PHYSICS

KITCHEN LAB
IN YOUR
OrikiTti b flOMamneH jiaSopaxopnH

Otbctctbghhmh pe/iaKTop
aKaaeMHR U . K . KHKOHH

HanaTejibCTBO « H a y K a » , Mockh»
Physics in Your
Kitchen Lab

Edited by
Academician I.K. Kikoin

Translated from the Russian

by A. Zilberman

til !\ Hi
ypj

Mir
Publishers
Moscow
 First published 1985
Revised from the 1980 Russian edition

EDITORIAL BOARD

Academician I . K . Kikoin (chairman), Academician

A . N . K o l m o g o r o v (deputy chairman), I . S h . Slobodetskii
(scientific secretary), Cand. Sc. (Phys.-Math.), Correspond-
ing member of the Academy of Sciences of the U S S R
A . A . Abrikosov, Academician B . K . Vainstein, Honoured
teacher of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Re-
p u b l i c B . V . Vozdvizhenskii, Academician V . M . Glush-
kov, Academician P . L . K a p i t s a , Prof. S . P . K a p i t s a ,
Corresponding member of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the
U S S R Y u . A . O s i p y a n , Corresponding member of the
A c a d e m y of Pedagogical Sciences of the U S S R V . G . Ra-
z u m o v s k i i , Academician R . Z . Sagdeev, M . L . S m o l y a n s k i i ,
Cand. Sc. (Chem.), Prof. Y a . A . S m o r o d i n s k i i , Academi-
cian S . L . Sobolev, Corresponding m e m b e r of the Academy
of Sciences of the U S S R D . K . Phaddeev, Corresponding
member of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the USSR
I.S. Shklovskii.

Ha amjiuucKOM aaune

(c IlanaiejibCTRO « H a y K a » , TjiaBHaa peflaKijHH <J>h3hko-

MaTeMaTHiecKofi jiHTepaTypw, 1980
English translation. M i r Publishers. 1985
Contents

E d i t o r ' s Note 7
A Demonstration of Weightlessness 9
by A. Dozorov
A Cartesian Diver 12
by A. Vilenkin
An A u t o m a t i c S i p h o n 13
by V. Mayer and N. Nazarov
Exercises 17
Vortex R i n g s 17
by R.W. Wood
On Vortex R i n g s 23
by S. Shabanov and V. Shubin
Tornado Models 33
by V. Mayer
The Aerodynamics of Boomerangs 37
by Felix Hess
A H y d r o d y n a m i c Mechanism in a
F a l l i n g Test T u b e 51
by G.I. Pokrovsky
A n Instructive E x p e r i m e n t w i t h a
Cumulative Jet 53
by V. Mayer
Exercises 54
Magic w i t h Physics 56
by V. Mayer and E. Mamaeva
A D r o p on a H o t Surface 58
by M. Golubev and A. Kagalenko
Surface Tension Draws a Hyperbola 61
by I. Vorobiev
Experiments w i t h a Spoonful of Broth 64
by V. Mayer
H o w to Grow a Crystal 71
by M. Kliya
Crystals Made of Spheres 74
by G. Kosourov
A Bubble Model of Crystal 85
by Ya. Geguzin
 Contents

Determining the Poles of a Magnet 99

by B. Aleinlkov
A Peculiar P e n d u l u m 101
by N. Minz
Lissajous Figures 106
by N. Minz
Exercises 118
Waves in a Flat Plate (Interference) 118
by A. Kosourov
H o w to Make a R i p p l e Tank to
E x a m i n e W a v e Phenomena 128
by C.L. Stong
An Artificial Representation of a
Total Solar Eclipse 140
by R.W. Wood
Believe I t or Not 144
by G. Kosourov
Colour Shadows 150
by B. Kogan
W h a t Colour Is B r i l l i a n t Green? 152
by E. Pal'chikov
A n Orange Sky 154
by G. Kosourov
The Green Red L a m p 161
by V. Mayer
Measuring Light W a v e l e n g t h w i t h a
Wire 164
by N. Rostovtsev
Exercises 172
Measuring Light w i t h a Phonograph
Record 172
by A. Bondar
A Ball for a Lens 177
by G. Kosourov
 To Georgii Ivanovich
Kosourov

Editor's Note

Physics is an experimental science since it

studies the fundamental laws of nature by direct
experimentation. The experimenter asks ques-
tions of nature in any experimental work, but
only correctly formulated questions are answered.
This means that unless a physical experiment is
set up correctly, the experimenter will not get
the desired results. An experimenter's skill,
therefore, depends on his ability to formulate
experiments correctly. The experimental physics
is a fascinating science, which enables us to
understand, explain and, sometimes, even discov-
er new phenomena in nature. The first step in
becoming an accomplished physicist is mastering
of the techniques of physical experimentation.
Modern experimental physics uses very soph-
isticated and expensive apparatus, housed, for
the most part, in large research institutes and
laboratories where many of the readers of this
book may one day conduct their own original
research. Until then, however, the engaging
experiments described in this book can be per-
formed right at home. Most of the experiments
included here were first published separately in
the journal Kvant.
Just as "a picture is worth a thousand words",
an experiment once performed is worth a thou-
8 Editor's Note

sand descriptions of one. I t is recommended,

therefore, that readers perform the experiments
described themselves. The means for this are
readily available, and it should soon become
obvious that experimentation is a captivating
pastime. The experiments presented here need
not be confining; they may be varied and expand-
ed, providing, in this way, an opportunity for
real scientific investigation.
The book is dedicated to Georgii Ivanovich Ko-
sourov, one of the founding fathers of Kvant.
Kosourov, who edited the experimental section
of the journal in its first year of publication,
has contributed several very interesting articles
to this collection. Among the other authors
of this book are a number of famous physicists,
as well as young researchers just beginning their
careers. W e hope this book w i l l fascinate not
only students already interested in physics who
intend to make it their lifework but also the
friends to whom they demonstrate the experi-
ments in a laboratory made right at home.
A Demonstration of Weightlessness
by A. Dozorov
The weightless state is achieved in free flight.
A satellite in orbit, a free falling stone, and a
man during a jump are all in a state of weight-
lessness. A weight suspended from a string weighs
nothing in a free fall and, therefore, does not
pull on the string. I t is easy to make a device that
will let you "observe" weightlessness.
Figure 1 depicts such a device schematically.
I n its 'normal' state, weight G pulls the string

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

taut, and elastic plate EP bends, breaking the

contact between terminals K\ and K2 of the
10 A. Dozorov

circuit. Naturally, lamp L, connected to the

circuit, does not light up in this case. If the
entire device is tossed into the air, however,
weight G becomes weightless and does not tighten
the string. The elastic plate straightens out and
the terminals connect, which switches on the
lamp. The lamp is lit only when the device is in
a weightless state. Note that this state is achieved
both when the device is thrown up and as it
returns to the ground.
The adjustment screw S makes it possible to
place the terminals so that they have a small
clearance when the device is stationary. The
device is fastened to the inside of a transparent
box, as shown in Fig. 2.
A little practical advice about construction.
In order to provide for the use of a large-cell
(flat) battery or a small one-cell battery, reserve
space for the larger battery. Access to the battery
compartment should be facilitated since battery
may have to be replaced frequently. The battery
can be secured to the outer surface of the device,
and two holes for connecting wires should be
provided in the casing.
Any thin elastic metal strip can be used as an
elastic plate, even one half of a safety razor
blade (after fastening the blade to the stand, you
will see where to co i nect the string for the weight).
The design can be simplified further, if the
adjustment screw and terminal K\ are combined
and the plate functions as terminal K 2 (Fig. 3).
Figure 4 shows a design that has no adjustment
screw at all. If you think a little, you can
probably come up with an even simpler
design.
A Demonstration of Weightlessness
11

Fig. 3

Fig. 4
 12

A Cartesian Diver
by A. Vilenkin
A toy ship made of paper w i l l float easily, but
if the paper gets soaked, the ship sinks. W h e n
the paper is dry, it traps air between its bell
and the surface of the water. If the bell gets
soaked and begins to disintegrate, the air escapes
the bell and the ship sinks. B u t is it possible
to make a ship whose bell alternately keeps or
releases air, making the ship float or sink as we
wish? I t is, indeed. The great French scholar and
philosopher Rene Descartes was the first to make
such a toy, now commonly called the 'Cartesian
Diver* (from Cartesius, the L a t i n spelling of
Descartes). Descartes' toy resembles our paper
ship except that the 'Diver' compresses and
expands the air instead of letting it in and out.
A design of the 'Diver' is shown in Fig. 5.
Take a m i l k bottle, a small medicine bottle and
a rubber balloon (the balloon will have to be
spoiled). Fill the m i l k bottle with water almost
to its neck. Then lower the medicine bottle into
the water, neck down. Tilt the medicine bottle
slightly to let some of the water in. The amount
of water inside the smaller bottle should be regu-
lated so that the bottle floats on the surface and
a slight push makes it sink (a straw can be used
to blow air into the bottle while it is underwater).
Once the medicine bottle is floating properly,
seal the m i l k bottle with a piece of rubber cut
from the balloon and fastened to the bottle with
a thread~wound' r around the neck.
""Press down the piece of rubber, and the 'Diver*
will sink. Release it, and the 'Diver' will rise.
 An Automatic Siphon 13

This is because the air inside the milk bottle is

compressed when the piece of rubber is pushed
in. The pressure forces water into the medicine

Fig. 5

bottle, which becomes heavier and sinks. As

soon as the pressure is released, the air in the
medicine bottle forces the extra water out, and
the 'Diver' floats up.

A n Automatic Siphon
by V. Mayer and N. Nazarov
Most o you probably studied the workings of
the siphon, the simplest device for pumping
liquids, while still in grade school. The famous
American physicist Robert Wood is said to have
begun his scientific career when still a boy with
just such a siphon. This is how W . Seabrook
14 V. Mayer and N. Nazarov

described that first experiment in his book about

Robert Wood. He wrote that there was an eleva-
tion over a foot high around a puddle, and every-
body knew that water would not flow uphill. Rob
laid a hose on the ground and told one of the boys
to seal its end with his finger. Then he started
filling the hose with water u n t i l it was full.
Already a born demonstrator at that age, Rob,
instead of leaving his end of the hose on the
ground, let it dangle over a high fence which
separated the road from the ditch. Water flowed
through the siphon. This was apparently Wood's
first public scientific victory.
The conventional siphon is so simple that
almost no improvement in its design seems
possible. Perhaps its only disadvantage is that
it is necessary to force the air from bends in the
siphon prior to operation. Yet even this problem
was solved, thanks to human ingenuity. Once
inventors had understood the shortcoming in the
design, they removed it by the simplest possible
means!
To make an automatic siphon*, you will need
a glass tube whose length is about 60 cm and
whose inner diameter is 3-4 m m . Bend the tube
over a flame so that it has two sections, one of
which is about 25 cm long (Fig. 6). Carefully
cut a small hole (1) in the shorter arm about
33-35 m m from its end with the edge of a needle
file (wet the file first). The area of the hole should
not be more than 0.5-1 mm 2 . Take a ping-pong

* This version of the a u t o m a t i c siphon, invented by

S . D . P l a t o n o v , was described in Zavodskaya Laboratoriya,
4, No. 6 (1935) (in Russian).
An Automatic Siphon 15

ball, and make a small hole in it which is then

reamed with the file u n t i l the tube can be pushed
into the ball and is held there tightly. Push the

Fig. 6 Fig. 7

tube into the hole u n t i l its end nearly touches

the side of the ball opposite the hole (Fig. 6).
The tube should fit tightly in the opening. If the
hole is too large, fill the gap with plasticine.
Make another hole (2) close to the end of the tube
16 R. W. Wood

inside the ball. Its initial diameter should be

about 1 m m .
Quickly lower the arm of the siphon with the
ball at the end into a glass of water. The tube
will fill almost immediately with a rising col-
umn of water broken by a series of air bubbles.
When the water reaches the bend, it will move
down the second arm of the siphon (Fig. 7),
and in a few moments a continuous stream of
water will begin to flow from the end of the tube!
If the experiment is unsuccessful at first, simply
adjust the siphon slightly. The correct operation
of the automatic siphon depends on the appro-
priate choice of diameters of the holes in the
tube and the ball. Faulty positioning of the
glass tube and the ball or an inadequate seal
between the tube and the ball may also spoil the
siphon operation. The second hole in the ball
can be gradually enlarged with a needle file to
improve the performance of the siphon. As soon
as the siphon is operating satisfactorily, glue
the ball to the tube.
How does the automatic siphon work? Look at
Fig. 6 again. When the ball is lowered into the
glass, water floods simultaneously into opening 2
and into the open end of the glass tube. Water
rises in the tube at a faster rate than in the ball.
The water rising to opening 1 in the wall of the
tube seals the tube. As the ball floods with water,
the air pressure inside it rises. W h e n equilibrium
is reached, a small air bubble is forced through
the opening 1. The bubble cuts off a small col-
umn of water and carries it upward. The water
that follows reseals opening 1, and the compressed
air forces another air bubble into the tube, cut-
 17
On Vortex Rings

ting off another portion of water. Thus, the

section of tube w i t h the ball has an air/water
mixture whose density is lower than that of
water. Under hydrostatic pressure this mixture
rises to the bend and flows down the second arm
of the tube. W h e n the ball is completely filled
w i t h water, pressure creates a continuous flow
of water and the siphon begins to operate.

EXERCISES
Show experimentally that water floods the ball at a
slower rate than the tube. Explain why.
2. To be certain that the explanation of the operation of
the siphon is correct, replace the opaque ball with a
small glass bottle with a rubber stopper. The design of
the setup with the bottle should be an exact replica of
the original. The glass tube should go through the rubber
stopper. Since the bottle is transparent, you will be able
to see the air/water mixture forming in the tube.
3. Determine whether the rise of the column of water
depends on the water depth o£ the ball.
4. Make an automatic siphon by replacing the glass tube
with a rubber hose.

Vortex Rings
by R. W. Wood
I n the course of some experiments preparatory
to a lecture on vortex rings I have introduced
certain modifications which may be of interest
to teachers and students of science.
The classic vortex-box is too well known to
require much description. Our apparatus, which
is rather larger than those in common use, is
a pine box measuring about a metre each way,
* Nature, February 28, 1901, pp. 418-420.
2-01544
 18 R. W. Wood

w i t h a circular hole 25 cms in diameter in one

end. Two pieces of heavy rubber t u b i n g are
stretched d i a g o n a l l y across the opposite or open
end, w h i c h is then covered w i t h black enamel
cloth tacked on rather loosely. The object of the
rubber chords is to give t h e recoil necessary after
t h e expulsion of a ring to prepare the box for
a second discharge. Such a box w i l l project air
vortices of great power, the slap of the ring

Fig. 8

against the brick w a l l of the lecture h a l l being

d i s t i n c t l y a u d i b l e resembling t h e sound of a flip
w i t h a towel. A n audience can be given a v i v i d
idea of the quasi-rigidity of a fluid i n r o t a t i o n by
projecting these i n v i s i b l e rings i n r a p i d succes-
sion i n t o t h e a u d i t o r i u m , the i m p a c t of the
r i n g on t h e face r e m i n d i n g one of a blow w i t h
a compact t u f t of cotton.
For rendering rings visible I h a v e found t h a t by
far the best results can be o b t a i n e d b y c o n d u c t i n g
a m m o n i a and hydrochloric acid gases i n t o t h e
box t h r o u g h rubber tubes l e a d i n g to two flasks
in w h i c h N H 4 O H and HG1 are b o i l i n g . Photo-
graphs of large rings m a d e i n t h i s w a y are repro-
duced i n F i g . 8, the side view being p a r t i c u l a r l y
interesting, showing the comet-like t a i l formed
b y the s t r i p p i n g off of the outer portions of the
Vortex Rings IJ

ring by atmospheric friction as it moves forward.

The power of t h e air-rings can be shown b y
directing t h e m against a flat pasteboard b o x ,
stood on end at some distance from the vortex
apparatus, the box being at once overturned or
even driven oft 011 to the floor. A large cluster
of b u r n i n g gas jets can be extinguished b y the
i m p a c t of a ring.
For showing the elasticity of the rings b y
bouncing one off the other, I find t h a t the best
p l a n is to drive t w o i n r a p i d succession from t h e
box, the second being projected w i t h a s l i g h t l y
greater velocity t h a n the first, all experiments
t h a t I have m a d e w i t h t w i n boxes h a v i n g yielded
unsatisfactory results.
Though the large vortices obtained w i t h an
apparatus of t h i s description are most s u i t a b l e
for lecture purposes, I find t h a t m u c h more
b e a u t i f u l and s y m m e t r i c a l rings can be m a d e
w i t h tobacco smoke b l o w n from a paper or glass
tube about 2.5 cm i n diameter. I t is necessary t o
practice a l i t t l e to learn just the nature a n d
strength of t h e most suitable puff. R i n g s b l o w n
i n this w a y i n s t i l l air near a l a m p or i n f u l l
s u n l i g h t , when viewed l a t e r a l l y , show the spiral
stream lines i n a most b e a u t i f u l m a n n e r . I h a v e
succeeded i n p h o t o g r a p h i n g one of these rings
i n the following w a y . A n instantaneous drop
shutter was fitted to t h e door of a dark room a n d
an arclamp focussed 011 its aperture b y means of
a large concave m i r r o r . The shutter was a s i m p l e
affair, merely a n a l u m i n i u m slide operated w i t h
an elastic b a n d , g i v i n g an exposure of 1/300 of
a second. A p h o t o g r a p h i c plate was set on edge
i n the dark room i n such a position t h a t it w o u l d

2*
20 R. W. Wood

be i l l u m i n a t e d by the divergent beam c o m i n g

from t h e i m a g e of t h e arc when the shutter was
opened. A r u b y l a m p was placed i n front of the
sensitive film. As soon as a good r i n g , s y m m trical
in form and not m o v i n g too fast, was seen to be
i n front of t h e plate, a string leading t o the shut-
ter was p u l l e d and the p l a t e i l l u m i n a t e d w i t h a
d a z z l i n g flash. The ring casts a perfectly sharp
shadow o w i n g to the s m a l l size and distance of

the source of l i g h t ; the resulting picture is repro-

duced i n F i g . 9. The ring is seen to consist of
a layer of smoke a n d a layer of transparent air,
w o u n d u p i n a spiral of a dozen or more complete
turns.
The angular velocity of r o t a t i o n appears to
increase as t h e core of the r i n g is approached,
t h e i n n e r portions being screened from friction,
if we m a y use the t e r m , by t h e r o t a t i n g layers
s u r r o u n d i n g t h e m . This can be very nicely shown
b y differentiating the core, f o r m i n g an air ring
w i t h a smoke core. I f we m a k e a s m a l l vortex box
w i t h a hole, say 2 cm i n d i a m e t e r , fill i t w i t h
smoke a n d push very gently against the dia-
p h r a g m , a fat r i n g emerges w h i c h rotates i n a very
lazy fashion, to a l l appearances. I f , however, we
clear t h e air of smoke, pour i n a few drops of
a m m o n i a and brush a l i t t l e a strong HC1 around
the lower part of the aperture, the smoke forms
On Vortex Rings 21

i n a t h i n layer around t h e under side of t h e hole.

G i v i n g the same gentle push on the d i a p h r a g m ,
we find t h a t the smoke goes to the core, the rest of
the ring being i n v i s i b l e , the visible part of the
vortex s p i n n i n g w i t h a surprisingly h i g h v e l o c i t y .
Considerable k n a c k is required to form these
t h i n cressent-like vortices, the best results being

Fig. 10 Fig. 11

u s u a l l y attained after q u i t e a n u m b e r of a t t e m p t s
h a v e been m a d e . A d r a w i n g of one of these
smoke-cores is shown i n F i g . 10. The a c t u a l size
of the vortex being i n d i c a t e d by dotted lines,
it is instructive as showing t h a t the air w h i c h
grazes the edge of the aperture goes to t h e core
of the ring. The experiment does not work very
well on a large scale, t h o u g h I have had some
success by v o l a t i l i s i n g sal a m m o n i a c around t h e
upper edge of the aperture b y means of a zig-zag
iron wire heated by a current.
B y t a k i n g proper precautions we can locate
the smoke elsewhere, f o r m i n g a perfect half-ring,
as is shown i n F i g . 11, i l l u s t r a t i n g i n a s t r i k i n g
22 S. Shabanov and V. Shubin

m a n n e r t h a t the existence of the ring- depends in

no w a y on the presence of the smoke. The best
w a y to form these half-rings is to breathe smoke
very g e n t l y i n t o a paper t u b e a l l o w i n g it to flow
along t h e b o t t o m , u n t i l the end is reached, when
a r i n g is expelled by a gentle puff. A large test
t u b e w i t h a hole b l o w n i n the b o t t o m is perhaps
preferable, since the c o n d i t i o n of things inside
can be w a t c h e d . I t is easy enough to get a ring,
one h a l f of w h i c h is w h o l l y i n v i s i b l e , the smoke
ending a b r u p t l y at a sharply defined edge, as
shown i n F i g . 11, requires a good deal of practice.
I h a v e tried f u l l y half-a-dozen different schemes
for getting these half-rings on a large scale, b u t
no one of t h e m gave results w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g .
The hot wire w i t h the sal a m m o n i a c seemed to be
the most p r o m i s i n g m e t h o d , b u t I was u n a b l e to
get t h e sharp cut edge w h i c h is t h e most s t r i k i n g
feature of t h e s m a l l rings b l o w n from a tube.
I n accounting for the f o r m a t i o n of vortex
rings, t h e rotary m o t i o n is often ascribed to
friction between the issuing air-jet and the edge
of t h e aperture. I t is, however, f r i c t i o n w i t h the
exterior air t h a t is for the most part responsible
for t h e vortices. To illustrate t h i s p o i n t I have
devised a vortex box in w h i c h friction w i t h the
edge of the aperture is e l i m i n a t e d , or rather
compensated, by m a k i n g it equal over the entire
cross-section of the issuing jet.
The b o t t o m of a cylindrical t i n box is drilled
w i t h some 200 s m a l l holes, each about 1.7 m m
in diameter. I f the box be filled w i t h smoke and
a sharp puff of air delivered at the open end,
a b e a u t i f u l vortex ring w i l l be thrown off from
the cullender surface (Fig. 12). W e may even
On Vortex Rings 23

cover the end of a paper t u b e w i t h a piece of l i n e n

c l o t h , t i g h t l y stretched, and blow smoke rings
with it.
I n experimenting w i t h a box provided w i t h
two circular apertures I h a v e observed the fusion
of two rings m o v i n g side b y side i n t o a single
large ring. I f t h e rings h a v e a h i g h v e l o c i t y of
r o t a t i o n they w i l l bounce apart, b u t if t h e y are

Fig. 12

sluggish they w i l l u n i t e . A t the m o m e n t of u n i o n

the form of the vortex is very u n s t a b l e , b e i n g
an extreme case of the v i b r a t i n g e l l i p t i c a l r i n g .
I t at once springs from a h o r i z o n t a l d u m b - b e l l
i n t o a vertical dumb-bell, so r a p i d l y t h a t t h e eye
can scarcely f o l l o w the change, and then s l o w l y
oscillates into the circular form. T h i s s a m e p h e n o m -
enon can be shown w i t h two paper tubes h e l d i n
opposite corners of the m o u t h and nearly p a r a l l e l
to each other. The air i n the room m u s t be as
s t i l l as possible in either case.

On Vortex Rings
by S. Shnbanov and V. Shubin

Formation of the Vortex R i n g s

To study vortex rings in the air under labora-

tory conditions, we used the apparatus designed
 24 S. Shabanov and V. Shubin

by Professor Tait (Fig. 13). One end of this cylin-

der, the membrane, is covered with a flexible
material such as leather. The other end, the
diaphragm, has a circular opening. Two flasks,
one containing hydrochloric acid (HC1), the other
ammonium hydroxide ( N H 4 O H ) , are placed in
the box, where they produce a thick fog (smoke)
of ammonium chloride particles 'NH4CI). By

Membrane Diaphragm

HC1 NH4OH

Fig. 13 Fig. 14
tapping the membrane, we impart a certain veloc-
ity to the smoke layer close to it. As this layer
moves forward, it compresses^the next layer,
which, in turn, compresses the layer followinglit,
in a chain reaction that reaches the diaphragm
where smoke escapes through the opening and
sets formerly still air in motion. Viscous friction
against the edge of the opening twists the smoky
air into a vortex ring.
The edge of the opening is not the m a i n factor
in the formation of the vortex ring, however.
W e can prove this by fitting a sieve over the
opening in the Tait's apparatus. If the edge were
 On Vortex Rings 25

i m p o r t a n t , m a n y s m a l l vortex rings w o u l d f o r m .
Y e t they do not. Even w i t h a sieve, we s t i l l
observe a single, large vortex r i n g (Fig. 14).
I f the m e m b r a n e is substituted b y a plunger
t h a t is set to m o t i o n , a continuous smoke jet w i l l
appear on the edge of the opening instead of
vortex rings. I t is essential t o provide for t h e

Fig. 15 Fig. 16

i n t e r m i t t e n t outflows of smoke t h r o u g h the

opening.
Vortex rings can be produced in water using
an ordinary p i p e t t e and i n k . Let a few drops of
i n k fall from a h e i g h t of 2-3 centimetres i n t o an
a q u a r i u m w i t h very s t i l l water, w h i c h has no
convection flows. The f o r m a t i o n of the i n k rings
w i l l be very obvious in the clear water (Fig. 15).
The set u p can be changed s l i g h t l y , t h e stream
ofj'ink can be released from a pipette submerged
i n water (Fig. 16). The vortex rings o b t a i n e d
i n this case are larger.
Vortex rings i n water form s i m i l a r l y t o those
in the air, and t h e b e h a v i o u r of the i n k i n water
is s i m i l a r to t h a t of smoke i n the air. I n b o t h
cases viscous friction plays a v i t a l role. Experi-
ments show t h a t t h e analogy is complete o n l y
j n the first m o m e n t s after the f o r m a t i o n of tlje
26 S. Shabanov and V. Shubin

vortex, however. As it develops further, the vor-

tex behaves differently in water and the air.

Movement of the Environment

Around the Vortex Rings
W h a t happens to the environment when a vor-
tex forms? W e can answer this question with
the right experiments.
Place a lighted candle 2-3 metres away from
the Tait apparatus. Now direct a smoke ring so

Fig. 17
that it passes the candle but misses the flame
narrowly. The flame will either go out or flicker
violently, proving that the movement of the
vortex involves not only the visible part of the
ring, but also adjacent layers of the air.
How do these layers move? Take two pieces
of cloth, and soak one in hydrochloric acid, and
the other in ammonia solution. Hang them up
about 10-15 centimetres apart. The space between
them w i l l immediately be' filled with smoke
(ammonium chloride vapour). Now shoot a smoke
ring from the apparatus into the vapour cloud.
As the ring passes through the cloud, the ring
expands while the cloud starts moving circularly.
From this we can conclude that the air close to
t,he vortex ring is circulating (Fig. 17).
On Vortex Rings 27

A similar experiment can be set up in water.

Put a drop of ink in a glass full of water that has
been stirred slowly and continues to circulate.
Let the water get still. Y o u w i l l see ink fibres
in the water. Now put ink ring into the glass.
W h e n this ring passes close to the fibres, they
twist.

Vortex Rings in Water

W e decided to study the behaviour of vortices
in water further. W e know that a drop of ink

Fig. 18

placed into an aquarium from a height of 2-3 cen-

timetres will form an ink vortex ring. This ring
soon develops into several new rings, which, in
turn, break into other smaller rings, and so on to
form a beautiful "temple" in the aquarium
(Fig. 18).
28 S. Shabanov and V. Shubin

W e found that the division of the initial ring

into secondary rings was preceded by expansions
in the large ring itself. How this can be explained?
Since the environment through which the ink
ring moves is nonuniform, some of its parts move
faster than others, some lag behind. The ink
(which is heavier than water) tends to collect
in the faster sections, where it forms swelling
due to surface tension. These swellings give birth
to new droplets. Each droplet on the initial
vortex behaves independently, eventually produc-
ing a new vortex ring in a cycle that repeats
several times. Interestingly, we could not deter-
mine any regularity in this cycle: the number of
rings in the "fourth generation" was different
in each of ten experiments.
W e also found that vortex rings require "liv-
ing" space. W e tested this by placing pipes of
different diameters in the path of rings in water.
W h e n the diameter of the pipe was slightly larger
than that of the ring, the ring disintegrated
after entering the pipe, to produce a new ring
with a smaller diameter. W h e n the diameter of
the pipe was four times larger than the ring
diameter, the ring passed through the pipe with-
out obstruction. I n this case the vortex is not
affected by external factors.

Smoke R i n g Scattering
W e conducted several experiments to study
interaction between the smoke ring and the
opening of different diameter. W e also studied
the relationship between the ring and a surface
at various angles. (We called these experiments
scattering tests.)
On Vortex Rings 29

Consider a r i n g h i t t i n g a d i a p h r a g m whose
aperture is smaller t h a n the ring. Let us e x a m i n e
two cases. First, the r i n g m a y collide w i t h t h e
d i a p h r a g m when t h e forward m o t i o n v e l o c i t y of
the ring is perpendicular to the d i a p h r a g m p l a n e
and the centre of t h e r i n g passes t h r o u g h the
centre of the d i a p h r a g m . Collision, on the other
h a n d , m a y be off-centre if the centre of t h e r i n g
does not a l i g n w i t h t h e centre of the d i a p h r a g m .
I n the first case, t h e r i n g scatters when it h i t s

Diaphragm Fig. 19

the d i a p h r a g m , a n d a new ring w i t h a smaller

diameter forms on t h e other side of the d i a p h r a g m .
This smaller r i n g forms just as it w o u l d i n t h e
Tait apparatus: t h e air t h a t moves around the
o r i g i n a l r i n g passes t h r o u g h the aperture and
entrains the smoke of t h e scattered vortex w i t h i t .
A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n can be observed when a r i n g
collides centrally w i t h an aperture of e q u a l or
somewhat larger d i a m e t e r . The effect of an off-
centre collision is even more interesting: the
newly formed vortex emerges at an angle t o the
original direction of the m o t i o n (Fig. 19). Try to
explain why.
Now let us consider an interaction of the r i n g
w i t h a surface. E x p e r i m e n t s show t h a t if the
30 S. Shabanov and V. Shubin

surface is perpendicular to the velocity of the

ring, the ring spreads without losing its shape.
This can be explained as follows. W h e n the air
stream inside the ring hits the surface, it produces
a zone of elevated pressure, which forces the
ring to expand uniformly. If the surface is at
a slant relative to the original direction, the
vortex recoils when colliding with it (Fig. 20).
This phenomenon can be explained as the effect

Fig. 20

of elevated pressure in the space between the ring

and the surface.

Interaction of Rings

The experiments with interacting rings were

undoubtedly the most interesting. W e conducted
these experiments with rings in water and in the
air.
If we place a drop of ink into water from a
height of 1-2 cm and., a second later, let another
drop fall from 2-3 cm, two vortices moving at
different velocities will form. The second drop
will move faster than the first (y2 greater than i\).
When the rings reach the same depth, they begin
to interact with each other in one of three possible
ways. The second ring may overtake the first
On Vortex Rings 31

one w i t h o u t t o u c h i n g i t (Fig. 21a). I n t h i s situa-

t i o n the water currents generated by the rings
repel one another. Some of the i n k from t h e first
r i n g flows over to t h e second r i n g because t h e
more intensive currents i n the second r i n g p u l l
the i n k w i t h t h e m . O c c a s i o n a l l y , some of this

(a) Ib) (c)

Fig. 21
i n k passes t h r o u g h the second r i n g a n d forms
a new, smaller r i n g . The rings t h e n b e g i n to
break d o w n , and the process continues as we
observed earlier.
The second r i n g m a y , on the other h a n d , touch
the first w h i l e o v e r t a k i n g it (Fig. 216). As a result,
the more intensive flows of the second r i n g
destroy the first one. N o r m a l l y , new smaller
vortices emerge from the r e m a i n i n g i n k cluster
of the first ring.
F i n a l l y , the rings m a y collide centrally (Fig.
21c), in w h i c h case t h e second r i n g passes
through the first and shrinks, whereas the first
32 V. Mayer

ring expands. As before, this is a result of the

interaction of the water currents of both rings.
The rings begin to break d o w n at a later stage.
The interaction of smoke rings i n the air was
investigated using a Tait apparatus w i t h two
apertures. The results of the experiments greatly
depended on the force and d u r a t i o n of the i m p a c t
on the m e m b r a n e . I n our setup the m e m b r a n e was
struck w i t h a heavy p e n d u l u m . If t h e distance I
between the apertures is less t h a n the diameter d

Fig. 22
of each aperture (I is less t h a n d) the two air
currents m i x and produce a single vortex ring.
I f d < I < 1.5d, no ring appears at a l l . I n all
other cases two rings appear. I f I is more t h a n 4d,
the rings do not interact. I f 1.5d < I < 4d, the
rings converge at first, a l t h o u g h they occasionally
separate again before d i s i n t e g r a t i n g . The forma-
tion of an " i m a g i n a r y " ring i n the space between
the rings explains this convergence (Fig. 22).
The i m a g i n a r y ring moves i n the opposite direc-
tion from the planes of the real rings, which
begin to t u r n toward one another and g r a d u a l l y
move closer.
W e were not able to determine why the rings
eventually disintegrate c o m p l e t e l y .
Tornado Models 33

Tornado Models
by V. Mayer
The tornado is one of the most awesome a n d
mysterious p h e n o m e n a in nature. I t s power is so
great t h a t almost n o t h i n g can w i t h s t a n d its force.
H o w are tornadoes able to carry heavy objects
over such considerable distances? H o w do they
form? Modern science has yet to answer these
and m a n y other questions completely.
Is it possible t o s i m u l a t e a tornado i n t h e labo-
ratory? W i t h the f o l l o w i n g two experimental
setups, y o u can m a k e a water model of a t o r n a d o
even at home.
1. Solder a brass-or tin-plate disc about 40 m m
in diameter and 0.5-1 m m thick to the shaft of
a micromotor l i k e those c o m m o n l y used i n toy
machines. The disc m u s t be exactly perpendicular
to the shaft to ensure t h a t the disc w i l l r u n true.
Use grease or m i n e r a l oil to seal the bearings of
the shaft. The contact studs and t h e soldered
wires leading to t h e m should be protected w i t h
a plasticine layer.
A t t a c h a plasticine cake about 5 m m t h i c k t o
the bottom of a glass (or jar) about 9 cm i n dia-
meter and 18 cm h i g h . A t t a c h the m i c r o m o t o r
to i t , a l l o w i n g a clearance between the lower end
of its shaft and the plasticine cake. The wires
from the m i c r o m o t o r should be fastened t o t h e
inside w a l l of the glass w i t h adhesive or plasti-
cine. Fig. 23 shows the setup ready for operation.
F i l l the glass w i t h water. Then pour in a layer
of sunflower oil 1-2 cm t h i c k . W h e n the wires
from the m i c r o m o t o r are connected to a flashlight
3-01544
34 V. Mayer

b a t t e r y , the disc begins r o t a t i n g and causes the

l i q u i d i n the glass t o circulate. This circulation
disturbs the surface between the water and o i l ,
and a cone filled w i t h t h e oil soon forms. The
cone grows u n t i l i t touches t h e disc, which then
breaks t h e oil i n t o drops, t u r n i n g the l i q u i d
t u r b i d . After the m i c r o m o t o r is shut off, the oil

Fig. 23

drops return to the surface where they reform

a c o n t i n u o u s layer. The experiment can then be
repeated.
Figures 24a and 24b show photographs of the
f o r m a t i o n of the air cone. W e modified the ex-
p e r i m e n t s l i g h t l y here b y filling t h e glass w i t h
water o n l y .
2. A n even more c o n v i n c i n g m o d e l of a torna-
do can be constructed by soldering a piece of
copper wire (or a k n i t t i n g needle) about 25 cm
i n length a n d 2 m m in diameter to the shaft of
a m i c r o m o t o r . Solder a rectangular brass or t i n
plate a b o u t 0.5 X 10 X 25 m m in size at right
Tornado Models 35

angles t o the wire (Fig. 25a). S w i t c h on the motor

to check the operation of this stirrer. I f necessary,
straighten its extended shaft (the wire) to mini-
mize w o b b l i n g .
Lower the stirrer vertically i n t o a glass of wa-
ter 15-20 cm i n diameter and 25-30 cm h i g h .
S w i t c h on the m o t o r . A cotie w i l l grow g r a d u a l l y

o n j t h e water surface to form a t o r n a d o t h a t ex-

tends to the r o t a t i n g p l a t e (Fig. 256, c, d). As
the tornado touches the plate, m a n y air bubbles
appear, s i g n i f y i n g a vortex around the p l a t e . If
you hold the m o t o r in your h a n d , the t o r n a d o
w i l l behave very m u c h like a l i v i n g creature.
Y o u can spend hours w a t c h i n g its "predatory"
surges.
C o n t i n u e the experiment by p l a c i n g a wooden
block on the water surface. The block w i l l be
sucked in by the tornado. Try to adjust the rota-
tion speed of the stirrer so that the block remains
underwater at the same depth for a long t i m e .
3*
36 Felix Hess

The tornado w i l l suck, in bodies lying ]on the

b o t t o m of the glass before the stirrer is switched
on if their density is greater t h a n t h a t of water
(which is not true of the wooden block).
A l i g n the shaft of the m o t o r w i t h the axis of
the glass. Y o u w i l l see a cone moving down the
shaft and air bubbles w h i c h m a r k its continua-
tion under the plate (Fig. 25e). I f you place some
well washed river sand on the bottom of the
The Aerodynamics of Boomerangs 37

glass, you w i l l be able t o observe t h e structure

of the tornado u n d e r the plate.
These experiments show t h a t tornadoes are
always caused b y a vortex in a l i q u i d or gas.

The Aerodynamics of Boomerangs *

by Felix Hess
I m a g i n e t h r o w i n g a piece of wood i n t o t h e air,
m a k i n g it fly a r o u n d i n a large circle a n d h a v i n g
it come to rest g e n t l y at your feet. Preposterous!
Y e t of course t h i s is exactly w h a t a b o o m e r a n g
does, provided t h a t i t has the right shape and is
t h r o w n properly.
'As is well k n o w n , boomerangs originated a m o n g
the a b o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s of A u s t r a l i a . A l t h o u g h
boomerang-like objects h a v e been found i n other
parts of the w o r l d as well (in E g y p t a n d I n d i a ,
for instance), these objects are not able to r e t u r n ,
as far as I k n o w . The reader m a y be a l i t t l e
disappointed t o learn t h a t most Australian
boomerangs also do not return. A u s t r a l i a n boom-
erangs can be r o u g h l y d i v i d e d i n t o t w o types:
war boomerangs a n d return boomerangs. Those
of the first t y p e are, as their name i m p l i e s , m a d e
as weapons for fighting and h u n t i n g . A good war
boomerang can fly m u c h farther t h a n an o r d i n a r y
thrown stick, b u t i t does not r e t u r n . R e t u r n
boomerangs, w h i c h exist i n m u c h smaller num-
bers, are used almost exclusively for p l a y .
A c t u a l l y t h i n g s are not q u i t e as s i m p l e as
this. There are m a n y k i n d s of a b o r i g i n a l weapons

* An abridged version of an article that first appeared

in the November issue of Scientific American for 1968.
38 Felix Hess

in A u s t r a l i a , a number of which look like boomer-

angs, so t h a t the d i s t i n c t i o n between boomerangs
and t h r o w i n g or s t r i k i n g clubs is not a sharp one.
Neither is t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between war boomer-
angs a n d return boomerangs. The shape of boom-
erangs can differ from t r i b e to tribe (Fig. 26).
W h e t h e r a given boomerang belongs to the
return type or not cannot always be inferred
easily from its appearance. R e t u r n boomerangs,
however, are usually less massive and have a less
obtuse angle between their t w o arms. A t y p i c a l
return boomerang m a y be between 25 and 75 cen-
timeters long, 3 to 5 centimeters wide and
0.5 to 1.3 cm t h i c k . The angle between the arms
m a y vary from 80 to 140 degrees. The weight
may be as m u c h as 300 grams.
The characteristic banana-like shape of most
boomerangs has h a r d l y a n y t h i n g t o do w i t h their
a b i l i t y t o return. Boomerangs shaped l i k e the
letters X, V, S, T, R, H, Y (and probably
other letters of the a l p h a b e t ) can be m a d e to
return q u i t e well. The essential t h i n g is the cross
section of the arms, w h i c h should be more convex
on one side t h a n on the other, l i k e the w i n g
profile of an airplane (see F i g . 27). I t is only for
reasons of s t a b i l i t y t h a t the overall shape of a
boomerang must lie more or less i n a plane. Thus
if y o u m a k e a boomerang out of one piece of
n a t u r a l wood, a smoothly curved shape following
the grain of the wood is perhaps the most obvious
choice. I f you use other m a t e r i a l s , such as
p l y w o o d , plastics or metals, there are conside-
rably more possibilities.
H o w does one throw a return boomerang? As
a rule it is taken w i t h the right h a n d by one of
40 Felix Hess

i t s extremities and held v e r t i c a l l y u p w a r d , the

more convex, or upper, side to t h e left. There are
t w o possibilities: either t h e free extremity points
f o r w a r d — a s is the practice a m o n g the Austra-
l i a n s — o r i t p o i n t s b a c k w a r d . T h e choice depends
entirely on one's personal preference. Next, the

Fig. 27

r i g h t arm is brought b e h i n d t h e shoulder and

t h e b o o m e r a n g is t h r o w n forward i n a h o r i z o n t a l
or s l i g h t l y upward direction. For successful
t h r o w i n g , t w o things are i m p o r t a n t . First, the
p l a n e of t h e boomerang at t h e m o m e n t of its
release s h o u l d be nearly v e r t i c a l or somewhat
i n c l i n e d to the r i g h t , b u t certainly not h o r i z o n t a l .
Second, t h e boomerang s h o u l d be given a r a p i d
r o t a t i o n . This is accomplished b y s t o p p i n g the
t h r o w i n g m o t i o n of t h e r i g h t arm a b r u p t l y just
before t h e release. Because of its inertia the
boomerang w i l l rotate m o m e n t a r i l y around a
p o i n t situated i n the thrower's r i g h t h a n d . Hence
i t w i l l acquire a forward v e l o c i t y and a rotation-
a l v e l o c i t y at the same t i m e .
A t first t h e boomerang just seems to fly a w a y ,
b u t soon its p a t h curves to the left and often
u p w a r d . Then i t m a y describe a w i d e , more or
less circular loop and come d o w n somewhere near
The Aerodynamics of Boomerangs 41

the thrower's feet, or describe a second l o o p

before d r o p p i n g t o the g r o u n d . Sometimes t h e
second loop curves to the r i g h t , so t h a t t h e p a t h
as a whole has the shape of a figure eight (Fig. 28).
I t j i s a splendidf'sight if "the* b o o m e r a n g , " q u i t e
near again after Mescribing' a^loop, loses speed,

Fig. 28

hovers some 3 meters above your head for a w h i l e

and then slowly descends l i k e a h e l i c o p t e r .
Every boomerang has its own characteristics
w i t h respect t o ease of t h r o w i n g , shape of p a t h
and hovering a b i l i t y . Moreover, one b o o m e r a n g
can often describe very different orbits d e p e n d i n g
on t h e w a y i t is t h r o w n . The precision of r e t u r n
depends t o a large extent on the s k i l l of t h e
thrower, who m u s t t a k e i n t o account such factors
as the influence of w i n d . The greatest distance
d u r i n g a flight m a y be 40 meters, b u t it can also
be m u c h less or perhaps twice as m u c h ; t h e
42 Felix Hess

highest p o i n t can be as h i g h as 15 meters above

the g r o u n d or as low as 1.5 meters. I have heard
t h a t w i t h modern boomerangs of A u s t r a l i a n m a k e
distances of more t h a n 100 meters can be a t t a i n e d ,
s t i l l followed by a perfect return, b u t I regret
t o say t h a t so far I h a v e not been able to m a k e a
boomerang go beyond a b o u t 50 meters.
I n the foregoing general description it was
t a c i t l y assumed t h a t t h e thrower was right-
handed and used a "right-handed" boomerang.
I f one were to look at an ordinary right-handed
boomerang from its convex side w h i l e it was in
flight, its direction of r o t a t i o n w o u l d be counter-
clockwise. Hence one can speak of the leading
edge a n d the t r a i l i n g edge of each boomerang
a r m . B o t h the leading and t h e t r a i l i n g edges of an
a b o r i g i n a l boomerang are more or less sharp.
The l e a d i n g edge of a modern boomerang arm is
b l u n t , l i k e the leading edge of an airplane w i n g .
S o m e t i m e s t h e arms h a v e a slight t w i s t , so t h a t
their l e a d i n g edges are raised at the ends.
The entire phenomenon m u s t of course be
explained i n terms of the i n t e r a c t i o n of the
boomerang w i t h the air; i n a v a c u u m even a boo-
m e r a n g w o u l d describe n o t h i n g b u t a parabola.
This interaction, however, is difficult to calculate
exactly because of the complicated nature of the
p r o b l e m . Let us nonetheless look at the matter
in a s i m p l e way.
I f one throws a boomerang in a horizontal
direction, w i t h its plane of r o t a t i o n vertical,
each boomerang arm w i l l " w i n g " the air. Because
of the special profile of the arms the air w i l l
exert a force on them directed from the flatter,
or lower, side to the more convex, or upper, side
The Aerodynamics of Boomerangs 43

(Fig. 29). This force is the same as the l i f t i n g

force exerted 011 the wings of an a i r p l a n e . I n
a right-handed throw the force w i l l be directed
from the right to the left as viewed by the thrower.

Lift (L)

Velocity (r)

Fig. 29 Fig. 30

This force alone, however, is not sufficient to

m a k e a boomerang curve to the left.
F o l l o w i n g one boomerang arm d u r i n g its mo-
t i o n , one can see t h a t its velocity w i t h respect
to the air is not constant. W h e n t h e arm p o i n t s
u p w a r d , the forward velocity of the boomerang
adds to the velocity due to the r o t a t i o n ; when it
points d o w n w a r d , the t w o velocities are i n oppo-
site directions, so t h a t the resultant speed w i l l
be smaller or even vanish at some p o i n t s (see
F i g . 30). Thus on the average the boomerang
experiences not o n l y a force from the right to the
left b u t also a torque acting around a h o r i z o n t a l
axis, which tends to cant the boomerang w i t h
44 Felix Hess

its upper part to the left. A c t u a l l y this t u r n i n g

over w i l l not be observed because the boomerang
is s p i n n i n g r a p i d l y and hence behaves l i k e a
gyroscope.
N o w , a gyroscope (which really is n o t h i n g more
t h a n a r a p i d l y s p i n n i n g flywheel) has the property
t h a t , w h e n a torque is exerted on i t , it does not
give w a y t o t h a t torque b u t changes its orienta-
tion around an axis t h a t is perpendicular to both
the axis of rotation and the axis of the exerted
torque; i n the case of a boomerang the orienta-
tion turns to the left. This m o t i o n is called
precession. Thus the boomerang changes its
o r i e n t a t i o n to the left, so t h a t its plane w o u l d
m a k e a g r a d u a l l y increasing angle to its p a t h
were it not for the r a p i d l y increasing forces t h a t
t r y t o direct the p a t h p a r a l l e l t o the boomerang
p l a n e a g a i n . The result is that, the p a t h curves
t o t h e left, the angle between boomerang p l a n e
and p a t h being kept very s m a l l .
I n a c t u a l practice one often sees t h a t , a l t h o u g h
the p l a n e of the boomerang is nearly vertical at
the start of the flight, i t is a p p r o x i m a t e l y hori-
z o n t a l at the end. I n other words, the plane of the
boomerang slowly turns over w i t h its upper part
to the r i g h t ; the boomerang i n effect "lies d o w n " .
Let us now consider the question i n more d e t a i l .
Because m u c h is k n o w n a b o u t the aerodynamic
forces on airfoils (airplane wings), it is conve-
nient to regard each boomerang arm as an airfoil.
L o o k i n g at one such w i n g , we see t h a t it moves
forward and at the same t i m e rotates around
the boomerang's center of mass. W e e x p l i c i t l y
assume t h a t there is no m o t i o n perpendicular
t o t h e p l a n e of the boomerang. W i t h a cross
The Aerodynamics of Boomerangs 45

boomerang (as] w i t h the rotor of a helicopter)

the center of mass lies at the intersection of t h e
wings, b u t t h i s is not the case w i t h an o r d i n a r y
boomerang. Here one arm precedes t h e center of
mass, whereas t h e other arm follows i t . W e call
both arms "eccentric", the eccentricity being the
distance from the arm to the center of mass.
A preceding arm has a positive eccentricity, a
following arm a negative eccentricity. A fixed
p o i n t of a w i n g feels an airstream t h a t changes
continuously i n m a g n i t u d e and direction w i t h
respect to t h a t part of the w i n g . Sometimes the
airstream m a y even blow against the t r a i l i n g
edge of the w i n g profile, w h i c h can easily be
imagined if one t h i n k s of a slowly r o t a t i n g
boomerang w i t h h i g h forward velocity and looks
at the arm p o i n t i n g d o w n w a r d . W h a t are the
forces on an airfoil m o v i n g in this special man-
ner?
Let us first look at a simpler case: an airfoil
m o v i n g in a straight line w i t h a constant veloci-
ty v w i t h respect to the air (Fig. 31). I t is cus-
tomary to resolve the aerodynamic force i n t o two
components: the l i f t L (perpendicular to v) and
the drag D (opposite to v). These are b o t h pro-
portional to v2. I f the spanwise direction of the
w i n g is not perpendicular to the v e l o c i t y , v has
a component p a r a l l e l to the w i n g t h a t has no
influence; therefore we replace v by its component
perpendicular to the w i n g , or the "effective
velocity" V e f i . I n this case the forces are pro-
portional to {V e ff) 2 .
L o o k i n g at the boomerang arm a g a i n , i t is
clear t h a t each p o i n t 011 the arm takes part i n the
boomerang's forward velocity v. The velocity
 46 Felix Hess

w i t h respect to the air due to the r o t a t i o n , how-

ever, is different for each p o i n t . For a rotational
velocity 10 and a p o i n t at a distance r from the
axis of r o t a t i o n (which passes t h r o u g h the boo-
merang's center of mass), t h i s velocity is cor.
For each p o i n t on the arm one can reduce the
velocities v and cor to one resultant velocity.
Its component perpendicular to the arm is V e f j

Center
mass
lo

Fig. 31 Fig. 32

(Fig. 32). Of course, the v a l u e of V e f f for a partic-

u l a r p o i n t on the arm w i l l change continuously
d u r i n g one period of r e v o l u t i o n . One assumes
t h a t the c o n t r i b u t i o n s to the l i f t and drag of
each part of a boomerang arm at each moment
are again proportional to ( V e f f Y .
C a l c u l a t i o n s were m a d e of the f o l l o w i n g forces
and torques, averaged over one period of revolu-
tion: the average lift force L\ the average torque
T, with its components 71, around an axis paral-
lel to v (which makes the boomerang turn to the
The Aerodynamics of Boomerangs 47

left) and T2 a r o u n d an axis perpendicular t o v

(which makes the boomerang "lie down") (Fig. 33);
the average d r a g Z ) , w h i c h slows down the forward
velocity v, a n d t h e average drag torque T D,
which slows d o w n t h e r o t a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y co.
I t turns out t h a t none of these q u a n t i t i e s except
T 2 depends on t h e eccentricity for boomerang

Fig. 33 Fig. 34

arms t h a t are otherwise i d e n t i c a l ; T2 is exactly

proportional to t h e eccentricity.
The forces a n d torques acting on a boomerang
as a whole are o b t a i n e d by a d d i n g their values
for each of its arms. The c o n t r i b u t i o n s to T2
by arms w i t h opposite eccentricity m a y p a r t l y or
completely cancel each other.
N o w we come to t h e i m p o r t a n t question: H o w
does a boomerang m o v e under the influence of
these aerodynamic forces and torques (and of the
force of g r a v i t y , of course)? As m e n t i o n e d earlier v
48 Felix Hess

the average torque T causes the gyroscopic pre-

cession of a boomerang. Let us take a closer look
at the gyroscope. I f a gyroscope spins around its
axis w i t h a r o t a t i o n a l v e l o c i t y co a n d one exerts
a torque T on i t , acting around an axis perpendic-
u l a r to the spin axis, the gyroscope precesses
around an axis perpendicular to b o t h the spin
axis and the torque axis (Fig. 34). The angular
velocity of the precession is called Q . A very
s i m p l e connection exists between Q , to, T and
the gyroscope's m o m e n t of inertia / , n a m e l y
Q = T i l - ® . W e h a v e seen t h a t for a boomerang
T is p r o p o r t i o n a l to coy, so t h a t the velocity of
precession Q m u s t be p r o p o r t i o n a l to coiV/w,
or vll. Hence the velocity of precession does
not depend on co, the r o t a t i o n a l velocity of the
boomerang.
A n even more s t r i k i n g conclusion can be d r a w n .
The velocity of precession is p r o p o r t i o n a l to v / I ,
the factor of p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y depending on the
exact shape of the boomerang. Therefore one can
write Q = cv, w i t h c a characteristic parameter
for a certain boomerang. N o w let the boomerang
have a velocity twice as fast; it t h e n changes the
o r i e n t a t i o n of its p l a n e twice as fast. That im-
p l i e s , h o w e v e r , t h a t the boomerang flies through
the same curve!
T h u s , roughly speaking, the diameter of a
boomerang's orbit depends neither on the rota-
t i o n a l velocity of t h e boomerang nor on its
forward velocity. This means that a boomerang
has its p a t h diameter more or less b u i l t i n .
The dimensions of a boomerang's flight p a t h
are proportional to the m o m e n t of inertia of t h e
boomerang, and they are smaller if the profile of
The A e r o d y n a m i c s of Boomerangs 49

1.110 arms gives more lift. Therefore if one wants

a boomerang to describe a small orbit (for instance
in a room), it should be made out of light
material. For very large orbits a heavy boomerang
is needed w i t h a profile giving not much lift
(and of course as l i t t l e drag as possible).
Now one has everything needed to form the
equations of m o t i o n for a theoretical boomerang.
These equations can be solved numerically on a
computer, giving velocity, orientation and posi-
tion of the boomerang at each instant.
How do these calculated paths compare w i t h
real boomerang flights? For an objective compari-
son it would be necessary to record the position
of a boomerang during its flight. This could be
done by means of two cameras. I n order to
control the i n i t i a l conditions, a boomerang-
throwing machine would be necessary. As yet
I have had no opportunity to do such experi-
ments, but I did manage to record one projection
of experimental boomerang paths w i t h a single
camera. I n the wing t i p of a boomerang a t i n y
electric l a m p was mounted, fed by two small
1.5-volt cells connected in series, placed in
a hollow in the central part of the boomerang
(see Fig. 35). I n this way the boomerang was
made to carry during its flight a light source
strong enough to be photographed at n i g h t .
Some of the paths recorded in this manner are
shown in Fig. 36; calculated orbits are added for
comparison in Fig. 37.
Because the camera was not very far from the
thrower, those parts of the trajectories where the
boomerang was close to the camera appear exag-
gerated in the photographs. This effect of perspec-
4-01544
A Hydroflynamic M e c h a n i s m in a Palling Test, Tube 51

live was taken i n t o account in the a c c o m p a n y i n g

calculated paths. The reader m a y decide for
himself whether or not he finds the agreement
between theory a n d experiment satisfactory. A t
any rate, the general appearance and peculiari-
ties of real boomerang paths are reproduced
reasonably well by this theory.

A Hydrodynamic Median ism

in a Falling Test Tube
by G. I. Pokrovsky

Fill a standard test, tube w i t h water, a n d ,

h o l d i n g it a few centimeters above the table t o p ,

let it drop v e r t i c a l l y (see Fig. 38). The surface

of the table should be sufficiently hard to produce
4*
 V. Mayor

an elastic i m p a c t . D u r i n g i m p a c t , the meniscus

of the water i n the test t u b e , w h i c h is n o r m a l l y
concave because of c a p i l l a r y force, w i l l r a p i d l y
level o u t , and a t h i n stream of water w i l l sud-
denly burst upward from the centre. Figure 38
si lows the water surface before i m p a c t (broken
line) and after i m p a c t (solid line). The stream
u p w a r d separates i n t o drops, and the uppermost
drop reaches a height s u b s t a n t i a l l y higher than
t h a t from w h i c h the t u b e is dropped. This indi-
cates t h a t the energy i n t h e water is redistributed
d u r i n g i m p a c t so t h a t a s m a l l fraction of water
close t o t h e centre of the meniscus shoots out of
the t u b e at h i g h v e l o c i t y .
A device t h a t redistributes energy is called
a m e c h a n i s m . Usually, t h i s word is applied t o
solid parts (levers, toothed wheels, etc.), al-
t h o u g h there are l i q u i d a n d even gaseous mech-
anisms. The water i n the t u b e is just one example
of such a m e c h a n i s m .
H y d r o d y n a m i c mechanisms are especially im-
p o r t a n t w h e n very great forces t h a t cannot be
w i t h s t o o d b y c o n v e n t i o n a l solid parts are in-
volved. The force of explosive m a t e r i a l i n a
cartridge, for example, can be p a r t i a l l y concen-
trated b y m a k i n g a concave c a v i t y i n the cart-
ridge, w h i c h is lined w i t h a m e t a l sheet. The force
of the explosion compresses the m e t a l and pro-
duces a t h i n m e t a l l i c jet whose velocity (if the
shape of the l i n i n g is correct) m a y reach t h e
escape velocity of a rocket.
Thus, this modest experiment on a very s i m p l e
phenomenon in a test t u b e relates to one of the
most interesting problems of the h y d r o d y n a m i c s
of u l t r a high speeds.
Aii Instructive E x p e r i m e n t with a C u m u l a t i v e .let 53

An Instructive Experiment
with a Cumulative Jet
by V. Mayer

I n Professor G . I . Pokrovsky's s i m p l e a n d
elegant experiment on the h y d r o d y n a m i c s i n a
test tube, a t u b e p a r t i a l l y filled w i t h water is
dropped from a few centimetres above a hard
surface, t h u s p r o d u c i n g a jet of water from the
tube u p o n i m p a c t . Since the water at the edges
clings s l i g h t l y to the glass of the t u b e , t h e me-
niscus is concave. U p o n i m p a c t t h e t u b e and
the water in it stop sharply, w h i c h causes t h e
water to accelerate r a p i d l y . The water behaves
as if it were very heavy and its surface levels
out. The water around the edges resides, a n d
a t h i n jet of water gushes out from the center of
the tube for a short t i m e .
Y o u can set up a s i m i l a r , perhaps even more
striking experiment. Carefully cut off the b o t t o m
of a test t u b e to m a k e a glass p i p e 15 m m i n
diameter and about 100 m m long. Seal the fluted
end of the p i p e w i t h a piece of rubber cut from
a toy b a l l o o n . F i l l the pipe w i t h water a n d ,
covering the open end w i t h your finger, lower
that end i n t o a glass of water. Remove your finger
and adjust the p i p e so t h a t about a centimetre of
water is left inside the pipe. The water inside
the pipe should be level with the water surface
in the glass. Fix the pipe vertically to a s u p p o r t .
Now s l i g h t l y t a p the piece of rubber stretched
over the pipe. A c u m u l a t i v e jet of water w i l l
i m m e d i a t e l y rise inside the pipe and reach the
piece of rubber itself.
 54 V. Mayer

Figures .'!!) arid 40 show drawings of photo-

graphs taken at different moments during this
experiment. They depict different stages of the
formation and disintegration of various cumula-
tive jets. The top two pictures show the jet
proper; the bottom two depict the break-up of
the jet into i n d i v i d u a l drops.
Try to explain the results of this experiment
b y comparing it with the one described by
Pokrovsky. This setup is especially interesting
because it allows us to observe the actual forma-
t i o n of a cumulative jet, which is more difficult
i n the experiment w i t h a f a l l i n g test tube be-
cause the h u m a n eye is not fast enough to register
the phenomena that take place during impact.
Nevertheless, we advise you to return to the
experiment, with the f a l l i n g tube once more
to examine the details of the formation of the
jet. W i t h this in mind we suggest you solve the
following problems.

EXERCISES

1. Determine whether the shape of the test tube bot-

t o m affects stream formation. Does the stream develop
because the bottom directs the shock wave i n the water?
To answer this question, solder t i n bottom of any
shape (plane or concave, for example) to a thin-wall
copper pipe. Use these modified test tubes in the exper-
iments described above to prove that the shape of the
b o t t o m does not influence the formation of the stream.
Thus, the results of this experiment cannot be explained
as the direction of the wave by the bottom.
2. Determine whether it is necessary for the l i q u i d
to wet the walls of the test tube. Place a small piece of
paraffin inside a glass test tubp, and melt the paraffin
over the flame of a dry fuel. Rotate the tuhe over the
flame to coat the inside with a t h i n paraffin film. Now,
 (A)
(a)

Fig. 39

Fig. 40
56 V. Mayer and E. Mamaeva

repeat the Pokrovsky experiment with this coated test

tube. The cumulative jet should not form, which means
that the walls of the tube must be wet for the experiment
to work properly.
3. W h a t other experiments can be set up to obtain
a cumulative jet in a tube that is stationary relative
to the observer?

Magic with Physics

by V. Mayer and E. Mamaeva

Take a glass pipe, one end of which is tapered

l i k e t h a t of a pipette, and show the pipe to your
audience. H o l d a glass of water (heated to 80-
90 °C) b y its r i m in your other h a n d , and show
it to your audience, too. N o w , lower the tapered
end of t h e p i p e i n t o the glass, and let the pipe
fill w i t h water. Close the upper end of the pipe
w i t h your finger and remove the p i p e from the
glass (Fig. 41).
Y o u r audience w i l l be able to see air bubbles
appear at the lower end of the pipe. They grow,
leave the walls of the p i p e , and rise t o the t o p
of the p i p e . B u t the water stays in the pipe!
N o w , e m p t y the pipe back i n t o the glass b y
r e m o v i n g your finger from the upper end, and
wave t h e pipe in the air several times before
t a k i n g some more water. Close the upper end
w i t h your finger again, and q u i c k l y p u l l the pipe
out of t h e glass and t u r n it upside down (Fig. 42).
A strong stream of water over a metre high will
burst out of the pipe.
A l t h o u g h the secret of this trick is very simple
indeed, your audience is u n l i k e l y to guess it,
Magic with Physics ^

The glass contains water heated to 80-01) °C

whereas the pipe is room temperature (about
20 °C). You should be able to explain why no
water leaves the pipe at first without any hints.
58 M. Golubc.v and A. Kagalenko

The e x p l a n a t i o n for the powerful stream of

water is more c o m p l i c a t e d . W h e n hot wafer
enters the pipe from the glass, the air in the upper
part of t h e pipe remains at room temperature
because the p i p e conducts heat poorly. After you
h a v e closed the upper o p e n i n g and turned the
p i p e upside d o w n , the hot water streams down-
w a r d , h e a t i n g the air q u i c k l y . The pressure rises,
a n d t h e e x p a n d i n g air shoots t h e r e m a i n i n g water
out t h r o u g h the tapered end of the pipe.
Use a glass p i p e 8-12 m m i n diameter a n d
30-40 cm long for this experiment. The smaller
o p e n i n g should be a b o u t 1 m m i n diameter.
Between tricks the p i p e should be well cooled
(you can even blow t h r o u g h i t ) because the h e i g h t
of the f o u n t a i n w i l l depend on the temperature
difference between the air and the water i n the
p i p e . The o p t i m a l a m o u n t of wafer in the p i p e
fluctuates from 1/4 to 1/3 of its v o l u m e and can
easily be determined e m p i r i c a l l y .

A Drop on a Hot Surface

by M. Golubev and A. Kagalenko

T u r n i n g an iron upside down and levelling it

h o r i z o n t a l l y , let a l i t t l e water drop on its hot
surface. I f the temperature of the iron is s l i g h t l y
over 100 °C, the drop w i l l diffuse as expected and
evaporate w i t h i n a few seconds. I f , however,
(lie iron is much hot lei' (300-350 °C,). something
u n u s u a l w i l l h a p p e n : the drop w i l l bounce be-
tween ] and 5 m i l l i m e t r e s off the icon (as a ball
bounces off the floor) and w i l l then move over
A Drop oil a H o t Surlaco 50

the hot surface without touching i t . The stability

of such a state depends, first of all, on the tem-
perature of the surface: the hotter the iron, the
calmer the drop. Moreover, the "longevity" of
the drop, the t i m e before it evaporates complete-
ly, increases m a n y times over. The rate of
evaporation depends on the size of the drop.
Larger drops shrink quickly to 3-5 m m , whereas
smaller drops last longer, w i t h o u t noticeable
changes. I n one of our experiments a drop 3 m m
in diameter remained for about 5 minutes (300
seconds) before evaporating completely.
W h a t is the explanation for this strange phenom-
enon? W h e n the drop first touches the heated
surface, its temperature is about 20 °C. W i t h i n
fractions of a second, its lower layer are heated
to 100 °C, and their evaporation begins at so fast
a rate that the pressure of the vapour becomes
greater than the weight of the drop. The drop
recoils and drops to the surface again. A few
bounces are enough to heat the drop through
to boiling temperature. I f the iron is well heated,
the drop calms down and moves over the iron at
a distance slightly above the iron. Obviously,
the vapour pressure balances the weight of the
drop in this condition. Once such a steady state
is reached, the drop is fairly stable and can
"live" a long time.
W h e n the drop is small, its shape is roughly
that of a sphere. Larger drops are vertically
compressed. On a hot surface the drop seems to
be supported by a vapour cushion. The reaction
force that develops as a result causes the deforma-
tion of the drop. The larger the drop, the more
noticeable the deformation.
60 I. Vorobiev

Oscillations, for e x a m p l e , compression, ten-

sion, or even more complex oscillation, m a y
develop, especially in large drops (Figs. 43 and

Pig. 43

Fig. 44

44). The photograph in Fig. 43 shows a dark

spot in the centre of the drop. This is v a p o u r
b u b b l e . I n large drops several such bubbles m a y
Warfare Tension Draws a Hyperbola CI

appear. O c c a s i o n a l l y , a drop assumes 1 lie shape

of a ring w i t h a single, h i g v a p o u r b u h h l e i n the
m i d d l e . W h e n t h i s occurs the e v a p o r a t i o n pro-
ceeds so intensively t h a t the drop shrinks v i s i b l y .
Figure 44 shows one of the most interesting k i n d s
of oscillations: a " t r i g o n a l " drop.
Keep the f o l l o w i n g advice in m i n d when con-
d u c t i n g experiments like those described above.
1. The iron should be as smooth as possible,
without scratches or irregularities. W h e n a drop
runs i n t o such an irregularity, its life is consider-
a b l y reduced. W h y ?
2. The i r o n s h o u l d be fastened t o a support
h o r i z o n t a l l y . I n our experiments we used a t r i p o d
for geodetical instruments.
3. Safety precautions should not be neglected.
The conductors of the iron should be r e l i a b l y
i n s u l a t e d , t a k e care not to scald your h a n d s w i t h
boiling water.

Surface Tension Draws a Hyperbola

by I. Vorobiev

The coefficient of the surface tension of a l i q u i d

can be determined b y measuring the rise of wet-
t i n g l i q u i d i n a c a p i l l a r y tube. C a p i l l a r y tubes
and a microscope for measuring their inner
diameters are not always readily a v a i l a b l e , how-
ever. F o r t u n a t e l y , the tubes can be easily re-
placed w i t h two glass plates. Lower the plates i n t o
a glass of water, and draw them together gradual-
ly. The water between them w i l l rise: it is sucked
in by the force of surface tension (Fig. 45).
 1. Vorolnov

TJio coefficient of surface tension o can easily

be calculated from t h e rise of the water y a n d
the clearance between the plates d. The force
of the surface tension is F = 2 o L , where L is
the length of the p l a t e ( m u l t i p l i e d by 2 because
the water contacts both plates). This force re-

where p is the water density. Consequently,

2 oL = p Ldyg
flence, t h e coefficient of the surface tension is
o = l / 2 p gdy (1)
A more interesting effect can be obtained by
pressing the plates together on one side and leav-
i n g a s m a l l clearance on the other (Fig. 46).
I n t h i s case t h e water w i l l rise, and the surface
between t h e plates w i l l be very regular and
smooth (provided t h e glass is clean and dry).
I t is easy t o infer t h a t the vertical cross section
of the surface is a h y p e r b o l a . A n d we can prove
this by replacing d w i t h a new expression for the
clearance in f o r m u l a (1). Then d -- D j- follows
from the s i m i l a r i t y of the triangles (see Fig. 46).
 Warfare Tension Draws a Hyperbola CI

Here D is the clearance al the edge of the plates;

L is the length of the plate, and x is the distance
from the line of contact to the point where the
clearance and the rise of the water are measured.
Tims,

o --= l / 2 p g y D ,

or
2 aL 1 ,9*.

Equation (2) is really the equation of the hyper-

bola.
The plates for this experiment should be about
10 cm by 20 cm size. The clearance on the open
side should be roughly the thickness of a match

Fig. 47 Fig. 48
stick. Use a deep t u b like those photographers use
in developing pictures to hold the water. For
ease in reading the results, attach a piece of
graph paper to one of the plates. Once we have
a graph drawn by the water, we can check whether
the curve is actually a hyperbola. A l l the rectan-
gulars under the curve should have the same
area (Fig. 47).
 64 V. Mayer

I f you have a t h e r m o m e t e r , you can s t u d y the

dependence of surface tension of water tempera-
ture. Y o u can also s t u d y the influence of additives
on water tension.
The force of surface tension F is directed at
right angles to the line of contact between the
water and the glass (Fig. 48). The vertical com-
ponent of the force is balanced b y the weight
of the water c o l u m n . Try to e x p l a i n what ba-
lances its h o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t .

Experiments with a Spoonful of Broth

by V. Mayer

The next time you are served b o u i l l o n for din-

ner, scoop u p a b i g spoonful, d o n ' t swallow it im-
m e d i a t e l y . Look carefully at the broth instead:

1'

Fig. 49

you w i l l see large drops of fat i n i t . Note the size

of these droplets. N o w pour some of the broth
back i n t o your soup b o w l , a n d look again at the
broth i n the spoon. The drop of fat should h a v e
diffused and gotten t h i n n e r b u t bigger in diame-
ter. W h a t is the reason b e h i n d this phenomenon?
First let us see under w h a t conditions a drop
of fat can lie on the surface of the broth w i t h o u t
diffusing. Look at F i g . 49. A drop of l i q u i d 2
Experiments with a Spoonful of Broth 65

(the fat) lies on t h e surface of l i q u i d 1 (the b r o t h ) .

The drop is shaped roughly like a lens. The en-
v i r o n m e n t 3 above t h e b o w l is a m i x t u r e of t h e
vapours of l i q u i d s 1 and 2. M e d i a 1, 2, a n d 3
meet at the circumference of the drop. Isolate
an increment of this circumference (close to
p o i n t 0 i n F i g . 49) of A i length. Three forces of
surface tension act u p o n this i n c r e m e n t . A t t h e
interface of l i q u i d s 1 and 2, force F12 acts, tan-
gential to the interface and equal i n m o d u l e t o

I F 1 2 | =O 1 2 AZ,

where o 1 2 is the surface tension at the interface of

media 1 a n d 2. S i m i l a r forces F13 a n d F 2 3 act
at the interfaces of 1 a n d 3:

I Fi3 I =°- 13 AZ
and 2 and 3:

I F23\=g23M.
Here o 1 3 a n d a 2 3 are the appropriate surface
tensions.
O b v i o u s l y , the drop reaches e q u i l i b r i u m if the
total of all these forces equals zero
F12 + Fl3 + F23 = 0

or their projections on coordinates X and Y

(after the s u b s t i t u t i o n of appropriate absolute
values and the cancellation of A I) are
a C0S 0 cos
13 = + 23 (1)
o l 2 sin 0J = o 2 3 sin 0 2

Here, 6X and 8 2 are the angles between the tan-

gents to the surface of m e d i u m 2 a n d the surface
5-01544
 66 V. Mayer

of m e d i u m 1. These angles are called angles of

contact.
I t follows from E q . (1) t h a t e q u i l i b r i u m of the
drop is possible if the surface tensions are relat-
ed as

^13 < cri2 + o 2 3 .

Since surface phenomena i n a l i q u i d are practi-
c a l l y independent of the gaseous e n v i r o n m e n t
over i t , we assume t h a t

= Oi and a23 = cr2.

W e call (i1 and cr2 surface tensions of l i q u i d s 1
a n d 2, respectively. I n this case these values re-
fer to the surface tensions of b o t h the broth a n d
the f a t .
So, a drop of fat w i l l float on the surface of
the broth w i t h o u t diffusing i f the surface ten-
sion of the broth is less t h a n the t o t a l of the sur-
face tensions of the fat a n d the interface between
the broth and the fat:

<7l < <*2 + ° 1 2 (2)

I f the drop is very t h i n (almost flat), 0X and 0 2
w i l l be s m a l l (0i = 0 2 = O) a n d the e q u i l i b r i u m
c o n d i t i o n for the drop w i l l be

Ol =CT2+ °12
W h e n Ox > o 2 + a 1 2 there are no angles 0 j
a n d 0 2 for w h i c h E q . (1) w o u l d h o l d true. There-
fore, l i q u i d 2 does not m a k e a drop on the sur-
face of l i q u i d 1 in this case, b u t diffuses on its sur-
face i n a t h i n layer.
N o w let us try to e x p l a i n the results of our ex-
periment w i t h a spoonful of b r o t h . Drops of f a t
Experiments with a Spoonful of Broth 07

float on t h e b r o t h , w h i c h means t h a t E q . (2)

holds. W h y do they diffuse on the surface of t h e
broth if t h e a m o u n t of broth is reduced? W h a t
has changed? Since the surface tensions of the
fat o 2 a n d t h e broth-fat interface a 1 2 r e m a i n
unchanged, we h a v e to assume t h a t by p o u r i n g
out some of the b r o t h , we change the surface ten-
sion of the broth o , . Hut the broth is water (to a
first a p p r o x i m a t i o n ) . Can the surface tension of
water be changed by s i m p l y decreasing the
a m o u n t ? O b v i o u s l y n o t . The broth, however, is not
p l a i n water b u t rather water covered w i t h a t h i n
layer of f a t . B y p o u r i n g out some of the b r o t h ,
we reduce the a m o u n t of f a t , and its layer on the
broth surface becomes t h i n n e r . This a p p a r e n t l y
reduces the surface tension of the b r o t h and as a
result, the fat drops diffuse.
To test t h i s hypothesis, try the f o l l o w i n g ex-
periment. P o u r some t a p water i n t o a clean sau-
cer w h i c h has no traces of f a t . P u t a t i n y drop of
sunflower o i l on its surface (a p i p e t t e or a clean
refill from a ball-point pen can be used for the
purpose). The first drop should diffuse completely
over the surface, w h i l e the next drops do not dif-
fuse b u t form a lens. Carefully pour out some of
the water, a n d t h e drops w i l l diffuse a g a i n .
N o w return to the experiment w i t h t h e spoon-
f u l of b r o t h . I f you watch the b e h a v i o u r of the
fat closely, you w i l l notice t h a t the drops r u p t u r e
and reunite. Figures 50-55 show p h o t o g r a p h of
one such experiment. W e filled a clean glass dish
w i t h t a p water coloured w i t h I n d i a n i n k t h a t
contains no alcohol. W e placed eight very s m a l l
drops of sunflower oil on the surface w i t h a t h i n
glass t u b e (see F i g . 50). W h e n we sucked a s m a l l
5*
68 V. Mayer

Fig. 50

a m o u n t of water out w i t h a rubber b u l b , t h e

drops enlarged. W h e n more water was removed,
t h e drops became even larger and changed shape
(because of the water currents). The b e g i n n i n g s
Experiments with a Spoonful of Broth 69

Fig. 52

Fig. 53

of future ruptures also appeared (see F i g . 51).

Further modifications occued rrspontaneously.
The ruptures grew and united into a single* large
rupture. The drop became a~ring, w h i c h finally
70 M. Kliya

1
Fig. 54

broke and rearranged i n t o a new drop (Figs.

52-55).
* Perhaps now you w i l l agree t h a t it is worth-
w h i l e w a t c h i n g your soup before p u t t i n g it i n t o
your m o u t h !
How to Grow a Crystal 71

How to Grow a Crystal

by M. Kliya

Modern i n d u s t r y cannot do w i t h o u t a w i d e va-

riety of crystals. Crystals are used i n watches,
transistorized radioes, computors, lasers, and
m a n y other machines. Even nature's enormous
laboratory is no longer able to meet t h e d e m a n d s
of developing technology, and special factories
have appeared where various crystals, r a n g i n g i n
size from very s m a l l crystals to large crystals
weighing several k i l o s , are grown.
The methods for growing crystals v a r y and
often require h i g h temperatures a n d tremendous
pressure (for example, when g r o w i n g artificial
d i a m o n d s ) . B u t some crystals can be grown even
i n your h o m e laboratory. The simplest crystals
to grow at h o m e are potash a l u m crystals,
KA1(S04)2-12H20. This absolutely harmless
substance is w i d e l y available (alums are occa-
sionally used to p u r i f y tap water). Before g r o w i n g
our own crystals, however, let us t a k e a closer
look at the process itself.
W h e n a substance is dissolved i n water at a
constant temperature, dissolution stops after a
certain t i m e , and such a solution is said to be
saturated. S o l u b i l i t y refers to t h e m a x i m a l quan-
t i t y of the substance t h a t dissolves at a given
temperature in 100 grams of water. N o r m a l l y ,
s o l u b i l i t y rises w i t h a rise in temperature. A so-
l u t i o n t h a t is]j saturated at one temperature be-
comes u n s a t u r a t e d at a higher temperature.
72 M. Kliya

I f a saturated s o l u t i o n is cooled, the excess of

the substance w i l l precipitate. Figure 56 shows
the dependence of potash a l u m s o l u b i l i t y on tem-
perature. According t o the g r a p h , if 100 grams of
a s o l u t i o n saturated at 30 °C are cooled to 10 °C,
over 10 grams of t h e substance should precipi-

10° 20° 30°

S o l u t i o n temperature pig. 56

t a t e . Consequently, crystals can be grown by

c o o l i n g a saturated s o l u t i o n .
Crystals can also be grown b y e v a p o r a t i o n .
W h e n a saturated s o l u t i o n evaporates, its vol-
u m e decreases, w h i l e t h e a m o u n t of dissolved sub-
stance remains u n c h a n g e d . The excess of sub-
stance t h u s produced falls as a precipitate. To see
h o w t h i s occurs, heat a saturated s o l u t i o n , a n d
t h e n cover t h e jar c o n t a i n i n g t h e unsaturated so-
l u t i o n w i t h a glass p l a t e a n d a l l o w it to cool t o
a temperature below the s a t u r a t i o n temperature.
The substance m a y not p r e c i p i t a t e w i t h this meth-
od, i n w h i c h case we w i l l be left w i t h a supersat-
urated s o l u t i o n . This is because we need a seed,
a t i n y crystal or even a speck of t h e same sub-
How to Grow a Crystal 73

stance, to form a crystal. U s u a l l y , m u l t i p l e s m a l l

crystals can be generated s i m p l y b y s h a k i n g the
jar or r e m o v i n g the cover. To grow large crystals,
the n u m b e r of seed crystals should be l i m i t e d .
As an artificial seed, a crystal grown earlier works
best of a l l .
The seed crystal can be grown as follows.
Take t w o clean glass jars. P o u r w a r m water i n t o
one of t h e m , a n d t h e n add a l u m . S t i r t h e mix-
ture, a n d w a t c h the dissolution process closely.
W h e n d i s s o l u t i o n stops, carefully d r a i n t h e so-
l u t i o n i n t o another jar, t a k i n g care not to pour
any of t h e undissolved substance i n t o t h e second
jar. Cover t h e jar w i t h a glass p l a t e . W h e n the
s o l u t i o n has become cool, remove t h e p l a t e . Af-
ter a short t i m e , y o u should see m a n y crystals
i n the j a r . Let t h e m t a k e their t i m e t o grow, be-
fore selecting t h e ^largest as a seed crystal.
N o w we are ready t o grow our o w n crystal.
First of a l l , we need proper glassware. To remove
undesirable nuclei from the w a l l s of the ves-
sels, sterilize t h e m over the spout of a b o i l i n g
teapot. Then m a k e another w a r m saturated so-
l u t i o n i n one jar, and d r a i n it i n t o another. H e a t
this w a r m saturated solution of a l u m a l i t t l e
more. Then cover the jar w i t h a p l a t e , a n d set
it aside t o cool. As the temperature of t h e solu-
t i o n approaches the saturation temperature,
lower t h e seed crystal you m a d e earlier i n t o the
jar. Since the s o l u t i o n is s t i l l u n s a t u r a t e d , the
seed crystal w i l l begin to dissolve. B u t as soon
as the temperature drops to the s a t u r a t i o n p o i n t ,
t h e seed crystal stops dissolving and starts grow-
i n g . (If your seed crystal dissolves complete-
l y , introduce another crystal.) The crystal w i l l
74 A. Kosourov

c o n t i n u e to grow once t h e solution has cooled, i f

you l i f t the cover a n d let t h e water evaporate.
D o not let dust enter t h e jar. G r o w t h w i l l con-
t i n u e for t w o or three days.
W h e n growing crystals t r y not t o m o v e or
touch the jar. After a crystal has developed, re-

Fig. 57

m o v e it from the s o l u t i o n , and dry i t carefully

w i t h a paper n a p k i n so i t w i l l retain its shine.
The crystals develop differently, depending on
whether the seed crystal is placed on the b o t t o m
of t h e jar or suspended from a thread (Fig. 57).
Y o u can even grow 'a necklace' by r u n n i n g a
thread several times over the seed crystal before
suspending i t i n the s o l u t i o n .
G r o w i n g crystals is an art, and you m a y not
be completely successful r i g h t away. D o not get
d i s a p p o i n t e d . W i t h a l i t t l e persistence and care,
you can produce b e a u t i f u l ' crystals.

Crystals Made of Spheres

by G. Kosourov
Before we can predict, e x p l a i n , or understand
t h e properties of a crystal, we m u s t determine its
Crystals Made of Spheres 75

structure. I f we k n o w the arrangement and the

s y m m e t r y of a t o m s i n the crystal l a t t i c e , we
can tell whether t h e crystal is piezoelectric, i.e.,
whether a certain voltage is generated at its
edges under m e c h a n i c a l compression, whether the
crystal is capable of ferroelectric t r a n s i t i o n , w h i c h
develops at a specific temperature and is charac-
terized b y t h e f o r m a t i o n of an i n t r i n s i c electric
field, whether t h e crystal generates a l i g h t wave
of double frequency when t r a n s m i t t i n g a laser
beam, and so on. The structure of the crystal car-
ries a b u n d a n t i n f o r m a t i o n about the crystal it-
self.
Different a t o m i c arrangements i n crystals can
be studied w i t h a few s i m p l e props. W e can b u i l d
models of crystals, f o l l o w i n g the principles used
i n nature w i t h o r d i n a r y b a l l bearings. E v e n crys-
tallographers use these three-dimensional mod-
els, w h i c h clearly show the specifics of a t o m i c
arrangements i n complex structures. Before start-
ing our experiments, we should m a k e a few the-
oretical observations.
Crystal lattices result from the i n t e r a c t i o n of
a t o m i c forces. W h e n the atoms are close together,
repulsive forces p r e v a i l and increase s h a r p l y w i t h
attempts to b r i n g the atoms together. A t t r a c t i v e
forces p r e v a i l at greater distances and decrease
rather g r a d u a l l y w i t h distance. W h e n a t o m s are
drawn together b y attractive force, the p o t e n t i a l
energy of t h e i r interaction decreases, just as the
potential energy of a f a l l i n g stone decreases. This
p o t e n t i a l energy is m i n i m a l at the p o i n t at w h i c h
attractive and repulsive forces are e q u a l , and
it increases s h a r p l y as the atoms draw closer.
The dependence of p o t e n t i a l energy on distance
76 A. Kosourov

is shown i n F i g . 58. I n e q u i l i b r i u m , atoms as-

sume places of m i n i m a l p o t e n t i a l energy. I f there
are m a n y atoms, t h i s tendency leads t o the repeat-
ed f o r m a t i o n of the most energy-efficient con-
figuration of a s m a l l group of atoms. This con-
figuration is called t h e u n i t cell.
Some substances h a v e very complex structures.
The u n i t cell of some silicates, for example,

Fig. 58 Fig. 59

contains over 200 atoms. Other substances, m a n y

metals, for example, form their crystal l a t t i c e
b y a very s i m p l e a l g o r i t h m . N a t u r a l l y , we
shall start from the simplest coordinations. I n
our experiments a t o m s are represented b y m e t a l
spheres. E l a s t i c forces, developing as a result of
the c o n j u g a t i o n of the spheres, serve as the repul-
sive force, and the a t t r a c t i v e force is provided b y
gravity.
Stretch a t h i n piece of rubber (this m a y be a
piece of a surgical glove) over the opening of a
jar, box, or section of p i p e , and fasten it w i t h a
rubber b a n d . Place t w o spheres on the piece of
Crystals Made of Spheres 77

rubber. The rubber w i l l sag s l i g h t l y , a n d t h e

spheres w i l l be attracted to one another. Their po-
t e n t i a l energy, w h i c h depends on distance, is shown
a p p r o x i m a t e l y i n F i g . 59 and is very s i m i l a r t o
the dependence i n F i g . 58. I f we p u t a b o u t 30
spheres on t h e piece of rubber and shake them
s l i g h t l y , they w i l l arrange themselves in regular
rows (Fig. 60). The centres of the spheres w i l l lie

Fig. 60

at the apexes of equilateral triangles, every side

of w h i c h equals the diameter of t h e sphere. The
spheres w i l l fill the w h o l e plane f o r m i n g a lat-
tice called a hexagonal (Gr. hex six a n d gonia
a corner, angle). Each sphere is surrounded
b y six spheres t o u c h i n g each other. Their centres
form regular hexagons.
I f you t u r n t h e lattice one-sixth of a r e v o l u t i o n
around a n axis t h r o u g h the centre of a n y one of
the spheres, some of t h e spheres w i l l change places,
b u t t h e overal arrangement of t h e system i n
space w i l l r e m a i n t h e same. The l a t t i c e of spheres
78 A. Kosourov

w i l l translate itself i n t o the original p o s i t i o n .

After six such rotations each sphere resumes its
o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n . I n such cases crystallographers
say t h a t the axis of s y m m e t r y of the sixth order,
w h i c h is oriented perpendicular t o the plane of the
l a t t i c e , passes through the centre of each sphere.
This axis makes the lattice "hexagonal". I n addi-
t i o n to the s y m m e t r y axes of the sixth order,
third-order s y m m e t r y axes pass through the cent-
res of the holes formed b y n e i g h b o u r i n g spheres.
(The third-order s y m m e t r y axis is a straight
l i n e ; each t i m e t h e l a t t i c e is rotated 120 degrees
around t h i s axis, t h e o r i g i n a l configuration re-
peats. I r r e g u l a r l y shaped bodies have first-order
s y m m e t r y axes since they return t o the o r i g i n a l
p o s i t i o n after a single complete r e v o l u t i o n . Con-
versely, the s y m m e t r y axis of infinite order passes
t h r o u g h the p l a n e of a circle at r i g h t angles
since the circle translates itself i n t o the o r i g i n a l
position at an i n f i n i t e l y s m a l l angle of ro-
tation.)
The f o l l o w i n g discussions w i l l be clear o n l y
if you h a v e spheres for b u i l d i n g models of differ-
ent crystals. Consider the holes on either side
of a row of spheres (Fig. 61). Since the n u m b e r of
holes i n either row equals t h e n u m b e r of spheres
i n a row, an infinite l a t t i c e of spheres has twice
as m a n y holes as spheres. The holes form t w o
hexagonal lattices, s i m i l a r t o those formed b y the
centres of the spheres. These three lattices are
shifted relative t o one another i n such a w a y t h a t
t h e sixth-order s y m m e t r y axes of each l a t t i c e
coincide w i t h the third-order s y m m e t r y axes of
the other two lattices.
The second layer of spheres fills one of t h e lat-
Crystals Made of Spheres 79

tices of holes t o form a hexagonal l a t t i c e of con-

tiguous spheres, s i m i l a r t o the first such l a t t i c e .
The e l a s t i c i t y of t h e piece of r u b b e r , however,
m a y not p r o v i d e enough a t t r a c t i v e force t o h o l d
the spheres of the second and t h i r d layers. There-
fore, since we k n o w h o w t h e spheres in t h e bot-
t o m layer lie, let us m a k e an e q u i l a t e r a l t r i a n g l e
from p l y w o o d ( F i g . 62), the sides of w h i c h equal
a n integer n u m b e r of spheres (seven i n our m o d e l ) ,
a n d fill i t w i t h spheres of t h e b o t t o m layer.

Fig. 61 Fig. 62

The second layer of spheres can fill a n y l a t t i c e

of holes, b u t w h e n we reach t h e t h i r d layer, we
find the holes are not e q u i v a l e n t . The centres of one
of the lattices are arranged over t h e centres of t h e
spheres i n t h e b o t t o m layer, whereas t h e second
lattice lies over t h e v a c a n t holes of t h e b o t t o m
layer. W e s h a l l begin b y p u t t i n g spheres i n t o
the holes above t h e spheres of t h e b o t t o m layer.
I n this case t h e t h i r d layer w i l l be a n exact
replica of t h e b o t t o m arrangement of spheres;
the f o u r t h layer w i l l repeat t h e second layer, a n d
so on. E a c h layer w i l l repeat itself every second
80 A. Kosourov

layer. O u r p y r a m i d w i l l be rather fragile (Fig.

63) because the " a t t r a c t i v e " force i n our m o d e l
acts downwards o n l y , a n d the spheres i n t h e
holes along the edges are easily pressed out b y
the spheres of the layers above.
This k i n d of p a c k i n g , called hexagonal closest
p a c k i n g , is t y p i c a l of b e r y l l i u m , m a g n e s i u m , cad-
m i u m , and h e l i u m crystals at low temperatures
and pressures over t w e n t y five atmospheres. This
p a c k i n g has only one system of closely p a c k e d ,
parallel layers. The third-order s y m m e t r y axis,
w h i c h passes through t h e centre of each sphere, is
perpendicular to t h i s system of layers. The sym-
m e t r y order is thus reduced: w h e n t h e axis passes
t h r o u g h centres of the even-layered spheres,
the lattice has the sixth-order s y m m e t r y ; t h e
same axis passes t h r o u g h t h e centres of t h e holes
i n the odd layers, a n d t h e s y m m e t r y of t h e odd
layers, relative to t h i s axis, is, therefore, o n l y
of the t h i r d order. Nevertheless, this p a c k i n g is
called hexagonal, because i t can be viewed as t w o
hexagonal lattices of even a n d odd layers. N o t e
also t h a t the e m p t y holes i n a l l layers are arranged
one over the other a n d channels pass through t h e
whole hexagonal structure, i n t o w h i c h rods,
whose diameter is 0.155 t h a t of the diameter of
t h e sphere can be inserted. The centre lines of
these channels are the third-order s y m m e t r y
axes. Figure 63 shows the m o d e l of a hexagonal
structure w i t h rods placed i n the channels.
N o w let us p u t t h e spheres from the t h i r d layer
i n t o the holes above the v a c a n t holes of the bot-
t o m layer. W e can construct t w o different pyra-
m i d s (Figs. 64 and 65), depending on the system
6-01544
82 A. Kosourov

of holes we select for t h e second layer of spheres.

The faces of the first p y r a m i d are e q u i l a t e r a l
triangles w i t h hexagonal p a c k i n g , which do not
differ from the p a c k i n g of the b o t t o m layer of
t h e p y r a m i d . I n other words, our p y r a m i d is a
tetrahedron, one of the five possible regular poly-
hedrons. This p a c k i n g has four families of close-
ly packed layers, whose normals coincide w i t h
the third-order s y m m e t r y axes of the tetrahedron
w h i c h pass t h r o u g h its apexes. I n such a p a c k i n g
the layers repeat every t h i r d layer. The lateral
faces of the second p y r a m i d are isosceles triangles,
and t h e p y r a m i d itself is part of a cube, intercept-
ed b y the p l a n e formed b y the diagonals of the
faces w i t h a c o m m o n apex (Fig. 66). The p a c k i n g
i n t h e lateral faces of such a p y r a m i d forms a
square lattice w i t h its rows parallel to the diag-
onals of the cube face.
O b v i o u s l y , we h a v e o n l y one type of p a c k i n g
w i t h t w o different orientations. I f we remove the
spheres from the edges of the tetrahedron, the
faces of the cube w i l l emerge. Conversely, by re-
m o v i n g the spheres t h a t m a k e u p the edges of
the cube, we t u r n the cube i n t o a tetrahedron.
This p a c k i n g , called cubic closest p a c k i n g , is
characteristic of neon, argon, copper, g o l d , pla-
t i n u m and lead crystals. C u b i c closest p a c k i n g
possesses a l l the elements of cubic s y m m e t r y .
I n p a r t i c u l a r , the third-order s y m m e t r y axes of
the tetrahedron coincide w i t h the space cube di-
agonals, w h i c h are also third-order s y m m e t r y
axes for the cube. This p a c k i n g is based on a cube
of fourteen spheres. E i g h t of the spheres form
t h e cube, and six form the centres of its faces.
I f you look closely at the second p y r a m i d
Crystals Made of Spheres 83

(Fig. 66), y o u w i l l find" this elementary cube at

the apex. C u b i c closest packing can be viewed as
a c o m b i n a t i o n of four s i m p l e cubic lattices.
The e q u a l i t y of a l l the spheres of t h e p a c k i n g is
especially noticeable from t h i s angle. Since the
hexagonal a n d cubic closest packings can be pro-
duced b y superimposing hexagonal layers onto
one another, the t w o obviously h a v e the same
density, or space factor, despite t h e difference
in symmetry.

Fig. 66 Fig. 67

If we b u i l d a square form a n d place spheres in

a square lattice, we s h a l l get a n o t h e r close pack-
i n g . A l t h o u g h the spheres i n each layer are
not packed i n t h e closest possible w a y , t h e holes
between t h e m are deeper, a n d , therefore, the lay-
ers lie closer t h a n i n a hexagonal structure. I f
we complete t h e p a c k i n g , we w i l l get a tetra-
hedral p y r a m i d (Fig. 67) whose side faces are equi-
lateral triangles i n which the spheres are packed
hexagonally. I f we add another such p y r a m i d
w i t h its apex d o w n w a r d , we s h a l l get a t h i r d po-
lyhedron (after the tetrahedron a n d the cube):
an octahedron w i t h eight faces. O b v i o u s l y , t h i s

6«
84 Va. Geguzin

is also the cubic closest p a c k i n g w i t h the faces

of t h e cube parallel t o t h e p l a n e of the base. Re-
m o v e the spheres f o r m i n g the edges, and you w i l l
find five spheres i n t h e upper intercept plane)
w h i c h form the face of an elementary cube.
These models can be used i n a n u m b e r of physi-
cal experiments. B y s h a k i n g the piece of rubber,

Fig. 68 Fig. 69
for example, you can s i m u l a t e the heat-induced
m o t i o n of atoms. ( Y o u w i l l see how 'a rise i n
temperature' destroys the p a c k i n g of the spheres.)
Since eac' hexagonal layer occupies relatively
shallow holes of t h e next layer, the layers are
loosely b o u n d , and slippage develops easily. I f
you slide one hexagonal layer against another,
you w i l l see t h a t easy slippage, i n w h i c h the lay-
ers m o v e as a whole, occurs i n three directions.
A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n can be observed i n real crys-
tals, w h i c h explains the specifics of plastic de-
f o r m a t i o n i n crystals.
Models can be b u i l t from any k i n d of sphere.
I f you do not h a v e b a l l bearings, use large
necklace beads or even s m a l l apples. Figures 68
and 69 show u n i t cells of cubic and hexagonal
A Bubble Model of Crystal 85

packings m a d e of ping-pong b a l l s glued together.

Ping-pong b a l l s , w h i c h are r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e a n d
m a k e w o r k a b l e models, are h i g h l y recommended,
especially for junior-high and high-school
physics classes.
V a r i o u s packings of contiguous b a l l s are impor-
t a n t i n crystallography, a n d we s h a l l discuss
t h e m a g a i n . M e a n w h i l e , get some b a l l s a n d b u i l d
models!

A Bubble Model of Crystal

by Ya, Geguzin

On Simulation
f I n t h e difficult process of i n t e r p r e t i n g experi-
m e n t a l facts or theoretical propositions, almost
everyone needs a n image, a v i s i b l e presentation,
a simplified m o d e l of the subject. Perhaps one
of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t skills a scholar or teacher
needs is t h e a b i l i t y to construct images, analo-
gies, a n d models, w h i c h can i l l u s t r a t e certain
physical p h e n o m e n o n a n d , t h u s , enlarge our
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m . W h a t s h o u l d such a
model be? W h a t m u s t it be able t o show? W h a t
can one expect from the m o d e l a n d w h a t are
its constraints? First, we expect our m o d e l t o
be a learning a i d . I t must c o n t a i n no false d a t a
b u t m u s t i n c l u d e at least a fraction of the
t r u t h p e r t i n e n t t o the subject. I n everyday life,
of course, we scorn h a l f t r u t h . B u t ' h a l f t r u t h '
is a term of h i g h a p p r o b a t i o n i n relation to
models. F i n a l l y , t h e m o d e l s h o u l d be clear a n d
easily comprehensible w i t h o u t d u l l c o m m e n t a r y .
86 Va. Geguzin

The very best model needs no explanation at

all since its clarity gives it the force of a proof.
There are many convincing and elegant models
in physics, particularly i n solid state physics.
I n this article we shall discuss a 'live' model,
which illustrates and reflects the structure flaws,
and complicated interactions of real crystal very
well. This is not a new model. I t was conceived
by the outstanding British physicist L . Bragg
in the early 1940s and realized by Bragg and his
colleagues V . Lomer and D . Naem. Therefore,
we shall call it the B L N model after Bragg, Lo-
mer, and Naem.

W h a t Do W e W a n t to Simulate?
The answer is clear: real crystal. Real crystal
is a vast set of identical atoms or molecules ar-
ranged in strict order to form a crystal lattice.
Occasionally, this order is disturbed, signifying
the presence of defects in the crystal. Another
very important characteristic of crystals is the
interaction of the atoms forming the crystal.
W e w i l l discuss this interaction a bit later. Now
we w i l l simply state that they do interact!
W i t h o u t interaction, the atoms would form a
heap of disorderly arranged atoms rather than a
crystal. The maintenance of order in crystals
is a direct consequence of this interaction.
Another widely used model is the so-called dead
model of crystal, i n which wooden or clay balls
are bound by straight wires. The balls represent
atoms, and the wires are the symbols of their
bonds in 'frozen' state. The model is 'dead'
since it 'freezes' the interaction of the atoms. I n
A Bubble Model of Crystal 87

this reasonable and very useful m o d e l , different

k i n d s of a t o m s are represented b y b a l l s of differ-
ent colour and size, and wires of different l e n g t h
represent t h e distance between t h e a t o m s . Al-
t h o u g h the m o d e l does not reflect a l l t h e t r u t h
about t h e crystal, it' does convey t h e t r u t h w i t h -
out false assertions. The m o d e l , of course, can-
not depict the m o t i o n of the a t o m s , b u t i t reflects
the order of t h e i r p o s i t i o n very clearly. The dead
m o d e l is a n o u t s t a n d i n g aid i n d e p i c t i n g t h e
space arrangement of atoms or i n i d e n t i f y i n g t h e
most l i k e l y directions of d e f o r m a t i o n or electric
current i n a crystal. The m o d e l is i n d i s p e n s a b l e
i n representing t h e possible arrangement of
atoms i n unidentified or l i t t l e s t u d i e d crystals
on t h e basis of experimental d a t a a n d so-called
general considerations. This t e c h n i q u e of model-
i n g w i t h balls a n d wires aided i n one of t h e m o s t
i m p o r t a n t discoveries of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ,
the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the structure of the DNA
molecule, w h i c h certainly speaks well for t h e
usefulness of the dead m o d e l !
^ O u r objective, however, is t o s i m u l a t e a ' l i v e '
rather t h a n a ' d e a d ' crystal. O b v i o u s l y , t o do so,
we need t o s i m u l a t e the i n t e r a c t i o n of atoms i n
crystal, t o r e v i t a l i z e the i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t is fro-
zen i n t h e wires and balls.

The Interaction of A t o m s i n Crystal

Perhaps t h e most i m p o r t a n t characteristic of

such i n t e r a c t i o n stems directly from t h e s i m p l e
fact t h a t t h e distance between t w o n e i g h b o u r i n g
atoms i n real crystal has a definite v a l u e at a
constant temperature. ( W e are speaking, of course,
 88 Va. Geguzin

about the distance between the positions around

which atoms fluctuate i n heat induced mo-
tion. The amplitude of these fluctuations is con-
siderably smaller than the distance between
atoms.) The distance has a definite value since if
we try to stretch i t , the atoms resist the effort and
attract one another, and if we try to reduce the
distance, the atoms repel each other. The fact
that this distance is determinate allows us to
conclude that atomic interaction is character-
ized by attraction and repulsion simultaneously.
A t a certain distance between atoms (we call it
determinate), the forces of attraction and repul-
sion become equivalent i n absolute values. The
atoms i n the lattice are located at exactly this
distance.
I t would be useful to be able to simulate the
competition of attractive and repulsive forces.
Such a technique would revitalize atomic inter-
action in crystal. The authors of the B L N model
created just such a method. Instead of wooden and
clay balls, they used t i n y soap bubbles.

The Interaction of Soap Bubbles

on Water Surface
Two soap bubbles on the surface of a body
of water are not indifferent to each other: they
are first attracted to one another but, after touch-
ing, are repelled. This phenomenon can be ob-
served in a very simple experiment, for which we
w i l l need a shallow bowl, a needle from a syr-
inge, the inner balloon from a volley ball, and an
adjustable elamp to control the compression of
the nozzle of the balloon. F i l l the bowl w i t h
A Bubble Model of Crystal 89

soapy water almost t o the t o p , a n d a d d a few drops

of glycerol t o s t a b i l i z e t h e b u b b l e s t h a t we w i l l
b l o w onto t h e surface of t h e water. Inflate t h e
b a l l o o n . Then c l a m p the nozzle, a n d insert t h e
needle i n t o i t (the b u t t end first, of course). Im-
merse t h e other end of t h e needle i n t o t h e water
(not deeply) a n d release the c l a m p i n g pressure
s l i g h t l y (Fig. 70). The air t h a t escapes t h e nee-
dle at regular intervals w i l l develop i n t o i d e n t i c a l

Fig. 70

soap b u b b l e s . W e s h a l l need m a n y such bubbles

i n f u t u r e experiments, b u t for t h i s first experi-
m e n t , t r y t o m a k e o n l y two b u b b l e s , some dis-
tance from one another. I f you are not successful
i m m e d i a t e l y , t r y a g a i n . Y o u s h o u l d succeed b y
the f o u r t h or fifth t i m e , at least. B u b b l e s 1-2 m m
i n diameter work the best.
Once t h e b u b b l e s are m a d e , y o u can w a t c h
their m o v e m e n t s . The bubbles w i l l m o v e ( w i t h o u t
our interference) towards one a n o t h e r , slowly at
first a n d t h e n more r a p i d l y . W h e n t h e y c o l l i d e ,
they do n o t t o u c h at a single p o i n t b u t m a k e dents
on the surface. The interaction of a p a i r of iden-
t i c a l b u b b l e s w i l l v a r y from t h a t of a p a i r of bub-
bles of different size. W a t c h !
N o w let us consider t h e o r i g i n of t h e force t h a t
drives t h e b u b b l e s together s p o n t a n e o u s l y . T h i n k
90 Va. Geguzin

of t w o matchsticks l y i n g on the surface of the wa-

ter. Since t h e b u b b l e s a n d the matchsticks are
b o t h soaked b y t h e water, t h e nature of t h e i r in-
teraction is generally the same. Two bubbles float-
i n g close together form a very complex surface
w i t h the water, however, whereas t h a t of t h e
t w o matchsticks is m u c h simpler a n d , t h u s , eas-
ier to study (Fig. 71). The force t h a t brings the

^ — VL
Tl7 r
— 2r
Fig. 71

t w o floating m a t c h s t i c k s together develops as fol-

lows. W a t e r soaks the matchsticks, a n d t h e sur-
face of the water near t h e sticks is, therefore,
curved. This curvature generates force t h a t acts
u p o n the l i q u i d . The force is determined b y sur-
face tension a n d directed, i n t h i s case, u p w a r d
(we s h a l l assume t h e matchsticks are c o m p l e t e l y
soaked). Under the effect of this force, t h e l i q u i d
rises along t h e sides of t h e m a t c h s t i c k s , t h e rise
being more pronounced in the region between t h e
sticks (Fig. 71). The l i q u i d appears t o stretch,
a n d t h e pressure in the l i q u i d drops r e l a t i v e t o
the atmospheric pressure, b y an a d d i t i o n a l pres-
sure A p = ^r- = — , where o is the coefficient of
^ d r
surface tension, d is t h e distance between t h e
m a t c h s t i c k s , and r = d!2 is the curvature r a d i u s of
the surface of the l i q u i d . Consequently, t h e ab-
solute v a l u e of t h e pressure of the l i q u i d on t h e
matchsticks i n t h e area between them is less t h a n
A Bubble Model of Crystal 91

the atmospheric pressure t h a t acts u p o n t h e sticks

from the outside. Thus, the absolute v a l u e of t h e
force t h a t draws t h e sticks together is
in. a c 2o ,, 4a 2 l 1
|F| = A p S = — M = t t j y f ~ . y

From t h i s we can predict an interesting phenom-

enon. Since 1 Id2, i n a viscous e n v i r o n m e n t
the m a t c h s t i c k s should draw together w i t h a ve-

locity t h a t increases as the distance between t h e m

decreases. The bubbles also accelerate as they
draw closer (Fig. 72). W e filmed the m o v e m e n t of
the bubbles in our laboratory b y p l a c i n g a m o v i e
camera over t h e b o w l c o n t a i n i n g t h e soap solu-
t i o n . As soon as the bubbles started m o v i n g , we
switched t h e camera on (Fig. 73). W e were able
to w a t c h t h e bubbles d r a w i n g together r i g h t u p
to their collision. Once they h a v e c o l l i d e d , a re-
pulsive force starts acting. The force is caused
b y an increase of gas pressure i n t h e m u t u a l l y
compressed bubbles (Fig. 74), w h i c h pushes the
bubbles a p a r t .
Soap bubbles are apparently s u i t a b l e crystal
models, if we create a number of i d e n t i c a l bub-
bles on t h e surface of the soap s o l u t i o n rather t h a n
92 Va. Geguzin
 A Bubble Model of Crystal 3

Simply one or two. If the radius of a bubble is

R = 5 X 10-2 cm, then N~ (Rp/R)2~ 4 X
4
X 10 bubbles can fit on the surface of a soap so-
lution on an ordinary dinner plate whose radius
is R p « 10 cm. Such a raft of bubbles, con-
tained by attractive and repulsive forces, is ajtwo-
dimensional model of crystal. The authors of
this very beautiful model have shown, for exam-
ple, that bubbles whose radius is 1 0 c m

Fig. 74

interact very similarly to atoms in copper

crystals.

The Model in Action

The film of the B L N model in action is inter-

esting since it shows an ideal crystal, a crystal
with moving and interacting defects, and many
other simple and complex processes that develop
in a real crystal. I n an article, however, it is on-
ly possible to show a few photographs to illus-
trate the possibilities of the model.
94 Va. Geguzin

The B L N m o d e l can be used to verify certain

corollaries t o the theory of crystal t h a t is abso-
lutely free of defects, i.e. the so-called ideal crys-
t a l . I t is almost impossible to o b t a i n such a crys-
t a l in nature, b u t i t proved rather s i m p l e a n d
easy to construct one m a d e of bubbles (Fig. 75).
One of the most c o m m o n defects i n crystal is
a vacant position at a p o i n t i n the lattice, w h i c h
is not filled b y an a t o m . Physicists call this phe-
nomenon a vacancy. I n the B L N m o d e l a vacancy
is represented b y an exploded b u b b l e (Fig. 76).
As b o t h c o m m o n sense a n d experiments w i t h real
crystals lead us t o expect, the B L N m o d e l shows
t h a t the v o l u m e of a vacancy is a l i t t l e less t h a n
t h a t of an occupied position. W h e n a b u b b l e ex-
plodes, neighbouring bubbles move s l i g h t l y in-
to the hole left b y the explosion and reduce its
size. This is almost impossible to detect w i t h the
naked eye, b u t if we project a photograph of the
bubbles onto a screen and carefully measure the
distances between bubbles, we can see t h a t the
vacancy is somewhat compressed i n comparison
w i t h an occupied p o s i t i o n . For physicists t h i s is
evidence of both a q u a l i t a t i v e and a quantita-
t i v e change.
Very often, crystal contains an i m p u r i t y , in-
troduced i n the early stages of its history, t h a t
deforms its structure. To solve m a n y problems of
crystal physics, i t is very i m p o r t a n t t o k n o w h o w
the atoms s u r r o u n d i n g the i m p u r i t y have changed
position. I n c i d e n t a l l y , the presence of a n impu-
r i t y is left not o n l y b y the nearest neighbours b u t
also b y the atoms a considerable distance from i t .
The B L N m o d e l reflects this clearly (Fig. 76).
Most crystalline bodies are represented b y po-
A Bubble Model of Crystal 95

' W W ^ W 1

Fig. 75

Fig. 76
 Ya. Geguzin

lycrystals m a d e of m a n y s m a l l , r a n d o m l y oriented
crystals separated b y boundaries. W e expect m a n y
properties of the polycrystals (such as mechan-
ical strength or electrical resistance) t o depend
on the structure of t h e boundaries, a n d , i n f a c t ,
the B L N m o d e l bears t h i s o u t . I t showed crystal
physicists t h a t t h e structure of such boundaries
varies according t o the m u t u a l o r i e n t a t i o n of
b o u n d a r y crystals, t h e presence of i m p u r i t i e s at
the b o u n d a r y , and m a n y other factors. Some parts
of the polycrystals (grains), for example, m a y
enlarge at the expense of others. As a result, aver-
age grain size increases. This process, called re-
crystallization, develops for a very explicit rea-
son: the greater the size of the g r a i n , the less its
t o t a l b o u n d a r y surface area, w h i c h means t h a t
it has lower excess energy l i n k e d to the bounda-
ries. The energy of a polycrystal is reduced i n re-
c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n , a n d , therefore, the process m a y
occur spontaneously (since it moves the system
t o a more stable e q u i l i b r i u m , at w h i c h energy
storage is m i n i m a l ) . The series of photographs i n
Fig. 77 illustrates a large grain ' d e v o u r i n g ' a
smaller g r a i n i n s i d e i t i n successive stages.
The m o v i n g b o u n d a r y between the grains ap-
pears t o ' s w a l l o w ' t h e vacancies i t comes across
(this was predicted b y theorists a n d carefully
studied b y experimenters i n real crystals). The
b o u n d a r y does not change its structure i n t h i s
process, as the B L N m o d e l clearly illustrates
(Fig. 78).

Restrictions of the B L N Model

W i t h o u t depreciating the usefulness of the
B L N m o d e l , we s h o u l d p o i n t out t h a t it does
Fig. 77
7-01544
* 'm • * * * * ZT-I
Determining the Poles of a Magnet 99

have drawbacks. The model can s i m u l a t e o n l y

one s t r u c t u r e — a two-dimensional, h e x a g o n a l , and
closely packed crystal. B u t real crystals h a v e
a variety of structures. I n t h i s respect, t h e dead
model has i n f i n i t e l y more p o t e n t i a l because
atoms can be arranged in i t i n m a n y differ-
ent ways, a n d , consequently, a n y structure can
be simulated. The B L N m o d e l i n its contempora-
ry modification is severely restricted b y its two-
dii l e n s i o n a l i t y . I t s authors tried t o m a k e a three-
di lensional ( m u l t i l a y e r ) b u b b l e m o d e l , b u t its
op j r a t i o n was difficult, and the m o d e l was finally
re ected. I n our laboratory we b u i l t b o t h two- and
three-dimensional models and f o u n d t h e latter
to be i m p r a c t i c a l . Despite these a n d other weak-
nesses, however, the B L N m o d e l is an indispen-
sable aid i n the s t u d y of crystals.

Determining the Poles of a Magnet

by B. Aleinikov

A t first glance it m a y seem s i m p l e to determine

the poles of a m a g n e t . B u t because we cannot
be sure t h a t the poles of a g i v e n m a g n e t h a v e
not s i m p l y been p a i n t e d to m a k e t h e m look
different, i.e. w i t h o u t reference t o their true
m a g n e t i s m , the question is more complicated
t h a n it appears. Occasionally, magnets are not
marked at a l l , i n w h i c h case we need a m e t h o d
to differentiate the positive from the negative
pole. For t h i s experiment, we need a permanent
horseshoe m a g n e t (the poles need not be marked;
i n fact, it is even more c h a l l e n g i n g if they are
not) a n d ... a television set. I t is best t o conduct

7*
100 N. Minz

the experiment i n the d a y t i m e , when a test

p a t t e r n for t u n i n g the television is broadcast.
T u r n the television set on, and p u t your mag-
net against t h e screen, as shown i n F i g . 79. The
image w i l l i m m e d i a t e l y become distorted. The
s m a l l circle i n the center of the test p a t t e r n w i l l

F B

Fig. 79

s h i f t noticeably u p w a r d or d o w n w a r d , d e p e n d i n g
on the position of the poles.
A n image on t h e television screen is produced
b y an electron beam directed from inside the pic-
ture t u b e towards t h e viewer. O u r m a g n e t devi-
ates the electrons e m i t t e d , and the i m a g e is
distorted. The direction i n w h i c h the m a g n e t i c
field deviates the m o v i n g charge is determined b y
the left-hand rule. I f t h e p a l m is positioned so
t h a t the lines of force enter i t , the fingers w h e n ex-
tended i n d i c a t e t h e direction of the current. I n
this position, t h e t h u m b when held at a r i g h t
angle to the fingers, w i l l show the direction i n
A Peculiar Pendulum 101

w h i c h t h e m o v i n g charge is d e v i a t e d . The lines

of force go from the northern t o the southern
pole of t h e m a g n e t . The direction of current ac-
cording t o the left-hand rule is t h e so-called "tech-
n i c a l " direction from plus t o m i n u s i n w h i c h po-
s i t i v e l y charged particles w o u l d m o v e . I n t h e
cathode t u b e , however, the electrons m o v e a n d
are directed towards us. This is t h e e q u i v a l e n t
of positive charges h e a d i n g away from us. There-
fore, the extended fingers of the left h a n d should
be directed towards the screen. The rest is
clear. B y the displacement of t h e central circle,
we can determine whether the northern or the
southern pole of t h e magnet been placed against
the screen.
I t is also possible to i d e n t i f y poles of an un-
m a r k e d battery w i t h the help of a television. For
this experiment, i n a d d i t i o n t o a television, we
need a b a t t e r y , an electric m a g n e t w i t h a n arched
core, a resistor, a n d a conductor. Connect the bat-
tery i n series to the electromagnet, and the resis-
tor, rated to l i m i t the current to admissible level.
H o l d the electromagnet near the screen, a n d iden-
t i f y its poles using the left-hand rule. Then use
the corkscrew rule to determine t h e direction of
the current a n d , consequently, the poles of the
battery.

A Peculiar Pendulum
by N. Minz

The f a m i l i a r s i m p l e p e n d u l u m does not change

the p l a n e i n w h i c h it swings. This property of
the p e n d u l u m was used i n a well-known demon-
102 N. Minz

stration of t h e E a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n , i.e. t h e F o u c a u l t

p e n d u l u m . The p e n d u l u m suspended on a l o n g
wire oscillates. A circle under it is m a r k e d as a
clock face. Since t h e p l a n e of oscillations rela-
t i v e to the motionless stars does not s h i f t , w h i l e
the E a r t h rotates on its axis, the p e n d u l u m passes
t h r o u g h m a r k i n g s on the clock i n succession.
A t either of the E a r t h ' s pole, the circle under t h e

Fig. 80

p e n d u l u m makes one complete r o t a t i o n i n twen-

ty-four hours. This experiment was carried out
b y the French physicist L . F o u c a u l t i n 1851,
when a p e n d u l u m 67 metres long was suspended
from the cupola of t h e P a n t h e o n i n Paris.
D o a l l p e n d u l u m s keep the same p l a n e of oscil-
l a t i o n ? The suspension, after a l l , allows oscilla-
tions in any vertical p l a n e . To m a k e the pendu-
l u m shown i n F i g . 80a, fold a string i n h a l f , a n d
attach another string in the m i d d l e . Tie t h e loose
end of the second string t o a spoon, a p a i r of
scissors, or a n y other object, and your p e n d u l u m
is ready. (The vertical suspension should be long-
er or at least equal in length to t h a t of the first
string.)
A Peculiar Pendulum 103

Tack t h e ends of the h o r i z o n t a l s t r i n g between

the j a m b s of a doorway. N o w , p u l l t h e p e n d u l u m
back (at rest, i t is i n t h e p o s i t i o n of equilibri-
u m ) , a n d release i t . The p e n d u l u m w i l l describe
an ellipse t h a t c o n s t a n t l y changes shape, prolat-
i n g t o one side or the other. W h y does it behave
this way?
A single suspension p e n d u l u m (Fig. 806) has
an u n d e t e r m i n e d p l a n e of o s c i l l a t i o n . T h i s means
t h a t regardless of the i n i t i a l d e v i a t i o n of the
p e n d u l u m , a l l t h e forces influencing it lie i n one
plane. B e careful, however, not t o propel it
sideways w h e n setting it free.
N o w let us d r a w a p l a n e t h r o u g h t h e i n i t i a l
and deviated positions of t h e p e n d u l u m . Obvi-
ously, b o t h t h e g r a v i t y force m g , a n d t h e tension
force of t h e string T lie i n t h i s p l a n e . Conse-
q u e n t l y , t h e resultant of t h e t w o forces, w h i c h
makes t h e p e n d u l u m oscillate, acts i n t h e same
p l a n e . T h u s , since there is no force t o propel t h e
p e n d u l u m out of t h e p l a n e , i t keeps its p l a n e of
oscillation.
O u r p e n d u l u m is q u i t e another t h i n g . I n t h i s
case, t h e i n i t i a l p l a n e of o s c i l l a t i o n is deter-
m i n e d b y t h e a t t a c h m e n t of the h o r i z o n t a l string
and b y t h e p l u m b l i n e of t h e v e r t i c a l string. There-
fore, t h e p e n d u l u m is deviated from t h e very
b e g i n n i n g so t h a t i t lies outside of t h e p l a n e . *
The tension force (Fig. 80c) has a component
perpendicular t o t h e i n i t i a l p l a n e , a n d the ac-

* Of course, if the deviation of the pendulum in the plane

is strictly perpendicular to the plane of suspension, the
pendulum will oscillate in this plane only. I n practice,
however, a departure from this plane and velocity direct-
ed away from the plane always exist.
104 N. Minz

t i o n of this component forces the p e n d n l u m out of

the plane. Since the tension force varies, its per-
p e n d i c u l a r component also varies. As it swings
to the opposite side, the p e n d u l u m p u l l s the other
h a l f of the h o r i z o n t a l string t a u t . This develops a
force t h a t acts i n the opposite direction. A t the

Fig. 81 Fig. 82
same t i m e , as the experiment shows, the pendu-
l u m oscillates i n two perpendicular planes.
The curves described by our p e n d u l u m are
called Lissajous figures, after the French physicist
w h o was the first to describe them in 1863. A
Lissajous figure results from the c o m b i n a t i o n of
two perpendicular oscillations. The figure m a y
be rather c o m p l i c a t e d , especially if the frequen-
cies of l o n g i t u d i n a l and l a t i t u d i n a l oscillations
are close. If the frequencies are the same, the re-
s u l t a n t trajectory w i l l be an ellipse. Figure
81 shows the figure drawn b y a p e n d u l u m whose
m o t i o n can he described as x = sin 3t, y —-
sin 51. Figure 82 shows the oscillations des-
cribed as x = sin 31, y = sin 41,
A Peculiar Pendulum 105

The r a t i o of the frequencies can he varied b y

v a r y i n g the r a t i o of the length of the vertical
and h o r i z o n t a l strings. A l t h o u g h it is f a i r l y dif-
ficult to calculate the frequencies of p e n d u l u m os-
c i l l a t i o n s , the figures drawn b y the p e n d u l u m
can be demonstrated rather easily. To m a k e the
Lissajous figures visible, tie a s m a l l bucket w i t h

a perforated bottom to the p e n d u l u m . F i l l the

bucket w i t h sand, and p u t a piece of dark card-
board under it on the floor. The p e n d u l u m w i l l
draw a clear trajectory of its m o t i o n .
Photographs of the m o t i o n of t h e p e n d u l u m can
also be m a d e . P a i n t a weight or a s m a l l , heavy
ball w h i l e , a n d make the suspension of dark
string. P u t a sheet of dark paper 011 the floor, the
paper should be m a t , since glossy paper reflects
l i g h t and would spoil the pictures. Set the cam-
era above the p e n d u l u m , w i t h the lens placed
h o r i z o n t a l l y . If the exposure is long enough, the
pictures w i l l show clear trajectories. Figures 83
and 84 show trajectories photographed in this way,
106 N. Minz

Changes i n the direction of the oscillations

are obvious. The change is especially sudden
i n Fig. 83. The exposures of the t w o p h o t o g r a p h s
were different, w h i c h is obvious from the differ-
ent lengths of the trajectories. The curves seem
t o be inscribed w i t h i n a parallelogram, a l t h o u g h
i n r e a l i t y , they s h o u l d be inscribed w i t h i n a rec-
tangle. W e d i d not get a rectangle s i m p l y be-
cause the p l a n e of our camera was n o t s t r i c t l y
horizontal.
A reasonably correct trajectory can be o b t a i n e d
i n experiments w i t h a p e n d u l u m if d a m p i n g
is insignificant. The oscillations of a p e n d u l u m
w i t h low mass a n d large v o l u m e w i l l d a m p quick-
l y . Such a p e n d u l u m w i l l swing several t i m e s
with quickly diminishing amplitude. Naturally
changes i n the oscillations of a p e n d u l u m w i t h
such strong a t t e n u a t i o n can h a r d l y be photo-
graphed.
Lissajous figures are c o m m o n w i t h perpendicu-
lar oscillations. They are u n a v o i d a b l e , for in-
stance, i n t u n i n g oscillographs.

Lissajous Figures
by N. Minz

The simplest oscillations of a body are those i n

w h i c h the d e v i a t i o n of the body from its equi-
l i b r i u m position x is described as

x = a sin (cot -+- cp)

where a is the a m p l i t u d e , w is the frequency, a n d

9 is t h e i n i t i a l phase of oscillation. S u c h oscilla-
Lissajous Figures 107

tions are called h a r m o n i c . A s i m p l e p e n d u l u m ,

a w e i g h t on a spring, or v o l t a g e i n an electric
circuit can oscillate h a r m o n i c a l l y .
I n t h i s article we shall discuss a b o d y w i t h t w o
s i m u l t a n e o u s h a r m o n i c oscillations. I f both oscil-
l a t i o n s occur along the same straight line, the re-

s u l t a n t e q u a t i o n of the m o t i o n of the b o d y w i l l
be a s u m of the equations of each m o t i o n :

x = At sin (ant + cpj) + A2 sin (oy2t + cp2)

I t is easy to m a k e a graph of the b o d y displace-

m e n t from e q u i l i b r i u m over t i m e . For this, the
ordinates of the curves related to t h e first and
second m o t i o n s should be added. Figure 85
illustrates how t w o h a r m o n i c oscillations can be
108 N. Minz

added (solid sinusoids). The broken l i n e repre-

sents the r e s u l t i n g oscillation, w h i c h is no
longer h a r m o n i c .
More complicated trajectories appear if t w o
m u t u a l l y perpendicular oscillations are a d d e d .
The body i n F i g . 86 moves along such a trajecto-
ry. I t s form depends on the ratios of frequencies,
a m p l i t u d e s , a n d phases of the t w o m u t u a l l y per-
pendicular oscillations. As we k n o w , such trajec-
tories are called Lissajous figures. The setup used
by Lissajous i n his experiments is shown i n F i g .
87. The t u n i n g fork T' oscillates i n a h o r i z o n t a l
plane, whereas T is vertical. A l i g h t beam pas-
sing through a lens is reflected b y a m i r r o r at-
tached to T' towards a second m i r r o r fixed on T.
The reflection of t h e second mirror is seen on a
screen. I f o n l y one t u n i n g fork oscillates, t h e
l i g h t spot on t h e screen w i l l m o v e along a s t r a i g h t
line. I f both t u n i n g forks oscillate, the spot w i l l
draw i n t r i c a t e trajectories.
The trajectory of a body w i t h t w o simulta-
neous, m u t u a l l y perpendicular oscillations is de-
scribed by a system of equations

(1)

where x and y are the projections of the body dis-

placement on X and Y axes.
For s i m p l i c i t y , assume (fi = <p2 = 0 a n d ® i =
= co2 = (D. Then

x — A{ sin at,
(2)
y — A2 sin cot.
Lissajous Figures 109

Fig. 87
110
N. Minz

A*
Thus, y = - j - x. Consequently, Eq. (2) de-
scribes a straight line segment. Slope a with
respect to X axis is
. A«
tan a = ,

Now let ? ! = q>; + Then

x = At cos ( ( O j f -f- t p j ) , 1

y = A 2 sin (co2* + <p2). J

Consider first the simplest case, where A\ =

= A 2, <pl = <p2 = 0 and coi = <a2 = co, that is

x = A cos coi, I
y = A sin wt. J ^

A point with x and y coordinates determined by

the above equations makes a circle of A radius.
And, in fact, x2 + y2 = A2 cos2 at + A2 sin 2 at =
= A 2 , which means that the trajectory of mo-
tion is a circle.
Now let At =^=A2. Let us plot a trajectory for
A1 = 1 and A2 = 2. At the moment of m a x i m a l
displacement, x — Ai = 1, that is, cos cot —
= 1, at = 0. Consequently, y = 2 sin cot = 0.
Similarly, when x = 0, y equals two, and when

x = y equals ]/A2, and so on.

The graph plotted with these coordinates w i l l
be an ellipse whose major semiaxis is A2 and
Lissajous Figures 111

whose m i n o r semiaxis is A t h a t is, the ellipse

elongated along Y axis (Fig. 88a) *
I t is easy to show that when Ax = 2 and A 2 =
= 1, we get an ellipse elongated along X (Fig.
886). Clearly, by changing the a m p l i t u d e ratio,
we can get different ellipses.
Now let a>x = 2(0, (o2 — a, <pj = 0 and <p2 =

} )

(\l r
\\
J' e

= 0. The system of equations (3) w i l l then be-

come
x = Ai cos 2(01,
y — A 2 sin tot.

Transform the equation w i t h respect to x i n the

following way
x = Ai (cos2 cat — sin* cot) =

= A t ( 1 - 2 s i n * ( o t ) = At ( l — 2-fj-).

• The fact that the system of equations

x = Ay cos coi
y = A 2 sin cot
describes an ellipse can be shown analytically:

-~T + 4 r = cos* at + sin* cot = 1,

i.e., a point with coordinates x and y lies on the ellipse.
112 N. Minz

This curve is part of a parabola w i t h its axis along

X and the apex at x = Aj (Fig. 89). Thus, we
h a v e an open curve.

N o w let us check the effects of the frequency on

the shape of the trajectory. W e w i l l assign equal
a m p l i t u d e s to the lateral and l o n g i t u d i n a l oscil-
lations described by system (3).
Let us p l o t curves, for example, described b y
the f o l l o w i n g equations:
x = A cos cot, y = A sin 2oit,
x = A cos at, y = A sin 4cot.

The easiest w a y to do this is to draw a circle of

A radius (Fig. 90) and mark the points corre-
sponding to angles cut, w h i c h equal 0,
it 5n 3n 7n „ rp , . ,, . ,
—, -5-, -r-, -5-, j t , . . . , 2 n . t o determine the points
z o 4 o
w i t h coordinates x = A cos cot and y — A sin 2cot,
remember t h a t for the circle whose radius is
equal to u n i t y (r = 1) the cos cot is n u m e r i c a l l y
equal to a projection of the vector radius /• (ait)
Lissajous Figures 413

onto X , whereas the sin co I is equal to the projec-

tion onto Y. Since we have drawn a circle of A
radius, the coordinates x and y of each p o i n t of
the circle are the projections of the vector r a d i i

Fig. 91
of the p o i n t s onto X and Y . Once we have de-
termined all the points b y their coordinates, we
can connect them w i t h a solid line (Fig. 90).

91fl, h).
The figure in Fig. 92 is open. I t is described by
8-01544
114 tt. Minz

t h e f o l l o w i n g system of equations

x = cos 2o)t,
y = sin 3cot.

W h e n do open figures occur? Are there any com-

m o n regularities i n their origin? Consider the
following equations

x — cos p<ot,
y = A2 sin qat.

First, note t h a t at the p o i n t where the curve re-

verses along the same trajectory, the velocities
of the body along the X and Y axes become equal
to zero s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . The body m o v i n g along
the curve stops at exactly this moment, and then
starts m o v i n g back. I f x = Aj cos pcot, then

A i c o s p w t i — A t c o s pcotj

„ . . pw<2 + • put2 — pat,

— 2/1, S1U jr-*1 — Sill — —

t% — tx

W h e n t2 ~ tx — t (the difference between t2

and tf is s m a l l ) ,
pbdtn—ptotj pC0f3— pdttx
sin « .

As a result,

vx = — Axpa sin pcot.

S i m i l a r l y , for vv
vu = A2 qto cos q(ot.
Lissajous Figures 115

W h e n t h e velocities vx and are equal to zero,

vx ~ 0 if pat = kn,
vy = 0 if gwt = - ^ - - f m n .

From these conditions it becomes obvious t h a t

Lissajous figure are open when
P _ 2k
q ~ 2m + 1 "

The curve i n Fig. 92, for example, meets this con-

dition.
Lissajous figure can be observed on the screen
of an oscilloscope. A vertical sweep indicates
one h a r m o n i c oscillation, whereas another oscil-
l a t i o n appears on a horizontal sweep. Their to-
tal m a y assume different forms if the frequency
of the a l t e r n a t i n g voltage at the p l a t e of the oscil-
loscope is varied.
A n y o n e can m a k e a s i m p l e device for observ-
ing and p h o t o g r a p h i n g Lissajous figures. Twist
a s i m p l e m e t a l ruler so t h a t the p l a n e of one half
of t h e ruler is perpendicular to the plane of the
other h a l f . Fix one of the ends of the ruler in a
bench vice. W h e n the free end is depressed and
then released, it w i l l draw i n t r i c a t e Lissajous
figures in the air.
The m o t i o n of the free end of the ruler is the
sum of t h e independent oscillations of its two
parts. The first section is measured from the vice
to the bend i n the ruler and the second from the
bend to the free end. The oscillation of each part
is perpendicular to the plane of the v i b r a t i n g
section. Since the bend angle of the ruler is-77,
the oscillations are m u t u a l l y perpendicular. The
8*
116 N. Minz

shape of the trajectory of the end depends on the

length and the w i d t h of the rnler, as well as on
t h e place of bend.
The same ruler can be used to o b t a i n different
figures, to vary vertical and h o r i z o n t a l oscilla-
tion ratios, s i m p l y c l a m p the ruler at different
places. Since the frequency of osciIlations]depends
on the length of the ruler, you can vary the fre-

Fig. 93

quency ratio of m u t u a l l y perpendicular oscil-

lations of the end of the ruler by changing the ra-
t i o of the length of its parts. This w i l l result in
different trajectories of the, end.
To photograph the figures, attach the light
b u l b from a flashlight to the free end of the ruler.
Connect the b u l b to a battery by wires placed
along the ruler (see Fig. 93). Place this complex
p e n d u l u m in a dark room, and experiment a few
times to find the right exposure l i m e for photo-
graphs. A f a i r l y long exposure w i l l p r o b a b l y
118 A. Kosourov

work best. Figure 94 shows photograph obtained

exactly in this w a y .
Now try s i m i l a r experiments for yourself.

EXERCISES

1. Prove that all curves described by the following system

of equations are open:
x ~ A j cos putt, y = A2 cos qat
2. Derive an equation for a curve with the following
parameters
X = A J COS lot, y = A 2 cos 2u>t

Waves in a Flat Plate

(Interference)
by A. Kosourov

W a v e p r o p a g a t i o n is perhaps the most univer-

sal phenomenon i n nature. W a t e r , waves, s o u n d ,
l i g h t and r a d i o , even deformation transfer from
one part of a solid to another are examples of
this phenomenon. According to q u a n t u m mechan-
ics, the m o t i o n of microscopic particles is also
controlled by the laws of wave p r o p a g a t i o n . The
physical nature, velocity of p r o p a g a t i o n , fre-
quency and wavelength of all these waves are
different, b u t despite these differences, the mo-
tion of all waves is s i m i l a r i n m a n y respects.
The laws of one k i n d of wave m o t i o n can be ap-
plied almost w i t h o u t modification t o waves, of
another nature. The most convenient way to stu-
d y these laws is to study waves on the surface of
a body of water.
Waves in a Flat Plate (Interference) 119

W h a t is a wave? Throw a stone i n t o a p o n d .

The calm h o r i z o n t a l surface of the pond w i l l de-
velop circles t h a t ripple outwards. P o i n t s on t h e
surface of the water reached b y the wave w i l l
begin to oscillate relative to t h e position of equi-
l i b r i u m , w h i c h corresponds t o the h o r i z o n t a l
surface of the water. The farther a p o i n t is from
the centre of the circle, the longer the p o i n t w i l l
take to 'learn' about the stone t h a t has been
thrown. The disturbance travels at a determi-
nate speed. P o i n t s t h a t are reached s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
by the disturbance are said t o be i n the same stage
or phase of oscillation.
A l l waves disturb some physical object w i t h
their action by causing the object to deviate
from the state of e q u i l i b r i u m . S o u n d waves, for
example, cause the periodic rise and drop of pres-
sure. R a d i o waves and l i g h t cause r a p i d changes
of tension in electric and m a g n e t i c fields. The
properties of all m e d i a w i t h o u t exception are
such t h a t a disturbance, w h i c h originates in a
specific area, propagates by passing from one
p o i n t t o another w i t h a final speed. This speed
depends on the nature of t h e disturbance and the
medium.
The disturbance t h a t generates a wave m u s t
have a source, t h a t is an external cause t h a t
breaks the e q u i l i b r i u m in a certain area of the
m e d i u m . A s m a l l disturbance, a stone thrown i n t o
water, for example, radiates spherical waves (in
this case, circles on the water surface) t h a t travel
r a d i a l l y i n a u n i f o r m m e d i u m (a m e d i u m in w h i c h
wave velocity does not depend on the direction
of its propagation). Such sources are called
point sources.
 120 A. Kosourov

One of the m a i n principles of elementary wave

theory is the p r i n c i p l e of wave independence, al-
so called the p r i n c i p l e of superposition. The prin-
ciple states t h a t a disturbance caused b y a wave
at a p o i n t of observation is not influenced by
other waves passing through the same p o i n t . The
principle of superposition is, in fact, a s i m p l e
rule for d e t e r m i n i n g the s u m m a r y effect of waves
from different sources. A s u m m a r y oscillation is
s i m p l y a sum of the oscillations caused b y each
source i n d e p e n d e n t l y .
Interference is a characteristic feature of wave
processes. Interference is the c o m b i n a t i o n of
phenomena t h a t develop i n a m e d i u m i n which
waves p r o p a g a t i n g from two or more sources os-
cillate synchronously. The oscillations of some
points of the m e d i u m m a y be stronger or weaker
under the action of the two s i m u l t a n e o u s sources
than they w o u l d be under the effect of either
source i n i s o l a t i o n . Synchronized waves m a y even
suppress each other completely.
Let us t r y to produce interference t h a t we can
see w i t h our own eyes. A n experienced observer
can easily see the interference caused b y the
waves from two stones thrown i n t o a p o n d . This
method is u n s u i t a b l e for study of interference,
however. W e need, instead, a stable picture of
interfering waves i n the laboratory.
The first t h i n g we w i l l need for t h i s experi-
m e n t is a vessel for water. The vessel should
have gently sloping walls to avoid m a s k i n g waves
from the source w i t h reflections from the walls.
A shallow saucer w i l l work well, if the water near-
ly reaches the r i m , in w h i c h case the waves roll
onto the walls and are damped q u i c k l y , almost
 Waves in a Flat Plate (Interference) 121

w i t h o u t reflections. A n electric hell w i t h o u t its

cap is a good wave generator. W i r e the h a m m e r of
the hell, and attach a cork b a l l to the wire. This
cork w i l l be our wave source. B e sure that the
electric wires are well i n s u l a t e d .
The bell should be m o u n t e d on a swing above
the saucer so t h a t it can be lowered i n t o the wa-
ter at the r i m of the saucer. Power should be fur-
nished b y an autotransformer, w h i c h w i l l en-
able us to vary the a m p l i t u d e of the oscillations.
The autotransformer from either a toy electric
train or an electric burning-out m a c h i n e w i l l
serve this purpose. W h e n we switch on the setup,
wo w i l l see circular waves on the water surface.
The average distance between neighbouring crests,
that is, the wavelength, w i l l be about 1 cm
(Fig. 95).
The waves can best be observed by w a t c h i n g
the shadows on the b o t t o m of the saucer under di-
rect s u n l i g h t or strong l a m p l i g h t . Every wave
acts like a c y l i n d r i c a l lens and casts a bright band
on the b o t t o m t h a t repeats the configuration of
the wave front. Since the waves m o v e at about
10 centimetres per second, however, they m a y
seem to merge if you keep your eyes fixed on the
plate. They are visible only close to the source
where their a m p l i t u d e is h i g h , and you w i l l need
to t u r n your head q u i c k l y to trace i n d i v i d u a l
waves on the surface, iust as you w o u l d need to
move your head r a p i d l y to trace the m o t i o n of
i n d i v i d u a l spokes in a r o t a t i n g wheel. The waves
are very clear on the mat plate of a camera, es-
pecially one with a large format. By h o l d i n g
such a camera by h a n d and rocking it gently, you
can easily find a position from w h i c h the waves,
 122 A. Kosourov

which appear to move very slowly can be seen

over the entire surface. A mirror can also be used
to watch the water surface. The most expedient
way to observe the waves is w i t h a stroboscope.
If we i l l u m i n a t e the setup w i t h short flashes of

Fig. 95

light w i t h the same frequency as the wave gener-

ator, the wave w i l l move over one wavelength
from one flash to the next, and as a result, the
wave picture w i l l appear stationary. To o b t a i n this
effect, s i m p l y wire a small l a m p i n t o the c i r c u i t ,
parallel to the electric bell magnet w i n d i n g . A t
a distance of 0.5-1 m 5 the l a m p w i l l i l l u m i n a t e
Waves in a Flat Plate (Interference) 123

the saucer u n i f o r m l y , and the stationary wave

picture w i l l appear clearly. I t is better to use di-
rect s u n l i g h t for photographs.
N o w replace the single cork b a l l on the ham-
mer of t h e bell w i t h a wire fork t o w h i c h two
pieces of cork have been attached at the ends. The
distance between the ends should be 2-3 cm. I f
the corks t o u c h the water surface s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ,
you w i l l get t w o sources of waves t h a t oscillate
not o n l y synchronously, i.e. i n t i m e , b u t in
phase, w h i c h means t h a t the waves from the two
sources w i l l appear i n the same instance of t i m e .
The picture w i l l look a p p r o x i m a t e l y like i n F i g .
96 (here 2d/K = 4). The fan-shaped d i s t r i b u t i o n
of h i g h - a m p l i t u d e zones includes i n t e r m i t t e n t
'silence' zones. The central zone of h i g h ampli-
tudes is perpendicular to the l i n e connecting the
sources, a n d b o t h types of zones are located be-
tween the sources.
According t o the interference picture, the dis-
tance between n e i g h b o u r i n g peaks on the line
connecting the sources is one-half of t h e distance
between t w o crests, t h a t is, one-half of a wave-
length. I f we change the distance between the
sources, the number of h i g h - a m p l i t u d e zone w i l l
change too. I n F i g . 97 the characteristic r a t i o is
2dl% = 2. The larger the distance between sources,
the more 'feathers' we h a v e i n our fan. B u t
the distance between crests on the l i n e connecting
the sources is always one-half of a wavelength.
Thus, the t o t a l number of h i g h - a m p l i t u d e zones
w i l l always be twice the n u m b e r of wavelengths
in the distance between sources. Hence, we can
conclude t h a t if this distance is less t h a n one-
half of a w a v e l e n g t h , the waves w i l l not inter-
124 A. Kosourov
Waves in a Flat Plate (Interference) 125

fere at a l l . Such sources acl as one, producing a

single system of circular waves. This can be de-
monstrated by g r a d u a l l y reducing the distance
between sources. Note also t h a t if a wavefront
continues from a h i g h - a m p l i t u d e zone to a neigh-
bouring zone, it w i l l pass from a crest t o a trough.
In other words, as a wave passes t h r o u g h the ze-
ro phase, the phase of the wave changes by one-
half of a complete cycle.
N o w i m a g i n e t h a t instead of t w o cork balls
creating waves i n the water we h a v e t w o l i g h t
sources e m i t t i n g l i g h t waves. I f we place a screen
perpendicular to the water surface in the p a t h
of the lightwaves, we w i l l see i l l u m i n a t e d places,
which i n d i c a t e h i g h - a m p l i t u d e zones, and shad-
ows. N o w let us try to explain these dark and
light interference bands.
D r a w the two wave systems on paper, as if
the waves were frozen in their tracks (Fig. 98).
Indicate the crests w i t h l i g h t , solid lines and the
troughs w i t h broken lines. Assign every wave a
n u m b e r , g i v i n g i d e n t i c a l numbers t o those t h a t
originate from the sources s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . As is
clear from the drawing, waves w i t h the same num-
ber covered the distance e q u i v a l e n t for both
sources s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . O b v i o u s l y , this occurs
because a l l points at this distance are reached by
waves t h a t travel the same distance. B y a p p l y i n g
the law of superposition, we can conclude that
the heights of the crests and depths of the
troughs w i l l double at this distance. The resulting
crests should be marked i n the d r a w i n g w i t h
heavy, solid lines; mark the troughs w i t h heavy,
broken lines. To the right and left of line 00 are
points at w h i c h the crests of one system of waves
126 A. Kosourov

coincide w i t h the troughs of another. The waves

from one source cause upward d e v i a t i o n at these
p o i n t s , w h i l e the waves from the second source
cause downward d e v i a t i o n , a n d , as a result, to-

Fig. 98

t a l d e v i a t i o n is close to zero. Connect all "such

points w i t h a solid line. I f we analyse t h e numbers
of the crests and troughs, we w i l l see t h a t all the
points of the right line are reached by waves from
the left, w h i c h travel half a wavelength farther
t h a n waves from the r i g h t .
Waves in a Flat Plate (Interference) 127

To the right and left of the zero lines lie t h e

points of intersection of the first crest w i t h the
second, the second w i t h the t h i r d , and so on. I t
is easy to see t h a t these are m a x i m a p o i n t s . I f
we connect these points, we get a l i n e t h a t is
reached by one wave system w i t h the delay of
one wavelength.
By analysing the d r a w i n g further we can find
all the zero and m a x i m a lines. Such lines are hy-
perbolas.
I t is now clear w h y the distance between neigh-
bouring m a x i m a on the line connecting the
sources equals one-half a w a v e l e n g t h . Indeed, the
m i d p o i n t of this line is reached b y waves of the
I wo systems, which m o v e i n the same phase and
enhance one another. I f we m o v e off the p o i n t by
one-half a wavelength, the distance travelled by
one wave w i l l increase by one-half a wavelength,
whereas the distance covered by another w i l l
decrease by the same value. The difference be-
tween the distances travelled b y both waves w i l l
equal one wavelength, and the waves w i l l en-
hance one another a g a i n . This w i l l reoccur every
half wavelength.
A m a x i m u m observed when the difference i n
the distance travelled is zero is called the zero
m a x i m u m or the zero order of interference. Ma-
x i m a observed when the distance is one wave-
length are called first-order interference, and so
on. A m a x i m a l order of interference is deter-
mined by the integer closest t o 2 d / K , where d is the
distance between sources and A, is the wavelength.
Now try t o predict from t h e d r a w i n g or from ex-
periments what changes w i l l occur if one of the
sources radiates waves w i t h half a period (or a
128 C. I;. Stong

fraction of a period) delay. W h a t w i l l h a p p e n if

the phase shift is random? To s t u d y this pheno-
menon e x p e r i m e n t a l l y , s i m p l y m a k e the ends of
the wire fork different lengths.

How to Make a Ripple Tank

to Examine W a v e Phenomena*
by C. L. Stong

W a v e s of one k i n d or another are f o u n d at work

everywhere i n the universe, r a n g i n g from g a m m a
rays of m i n u t e wavelength emitted by nuclear
particles to the immense u n d u l a t i o n s in clouds
of dust scattered t h i n l y between the stars. Be-
cause waves of all k i n d s have i n c o m m o n the func-
tion of carrying energy, it is not surprising t h a t all
waves behave m u c h alike. They m o v e i n straight
lines and at constant velocities t h r o u g h uni-
form m e d i u m s a n d to some extent change dire-
ction and velocity at junctions where the physi-
cal properties of the m e d i u m s change. The part
of a sound wave i n air t h a t strikes a hard object
such as a brick w a l l , for example, bounces back
to the source as an echo.
By learning h o w waves of one k i n d behave the
experimenter learns w h a t behaviour to expect of
others, and problems solved by the s t u d y of
waves in one m e d i u m can be'applied, w i t h appro-
priate m o d i f i c a t i o n , to those i n other m e d i u m s .
The p a n of a s i m p l e ripple t a n k t h a t can be
made in the home consists of a picture frame 6

* An abridged version of an article that first appeared

in the November issue of Scientific American for 1962.
How to Examine Wave Phenomena 129

about five centimeters t h i c k a n d 0.6 m 2 square,

closed at t h e b o t t o m b y a sheet of glass calked t o
bold water, as shown i n F i g . 99. The t a n k is sup-
ported a b o u t 60 cm above t h e floor b y four sheet-
m e t a l legs. A source of l i g h t to cast shadows of

Fig. 99. Ripple tank

for demonstrating
wave behavior:
in ( i ) d o w e l s , (2) a l u m i n i z e d
c a r d b o a r d , (a) h o l e f o r
l i g h t , (4) l V j - v o l t m o t o r
v i b r a t o r , (5) 1 0 0 - w a t t b a r e
straight filament lamp
w i t h f i l a m e n t v e r t i c a l , (6)
picture frame with glass
b o t t o m s e t in m a s t i c , (7)
p a r a f f i n r e f l e c t o r , («) a l l i -
g a t o r clip and steel spring
for a d j u s t i n g m o t o r s p e e d ,
(9) w h i t e p a p e r d i s p l a y
screen, (10) slots for
leveling

ripples t h r o u g h the glass onto a screen 9 below is

provided by a 100-watt clear l a m p 5 w i t h a
straight filament. Because the l a m p is suspended
above the t a n k w i t h the filament axis vertical, t h e
end of the filament a p p r o x i m a t e s a p o i n t source
a n d casts sharp shadows. The l a m p , p a r t l y en-
closed by a fireproof cardboard h o u s i n g 2, is sus-
pended about 60 cm above t h e t a n k on a frame-
work of dowels 1. The wave generator hangs on
rubber bands from a second framework m a d e of
9-01544
130 C. I;. Stong

a pair of m e t a l brackets notched at the upper end

t o receive a wooden crossbar. The distance be-
tween the wave generator and the water can be ad-
justed either b y c h a n g i n g the angle of the m e t a l
brackets or b y l i f t i n g the crossbar from the Sup-
p o r t i n g notches a n d w i n d i n g the rubber bands u p
or d o w n as required. The agitator of the wave gen-

Fig. 100. Details of ripple generator:

(J) s h a f t p a s s e s t h r o u g h h o l e in s c r e w , (2) e c c e n t r i c w e i g h t
f o r a d j u s t i n g a m p l i t u d e of o s c i l l a t i o n , (3) l ' / i - v o l t m o t o r
c l a m p e d i n c l o t h e s - p i n , (4) b e a d o n w i r e c a n b e t u r n e d
d o w n t o g i v e p o i n t s o u r c e of w a v e s , (5) r u b b e r - b a n d s u p p o r t s

erator is a rectangular wooden rod. A wooden

clothespin 3 at i t s center grasps a 1.5 v o l t t o y
motor d r i v e n b y a dry-cell b a t t e r y . Several glass
or plastic beads 4 are attached to the agitator b y
stiff wires, bent at right angles, t h a t fit s n u g l y in-
to any of a series of holes spaced about five cen-
timeters a p a r t . D e t a i l s of the wave generator are
shown i n Fig. 100. Attached to the shaft of the
motor is an eccentric w e i g h t , a 10-24 m a c h i n e
screw about 2.5cm long. The shaft 1 runs t h r o u g h
How to Examine Wave Phenomena 131

a transverse hole drilled near the head of the

screw, which is locked to the motor by a nut run
tight against the shaft; another nut 2 is run partly
up the screw. The speed of the motor is adjusted
by a simple rheostat: a helical spring of t h i n
steel wire (approximately No. 26 gauge) and a
small alligator clip. One end of the spring is at-
tached to a battery terminal, and the alligator
clip is made fast to one lead of the motor. The
desired motor speed is selected by clipping the
motor lead to the spring at various points deter-
mined experimentally. (A 15-ohm rheostat of
the kind used in radio sets can be substituted for
the spring-and-clip arrangement.)
The inner edges of the tank are lined with four
lengths of a l u m i n i u m fly screening 1 7.6 cm wide
bent into a right angle along their length and cov-
ered with a single layer of cotton gauze bandage
2, either spiraled around the screening as shown
in Fig. 101 or draped as a strip over the top. The
combination of gauze and screening absorbs the
energy of ripples launched by the generator and
so prevents reflection at the edges of the tank that
would otherwise interfere with wave patterns of
interest.
The assembled apparatus is placed in opera-
tion by leveling the tank and filling it with water
to a depth of about 20 m m , turning on the lamp,
clipping the motor lead to the steel spring and
adjusting the height of the wave generator u n t i l
the tip of one glass bead makes contact with the
water. The rotation of the eccentric weight makes
the rectangular bar oscillate and the bead bob
up and down in the water. The height, or ampli-
tude, of the resulting ripples can be adjusted by
9*
132 G. L. Stong

altering the position of the free n u t on the ma-

chine screw. The wavelength, which is the distance
between the crests of adjacent waves, can be al-
tered by changing the speed of the motor. The
amount of contrast between light and shadow i n
the wave patterns projected on the screen can be

Fig. 101. Details of tank

brackets and wave ab-
sorbers:
(?) w a v e a b s o r b e r , fly s c r e e n ,
(2) gauze bandage, (,?)
s t r a p i r o n , (4) s u p p o r t f o r
i i g h t s o u r c e , (S) s u p p o r t f o r
w a v e g e n e r a t o r , (6) w a t e r ,
(7) g l a s s , (s) g l a s s s e t in
mastic calking compound,
(9) 1C-G a l u m i n i u m legs

altered by rotating the l a m p . The wave generator

should be equipped with at least one pair of beads
so that ripples can be launched from two point
sources. W a v e s w i t h straight fronts (analogues
of plane waves that travel,in m e d i u m s of three
dimensions) are launched by turning the bead sup-
ports up and lowering the rectangular bar i n t o
the water.
As an introductory experiment, set up the
generator to launch plane waves spaced about
five centimeters from crest to crest. If the appa-
ratus functions properly, the train of ripples will
How to Examine Wave Phenomena 133

flow s m o o t h l y across the t a n k from t h e generator

a n d disappear i n t o the absorbing screen at the
front edge. A d j u s t the l a m p for m a x i m u m contrast.
Then place a series of paraffin blocks (of the
k i n d sold i n grocery stores for sealing jelly),
b u t t e d end t o end, d i a g o n a l l y across t h e t a n k
at an angle of about 45 degrees. Observe h o w the
paraffin barrier reflects waves t o one side, as i n
F i g . 102(top). I n p a r t i c u l a r , note t h a t the angle
m a d e between the p a t h of the i n c i d e n t waves and a
l i n e perpendicular t o the barrier (0;) equals the
angle m a d e b y the p a t h of the reflected rays and
the same perpendicular (0 r ). Set t h e barrier at
other angles larger and smaller t h a n 45 degrees
w i t h respect t o the wave generator and also vary
t h e w a v e l e n g t h and a m p l i t u d e of the waves. I t
w i l l be found t h a t the angle of incidence equals
the angle of reflection whatever the position of
t h e barrier, a law of reflection t h a t describes
waves of a l l kinds.
Next replace the paraffin barrier w i t h a slab of
plate glass about 15 cm w i d e a n d 30 cm long a n d
supported so t h a t its top surface is about 12 m m
above t h e t a n k floor. A d j u s t the water level
u n t i l i t is between 1.5 a n d 3.2 m m above the
glass and l a u n c h a series of p l a n e waves. Observe
h o w t h e waves from the generator slow down
when they cross the edge of the glass and encoun-
ter s h a l l o w water, as shown i n F i g . 102 (bottom).
As a result of the change i n speed the waves
travel i n a new direction above t h e glass, just
as a r a n k of soldiers m i g h t do if they marched off
a dry p a v e m e n t o b l i q u e l y i n t o a m u d d y field. I n
this experiment waves h a v e been diverted from
their i n i t i a l direction b y refraction, an effect
F i g . 102. W a v e reflection a n d r e f r a c t i o n :
t o p : (J) w a v e g e n e r a t o r , (2) s t r a i g h t b a r r i e r , ( j ) i n c i d e n t
waves, (4) reflected waves; b o t t o m : (I) w a v e g e n e r a t o r
(2) deep w a t e r , (3) s h a l l o w w a t e r , (4) r e t r a c t e d w a v e
f r o n t s , (J) reflected w a v e f r o n t s , (6) Incident w a v e l r o n t s
How to Examine Wave Phenomena 135

observed i n waves of all k i n d s w h e n they cross

o b l i q u e l y from one m e d i u m to another i n w h i c h
they travel at a different v e l o c i t y . W a t e r waves
are u n i q u e i n t h a t they travel at different speeds
when the thickness, or d e p t h , of the m e d i u m
changes. To a very good a p p r o x i m a t i o n ' t h e ratio of
wave velocity i n shallow a n d deep water is
proportional to the ratio of the depths of the

Fig. 103

water. This r a t i o is i n effect t h e " i n d e x of refraction"

of t h e t w o " m e d i u m s " . I n t h e case of electro-
m a g n e t i c waves (such as l i g h t ) or m e c h a n i c a l
waves (such as sound) t h e v e l o c i t y of wave pro-
p a g a t i o n varies w i t h the density of the m e d i u m s .
The net reflection at t h e d i s j u n c t i o n between
the deep a n d shallow water can be m i n i m i z e d b y
beveling t h e edge of t h e glass (or a n y other
s m o o t h , solid m a t e r i a l s u b s t i t u t e d for glass)
as shown i n F i g . 103.
W a v e energy can also be focused, dispersed
a n d otherwise d i s t r i b u t e d as desired b y barriers
of appropriate shape, as exemplified b y t h e
parabolic reflectors used i n telescopes, search-
lights, radars a n d even orchestra shells. The
effect can be demonstrated i n t w o dimensions b y
t h e r i p p l e t a n k . M a k e a barrier of paraffin blocks
or rubber hose i n t h e shape of a p a r a b o l a a n d
136 C. I;. Stong

direct p l a n e waves toward i t . A t every p o i n t

along t h e barrier t h e angle m a d e b y the incident
waves and the perpendicular to the parabola is
such t h a t t h e reflected wave travels t o a c o m m o n
p o i n t : the focus of the parabola. Conversely, a
circular wave t h a t originates at the focus reflects
as a p l a n e w a v e from the p a r a b o l i c barrier, as
shown i n Fig. 104 (top). I n this experiment the
wave was generated b y a drop of water.
Interference effects can be demonstrated i n the
r i p p l e t a n k by a d j u s t i n g a p a i r of beads so t h a t
they m a k e contact w i t h the water about five
centimeters apart. A t y p i c a l interference pattern
m a d e b y t w o beads v i b r a t i n g i n step w i t h each
other is shown i n Fig. 104 ( b o t t o m ) . Observe
t h a t m a x i m u m a m p l i t u d e occurs along paths
where the wave crests coincide a n d t h a t nodes
appear along paths where crests coincide w i t h
troughs. The angles at which m a x i m a and nodes
occur can be calculated easily. The trigonometric
sine of the angles for m a x i m a , for example, is
equal to nX/d, where n is the order of the maxi-
m u m (the central m a x i m u m , extending as a per-
pendicular t o the line j o i n i n g the source, is the
"zeroth" order, and the curving m a x i m a extending
r a d i a l l y on each side are numbered "first", "sec-
ond", " t h i r d " and so on consecutively), X is the
wavelength and d is the distance between sources.
S i m i l a r l y , m i n i m a lie along 'angular paths given
by the e q u a t i o n sin 0 = (m — 1/2) X/d, where tn is
the order of the m i n i m a and the other terms
are as previously defined.
Barriers need not be solid to reflect waves.
A two-dimensional lattice of u n i f o r m l y spaced
pegs arranged as i n F i g . 105 w i l l reflect waves i n
H o w t o E x a m i n e W a v e P h e n o m e n a 137

F i g . 104. R e f l e c t i o n f r o m a p a r a b o l i c b a r r i e r :
t o p : ( / ) p a r a b o l i c r e f l e c t o r , (2) r e f l e c t e d w a v e f r o n t s ,
( j ) n o r m a l t o p a r a b o l i c r e f l e c t o r , 1,4) i n c i d e n t w a v e
f r o n t s ; b o t t o m : ( / ) c e n t r a l m a x i m u m , (2) m a x i m u m ,
(3) n o d e
138 C. I;. Stong

the ripple tank that bear a required geometrical

relation to the lattice. W h e n a train of plane
waves impinges obliquely against the lattice,

111 |
r y i —
7 -
—

circular waves are scattered by each peg and

interfere to produce a coherent train of plane
waves. The m a x i m u m amplitude of this train
makes an angle w i t h respect to the rows m a k i n g

Fig. 106

up the lattice such that sin 0 max = nk!2d,

where sin 0 max designates the direction of
maximum wave amplitude, n the order, X the
wavelength and d the spacing between adjacent
rows of pegs (the lattice spacing) (Fig. 106).
How to Examine Wave Phenomena 139

This e q u a t i o n , known as B r a g g ' ? l a w in honor of

its B r i t i s h discoverers, t h e father-and-son t e a m
of Sir W i l l i a m B r a g g and Sir Lawrence Braersr,
has been w i d e l y applied in c o m p u t i n g the lattice
structure of crystal solids from photographs of
wave m a x i m a m a d e b y the reflection of X - r a y
waves from crystals.
A n o t h e r of the m a n y aspects of wave behavior
t h a t can be investigated w i t h the r i p p l e t a n k is
the D o p p l e r effect, first studied intensively b y
the A u s t r i a n physicist Christian J a h a n n D o p p l e r .
H e recognized t h e s i m i l a r i t y in wave behavior
t h a t explains the a p p a r e n t increase in p i t c h of
an onrushing t r a i n w h i s t l e and t h e slight shift
toward t h e b l u e end of t h e spectrum i n the color
of a star speeding toward t h e earth. B o t h effects
are observed because i t is possible for m o v i n g
wave sources t o overtake a n d in some cases t o
o u t r u n their own wave disturbances. To demons-
trate the D o p p l e r effect i n the r i p p l e t a n k , substit-
ute for the agitator bar a s m a l l t u b e t h a t directs
evenly t i m e d puffs of air from a solenoid-actuated
bellows against the surface of t h e water w h i l e
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y m o v i n g across the t a n k at a
controlled and u n i f o r m speed. (A few lengths of
track from a t o y train can be m o u n t e d along the
edge of t h e t a n k and a puffer can be improvised
on a t o y car.)
W h e n t h e puffer moves across t h e t a n k at a
speed slower t h a n t h a t of the waves, crests in
front of t h e puffer crowd closely together, whereas
those b e h i n d spread a p a r t , as shown i n F i g . 106
(top).
The D o p p l e r effect is observed i n waves of a l l
k i n d s , i n c l u d i n g r a d i o signals. B y m e a n s of
140 II. W. Wood

relatively s i m p l e apparatus the effect can b e

applied to determine the direction a n d v e l o c i t y
of an artificial satellite from its r a d i o signals.
These experiments merely suggest the m a n y wave
phenomena t h a t can be demonstrated b y the r i p p l e
tank.
A n y o n e w h o b u i l d s and operates a r i p p l e t a n k
w i l l find it appropriate for enough fascinating
experiments to occupy m a n y r a i n y afternoons.

An Artificial Representation
of a Total Solar Eclipse *
by R. W. Wood

I n preparing for polarisation experiments on

the solar corona, it is extremely desirable t o
have an artificial corona as nearly as possible
resembling the r e a l i t y . The a p p a r a t u s described
below is a i m e d at t h i s end. The artificial corona
in this case resembles the real so closely, as t o
startle one who has a c t u a l l y witnessed a t o t a l
solar eclipse. The polarisation is r a d i a l , and is
produced in the same w a y as i n the sun's surround-
ings, and the m i s t y gradations of b r i l l i a n c e are
present as w e l l . So perfect was t h e representation
t h a t I added several features of purely aesthetic
nature to heighten the effect, and finally succeeded
in getting a reproduction of a' solar eclipse w h i c h
could h a r d l y be distinguished from t h e r e a l i t y ,
except t h a t the polar streamers are straight, in-
stead of being curved, as a l l t h e recent photo-
graphs show t h e m . The curious greenish-blue

* Nature, January 10, 1901, pp. 250-251.

An Artificial Solar Eclipse 141

colour of t h e sky, and the peculiar pearly lustre

and m i s t y appearance are f a i t h f u l l y reproduced.
For lecture purposes a n artificial eclipse of t h i s
sort w o u l d be a d m i r a b l y a d a p t e d , a n d I k n o w of
no other w a y i n which an audience could be given
so v i v i d idea of the beauty of the p h e n o m e n o n .
D r a w i n g s and photographs are w h o l l y i n a d e q u a t e
in g i v i n g any n o t i o n of the actual appearance of
the sun's surroundings, a n d I feel sure t h a t a n y
one w i l l feel a m p l y repaid for the s m a l l a m o u n t
of trouble necessary i n fitting u p the arrangement
w h i c h I shall describe.
A rectangular glass t a n k about a 30 X 30 cm
square on the front a n d 12 or 15 centimeters w i d e ,
a n d a six candle-power incandescent l a m p are all
t h a t is necessary. The dimensions of the t a n k are
not of m u c h i m p o r t a n c e , a s m a l l a q u a r i u m being
a d m i r a b l y adapted to t h e purpose. The t a n k
should be nearly filled w i t h clean water, and a
spoonful or two of an alcoholic solution of m a s t i c
added. The mastic is at once t h r o w n down as an
exceedingly fine precipitate, g i v i n g the water a
m i l k y appearance.
The wires leading t o t h e l a m p should be passed
t h r o u g h a short glass t u b e , and t h e l a m p fastened
to t h e end of the t u b e w i t h sealing w a x , t a k i n g
care to m a k e a t i g h t j o i n t t o prevent the water
from entering the t u b e (Fig. 107). F i v e or six
strips of t i n f o i l are now fastened w i t h shellac
along the sides of the l a m p , leaving a space of
from 0.5 t o 1 m m between t h e m . The strips
should be of about the same w i d t h as the clear
spaces. They are t o be m o u n t e d i n two groups
on opposite sides of t h e l a m p , and the rays pas-
sing between t h e m produce t h e polar streamers.
142 II. W. Wood

The proper n u m b e r , w i d t h and d i s t r i b u t i o n of the

strips necessary to produce the most realistic
effect can be easily determined b y experiment.
A circular disc of m e t a l a trifle larger t h a n the
l a m p , should be fastened to the t i p of the l a m p
w i t h sealing-wax, or any soft, water-resisting
cement; this cuts off the direct l i g h t of the l a m p

Fig. 107 Fig. 108

and represents the dark disc of the m o o n . The

whole is t o be immersed i n the t a n k w i t h the
l a m p i n a h o r i z o n t a l position and the m e t a l disc
close against the front glass plate (Fig. 108). I t is
a good p l a n t o h a v e a rheostat i n circuit w i t h
the l a m p t o regulate the i n t e n s i t y of t h e i l l u m i -
n a t i o n . O n t u r n i n g on the current and seating
ourselves i n front of the t a n k , we s h a l l see a
most b e a u t i f u l corona, caused b y the scattering
of the l i g h t of the l a m p by the s m a l l particles of
m a s t i c suspended i n the water. I f we look at it
through a Nicol prism we shall find t h a t it is
r a d i a l l y polarized, a dark area appearing on each
side of the l a m p , w h i c h turns as we t u r n the
An Artificial Solar Eclipse 143

N i c o l . The i l l u m i n a t i o n is not u n i f o r m around

the l a m p , owing to unsymmetrical distribution
of the candle-power, and t h i s heightens the effect.
I f the polar streamers are found to be too sharply
defined or too w i d e , the defect can be easily
remedied by altering the t i n f o i l strips.
The eclipse is not yet perfect, however, the

Fig. 109

i l l u m i n a t i o n of the sky background being too

w h i t e a n d too b r i l l i a n t i n comparison. B y a d d i n g
a s o l u t i o n of some bluish-green a n i l i n e dye (I used
malachite-green), the sky can be given its weird
colour a n d the corona b r o u g h t out m u c h more
d i s t i n c t l y . If t h e proper a m o u n t of the dye be
a d d e d , the sky can be strongly coloured w i t h o u t
a p p a r e n t l y changing t h e colour of the corona i n
t h e slightest degree, a rather surprising circum-
stance since both are produced b y the same means.
W e s h o u l d h a v e now a most b e a u t i f u l a n d
perfect reproduction of the wonderful atmosphere
a r o u n d the sun, a corona of pure golden w h i t e
l i g h t , w i t h pearly lustre and exquisite texture,
44 A. Kosourov

the m i s t y streamers stretching out u n t i l lost on

the bluish-green background of the sky. The rifts
or darker areas due to the unequal i l l u m i n a t i o n
are present as well as the polar streamers. The
effect is heightened if the eyes are p a r t i a l l y
closed.
A photograph of one of this artificial eclipses
is reproduced in F i g . 109. Much of the fine detail
present i n t h e negative is lost in the p r i n t .

Believe It or Not
by G. Kosourov

V i s i o n is our m a i n source of i n f o r m a t i o n about

the e n v i r o n m e n t , and we are used t o t r u s t i n g
our eyes. The expression ' I c a n ' t believe m y
eyes', for example, indicates extreme surprise,
and n o r m a l l y , our reliance on our eyes is justified.
The eyes, w i t h the appropriate parts of the b r a i n ,
are a sophisticated a n a l y t i c a l apparatus w h i c h
serves our purposes under diverse c o n d i t i o n s —
i n a b r i g h t s u n l i g h t , or darkness, w i t h slow or
r a p i d m o v e m e n t s . The image t h a t reaches the
retina appears free of defects. The i m a g e seems
q u i t e sharp, a n d the perspective is correct.
S t r a i g h t lines seem straight. Objects lack irides-
cence, i . e . , chromatic aberration.
O u r eyes are not ideal i n s t r u m e n t s , however.
Objective studies show t h a t the eye possesses all
the drawbacks of a lens. O u r b r a i n , however,
constructs a correct image from t h e incorrect
picture of the environment on the retina of the
eye. For e x a m p l e , a m a n , who develops short-
sightedness gets a very distorted perspective
Believe It or Not 145

when he puts on glasses for the first t i m e in his

life. S t r a i g h t lines seem curved; planes are
irregular and sloping. Sometimes this causes
slight giddiness. B u t as t i m e passes, t h e m a n
begins t o perceive perspective and straight lines
correctly. The world a g a i n appears undistorted,
even t h o u g h its picture on t h e retina remains
askew.
U n d e r u n u s u a l c o n d i t i o n s — w h e n the eyes get
conflicting i n f o r m a t i o n , when contrasts are great,
when correct perception of distances, dimensions,
a n d ratios is difficult, or w h e n certain parts of
t h e retina are tired from constant s t i m u l a t i o n —
our b r a i n falters, a n d various o p t i c a l illusions
can occur. W e shall give you some i l l u s t r a t i o n s
of h o w our eyes can be m i s t a k e n . W e do not
w a n t t o u n d e r m i n e your trust i n your eyes b u t
t o show you the i m p o r t a n c e of the synthesis
performed b y the b r a i n i n f o r m i n g images.
For t h e first experiment, w h i c h is u s u a l l y used
as proof t h a t the i m a g e on t h e r e t i n a , l i k e t h a t
on a camera, is upside d o w n , we need two pieces
of cardboard. T w o postcards, for example, w i l l
do. M a k e an opening a b o u t 0 . 5 m m i n d i a m e t e r
i n one of the cards w i t h a large needle, and h o l d
i t about 2-3 cm from your eye. L o o k t h r o u g h t h e
h o l e at a b r i g h t landscape, sky, or l a m p . N o w
g r a d u a l l y shade the p u p i l b y slowly m o v i n g t h e
edge of t h e second postcard u p w a r d s . The shadow
of t h e edge of the postcard w i l l appear t o m o v e
downwards from above i n t o t h e field of v i s i o n .
Let us discuss the o p t i c a l o u t l a y of the experi-
m e n t i n more d e t a i l . As l o n g as t h e postcard w i t h
t h e opening is not held i n front of t h e eye, a l l
p o i n t s i n the field of v i s i o n send their rays over
10-01544
146 ft, Kosourov

the entire surface of the p u p i l i n t o the eye

(Fig. 110a). A n d the l i g h t from every p o i n t of
the p u p i l is d i s t r i b u t e d over the entire surface
of the r e t i n a . W h e n we place t h e first postcard
i n front of t h e eye, every p o i n t i n t h e held of
vision is represented by rays passing t h r o u g h
a s m a l l p o r t i o n of the p u p i l (Fig. 1106). The
upper p o i n t s are t r a n s m i t t e d b y rays passing

Fig. 110

t h r o u g h t h e lower part of the p u p i l , whereas lower

p o i n t s are t r a n s m i t t e d by rays passing t h r o u g h
the u p p e r p o r t i o n of the p u p i l . B y s h a d o w i n g
the lower p o r t i o n of the p u p i l w i t h the edge of
the postcard, we block the u p p e r field of v i s i o n ,
a n d we see t h e edge of the card descending from
above. This u n u s u a l experiment is obviously not
dependent on t h e p a t h rays t a k e t o the eye a n d ,
therefore, cannot be used as, proof t h a t the image
i n the retina is u p t u r n e d . The field of vision is
formed before t h e l i g h t rays enter the p u p i l . This
can easily be proved if the i m a g e is projected
onto a m a t glass p l a t e instead of t h e h u m a n eye.
O u r second experiment w i l l show h o w t h e eyes
h a n d l e conflicting i n f o r m a t i o n . Place a paper
t u b e a b o u t 2 cm i n diameter over one eye, and
Believe It or Not 147

look t h r o u g h it at objects i n front of you. N o w

hold t h e p a l m of your h a n d i n front of your
other eye about 10-15 cm a w a y from your face
and close to the tube. Y o u w i l l clearly see a hole
in t h e p a l m , t h r o u g h w h i c h objects can be seen.
The i m a g e of the centre of t h e p a l m is completely
suppressed b y the images seen through the tube.
A more refined experiment can be performed
w i t h t h e different i n f o r m a t i o n the right and left
eyes receive. Tie a s m a l l w h i t e object to a w h i t e
thread. N o w start this p e n d u l u m swinging i n
one p l a n e , and then step back 2-3 m . H o l d a
l i g h t filter of any density a n d colour i n front of
one eye, and w a t c h t h e p e n d u l u m . Y o u w i l l see
t h a t i t is not swinging i n one p l a n e b u t m a k i n g
an ellipse. I f you m o v e t h e l i g h t filter i n front
of t h e other eye, the m o t i o n of the p e n d u l u m w i l l
reverse.
The o p t i c a l i l l u s i o n i n F i g . 111a is well k n o w n :
the straight l i n e seems t o break when i t intersects
t h e b l a c k strip. N o t m a n y people k n o w , however,
t h a t if t h e figure is completed b y d r a w i n g a
w i n c h a n d a load (Fig. 1116), p r o m p t i n g the
b r a i n t o believe t h a t t h e l i n e is a t a u t w i n c h l i n e ,
the i l l u s i o n of a broken l i n e disappears.
O u r last experiment shows h o w a n i m a g e is
formed w h e n the b r a i n is given a choice of alter-
natives. Figure 112 shows t w o pictures of t h e
l u n a r landscape i n the area of the Mare H u m o r u m
a n d A p e n n i n e R i d g e . I n one of the pictures you
see circular l u n a r m o u n t a i n s and i n the other
circular l u n a r craters, i . e . , a n inverse landscape.
T u r n t h e pictures, and the landscape w i l l reverse.
These pictures are absolutely i d e n t i c a l , b u t one
of t h e m is upside d o w n . The effect of inverse
10*
148 ft, Kosourov

relief is often observed when t h e Moon is viewed

through a telescope. The astronauts w h o visited
the M o o n had difficulty correctly perceiving the
landscape w h i c h lacked atmospheric perspective
in the h i g h l y contrastive surroundings. The
effects of reverse m o t i o n can be observed b y

X XI (a) (6)

w a t c h i n g the silhouette of a dish-shaped radar

Fig. Ill

aerial as i t rotates. Y o u w i l l notice t h a t the

aerial b l u n t l y reverses the direction of its rota-
t i o n at certain moments. S t u d e n t s used t o be
advised t o s t u d y this phenomenon b y observing
the silhouette of a w i n d m i l l .
M a n y interesting illusions are related t o colour
perception. O p t i c a l illusions are not s i m p l y
a m u s i n g tricks, since studies of the organs of
sight under u n u s u a l conditions can h e l p e x p l a i n
the complex processes i n the; eye a n d b r a i n d u r i n g
the synthesis of images of the e n v i r o n m e n t . Readers
who wish to learn more about physiologi-
cal optics are referred to Experiments in Visual
Science b y J . Gregg.* The book contains a

* Gregg J a m e s R . Experiments in Visual Science. For

Home and School. New Y o r k . R o n a l d , 1966, 158 p.
Believe It or Not 149
150 B. Kogan

n u m b e r of s i m p l e experiments w i t h v i s u a l per-
ception. A l l of t h e m are q u i t e m a n a g e a b l e b y
school c h i l d r e n , and m a n y are p a r t i c u l a r l y
instructive. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e language used t o
describe p h y s i c a l optics is far from scientific.

Colour Shadows
by B. Kogan

A Green Shadow

I n a room l i t by normal w h i t e l i g h t , t u r n on
a desk l a m p w i t h a red b u l b . Place a sheet of
w h i t e paper on the desk a n d t h e n h o l d a s m a l l
object, a pencil, for example, between t h e l a m p
and the desk. The paper w i l l cast a s h a d o w , w h i c h
w i l l not be black or grey b u t green. T h i s effect
seems to relate more to physiology and psychology
t h a n t o physics. The shadow of the object appears
green because it contrasts w i t h the b a c k g r o u n d ,
w h i c h , a l t h o u g h a c t u a l l y reddish, we perceive
as w h i t e since we know the paper is w h i t e . The
absence of the colour red in the area covered b y
the shadow is apparently interpreted b y our
brain as the colour green. B u t w h y green?
R e d and green are complementary colours, i . e . ,
when c o m b i n e d , they produce w h i t e . W h a t does
this mean? As early as the seventeenth century,
Newton found t h a t w h i t e s u n l i g h t is complex
and combines the p r i m a r y colours v i o l e t , b l u e ,
green-blue, green, yellow, orange, and red.. This
can be illustrated w i t h a glass prism. If a narrow
beam of s u n l i g h t is passed t h r o u g h the p r i s m ,
a coloured image of the beam w i l l appear. Newtop
Colour Shadows 151

also used a lens to combine a l l these colours a n d

o b t a i n the colour w h i t e a g a i n . I t was found t h a t
when one of the colours, green, for example, is
'intercepted', the beam becomes coloured, i n
t h i s case, red. W h e n yellow is intercepted, the
beam becomes blue, and so on. Thus, green and
red, yellow and b l u e , a n d s i m i l a r pairs of colours
are complementary.
This interesting experiment can also be carried
out w i t h l i g h t bulbs of other colours. I f the l i g h t
b u l b is green, for example, the shadow w i l l be red.
I f t h e b u l b is blue, t h e shadow w i l l be y e l l o w ,
and if the b u l b is yellow, the shadow w i l l be
b l u e . Generally, the colour of the shadow w i l l
always be c o m p l e m e n t a r y to the colour of t h e
b u l b . The above p h e n o m e n o n can easily be
observed i n winter t i m e near neon advertisements
i n t h e c i t y . Shadows from the neon, w h i c h are
c o m p l e m e n t a r y to t h e colours of t h e advertise-
m e n t itself, should show u p clearly when t h e
ground is covered w i t h snow.

R e d Leaves

T u r n oft the l i g h t i n your r o o m , and switch on

a l a m p w i t h a blue b u l b . L o o k at the leaves of
p l a n t s i n the room: t h e green leaves look red,
rather t h a n green or b l u e , i n the b l u e l i g h t . W h a t
causes this? A c t u a l l y , the glass of the blue l i g h t
b u l b passes a certain a m o u n t of red l i g h t along
w i t h the blue. A t t h e same t i m e , p l a n t leaves
reflect not only green b u t red l i g h t to some extent
as well, w h i l e absorbing other colours. Therefore,
when the leaves are i l l u m i n a t e d w i t h blue l i g h t ,
they reflect only red a n d , therefore, appear as
152 E. Pal'chikov

such i n our eyes. This same effect can be obtained

in a different w a y by looking at the leaves through
blue spectacles or a b l u e light filter. The famous
Soviet scientist K . T i m i r y a z e v was speaking
about such eye-glasses when he wrote: " Y o u have
only t o p u t t h e m on, and the w h o l e world looks
rosy for y o u . Under a clear blue sky a fantastic
landscape of coral-red meadows and forests rolls
out ..."

W h a t Colour is Brilliant Green?

by E. Pal'chikov

W h a t colour is t h e ' b r i l l i a n t green' often used

as an antiseptic for m i n o r bruises a n d wounds?
M a n y w o u l d p r o b a b l y answer t h a t i t is green
(and they w o u l d be right). B u t look through a
bottle of the b r i l l i a n t green at a bright light
source, the sun, the filament i n an electric b u l b ,
or an arc discharge, for example. Y o u w i l l see
that the b r i l l i a n t green transmits only the colour
red. So, is the 'green' tincture red?
Pour a b r i l l i a n t green s o l u t i o n * i n t o several
developing trays of various depth or thin-wall
glass beaker, and examine it i n the l i g h t . T h i n
layers of the s o l u t i o n are, indeed, green, b u t
thicker layers h a v e a grayish t i n t ( w i t h purple
hues), whereas the thickest layers appear reddish.
I n other words, the colour depends on the thick-
ness of the layer of solution. H o w this can be
explained? T w o transparency b a n d s — a broad

* The tincture is not diluted, the vessels must he

extremely shallow.
What Colour is Brilliant Green? 153

blue-green b a n d and a narrow red b a n d (Fig. 113) —

are visible i n the transmission band of a t h i n
layer of b r i l l i a n t green. I n r e a l i t y , however, the
red b a n d is not narrow: it extends i n t o the in-
frared range, a l t h o u g h the h u m a n eye can detect
o n l y a s m a l l fraction of the b a n d . The a b s o r p t i o n

Ultraviolet
light

-- O ^
V i s i b l e liulit Fig. 113

in the red b a n d is lower t h a n t h a t in the blue-

green b a n d (the transmission factor for t h e red
b a n d is s u b s t a n t i a l l y greater t h a n t h a t for the
blue-green). B u t the blue-green band is wider
t h a n the red, and it is situated i n the part of the
spectrum where the eye is most sensitive. There-
fore, a solution of b r i l l i a n t green in a t h i n layer
w i l l appear green.
N o w let us double the thickness of the layer
or place two layers over one another, w h i c h
154 ft, Kosourov

w i l l h a v e the same effect. O b v i o u s l y , the trans-

mission factor w i l l decrease. To get the v a l u e of
this new transmission, we m u l t i p l y the factors
of the first a n d second layers. I n other words, the
transmission factor for the t o t a l layer should be
squared. I n this case, the transmission factor for
the blue-green band w i l l decrease very signifi-

c a n t l y , whereas it w i l l remain almost the same

for the red b a n d .
Figure 114 shows changes in the transmission
factors for the blue-green and red bands w i t h
increases in the thickness of the b r i l l i a n t green.
The proportion of blue-green t o red o b v i o u s l y
decreases. A t a certain thickness, the solution
w i l l t r a n s m i t o n l y red l i g h t . N o w answer t h e
question again. W h a t is the real colour of b r i l l i a n t
green?

An Orange Sky
by G. Kosourov
A n u m b e r of interesting experiments concern
colour perception. Those we suggest here i n v o l v e
An Orange Sky 155

various optical illusions caused b y u n u s u a l v i s u a l

conditions or eye fatigue.
Colour perception is a very complex m e c h a n i s m ,
w h i c h has not yet been studied adequately. The
retina of the eye contains two types of colour-
sensitive cells called rods and cones. The rods
contain p h o t o c h e m i c a l l y sensitive p i g m e n t , i . e . ,
p u r p u r a or rhodopsin. W h e n acted u p o n b y l i g h t ,
rhodopsin decolourizes and reacts w i t h the nerve
fibres, w h i c h t r a n s m i t signals to the b r a i n . I n
very bright l i g h t , t h e p i g m e n t decolourizes com-
pletely, and the rods are b l i n d e d . The process is
reversed i n the d a r k , i . e . , p u r p u r a is recovered.
R o d or t w i l i g h t v i s i o n is very sensitive b u t
achromatic, since t h e rods cannot d i s t i n g u i s h
colours. I n fairly b r i g h t l i g h t , cone vision, w h i c h
is sensitive to colour, takes over. M a n y c o n v i n c i n g
experiments i n d i c a t e t h a t the cones contain three
k i n d s of p h o t o c h e m i c a l l y sensitive p i g m e n t s
which are m a x i m a l l y sensitive i n the red, green,
and blue bands of the spectrum. The v a r i a b l e
degree of their decolourization produces the
sensation of colour i n the b r a i n and allows us to
see the world in different colours, t i n t s , halftones,
and hues. This p r i n c i p l e of t r i c h r o m a t i c vision
is used in m o t i o n pictures, colour television,
photography, and p r i n t i n g . Methods for meas-
uring colours q u a n t i t a t i v e l y are also hased on
the t r i c h r o m a t i c p r i n c i p l e .
Colour perception can be generated not only
b y colour itself b u t b y i n t e r m i t t e n t i l l u m i n a t i o n ,
for example. To test this, draw the black-and-
w h i t e circles shown i n F i g . 115a-d w i t h I n d i a
i n k . Y o u r circles should be a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8-
12 cm in diameter. Cut out the discs, and spin
156 ft, Kosourov

t h e m s l o w l y , e.g., 1-3 revolutions per second,

on t h e axis of a film projector, record p l a y e r ,
tape recorder, or a c h i l d ' s t o p . I n s t e a d of b l a c k
arcs you w i l l see coloured circles. The colour

(«) (b)

(c) id)
Fig. 115

depends on the velocity of the revolutions, the

i l l u m i n a t i o n , and the design on the circle itself.
O n the disc i n Fig. 115a, for example, the arcs
t h a t follow the black sectors (in the direction of
r o t a t i o n ) appear red when poorly l i g h t e d , and
yellow u n d e r d a z z l i n g l i g h t . A t a certain speed
and brightness, the black sectors appear blue.
 157
An Orange Sky

This phenomenon is s t i l l i n c o m p l e t e l y under-

stood.
Colours are distinguished not only by shade or
variety b u t also b y s a t u r a t i o n . I f we slowly add
w h i t e p a i n t to red, t h e red w i l l g r a d u a l l y become
pinker. I n p a i n t i n g s a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y , i n p r i n t e d
copies of p a i n t i n g s , i t is very difficult t o o b t a i n
well saturated tones a n d a broad spectrum of
brightness. The brightness r a t i o of the brightest
w h i t e p a i n t t o the deepest b l a c k barely reaches
one h u n d r e d , whereas i n nature the ratios reach
m a n y thousands. R e p r o d u c t i o n s of p a i n t i n g s ,
therefore, often appear either washed out or too
d a r k , a n d one of t h e most i m p o r t a n t elements of
steric perception—atmospheric perspective—is,
t h u s , lost. The i m a g e of a landscape or a genre
scene i n such p a i n t i n g s seem two-dimensional.
The range of brightness i n projections of slides
o n t o a screen is m u c h broader. T h a t is w h y photo-
graphs on colour reversible film are so expressive
a n d h a v e such w o n d e r f u l perspective.
The perception of a p a i n t i n g can be i m p r o v e d
considerably b y i l l u m i n a t i n g i t i n a special w a y .
M a k e a negative f r o m a colour picture out of
a m a g a z i n e a n d t h e n use a contact p r i n t i n g proc-
ess t o m a k e a black-and-white slide of t h e
negative. N o w project the slide onto the o r i g i n a l
using a projector w i t h a powerful l i g h t source.
M a k e sure t h a t the projected slide lines u p exactly
w i t h the o r i g i n a l . The result w i l l m a k e y o u
glad you m a d e t h e effort. The picture w i l l seem
livelier; i t w i l l seem to g a i n d i m e n s i o n a n d a
special charm. N o w t u r n off t h e projector, a n d
you w i l l see h o w d u l l a n d inexpressive the o r i g i n a l
is w i t h u n i f o r m l i g h t i n g .
158 ft, Kosourov

The f o l l o w i n g experiments deal w i t h so-called

successive colour images. Complete recovery of
colour-sensitive p i g m e n t is a rather slow process.
I f you look at a m o n o c h r o m a t i c picture for a
long time and then shift your eyes t o a piece
of w h i t e paper or a w h i t e w a l l or ceiling, the
w h i t e w i l l appear to lack the colour t h a t has
tired t h e eyes. The same picture w i l l appear on
the w h i t e surface b u t i t w i l l be i n t h e complemen-
t a r y colour. Cut out red, orange, y e l l o w , green,
blue, a n d violet paper squares 2 b y 2 cm i n size.
P u t one of these coloured squares on a piece of
w h i t e paper i n front of you a n d look at i t , w i t h o u t
s t r a i n i n g your eyes, for about 30 seconds. Stare
fixedly at one p o i n t , and do not let t h e i m a g e
shift on t h e r e t i n a . N o w shift your gaze t o a field
of w h i t e , a n d after a second y o u w i l l see a clear
afterimage of the square i n a c o m p l e m e n t a r y
colour. T h i s shows t h a t the c o m p l e m e n t a r y t o
red is green, t o blue—orange, a n d t o y e l l o w —
violet. E a c h p a i r of complementaries, if m i x e d ,
should produce achromatic w h i t e or grey.
To m i x complementaries place t w o 'complemen-
t a r y ' squares (red and green, for example) close
together, a n d p u t a glass p l a t e between t h e m
u p r i g h t (Fig. 116). N o w position y o u r eye so t h a t
one of the squares is visible t h r o u g h the glass and
the other reflected i n i t . B y v a r y i n g the angle of
the p l a t e a n d t h u s changing t h e r a t i o of t h e
l i g h t fluxes from t h e squares, you can almost
completely decolourize the superimposed images.
To achieve complete a c h r o m a t i z a t i o n of the
image, t h e colours m u s t m a t c h perfectly. A d u l l
brown colour is most often o b t a i n e d . B u t if the
colours are absolutely u n c o m p l e m e n t a r y , green
An Orange Sky 159

a n d yellow or red and violet, for example, t h e

r e s u l t i n g colour w i l l always be b r i g h t . The
images appear even brighter if the squares are
placed against a c o m p l e m e n t a r y , rather t h a n
w h i t e background.
The most s t r i k i n g a n d inexplicable colour
i l l u s i o n is illustrated b y our last experiment.
W e k n o w t h a t colour reproduction is based on

Fig. 116

t h e p r i n c i p l e of t r i c h r o m a t i s m . I f we p h o t o g r a p h
t h e same scene three t i m e s using three different
light filters—red, green, a n d b l u e — a n d t h e n
project the pictures from three different projec-
tors onto t h e same screen, the resulting picture
w i l l have realistic colours. The l i g h t filters
should produce t h e colour w h i t e when c o m b i n e d .
Try this experiment w i t h o n l y t w o c o m p l e m e n t a r y
l i g h t filters, red a n d green, for e x a m p l e . The
transmission of colour should be good i n t h i s
case too, a l t h o u g h not as perfect as i n the three-
colour projection. E x p e r i m e n t s show t h a t even
one filter is enough for projection.
P h o t o g r a p h the same scene twice on panchro -
m a t i c film w i t h o u t m o v i n g t h e camera. Use a red
160 V. Mayer

light filter for the first picture a n d a green'filter

for t h e second. The filters from a school k i t w i l l
suit t h i s purpose since they need not be care-
f u l l y m a t c h e d . Use a contact p r i n t i n g t e c h n i q u e
to m a k e positives, and then project t h e two slides

Red li.'iit fi!tc-1-

Fig. 117

from t w o projectors onto a • single screen. L i n e

the images u p exactly. N o w place a red filter i n
front of t h e projector w i t h t h e slide taken w i t h
a "red filter. Leave t h e picture i n t h e second pro-
jector b l a c k and w h i t e (Fig. 117). The result
w i l l be a colour picture f u l l of tones a n d hues
even t h o u g h y o u are projecting o n l y red a n d b l a c k
a n d w h i t e pictures i n w h i c h the d i s t r i b u t i o n of
The Green Red Lamp 161

l i g h t and shade differs. Objective investigations

of t h e l i g h t reflected from t h e various places on
t h e screen show o n l y t h e colour red, a l t h o u g h
w i t h different degrees of c l a r i t y a n d s a t u r a t i o n .
Colour perception i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r case is entire-
ly subjective. The projectors should be powered
b y separate autotransformers so t h a t t h e i l l u m i -
n a t i o n from each can be controlled i n d e p e n d e n t l y .
N o r m a l l y , t h e colour seems n a t u r a l when t h e
screen is d i m l y l i t .
Thus, phenomena t h a t seem s i m p l e and o b v i o u s
are a c t u a l l y f u l l of secrets and mystery.

The Green Red L a m p

by V. Mayer
In his excellent book Ihe Universe
of Light, W. Bragg describes a n elegant
experiment to demonstrate a peculiar
property of the h u m a n eye. The experiment is
s i m p l e enough to be reproduced at h o m e w i t h o u t
m u c h difficulty. The necessary e q u i p m e n t can be
assembled from a t o y constructor k i t (Fig. 118).
A t t a c h a m i c r o m o t o r (2) b y a n a l u m i n i u m or
t i n p l a t e m o u n t t o a n a l u m i n i u m baseplate (1)
15 X 60 X 110 m m i n size. Insert a shaft (4)
w i t h a p u l l e y (5) whose inner diameter is 15-
25 m m i n t o the openings of t w o risers (3) a b o u t
60 m m in h e i g h t .
A t t a c h a cardboard disc (6) 100-140 m m
i n diameter to one end of t h e shaft before instal-
l i n g (if the shaft is threaded, t h e disc can be

* The Universe of Light. By Sir William Bragg,

London, Dover, 1950.
SI—01544
162 V. Mayer
The Green Reel Lamp 163

fastened w i t h nuts). Fix another riser (7) t o the

same base plate w i t h an opening for a s m a l l l i g h t
b u l b (#). Connect the shaft of t h e m i c r o m o t o r a n d
t h e p u l l e y w i t h a rubber ring (9). The m o t o r
s h o u l d be connected to one or two flashlight
batteries connected i n series. According to Bragg,
the disc should rotate at a speed of 2 or 3 revo-
l u t i o n s per second. The speed can be controlled
t o a certain extent b y slowing the p u l l e y w i t h
one finger.
Test the setup before b e g i n n i n g the experi-
m e n t . Then cut a sector i n the cardboard disc
whose arc is about 45°. G l u e w h i t e paper t o one
h a l f of the r e m a i n i n g sector and black paper t o
the other half (Fig. 119). P a i n t the b u l b of the
flashlight, w h i c h should be rated for 3.5 V , w i t h
red nitrocellulose enamel (fingernail polish w i l l
do). W h e n the enamel has dried, insert t h e l i g h t
b u l b i n t o the opening in the riser, and s u p p l y
it w i t h wires to the batteries. Place a desk l a m p
20-50 cm i n front of the disc to i l l u m i n a t e i t
squarely. N o w connect the b u l b to the batteries,
a n d switch on the m o t o r .
I f the disc rotates so t h a t on each r e v o l u t i o n
the b u l b is first shaded b y the black sector, the
b u l b w i l l appear red regardless of the strength
of i l l u m i n a t i o n or r o t a t i o n speed. I f we change
directions b y c h a n g i n g t h e p o l a r i t y of t h e bat-
teries so t h a t t h e b u l b is shaded first b y the w h i t e
sector, the b u l b w i l l appear green or blue-green!
I f the conditions of the experiment (the speed of
r o t a t i o n or t h e colour of the enamel) h a v e not
been carefully fulfilled, the l a m p w i l l appear
l i g h t blue w i t h a w h i t i s h tinge rather t h a n
blue-green.

11*
164 N. Rostovtsev

N o w let us t r y t o explain t h e results of the

experiment. The disk spins r a p i d l y , and each
t i m e t h e red b u l b is revealed t h r o u g h the cut-out
sector, a brief red i m a g e reaches t h e retina of the
eye. I f t h e w h i t e sector shades t h e b u l b as t h e
r o t a t i o n continues, the retina receives a reflection
of the scattered w h i t e l i g h t from t h e desk l a m p .
This w h i t e l i g h t acts on the retina for a longer
t i m e t h a n the red. After the b l a c k sector passess
before t h e eye, the process starts a g a i n , and the
l a m p appears blue-green since t h e eye perceives
the colour c o m p l e m e n t a r y to t h e red b u l b .
The retina a p p a r e n t l y becomes more sensitive
to t h e other spectral components of w h i t e after
brief i l l u m i n a t i o n w i t h red l i g h t . W h e n the
eye, w h i c h 'tires' of the colour red, is i l l u m i n a t e d
b y w h i t e l i g h t , i t perceives t h e w h i t e w i t h o u t
a 'red c o m p o n e n t ' . The retina has become more
sensitive t o the colour c o m p l e m e n t a r y t o red—
blue-green. Since the retina is exposed t o the
white l i g h t m u c h longer t h a n t o t h e red, the
l i g h t b u l b appears blue-green rather t h a n red.
This hypothesis is supported b y t h e result of
r o t a t i o n i n t h e opposite direction so when t h e
b u l b is shaded first b y the b l a c k sector. D u r i n g
exposure t o the colour b l a c k t h e p a r t of the
retina on w h i c h the red image of t h e b u l b appears
is able t o recover. Therefore, w h e n the w h i t e
h a l f of t h e disc appears, the eye perceives a l l the
colours t h a t compose w h i t e e q u a l l y . Since the
red l i g h t acts on the retina for a longer t i m e
t h a n a l l other components (first t h e red compo-
nent of the w h i t e colour appears a n d then the
red colour of the b u l b itself), the b u l b looks
red.
Measuring Light Wavelength with a Wire 165

Measuring Light Wavelength

with a W i r e
by N. Rostovtsev

Stretch a t h i n wire {W) 0.05-0.12 m m i n dia-

metre vertically a b o u t 2-3 m m i n front of a n
i m a g i n a r y eye (E). N o w direct a beam of l i g h t
from a p o i n t source towards the eye (Fig. 120).
To the right and left of the p o i n t source, we w i l l

see a b r i g h t t h i n b a n d . The b a n d , w h i c h appears

as a result of the d i S r a c t i o n of l i g h t is called a
diffraction fringe. W e w i l l use an ordinary l i g h t
b u l b or a b u l b from a flashlight as a l i g h t source
i n our observations. Place the l i g h t b e h i n d a
s m a l l opening (0) in a screen (.A) 1-1.5 m a w a y
from t h e observation p o i n t . The wire (W) can be
replaced w i t h a t h i n filament or h a i r .
I f we examine t h e centre of t h e diffraction
fringe carefully, we can detect a w h i t e b a n d w i t h
reddish edges. This b a n d is called the central
m a x i m u m . I t is bounded on either side b y darker
bands, w h i c h are called first m i n i m a . Colour
bands follow next, w h i c h , as we m o v e from t h e
centre t o the edges, change g r a d u a l l y from green-
166 N. Rostovtsev

ish-blue to red. Darker bands, called second

m i n i m a , reappear at the edge of t h e red. This
p a t t e r n then repeats, a l t h o u g h t h e m i n i m a become
paler, a n d t h e l i g h t bands finally merge i n t o a
c o n t i n u o u s b a n d . Observations w i t h wires of
different diametres show t h a t the smaller the
wire diametre, the greater the distance between
adjacent m i n i m a .
To perform interesting experiment place the
wire used for diffraction observations between
the jaws of a vernier caliper. T i g h t e n the caliper
s l i g h t l y , a n d t h e n carefully remove t h e wire. The
w i d t h of t h e slit between the jaws w i l l equal the
diametre of the wire exactly. N o w look t h r o u g h
this slit from the same distance from w h i c h y o u
m a d e your diffraction observations, a n d a l i g n
the slit w i t h the l i g h t source 0 . O n either side
of the source, you should see a diffraction fringe
whose m i n i m a and m a x i m a are exactly t h e same
distance apart as those i n t h e diffraction of the
wire. This observation is an excellent i l l u s t r a t i o n
of the B a b i n e t principle, according t o w h i c h
diffraction patterns from a screen a n d a n opening
of the same w i d t h are i d e n t i c a l outside t h e area
of a direct ray.
N o w coil t h e piece of wire we h a v e been using
for our observations of the diffraction fringe i n t o
a disc whose diametre is abou,t h a l f the diametre
of a d i m e . For this we w i l l need a wire 2-3 m l o n g .
H o l d t h i s disc i n front of one eye, and look at
a p o i n t source. Y o u should see a n u m b e r of
haloes: a central w h i t e circle w i t h reddish fringe,
surrounded b y coloured circles. The haloes are
separated from one another by narrow d a r k
circles, i.e. the m i n i m a . Each such m i n i m u m
Measuring Light Wavelength with a Wire 167

follows the red fringe of t h e preceding h a l o . I f

t h e observation is m a d e from the same distance
as i n the experiment w i t h t h e diffraction of t h e
wire, the diametres of t h e d a r k circles w i l l e q u a l
the distances between the respective m i n i m a of
the diffraction fringe. The finer the d i a m e t r e of
the wire, the more v i s i b l e t h e haloes w i l l be.
W h y do such haloes appear if a coil of w i r e is
placed i n the p a t h of rays from a p o i n t source?
E a c h s m a l l section of t h e wire i n front of t h e
eye produces its own diffraction fringe, w h i c h i s
symmetrical w i t h respect t o the l i g h t source.
Since every section i n t h e coil is oriented differ-
e n t l y , the resulting diffraction fringes are t i l t e d
differently around a single p o i n t , w h i c h coincides
w i t h the l i g h t source. Since the thickness of t h e
wire is u n i f o r m , m i n i m a of t h e same order are
located the same distance from the l i g h t scurce
i n a l l diffraction fringes and merge t o p r o d u c e
dark circles. The coloured sections between t h e
m i n i m a also merge t o produce coloured circles.
N o w let us determine the conditions i n w h i c h
m i n i m a appear i n t h e diffraction p a t t e r n pro-
duced b y a wire w i t h d diametre and a s l i t of
t h e same w i d t h . Since t h e distance between t h e
m i n i m a is the same i n b o t h cases, either t h e w i r e
or the slit can be analysed. To s i m p l i f y t h e
c a l c u l a t i o n , we shall select the s l i t . Let us exam-
ine the waves t h a t do not change direction after
passing through the s l i t (in F i g . 121 t h e y are
represented by dotted lines). The eye converges
them on the retina at p o i n t 0 . W a v e s from a l l
points of the slit enhance each other at t h i s spot
because they reach the eye regardless of t h e
distance travelled, and at p o i n t O they are i n
168 N. Rostovtsev

the same phase. Therefore, t h e central m a x i m u m

is formed i n the neighbourhood of t h e p o i n t 0 .
The eye converges waves diffracted at angle <p
t o t h e i n i t i a l direction at p o i n t K, where t h e
waves interfere as a result of superposition. The
result of the interference w i l l depend on the
difference i n the distance travelled b y the rays
e m a n a t i n g from the extreme p o i n t s A and B of

the s l i t . D r a w a section BC perpendicular to the

ray e m a n a t i n g from p o i n t A. The new intercept
AC equals t h e difference between t h e distances
travelled b y t h e t w o extreme rays. I t follows
from F i g . 121 t h a t AC — d sin <p, where d is
the s l i t w i d t h .
C a l c u l a t i o n s show t h a t i n t h e diffraction pat-
tern produced b y a rectangular s l i t , m i n i m a are
observed w h e n the difference i n t h e distance
travelled b y t h e waves e m a n a t i n g from t h e ex-
treme p o i n t s of t h e slit is

d s i n cp = kX (1)

where ^ is t h e l i g h t wavelength and k is the

n u m b e r (order) of a m i n i m u m (k = 1, 2, 3, . . .).
N o w we s h a l l test the v a l i d i t y of f o r m u l a (1)
for t h e first m i n i m u m , i.e. k — 1. Let the second-
Measuring Light Wavelength with a Wire 169

ary waves t h a t e m a n a t e from a l l p o i n t s of t h e

slit travel at an angle <p so t h a t
d sin cp = % (2)

D i v i d e the slit i n t o t w o i m a g i n a r y rectangular

strips (zones) AD and DB, b o t h of w i d t h d!2.
A c c o r d i n g t o d e f i n i t i o n (2) the difference i n t h e
distance travelled b y rays from p o i n t s A a n d D
is X/2. The difference between rays from a n y t w o
p o i n t s dl2 apart on t h e slit w i l l be t h e same.
The waves t h a t t r a v e l X/2 suppress one another
b y superposition a n d , therefore, if c o n d i t i o n (2)
is observed, t h e waves from zone AD w i l l suppress
t h e waves from DB. A s a result t h e first m i n i m u m
w i l l appear at p o i n t K.
S i m i l a r l y , we can show t h a t the next (second)
m i n i m u m w i l l appear i f d sin <p = 2X. I n t h i s
case, t h e slit should be d i v i d e d e q u a l l y i n t o four
zones. The difference i n travel for t h e waves b o t h
from the first a n d second, a n d from t h e t h i r d
a n d fourth zones w i l l be %l2. Therefore, the w a v e
from the first zone w i l l suppress t h a t of t h e
second, and the wave of t h e t h i r d zone w i l l sup-
press t h a t of t h e f o u r t h . The second m i n i m u m
appears on the retina where these waves are
superimposed.
According to f o r m u l a (1), t h e l i g h t w a v e l e n g t h
can be determined from t h e f o r m u l a

K = dsinJ t (3)
K
Measurements of X can be simplified considerably
b y using a p r i m i t i v e metre called an eriometre.
Y o u can m a k e an eriometre from a square piece
of cardboard whose sides are 10-15 cm long.
170 N. Rostovtsev

D r a w a circle w i t h a radius of 20-30 m m i n t h e

m i d d l e of t h e square. M a k e a n o p e n i n g of 2-3 m m
i n diametre i n the centre a n d 6-8 openings of
smaller diametre around t h e circumference.
Place the eriometre A directly i n front of a n
electric b u l b . N o w stand 1-2 m a w a y from t h e
i n s t r u m e n t so t h a t rays pass d i r e c t l y from a
sector of the incandescent filament t h r o u g h open-
i n g 0 t o the eye. H o l d a coil of wire i n front of
one eye, and m o v e it perpendicular t o the rays
u n t i l t h e haloes are clearly v i s i b l e . V a r y t h e
distance between the i n s t r u m e n t a n d your eye
t o find a position from w h i c h the perforated
circumference of the eriometre coincides w i t h
the m i d d l e of dark r i n g of k order (in F i g . 120,
k = 2).
As is obvious from the figure, the tangent of
the diffraction angle cp for a dark r i n g is calculated
from t a n cp = r!l, where r is the r a d i u s of t h e
circumference of the eriometre a n d I is the dis-
tance from the i n s t r u m e n t t o the coil of wire. A t
low diffraction angles, w h i c h are c o m m o n i n such
measurements, the f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p is true

sin <p « t a n <P = y

B y s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a l u e of sin tp i n expression
(1), we get a formula for w a v e l e n g t h

4
< >

W e already know t h e r a d i u s of t h e eriometre r.

The distance I can be easily measured. The order
of a d a r k r i n g k is determined b y obsarving the
haloes. The wire diametre d is measured w i t h a
Measuring Light Wavelength with a Wire 171

micrometre. I f the measurements are t a k e n i n

w h i t e l i g h t , we can determine the effective l i g h t
wavelength to w h i c h t h e h u m a n eye is most
sensitive w i t h f o r m u l a (4). This wave is approx-
i m a t e l y 0.56 fim l o n g , and waves of this length
correspond to the green section of the colour
spectrum.
Haloes m a y appear i n diffraction p a t t e r n s
caused b y round obstacles. They can be observed
b y spreading a s m a l l a m o u n t of l y c o p o d i u m pow-
der (composed of t h e spores of a club moss, i t
can be obtained i n a n y drugstore) on a glass p l a t e .
G e n t l y t a p the edge of t h e p l a t e against your desk
to remove excess powder. N o w , look t h r o u g h the
p l a t e at a l i g h t source. Y o u should see haloes
formed b y the r o u n d spores, w h i c h act as obsta-
cles. Especially b r i g h t haloes appear around a
drop of blood pressed between t w o glass plates.
I n this case the diffraction is caused by red blood
cells called erythrocytes.
The haloes produced b y r o u n d and rectangular
obstacles differ s l i g h t l y . The m i n i m u m c o n d i t i o n
for haloes from rectangular obstacles is de-
scribed by formula (1). The m i n i m u m c o n d i t i o n
for haloes from r o u n d obstacles is
d sin cp = 1.22*,; 2.23X; . . . (5)

Here d is the diametre of a round screen. W i t h

the help of an eriometre a n d f o r m u l a (5), we can
determine the average diametre of ciub moss
spores and erythrocytes w i t h o u t a microscope!
H a l o e s ' c a n be observed around the S u n , t h e
M o o n , and even other planets. These haloes
appear when l i g h t passes t h r o u g h clusters of
water drops or ice crystals suspended i n the
172 A. Bondar

atmosphere (through a t h i n c l o u d , for example).

Clear haloes appear only if t h e cloud is m a d e
of drops of equal diametre or crystals of the same
thickness. I f the drops or crystals v a r y i n size,
however, rings of different colours superimpose
to produce a w h i t i s h corona. This is w h y a h a l o
appears around the Moon, p a r t i c u l a r l y at t w i l i g h t
on a clear d a y . The water v a p o u r i n the atmo-
sphere condenses s l i g h t l y on such nights and
produces s m a l l drops or crystals of the same
size. Haloes sometimes occur w h e n the l i g h t
from a d i s t a n t l a m p passes t h r o u g h a fog or a
w i n d o w p a n e covered w i t h a t h i n layer of ice
crystals or condensed v a p o u r .

EXERCISES

1. The effective light wavelength is approximately

0.56 (j,m. Using an eriometre, determine the diametre of
the strands in nylon stockings and ribbons.
2. How does the appearance of the halo indicate whether
the cloud contains water droplets or ice crystals?
3. The angular diametre of the Moon is 32 minutes.
Determine the diametre of the drops in a cloud, if the
angular radius of the central circle of its halo is four
times the angular diametre of the Moon.

Measuring Light
with a Phonograph Record
by A. Bondar

O n e of t h e most accurate ways of determining

the spectral composition of r a d i a t i o n is the
m e t h o d based on diffraction. A diffraction g r a t i n g
is a good spectral i n s t r u m e n t . W e can observe
Measuring Light with a Phonograph Record 173

diffraction and even measure the wavelength of

visible l i g h t w i t h a standard phonograph record.
I n acoustic recording evenly spaced grooves are
cut on the surface of a d i s k . These grooves scatter
l i g h t , whereas the i n t e r v a l s between t h e m reflect
i t . I n t h i s w a y the disk becomes a reflecting
diffraction g r a t i n g . I f t h e w i d t h of reflecting
strips is a and t h e w i d t h of scattering strips is b,
then the value d = a + b is the period of t h e
grating.
Consider a p l a n e m o n o c h r o m a t i c wave of l e n g t h
X w h i c h is i n c i d e n t at angle 8 to a g r a t i n g w i t h
period d. According t o t h e Huygen-Fresnel prin-
ciple, every p o i n t of a reflecting surface becomes
an i n d i v i d u a l p o i n t source sending out l i g h t i n
a l l possible directions. Consider the waves travel-
l i n g at an angle cp t o t h e g r a t i n g (see F i g . 122).
These waves can be collected at one p o i n t w i t h a
condensing lens (the crystalline lens of the eye,
for example). Let us determine under w h a t com-
b i n a t i o n of conditions the waves w i l l enhance
one another.
The difference between distances travelled by
rays 1 a n d 2 issued by p o i n t s A and B from
neighbouring reflecting areas (Fig. 123) is
| AK | = | NB |= d sin cp — d sin 9 =
= d (sin cp — sin 6)

(KB is the front of t h e reflected wave directed at

angle cp, AN is the front of the i n c i d e n t wave).
I f t h e difference is a c o m m o n m u l t i p l e of the
wavelength, the phases of oscillations t r a v e l l i n g
from p o i n t s A and B w i l l be equivalent, and w i l l
enhance each other. A l l other reflecting areas of
the g r a t i n g behave s i m i l a r l y . Therefore, the
174 A. Bondar

c o n d i t i o n of central m a x i m u m is described as
d ( s i n cp — s i n 6) = kX (1)
where k = 0, 1, 2, . . .. Hence we can determine
t h e wavelength k. For this we need to know the
g r a t i n g period d, the incidence angle 0 for the
wave w i t h respect to the g r a t i n g , and the angle

Fig. 122 Fig. 123

of its direction to a corresponding m a x i m u m (p.

N o r m a l l y , the g r a t i n g period is m u c h larger t h a n
the wavelength (d is m u c h larger t h a n X), and
angles cp are, therefore, s m a l l . This means t h a t
the central m a x i m a are s i t u a t e d very close t o one
another, and the diffraction p a t t e r n is rather
h a z y . The larger the incidence angle (9), however,
the larger the cp angles a n d , consequently, the
more convenient the measurements. Thus, the
rays s h o u l d be directed towards the grating at
an angle.
So far we have been discussing m o n o c h r o m a t i c
l i g h t . W h a t if complex w h i t e l i g h t strikes such
a g r a t i n g ? I t is clear from e q u a t i o n (1) t h a t the
l o c a t i o n of every central m a x i m u m depends on
w a v e l e n g t h . The shorter the wavelength, the
s m a l l e r the angle cp corresponding t o the maxi-
Measuring Light with a Phonograph Record 175

m u m . Thus, all m a x i m a (except for the central)

stretch out i n a spectrum whose violet end is
directed towards the centre of the diffraction
p a t t e r n and whose red end is directed o u t w a r d .
Two spectra of t h e first order, followed b y t w o
spectra of the second order, a n d so on lie on
either side of the central (zero) m a x i m u m . The
distance between corresponding lines of spectra
increases w i t h an increase i n the order of t h e
spectrum. As a result, spectra m a y overlap. I n
the spectrum of t h e S u n , for example, second-
arid third-order spectra overlap p a r t i a l l y .
N o w let us t u r n to the experiment itself. To
measure the w a v e l e n g t h of a specific colour, we
need to determine t h e period of grating (d), t h e
sine of the incidence angle of the ray w i t h respect
to the g r a t i n g (sin 0), a n d the sine of the angle
t h a t determines t h e direction towards a m a x i m u m ,
for example, the m a x i m u m of the first order
(sin cp]). The period of the lattice can easily be
determined b y p l a y i n g the record:

Here A R is the absolute displacement of the

stylus along t h e r a d i u s of t h e record i n At t i m e ,
a n d n is the n u m b e r of revolutions per u n i t of
t i m e . U s u a l l y , d is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.01 c m .
A desk l a m p can be used as a l i g h t source.
M a k e a screen w i t h a slit out of cardboard, and
cover the l a m p t o a v o i d l i g h t interference i n
diffraction p a t t e r n analysis. The filament of t h e
b u l b should be v i s i b l e t h r o u g h the s l i t . Place
the l a m p close t o one w a l l of the room. Place t h e
record h o r i z o n t a l l y near the opposite w a l l . N o w
176 ft, Kosourov

find the i m a g e of the slit (see F i g . 124). Y o u

s h o u l d see the diffused colour bands t h a t indicate
the spectrum of the first order (k =• 1) simultan-
eously. I t is easy to prove t h a t t h e greater the
angle 0, t h e wider the colour i m a g e of the slit
a n d t h e more accurate measurements of the angle
at w h i c h the ray i n question is diffracted w i l l be.

Fig. 124

To determine sin cpx, have a friend h o l d a pencil

(or some other object) over the slit so t h a t its
image coincides w i t h the selected spectrum b a n d
i n the l i g h t reflected from t h e g r a t i n g (as from a
flat mirror) (see Fig. 124). Once we have measured
a, b, a n d h w i t h a ruler, we can determine sin (f!
and sin 8
a
sin<p t1 = — . 2
/ a + &3

These expressions could be somewhat simplified.

Since b <C a, and h a, then

a 1
/af + ft" / l + 62/«2 2 a*
A Ball for a Lens 177

and
a ^ 1 ! _ J _
2 2 2 2
]/a + A ] / l + fc /a ~ 2 a2

A n d finally
/j a ja
A, = d (sin (p t — sin —

I t is interesting t o compare t h e estimated

wavelengths of various colours w i t h the values
i n the reference tables. I n our experiments the
error, w i t h very careful measurements, was on
the order of 10~8 m . This level of accuracy is
q u i t e acceptable for w a v e l e n g t h i n the v i s i b l e
b a n d (A, is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 -7 m ) .

A Ball for a Lens

by G. Kosourov

Geometrical optics is based on the idea t h a t

l i g h t rays m o v e i n straight lines. Y o u can prove
this for yourself e x p e r i m e n t a l l y . R e p l a c e t h e
objective lens of your camera w i t h a sheet of
b l a c k paper w i t h a very s m a l l opening i n i t .
B r i g h t l y i l l u m i n a t e d objects can be photographed
w i t h such a device, called a camera obscura. The
picture i n Fig. 125, for example, was t a k e n w i t h
a n ordinary camera whose objective lens was
replaced w i t h a sheet of b l a c k paper i n w h i c h a n
opening 0.22 m m i n diametre had been m a d e .
The A S A 80 film was exposed for 5 seconds. The
i m a g e on the film coincides exactly w i t h t h e cen-
t r a l projection of the p o i n t s of the object by straight
12-01544
178 ft, Kosourov

lines passing through the opening. The image is

a hard evidence that light rays travel in straight
lines.
A shadow on a white screen cast b y an opaque
object is explained as a projection of the contour
of the object on the plane of the screen by rays

Fig. 125

from every p o i n t of the l i g h t source. Since the

l i g h t source is u s u a l l y rather large, the dark
centre of the shadow called the u m b r a is bounded
by a diffused semisliadow - or p e n u m b r a . W o
m i g h t expect to reduce or even e l i m i n a t e the
p e n u m b r a by reducing the size of the light
source. E x p e r i m e n t s show q u i t e the opposite,
however. W h e n the light source is fairly s m a l l ,
it reveals phenomena t h a t were earlier masked
by the p e n u m b r a . For e x a m p l e , the straight edge
A Ball for a t.i'ns 179

of an opaque plate casts the shadow shown i n

Fig. 120. The shadow was photographed at a
distance of 0.5 m from the screen i n Avhite l i g h t
through a red lilter, a n d the picture was t h e n
enlarged. The distance between the first t w o dark
bands is 0.0 m m . The edge of the shadow is di-
ffused, and dark a n d bright bands of d i m i n i s h i n g
contrast, lie parallel to the edge. I f the light
source is w h i t e , the bands are all the colours of
the spectrum.
A shadow cast b y a t h i n wire (Fig. 127) also
has a complex structure. The edges are fringed
w i t h bands s i m i l a r to those of the opaque p l a t e ,
b u t there are dark a n d bright bands w i t h i n the
umbra whose w i d t h reduces w i t h the thickness
of the wire. (This picture was taken in w h i t e
light through a red filter. The wire diameter is
1.2 m m , and the distance from the wire t o the
camera is 0.5 m . )
The shadow cast b y a b a l l or a s m a l l opaque
disk is q u i t e u n u s u a l (Fig. 128). I n a d d i t i o n to the
f a m i l i a r dark and b r i g h t circles surrounding t h e
shadow, a bright spot appears in the centre of
the u m b r a as t h o u g h there were a s m a l l o p e n i n g
in the centre of the disk. (For this picture we used
a b a l l 2.5 m m i n diametre and a red filter.
R 1 = R 2 = 0.5 m . )
Diffraction refers to the phenomena t h a t result
when light does not propagate i n strict accor-
dance w i t h the principles of geometrical optics.
These phenomena can be explained by the wave
nature of l i g h t . W e can get a more exact descrip-
tion of light p r o p a g a t i o n not from the structure of
the rays but from the patterns of light wave
propagation themselves.
12*
180 ft, Kosourov

Fig. 120
A Ball for a Lens 181

Consider the circular waves t h a t appear w h e n

a stone disturbs t h e calm surface of a p o n d . I f
the waves reach a log floating on the surface, a
clearly defined shadow appears i n the w a k e of
the log. The shadow is b o u n d e d b y the rays d r a w n
from the p o i n t at w h i c h the stone hits the surface
of the water t h r o u g h t h e ends of the log. W i t h i n
the shadow, diffraction creates less noticeable
waves, w h i c h scarcely d i s t u r b the p a t t e r n of t h e
geometrical shadow. I f the waves r u n i n t o a
pile, t h e wave p a t t e r n for a very short distance
b e h i n d the p i l e does not resemble a geometrical
shadow. F i n a l l y , if t h e waves h i t a t h i n pole
s t i c k i n g out of t h e water, no shadow appears at
a l l since waves m o v e freely around s m a l l obsta-
cles. I n this case o n l y a weak circular wave caused
b y t h e pole is v i s i b l e on t h e surface.
Thus, sometimes straight rays accurately de-
scribe the patterns of wave p r o p a g a t i o n , and some-
times diffraction patterns d o m i n a t e . The p a t t e r n
depends on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e wave-
length, the dimensions of the obstacle (or open-
ing) t h a t l i m i t w a v e p r o p a g a t i o n , a n d the dis-
tance to the p l a n e of observation. This relation-
ship can be f o r m u l a t e d as follows: if the obstacle
or o p e n i n g can be seen from the p o i n t s of t h e
screen on w h i c h we observe the shadow at a n
angle greater t h a n t h e angle at w h i c h t h e entire
wavelength can be seen from the distance e q u a l
t o the w i d t h of t h e obstacle, t h e n the diffraction
does not strongly distort the picture of t h e rays.
In the resulting f o r m u l a ^ » — , a is t h e size
of the opening, R is the distance t o the screen on
w h i c h the shadow is observed, a n d X is t h e wave-
182 ft, Kosourov

l e n g t h . I f the angles are comparable, however,

or if the first angle is less t h a n the second, i.e.,
jjr <C ~ , diffraction plays decisive role, and the
rays cannot be described as linear. I n optics the
angles are n o r m a l l y comparable since visible
l i g h t wavelengths are very s m a l l (from 0.7 j.im
for the colour red to 0.4 for violet). B u t at
great distances from a t h i n opening or wire, the
first angle m a y be less t h a n the second.
L i g h t diffraction patterns can be observed w i t h
a very s i m p l e setup. M a k e an opening 0.1-0.2 m m
i n diametre i n a piece of foil w i t h a sharp needle,
and glue the foil to a piece of cardboard i n which
an opening has been m a d e . The cardboard is
needed o n l y to prevent the interference of the
light source (this can be a desk l a m p ) . A t t a c h the
cardboard to a m o u n t , and project a magnified
image of the filament of the b u l b onto it w i t h
a lens capable of close-ups from 4 to 5 cm away.
M a k e certain t h a t part of the i m a g e falls on the
opening i n the foil. The l i g h t cone t h a t forms
behind the screen can easily be projected onto a
m a t plate of glass or detected w i t h the h u m a n
eye (if the l i g h t cone catches the eye, the opening
w i l l seem dazzling). Now place objects for ob-
servation about 0.5 m away from the opening;
our observations of the diffraction pattern w i l l be
m a d e another 0.5 m behind' the object. Make
your observations through a weak m a g n i f y i n g
glass or a lens capable of close-ups from 2 t o 5 cm
t h a t has been fixed t o a m o u n t . S t a n d so that the
whole lens is b r i g h t l y i l l u m i n a t e d . The diffrac-
tion pattern can be clearly seen against a bright
background.
A Ball for a Lens 183

Figure 129 shows the setup, w i t h which all the

diffraction patterns reproduced i n this article
were obtained. W e used an optical bench i n the
experiments. This is not m a n d a t o r y , of course,
although the diffraction patterns can lie moved

Fig. 129:
(1) l a m p ; ( 2 ) J p r o j e c t i n g l e n s , (-J) p o i n t d i a p h r a g m
w i t h a l i g h t s c r e e n , (4) c l a m p for d i f f r a c t i n g
o b j e c t s , (5) l i g h t p r o o f t u b e , (6) p h o t o g r a p h i c
camera without objective

more easily i n t o the centre of the field of vision

if you have supports w i t h screw displacements.
The shadow from a straight-edged, opaque
screen can be provided w i t h the b l a d e of a safety
razor. Use two such razor blades, to m a k e a slit
0.3-1 m m wide. A piece of wire u p to 1 m m i n
diametre w i l l give you the diffraction p a t t e r n
184 ft, Kosourov

of a narrow screen. The t i p of a needle also

produces an interesting p a t t e r n .
To produce a b r i g h t spot i n t h e centre of a
shadow cast b y a r o u n d object use a steel b a l l
bearing 2-4 m m i n diametre. A t t a c h the b a l l to
a glass p l a t e w i t h a drop of glue. (The glue should
not be visible beyond t h e contour of the b a l l ,
a n d t h e surfaces of the p l a t e a n d t h e b a l l should
be clean.) W h e n the glue is d r y , fix t h e plate i n
the setup. A d j u s t the p l a t e u n t i l t h e shadow of t h e
b a l l is i n the centre of t h e field of v i s i o n . I n
t h i s position both the outer diffraction circles
and t h e spot i n t h e centre surrounded b y d a r k
and b r i g h t circles w i l l be clearly visible.
The diffraction patterns can easily be photo-
graphed w i t h a camera from w h i c h t h e objective
lens has been removed. The shadow of the object
s h o u l d be projected directly onto the film i n the
camera. To increase the resolution a n d the num-
ber of diffraction fringes, t h e opening, w h i c h
serves as a l i g h t source, s h o u l d be covered w i t h
a l i g h t filter. A red filter works best since there
are m a n y red rays i n t h e spectrum of l i g h t
from a c o n v e n t i o n a l electric b u l b . N o r m a l l y , an
exposure of 5 or 10 seconds is sufficient. To
a v o i d overexposure the camera a n d setup should
be connected b y a t u b e w i t h a b l a c k l i n i n g .
D i s p l a c e m e n t of the l i g h t source w o u l d cause
displacement of the shadow, a n d hence the spot
itself. Therefore, if you use a slide instead of a
p o i n t source i n your setup, every transparent
p o i n t on the slide w i l l cast its own, slightly
displaced shadow of the b a l l w i t h its own bright
spot. A s a result, the outer diffraction circles
w i l l diffuse, a n d a n i m a g e of t h e slide w i l l
A Ball for a Lens 185

appear i n the centre of the shadow. The b a l l w i l l

act as a lens. The i m a g e of P l a n c k ' s constant i n
F i g . 130 was o b t a i n e d i n t h i s w a y . The photo-
graph was m a d e w i t h a b a l l 4 m m in d i a m e t r e .
The height of the s y m b o l K is 1 m m . The o r i g i n a l
slide was m a d e w i t h contrast film b y photo-

Fig. 130

g r a p h i n g a letter d r a w n i n I n d i a i n k on w h i t e
paper.
I f y o u d r i l l a n opening about 2 m m i n d i a m e t r e
i n a t h i n t i n p l a t e , y o u can see how the diffraction
pattern of the o p e n i n g changes at various dis-
tances. Cover the o p e n i n g w i t h a l i g h t filter, a n d
move closer t o i t . F r o m a distance of 1-2 m , you
should be able t o see b l a c k circles i n t h e centre
of the pattern w i t h a m a g n i f y i n g glass. A s you
move closer, the circles change to d a r k rings,
diffusing towards t h e b o u n d a r y of the shadow.
The n u m b e r of d a r k rings, i n c l u d i n g t h e d a r k
spot i n t h e centre, is determined b y t h e difference
186 ft, Kosourov

in the distances travelled by the central ray and

the ray from the edge of the opening. This fact
can be used t o determine t h e l i g h t wavelength if
the opening diametre, the distance from the
light source to the opening, a n d the distance
from the opening to the image are known. The
plane of the image can be determined by placing

Fig. 131

(») 1 trim in d i a m e t r e . R j - - H 2 = - 0 . 5 m. lied f i l t e r . T h e o p e n i n g

shows t w o zones. Black s p o t in t h e c e n t r e ; (b) 1 m m in di-
a m e t r e . K^—H2=0.5 m . Blue f i l t e r . T h e o p e n i n g shows a l m o s t
t h r e e zones; (c) 1.5 m m in d i a m e t r e . Jii=U2=().f> m . R e d f i l t e r .
T h e o p e n i n g s h o w s s l i g h t l y m o r e t h a n f o u r zones

a needle in front of the m a g n i f y i n g glass and

m o v i n g it u n t i l it resolves sharply against the
background of the diffraction pattern. W e w i l l
discuss the derivation of the calculation formula
later.
Y o u can observe the b e a u t i f u l v a r i a t i o n in the
colour of diffraction circles in w h i t e l i g h t . These
colours, w h i c h do not resemble spectral colours,
are called complementaries. They can be observed
when one spectral band is missing from the com-
plete spectrum of w h i t e l i g h t . I n this case, for
example, when green is represented b y a dark
centre spot, the r e m a i n i n g parts of the spectrum,
i.e. red-orange and violet, m a k e the centre of
A Ball for a Lens 187

the picture look purple. The absence of red

produces the complementary green-blue colour,
and so on. Figure 131 shows examples of diffrac-
tion patterns from a round opening.
W h y do we have a black spot in the centre of
the pattern, which the light rays seem to reach
without interference? Let us return to our obser-
vation of waves on the surface of a pond. Consider
two stones thrown simultaneously into the pond
and the resulting two systems of waves. I m a g i n e
points on the surface reached by the crests of the

Time

Fig. 132 Fig. 133

two wave systems simultaneously. W i t h t i m e

the same points w i l l be reached by the troughs,
and the waves w i l l become larger (Fig. 132).
This enhancement w i l l occur at points that lie
at various distances from the wave sources. The
waves w i l l also be enhanced at points that lie
an entire wavelength, two wavelength, and so
on from the source. W h e n the crests of one wave
system meet the troughs of another, the waves
dampen one another (Fig. 133). This interference
188 ft, Kosourov

plays the decisive role i n f o r m i n g diffraction

patterns.
E v e r y p o i n t i n space t h a t is pierced b y a l i g h t
wave can also be regarded as a source of a second-
ary spherical wave (Fig. 134). I f t h e l i g h t passes
through a round opening, we can replace the
l i g h t source w i t h secondary l i g h t sources distri-
b u t e d over the area of the o p e n i n g . A l l these
sources w i l l fluctuate i n concord w i t h the first
wave to reach the opening. The a m p l i t u d e of the

Fig. 134

fluctuations at a p o i n t b e h i n d the screen is cal-

culated as the sum of the fluctuations caused at
the observation p o i n t b y each secondary source.
W a v e s from different sources travel different dis-
tances and can enhance or d a m p e n one another
when c o m b i n e d .
Let us observe changes i n t h e a m p l i t u d e of
oscillations around the axis of a r o u n d opening
i l l u m i n a t e d b y a p o i n t source. W h e n t h e distance
t o a n observation p o i n t is very great i n com-
parison w i t h the diametre of the opening, t h e
waves from all secondary sources travel almost
the same distance a n d enhance one another when
A Ball for a Lens 189

they reach the observation p o i n t . As we m o v e

closer to the opening, the secondary waves from
the sources at t h e edge w i l l lag significantly
behind waves t r a v e l l i n g from the centre, and
the resulting a m p l i t u d e w i l l decrease. W h e n the
ray from the edge to the observation p o i n t be-
comes an entire wavelength longer t h a n the
centra] ray, the oscillations are completely
dampened (compensated), and a b l a c k spot ap-
pears i n the centre of the diffraction p a t t e r n .
I f we m o v e even closer to the opening, we d i s t u r b
the d a m p e n i n g of oscillations on the axis, and
the centre becomes b r i g h t again. This t i m e t h e
d a m p e n i n g w i l l t a k e place at a distance from the
axis, and the centre of the diffraction p a t t e r n w i l l
be surrounded b y a dark ring. W h e n the ray on
the edge lags t w o wavelengths b e h i n d the central
r a y , t h e d a m p e n i n g at t h e axis reoccurs. The
diffraction p a t t e r n i n this case w i l l be a b r i g h t
spot w i t h a dark centre and one dark r i n g .
The dark spot i n the centre w i l l appear periodi-
cally as we m o v e closer t o the opening. W e can
t e l l h o w m a n y oscillations occurred at t h e axis
b y c o u n t i n g the n u m b e r of dark rings. The same
phenomenon can be seen if we change t h e radius
of the opening rather t h a n the distance t o i t .
These explanations are enough for you t o derive
a formula to determine wavelength.
Good luck!
This selection of interesting articles from the popular
science journal Kvant is a collection of fairly simple but
challenging and instructive experiments that require little
space and the simplest possible equipment. Designed to
illustrate the laws of physics, the book includes lessons on
growing crystals, studying the oscillations of a pendulum
and experimenting with light using a gramophone record
or a ball bearing. Suitable for secondary school students
and teachers.