CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Basics
Earthquakes are one of the most destructive forces in nature. The earthquakes cause’s major
disasters and disruptions compare to the other forces. Earthquake produce ground motions leading
to generation of inertial forces in the structures, which depends upon time and intensity of ground
motions.
The inertial forces generated due to earthquake ground motions need to be resisted by the structural
elements in the building mainly these inertial forces are to be resisted by the vertical elements, and
these vertical elements should be strong enough that structure can survive its design earthquake
without failure Under large earthquakes, structures expected to behave ductile and fails-safe design
philosophy is adopted. Under fail safe design philosophy, the structures may be damaged during
large earthquakes, but the collapse mechanism must avoid causalities.
As per the conventional earthquake-resistant design philosophy, the structures are designed for
forces, which are much less than the expected design earthquake forces. Hence, when a structure
is struck with severe earthquake ground motion, it undergoes inelastic deformations. Even though
the structure may not collapse but the damages can be beyond repairs. In RCC structures, a
structural system can be made ductile, by providing reinforcing steel according to the IS: 13920-
1993 code. A sufficiently ductile structural system undergoes large deformations in the inelastic
region. Non-linear analysis of these structures will help in understanding their complete true
behavior of structure. From the results, it can be predicted, whether the structure will not collapse
partially collapse or totally collapse.

1.2 Seismic analysis method

There are mainly two type of analysis
1. Elastic analysis
 Linear analysis
2. Inelastic(plastic) analysis
 Non-linear analysis
Elastic analysis are carried out by assuming that at design loads structure will behave in linearly
elastic manner, therefor the limiting stress is the value corresponding to the strain of 0.002, up to
which steel behaves as a linear material.
Plastic analysis is defined as the analysis in which criterion for the design of structure is the
ultimate load. It can be define it is studied beyond the elastic limit. Plastic analysis derives from
a simple mode failure in which plastic hinges form.
Elastic analysis gives only elastic capacity of the structure and is also indicate where the first
yielding occurs. But this elastic analysis cannot give any information about redistribution of
forces during progressive yielding that follows and predict its failure mechanism. For checking
behavior of structure in inelastic zones Nonlinear Analysis is necessary.
Linear analysis:-It is an analysis where linear relation holds between applied force and
displacement. It is a proportional analysis. Principle of Superposition is applicable in liner
analysis. Hence, solutions for multiple load cases can be combined for combined deformations.
There are two types of linear analysis
 Linear Static Analysis(static equilibrium method)
 Linear Dynamic Analysis(Response spectrum method)
Nonlinear analysis:-It is an analysis where a nonlinear relation holds between applied forces and
displacement. Nonlinear relationships between loads and displacement may come due to many
reasons, including associated material or geometric non-linearity of the structure.
There are two types of nonlinear analysis
 Non-linear Static analysis
 Non-linear Dynamic analysis

1.3 Non-linearity
Non-linearity in RCC member can be of following types
1. Material nonlinearity
2. Geometric nonlinearity
Geometric nonlinearity:- It is a change in the elastic load deformation characteristic of structure
caused by the change in structural shape due to the deformation. It appears when the deflections
of the structure are large enough to cause significant changes in the geometry of the structure
These geometric nonlinearities can become significant in frames, which are displaced laterally
due to seismic movements or by wind loads. The interaction between the gravity load induced
axial forces in the columns and the lateral displacements give rise to moments and forces in
addition to those determined in a common “first order” analysis. This additional effect is
commonly referred as P-Δ effects, where “P” refers to the gravity loading and “Δ” the lateral
displacements.
P- Δ effect generates additional shear forces and bending moments in columns because of the
deformed shape. The moments generated will be equal to the load acting on the column times the
horizontal displacement.
In addition to this, the P-Delta effects has one more adverse effects, specifically in tall buildings.
As we know, in case of earthquake a building deforms. And this deformation is huge and the
structure is already in its inelastic zone with concrete cracking. This means that the structure is
already losing its stiffness. Now the P-Delta shear (The force that is generated at the top and
bottom of the column because of P-delta moments), generates an additional demand for lateral
shear resistance of the structural system. This additional demand is in addition to the earthquake
shear demands. Which means that if we have not consider the P-delta demands and if we
provided insufficient shear resistance, than the building might collapse.

Material nonlinearity:- When the materials move into the zone beyond it's yield strengths, it no
longer behaves in a linear fashion. There are many things that happen when material go into this
zone
 Permanent deformations: This means that when the material is unloaded it will not go
back to its original shape or position. For example if you take a plastic bag and stretch it,
after a certain point even if you release the bag you will see the permanent stretch marks.
This is called permanent deformation.
 Cracking: Generally this occurs in linear design as well, but we neglect the cracking of
concrete, even though we still consider the reduced stiffness of members while doing
seismic design, but still it is an assumed value. While in nonlinear analysis we monitor
the cracking and so concrete will crack and member will start losing its stiffness.
 Beam rotations: When a beam is subjected to moments greater than its capacity, it no
longer resists the moments, instead it rotates and forms a plastic hinge and start
dissipating energy. This is a part of material nonlinearity but for beams it is called
backbone curve (aka F-D relationship).
This is what happens in nonlinear analysis. If a member goes beyond its capacity (elastic limit),
it will experience some sort of strain hardening or cracking and it will start losing its stiffness
which also means that the total stiffness of the structure or building is also changing.
 CHAPTER 2
Introduction to non-linear static analysis method

2.1 Definition:-
It is an analysis in which, a mathematical model incorporates the nonlinear load-deformation
characteristics of individual components and elements of the building which shall be subjected to
increasing lateral loads representing inertia forces in an earthquake until a ‘target displacement’
is exceeded. It is also known as pushover analysis.
As the name suggests this procedure is essentially a static analysis, in which the static loads are
applied in an incremental fashion until the ultimate state of the structure is attained. The non-
linear designation comes from the fact that the various components/elements are modeled using a
non-linear mathematical model.

2.2 Fundamentals of pushover:-

Pushover analysis is a static, nonlinear procedure in which the magnitude of the structural
loading is incrementally increased in accordance with a certain predefined pattern. With the
increase in the magnitude of the loading, weak links and failure modes of the structure are found.
In addition, pushover analysis is also used to ascertain the capability of a structure to withstand a
certain level of input motion defined in terms of a response spectrum.

2.2.1 Lateral Load Patterns

FEMA 356 suggests the use of at least two different patterns for all pushover analysis.
 Group – I
i) Code-based vertical distribution of lateral forces used in equivalent static analysis
ii) A vertical distribution proportional to the shape of the fundamental mode in the
direction under consideration
iii) A vertical distribution proportional to the story shear distribution calculated by
combining modal responses from a response spectrum analysis of the building
 Group – II

i) A uniform distribution consisting of lateral forces at each level proportional to the total
mass at each level
ii) An adaptive load distribution that changes as the structure is displaced
2.2.2 Building performance
ATC 40 gives guidelines regarding Performance Objectives. Performance Objective specifies the
desired seismic performance of the building. It includes consideration of damage states for
several levels of ground motion. Performance level describes a limiting damage condition which
may be considered satisfactory for a given building and a given ground motion. Target
performance level is specified independently. Structural performance levels are given names and
number designations while nonstructural performance levels are given names and letter
designations.
Performance of building can be evaluated by combination of evaluation of Structural
performance and Nonstructural performance.

Structural performance levels are defined as:

Immediate Occupancy (SP-1): limited structural damage with the basic vertical and lateral force
resisting system retaining most of their pre-earthquake characteristics and capacities.

Damage Control (SP-2): a placeholder for a state of damage somewhere between Immediate
Occupancy and Life Safety.

Life Safety (SP-3): significant damage with some margin against total or partial collapse. Injuries
may occur with the risk of life-threatening injury being low. Repair may not be economically
feasible.
Limited Safety (SP-4): a placeholder for a state of damage somewhere between Life Safety and
Structural Stability.

Structural Stability (SP-5): substantial structural damage in which the structural system is on the
verge of experiencing partial or total collapse. Significant risk of injury exists. Repair may not be
technically or economically feasible.

Not considered (SP-6): placeholder for situations where only non-structural seismic evaluation or
retrofit is performed.

Non-Structural performance levels are defined as:

Operational (NP-A): non-structural elements are generally in place and functional. Back-up
systems for failure of external utilities, communications and transportation have been provided.

Immediate Occupancy (NP-B): non-structural elements are generally in place but may not be
functional. No back-up systems for failure of external utilities are provided.

Life Safety (NP-C): considerable damage to non-structural components and systems but no
collapse of heavy items. Secondary hazards such as breaks in high-pressure, toxic or fire
suppression piping should not be present.

Reduced Hazards (NP-D): extensive damage to non-structural components but should not
include collapse of large and heavy items that can cause significant injury to groups of people.
Not considered (NP-E): non-structural elements, other than those that have an effect on structural
response, are not evaluated.
Response characteristics that can obtained from the pushover analysis are
– Estimates of force and displacement capacities of the structure.
– Sequences of the failure of elements and the consequent effect on the overall structural
stability.
– Identification of the critical regions, where the inelastic deformations are expected to be
high and identification of strength irregularities of the building.

2.2.3 Primary elements

Determination of three primary elements: capacity, demand (displacement) and performance are
required for Nonlinear Static (Pushover) Analysis.
Capacity:
The overall capacity of a structure depends on the strength and deformation capacities of the
individual components of the structure. In order to determine capacities beyond the elastic limits,
some form of nonlinear analysis, such as the pushover procedure, is required. This procedure
uses a series of sequential elastic analysis, superimposed to approximate a force displacement
capacity diagram of the overall structure. The mathematical model of the structure is modified to
account for reduced resistance of yielding components. A lateral force distribution is again
applied until additional components yield. This process is continued until the structure becomes
unstable or until a predetermined limit is reached.
Demand:
Ground motion during an earthquake produce complex horizontal displacement patterns in the
structures. It is impractical to trace this lateral displacement at each time-step to determine the
structural design parameters. The traditional design methods use equivalent lateral forces to
represent the design condition. For nonlinear methods it is easier and more direct to use a set of
lateral displacements as the design condition. For a given structure and ground motion, the
displacement demand is an estimate of the maximum expected response of the building during
the ground motion.

Performance:
Once, a capacity curve and demand displacement, are defined, a performance check can be done.
A performance check verifies that structural and nonstructural components are not damaged
beyond the acceptable limits of the performance objective for the forces and displacements
implied by the displacement demand
 CHAPTER 3
Methods of pushover analysis

3.1 Methods of Nonlinear Static Analysis (Pushover)

There are two method of pushover analysis:-
1. Capacity Spectrum Method
2. Displacement (Co - efficient) Method

3.1.1 Capacity Spectrum Method

The capacity spectrum method, a nonlinear static procedure that provides a graphical
representation of global force-displacement capacity curve of the structure and compares it to the
response spectra representations of the earthquake demands. The graphical representation
provides a clear picture of how a building responds earthquake ground motions. Three key
elements of a performance-based design procedure are demand, capacity and performance point.
Capacity curve :-
The plot of total lateral force v, on structure, against the lateral deflection, d, of the roof of the
structure. This is often called as the capacity curve or pushover curve.
Capacity spectrum:-
The capacity curve transformed from shear force vs roof displacement (V vs d) coordinates into
spectral acceleration vs spectral displacement (Sa vs Sd).
The generation of capacity curve defines the capacity of the building uniquely for an assumed
force distribution and displacement pattern.
In order to develop the capacity spectrum from capacity (pushover) curve, it is necessary to do a
point by point conversion to first mode spectral coordinates. Any point (Vi, ∆𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓 ) on capacity
curve it is converted into the corresponding point (Sa, Sd) on capacity spectrum using following
equation,

𝑉𝑖 ⁄𝑊
𝑆𝑎𝑖 =
∝1
∆𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓
𝑆𝑑𝑖 =
𝑝𝑓1 + ∅1,𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓

Where ∝1 and 𝑝𝑓1 are modal mass coefficient and participation factor respectively for the first
natural mode of the structure and ∅1,𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓 is the roof level amplitude of the first mode.

The capacity curve is generally constructed to represent the first mode of response based on the
assumption that the fundamental mode of vibration is the predominant response of the structure.

Demand spectrum:-
The reduced response spectrum used to represent the earthquake ground motion.
To convert a spectrum from the standard Sa (Spectra Acceleration) vs. T (Time) format found in
the buildings codes to ADRS format, it is necessary to determine the value of Sdi (Spectral
displacement) for each point on the curve, Sai, Ti. This can be done with the equations

Standard demand response spectra contain a range of constant spectral acceleration and a second
range of constant spectral velocity, Sv. Spectral acceleration and displacement at period Ti are
given by:
Application of the capacity-spectrum technique requires that the both the demand response
spectra and structural capacity curves be plotted in spectral acceleration vs spectral displacement
domain. Spectra plotted in this format are called Acceleration Displacement Response Spectra
(ADRS)
Every point in response spectra has associated with unique spectral acceleration, spectral
velocity, spectral displacement and period.
The damping that occurs when the structure is pushed into the inelastic range can be viewed as a
combination of viscous and hysteretic damping. Hysteretic damping can be represented as
equivalent viscous damping. Thus, the total effective damping can be estimated as:

Where 𝛽0 the hysteretic damping and 0.05 is the assumed 5% viscous damping inherent in the
structure. The l factor is the modification factor to account for the extent to which the actual
building hysteresis is well represented by the bilinear representation of the capacity spectrum.
The term 𝛽0 can be calculated using:

Where ED is the energy dissipated by damping and Eso is the maximum strain energy.
To account for the damping, the response spectrum is reduced by reduction factors SRA and
SRV which is given by
Performance point
In pushover curve a point on the curve defines a specific damage state for the structure, since the
deformation for all components can be related to the global displacement of the structure. By
correlating this capacity curve to the seismic demand generated by a specific earthquake or round
shaking intensity, a point can be found on the capacity curve that estimates the maximum
displacement of the building the earthquake will cause. This defines the performance point.
There are total three procedure in atc-40. To find the performance point using Procedure A the
following steps are used:
1. A 5% damped response spectrum appropriate for the site for the hazard level required
for the performance objective is developed and converted to ADRS format.
2. The capacity curve obtained from the nonlinear analysis is converted to a capacity
spectrum using the above given equations.
3. A trial performance point Sapi, Sdpi is selected. This may be done using the equal
displacement approximation as shown in fig
4. The reduced demand spectrum is plotted together with the capacity spectrum.
5. If the reduced demand spectrum intersects the capacity spectrum at Sapi, Sdpi or if the
intersection point Sdp is within 5% of Sdpi, then this point represents the performance
point.
6. If the intersection point does not lie within acceptable tolerance (5% of Sdpi or other)
then select another point and repeat steps 4 to 6. The intersection point obtained in step 5
ting point for the next iteration can be used as star
 Chapter 4
Plastic hinge

4.1 Plastic hinge:-

Hinges are points on a structure where one expects cracking and yielding to occur in relatively
higher intensity so that they show high flexural (or shear) displacement, as it approaches its
ultimate strength. These are locations where one expects to see cross diagonal cracks in an actual
building structure after a seismic mayhem and they would be at either end of beams and
columns, the 'cross' being at a small distance from the joint - that is where one is expected to
insert the hinges in the corresponding computer model.
Hinges are of various types – namely
1. flexural hinges,
2. shear hinges
3. Axial hinges.
The first two are inserted into the ends of beams and columns. Since the presence of masonry
infill has significant influence on the seismic behavior of the structure, modelling them using
equivalent diagonal struts is common in PA, unlike in the conventional analysis, where its
inclusion is a rarity. The axial hinges are inserted at either end of the diagonal struts thus
modelled, to simulate cracking of infill during analysis.