionally, this order is disturbed, signifying
the presence of defects in the crystal. Another
very important characteristic of crystals is the
interaction of the atoms forming the crystal.
W e w i l l discuss this interaction a bit later. Now
we w i l l simply state that they do interact!
W i t h o u t interaction, the atoms would form a
heap of disorderly arranged atoms rather than a
crystal. The maintenance of order in crystals
is a direct consequence of this interaction.
Another widely used model is the so-called dead
model of crystal, i n which wooden or clay balls
are bound by straight wires. The balls represent
atoms, and the wires are the symbols of their
bonds in 'frozen' state. The model is 'dead'
since it 'freezes' the interaction of the atoms. I n
A Bubble Model of Crystal 87
Fig. 70
^ — VL
Tl7 r
— 2r
Fig. 71
Fig. 74
' W W ^ W 1
Fig. 75
Fig. 76
Ya. Geguzin
lycrystals m a d e of m a n y s m a l l , r a n d o m l y oriented
crystals separated b y boundaries. W e expect m a n y
properties of the polycrystals (such as mechan-
ical strength or electrical resistance) t o depend
on the structure of t h e boundaries, a n d , i n f a c t ,
the B L N m o d e l bears t h i s o u t . I t showed crystal
physicists t h a t t h e structure of such boundaries
varies according t o the m u t u a l o r i e n t a t i o n of
b o u n d a r y crystals, t h e presence of i m p u r i t i e s at
the b o u n d a r y , and m a n y other factors. Some parts
of the polycrystals (grains), for example, m a y
enlarge at the expense of others. As a result, aver-
age grain size increases. This process, called re-
crystallization, develops for a very explicit rea-
son: the greater the size of the g r a i n , the less its
t o t a l b o u n d a r y surface area, w h i c h means t h a t
it has lower excess energy l i n k e d to the bounda-
ries. The energy of a polycrystal is reduced i n re-
c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n , a n d , therefore, the process m a y
occur spontaneously (since it moves the system
t o a more stable e q u i l i b r i u m , at w h i c h energy
storage is m i n i m a l ) . The series of photographs i n
Fig. 77 illustrates a large grain ' d e v o u r i n g ' a
smaller g r a i n i n s i d e i t i n successive stages.
The m o v i n g b o u n d a r y between the grains ap-
pears t o ' s w a l l o w ' t h e vacancies i t comes across
(this was predicted b y theorists a n d carefully
studied b y experimenters i n real crystals). The
b o u n d a r y does not change its structure i n t h i s
process, as the B L N m o d e l clearly illustrates
(Fig. 78).
7*
100 N. Minz
F B
Fig. 79
s h i f t noticeably u p w a r d or d o w n w a r d , d e p e n d i n g
on the position of the poles.
A n image on t h e television screen is produced
b y an electron beam directed from inside the pic-
ture t u b e towards t h e viewer. O u r m a g n e t devi-
ates the electrons e m i t t e d , and the i m a g e is
distorted. The direction i n w h i c h the m a g n e t i c
field deviates the m o v i n g charge is determined b y
the left-hand rule. I f t h e p a l m is positioned so
t h a t the lines of force enter i t , the fingers w h e n ex-
tended i n d i c a t e t h e direction of the current. I n
this position, t h e t h u m b when held at a r i g h t
angle to the fingers, w i l l show the direction i n
A Peculiar Pendulum 101
A Peculiar Pendulum
by N. Minz
Fig. 80
Fig. 81 Fig. 82
same t i m e , as the experiment shows, the pendu-
l u m oscillates i n two perpendicular planes.
The curves described by our p e n d u l u m are
called Lissajous figures, after the French physicist
w h o was the first to describe them in 1863. A
Lissajous figure results from the c o m b i n a t i o n of
two perpendicular oscillations. The figure m a y
be rather c o m p l i c a t e d , especially if the frequen-
cies of l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t i t u d i n a l oscillations
are close. If the frequencies are the same, the re-
s u l t a n t trajectory w i l l be an ellipse. Figure
81 shows the figure drawn b y a p e n d u l u m whose
m o t i o n can he described as x = sin 3t, y —-
sin 51. Figure 82 shows the oscillations des-
cribed as x = sin 31, y = sin 41,
A Peculiar Pendulum 105
Lissajous Figures
by N. Minz
s u l t a n t e q u a t i o n of the m o t i o n of the b o d y w i l l
be a s u m of the equations of each m o t i o n :
(1)
x — A{ sin at,
(2)
y — A2 sin cot.
Lissajous Figures 109
Fig. 87
110
N. Minz
A*
Thus, y = - j - x. Consequently, Eq. (2) de-
scribes a straight line segment. Slope a with
respect to X axis is
. A«
tan a = ,
x = At cos ( ( O j f -f- t p j ) , 1
x = A cos coi, I
y = A sin wt. J ^
} )
(\l r
\\
J' e
= A t ( 1 - 2 s i n * ( o t ) = At ( l — 2-fj-).
Fig. 91
of the p o i n t s onto X and Y . Once we have de-
termined all the points b y their coordinates, we
can connect them w i t h a solid line (Fig. 90).
91fl, h).
The figure in Fig. 92 is open. I t is described by
8-01544
114 tt. Minz
t h e f o l l o w i n g system of equations
x = cos 2o)t,
y = sin 3cot.
x — cos p<ot,
y = A2 sin qat.
A i c o s p w t i — A t c o s pcotj
t% — tx
As a result,
S i m i l a r l y , for vv
vu = A2 qto cos q(ot.
Lissajous Figures 115
Fig. 93
EXERCISES
Fig. 95
Fig. 98
Fig. 103
F i g . 104. R e f l e c t i o n f r o m a p a r a b o l i c b a r r i e r :
t o p : ( / ) p a r a b o l i c r e f l e c t o r , (2) r e f l e c t e d w a v e f r o n t s ,
( j ) n o r m a l t o p a r a b o l i c r e f l e c t o r , 1,4) i n c i d e n t w a v e
f r o n t s ; b o t t o m : ( / ) c e n t r a l m a x i m u m , (2) m a x i m u m ,
(3) n o d e
138 C. I;. Stong
111 |
r y i —
7 -
—
Fig. 106
An Artificial Representation
of a Total Solar Eclipse *
by R. W. Wood
Fig. 109
Believe It or Not
by G. Kosourov
Fig. 110
X XI (a) (6)
n u m b e r of s i m p l e experiments w i t h v i s u a l per-
ception. A l l of t h e m are q u i t e m a n a g e a b l e b y
school c h i l d r e n , and m a n y are p a r t i c u l a r l y
instructive. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e language used t o
describe p h y s i c a l optics is far from scientific.
Colour Shadows
by B. Kogan
A Green Shadow
I n a room l i t by normal w h i t e l i g h t , t u r n on
a desk l a m p w i t h a red b u l b . Place a sheet of
w h i t e paper on the desk a n d t h e n h o l d a s m a l l
object, a pencil, for example, between t h e l a m p
and the desk. The paper w i l l cast a s h a d o w , w h i c h
w i l l not be black or grey b u t green. T h i s effect
seems to relate more to physiology and psychology
t h a n t o physics. The shadow of the object appears
green because it contrasts w i t h the b a c k g r o u n d ,
w h i c h , a l t h o u g h a c t u a l l y reddish, we perceive
as w h i t e since we know the paper is w h i t e . The
absence of the colour red in the area covered b y
the shadow is apparently interpreted b y our
brain as the colour green. B u t w h y green?
R e d and green are complementary colours, i . e . ,
when c o m b i n e d , they produce w h i t e . W h a t does
this mean? As early as the seventeenth century,
Newton found t h a t w h i t e s u n l i g h t is complex
and combines the p r i m a r y colours v i o l e t , b l u e ,
green-blue, green, yellow, orange, and red.. This
can be illustrated w i t h a glass prism. If a narrow
beam of s u n l i g h t is passed t h r o u g h the p r i s m ,
a coloured image of the beam w i l l appear. Newtop
Colour Shadows 151
R e d Leaves
Ultraviolet
light
-- O ^
V i s i b l e liulit Fig. 113
An Orange Sky
by G. Kosourov
A n u m b e r of interesting experiments concern
colour perception. Those we suggest here i n v o l v e
An Orange Sky 155
(«) (b)
(c) id)
Fig. 115
Fig. 116
t h e p r i n c i p l e of t r i c h r o m a t i s m . I f we p h o t o g r a p h
t h e same scene three t i m e s using three different
light filters—red, green, a n d b l u e — a n d t h e n
project the pictures from three different projec-
tors onto t h e same screen, the resulting picture
w i l l have realistic colours. The l i g h t filters
should produce t h e colour w h i t e when c o m b i n e d .
Try this experiment w i t h o n l y t w o c o m p l e m e n t a r y
l i g h t filters, red a n d green, for e x a m p l e . The
transmission of colour should be good i n t h i s
case too, a l t h o u g h not as perfect as i n the three-
colour projection. E x p e r i m e n t s show t h a t even
one filter is enough for projection.
P h o t o g r a p h the same scene twice on panchro -
m a t i c film w i t h o u t m o v i n g t h e camera. Use a red
160 V. Mayer
Fig. 117
11*
164 N. Rostovtsev
d s i n cp = kX (1)
K = dsinJ t (3)
K
Measurements of X can be simplified considerably
b y using a p r i m i t i v e metre called an eriometre.
Y o u can m a k e an eriometre from a square piece
of cardboard whose sides are 10-15 cm long.
170 N. Rostovtsev
B y s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a l u e of sin tp i n expression
(1), we get a formula for w a v e l e n g t h
4
< >
EXERCISES
Measuring Light
with a Phonograph Record
by A. Bondar
c o n d i t i o n of central m a x i m u m is described as
d ( s i n cp — s i n 6) = kX (1)
where k = 0, 1, 2, . . .. Hence we can determine
t h e wavelength k. For this we need to know the
g r a t i n g period d, the incidence angle 0 for the
wave w i t h respect to the g r a t i n g , and the angle
Fig. 124
a 1
/af + ft" / l + 62/«2 2 a*
A Ball for a Lens 177
and
a ^ 1 ! _ J _
2 2 2 2
]/a + A ] / l + fc /a ~ 2 a2
A n d finally
/j a ja
A, = d (sin (p t — sin —
Fig. 125
Fig. 120
A Ball for a Lens 181
Fig. 129:
(1) l a m p ; ( 2 ) J p r o j e c t i n g l e n s , (-J) p o i n t d i a p h r a g m
w i t h a l i g h t s c r e e n , (4) c l a m p for d i f f r a c t i n g
o b j e c t s , (5) l i g h t p r o o f t u b e , (6) p h o t o g r a p h i c
camera without objective
Fig. 130
g r a p h i n g a letter d r a w n i n I n d i a i n k on w h i t e
paper.
I f y o u d r i l l a n opening about 2 m m i n d i a m e t r e
i n a t h i n t i n p l a t e , y o u can see how the diffraction
pattern of the o p e n i n g changes at various dis-
tances. Cover the o p e n i n g w i t h a l i g h t filter, a n d
move closer t o i t . F r o m a distance of 1-2 m , you
should be able t o see b l a c k circles i n t h e centre
of the pattern w i t h a m a g n i f y i n g glass. A s you
move closer, the circles change to d a r k rings,
diffusing towards t h e b o u n d a r y of the shadow.
The n u m b e r of d a r k rings, i n c l u d i n g t h e d a r k
spot i n t h e centre, is determined b y t h e difference
186 ft, Kosourov
Fig. 131
Time
Fig. 134