Fundamentals of Structural Analysis-1
Fundamentals of Structural Analysis-1
Fundamentals of Structural Analysis-1
CVEN 201
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FUNDAMENTALS OF
CVEN 201
STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS
Note: This Lecture note may contain errors, if any, please notify the lecturer. Thank you November,
Page 1 2016
1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Civil engineering is a broad field of engineering that deals with the planning, construction, and
maintenance of fixed structures, or public works, like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and
buildings.
Rigid Frame. It is the type of structure in which the members are joined together by rigid
joints e.g. welded joints.
Fig1
Truss (Pin connected joints). A type of structure formed by members in triangular form, the
resulting figure is called a truss. In truss joints are pin connected and loads are applied at
joints. No shear force & bending moment are produced. Only axial compression and axial
tension is to be determined while analyzing a truss.
Fig 2
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1.2 STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
Those members that are interconnected in such a way so as to constitute a structure are called
structural members.
Fig 3
ii. Columns. A long vertical member mostly subjected to compressive loads is called column,
while a compressive member of a structure is called strut.
Fig 4. A column
iii. Cables and Arches. Cables are usually suspended at their ends and are allowed to sag. The
forces are then pure tension and are directed along the axis of the cable. Arches are similar
to cables except hath they are inverted. They carry compressive loads that are directed along
the axis of the arch.
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Fig 5a An Arch
Structural analysis is the branch which involves the determination of the behaviour of structures such
as buildings etc or structural elements such as beams etc, the concept of statics (the analysis of loads
(force and moment on physical systems in static equilibrium) provides the basis for solutions to the
structures, computer software are also used for the calculation of forces, bending moments, stress,
strain and deformation or deflection. Basic concepts of applied mechanics are essential before
structural analysis. Structural analysis provides the basis for structural design.
Structural loads or actions are forces, deformations, or accelerations applied to a structure or its
components. Loads cause stresses, deformations, and displacements in structures
For the analysis of structures, the various loads to be considered are: dead load, live load,
wind load, impact load, etc. These loads are idealized for the purpose of analysis.
i. Concentrated load (point load): A concentrated load is a force applied at a single point
on a beam or structure.
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Fig 6
ii. A distributed loading: This is a load applied across a length or an area instead of at one
point.
Example;
Fig 7
b. Uniformly varying load
Fig 8
i. Applied moment: Applied moment (M) is a force couple that creates a torque, a twisting
force, at a point along the beam.
Fig 9
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Exercise: Read on; Regularly varying load, irregularly varying load, system of loads, symmetrical
system of loads, anti-symmetrical system of loads, cyclo-symmetrical system of loads and cyclo-
antisymmetrical system of loads.
1.3.3 REACTIONS
These are forces and moments developed at the point of supports. They are reactive forces (Inclined
or Vertical/horizontal) and moments, the reactive forces are for simplicity represented by two
perpendicular components.
i. Roller Supports. This support provides one restrain perpendicular to the roller.
Fig 10
Fig 11
iii. Fixed Supports.: Providing mutually perpendicular restrains and one moment restrain.
Fig 12
Internally stable structure (Rigid): structure maintains its shape and remains a rigid body when
detached from the supports.
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Fig 13 Examples of internally unstable structures
Internally unstable structure: structure cannot maintain its shape and may undergo large
displacements under small disturbances when not supported externally.
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1.4.1 EQUATIONS OF STATIC EQUILIBRIUM.
A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it remains at rest when subjected to
a system of forces and couples. If a structure is in equilibrium, then all its members and parts are
also in equilibrium.
For a plane structure lying in the xy plane and subjected to a coplanar system of forces and couples,
the necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium are:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝑀𝑍 = 0
These three equations are referred to as the static equations of equilibrium of plane structures.
In statically determinate structures, all internal member forces and external reactant forces can be
evaluated using the three equations of static equilibrium. When there are more unknown member
forces and external reactant forces than there are available equations of equilibrium a structure is
statically indeterminate. In other words:
A structure is Statically Determinate if all its support reactions as well as member forces can be
determined by solving equations of equilibrium. And statically indeterminate If the number of
support reactions exceeds the number of available equilibrium equations.
External Redundant ≡ number of reactions in excess of those necessary for equilibrium, referred to
as the degree of external indeterminacy.
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R = 3 Structure may be statically determinate externally
EXAMPLES:
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Fig 17. Example of Externally statically indeterminate plane structures
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Fig 18. Example of Plane Structures with Equations of Condition
Consider the basic three member pinned-frame indicated in Figure 15. There are three nodes and
three members. A triangle is the basis for the development of all pin jointed frames since it is an
inherently stable system, i.e. only one configuration is possible for any given three lengths of the
members. Consider the development of the frame shown.
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Fig 19
Initially there are three nodes and three members. If the number of members in the frame is to be
increased then for each node added, two members are required to maintain the triangulation. The
minimum number of members required to create a simple frame can be determined as follows:
𝒎 = 𝟑 + 𝟐(𝒏 − 𝟑)
𝒎 = 𝟐𝒏 − 𝟑
Any additional member added to the frame in addition to this number is a redundant member and
make the frame statically indeterminate.
It is also essential to consider the configuration of the members in a frame to ensure that it is
triangulated. The simple frames indicated in the figure below are unstable.
As indicated previously, the minimum number of reactant forces to maintain static equilibrium is
three and consequently when considering a simple, pin-jointed plane-frame and its support reactions
the combined total of members and components of reaction is equal to:
i.e 𝒎 + 𝒓 = 𝟐𝒏
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1.4.3 TWO-DIMENSIONAL RIGID-JOINTED FRAMES
In rigid-jointed frames, the applied load system is transferred to the supports by inducing axial loads,
shear forces and bending moments in the members. Since three components of reaction are
required for static equilibrium the total number of unknowns is equal to: [(𝟑 × 𝒎) + 𝒓]. At each
node there are three equations of equilibrium, i.e.
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The degree of indeterminacy 𝑰𝑫 = [(𝟑𝒎) + 𝒓] − 𝟑𝒏
Example: Calculate the degree of indeterminacy of the frames below and Comment on their
determinacy.
Note: Releases in the form of Pins or rollers must be accounted for in the determination of the
degree of indeterminacy.
A pin releases moment capacity (1) while a roller releases moment and axial capacities (2).
E.g a)
b)
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𝑰𝑫 = {[(𝟑𝒎) + 𝒓] − 𝟑𝒏} − 𝟐 due to the release of the moment and axial load capacity at the
roller ∴ 𝑰𝑫 = {[(𝟑 × 𝟐) + 𝟔] − (𝟑 × 𝟑) − 𝟐 = 𝟏
Consider the same beam AB with a pin added in addition to the roller
𝑰𝑫 = {[(𝟑𝒎) + 𝒓] − 𝟑𝒏} − 𝟑 due to the release of the moment capacity at the position of the pin
and the release of the moment and axial load capacity at the roller 𝑰𝑫 = {[(𝟑 × 𝟐) + 𝟔] − (𝟑 × 𝟑) −
𝟑 = 𝟎
EXERCISES: Comment on both the Internal and External Stability and determinacy of the frames
in Problems (1) to (6)
1)
2)
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3)
4)
5)
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6)
1.5 TRUSSES
Trusses are structures composed of a number of bars pin connected at their ends to form a stable
framework. It is generally assumed that loads and reactions are applied to the truss only at the joints.
A truss would typically be composed of triangular elements with the bars on the upper chord under
compression and those along the lower chord under tension. Trusses are extensively used for bridges,
long span roofs, electric tower, and space structures. They are a major type of Pin Jointed frames
that transfer their loads by inducing axial tension or compressive forces in the individual members.
The magnitude and sense of these forces can be determined using standard methods of analysis such
as ‘the method of sections’, ‘the method of joint-resolution and Graphical Methods
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Fig Typicall Bridge Trusses
The objective of truss analysis is to determine the reactions and member forces. The methods used
for carrying out the analysis with the equations of equilibrium and by considering only parts of the
structure through analyzing its free body diagram to solve the unknowns.
When only a few member forces of a truss are needed, the quickest way to find these forces is by the
method of sections. In this method, an imaginary cutting line called a section is drawn through a
stable and determinate truss. Thus, a section subdivides the truss into two separate parts. Since the
entire truss is in equilibrium, any part of it must also be in equilibrium. Either of the two parts of the
truss can be considered and the three equations of equilibrium Σ Fx = 0, Σ Fy = 0, and Σ M = 0 can
be applied to solve for member forces.
The method of sections involves the application of the three equations of static equilibrium to two-
dimensional plane frames. The sign convention adopted to indicate ties (i.e. tension members) and
struts (i.e. compression members) in frames is as shown in below Figure
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Fig. A simple Truss
From the above figure we only interested in finding the value of forces for member BC, EC, and
ED.
A virtual cut is introduced through the only required members, which is along member BC, EC, and
ED. Firstly, the support reactions of Ra and Rd should be determined. Again a good judgment is
required to solve this problem where the easiest part would be to consider either the left hand side or
the right hand side. Taking moment at joint E (virtual point) clockwise for the whole RHS part would
be much easier compared to joint C (the LHS part). Then, either joint D or C can be considered as
the point of moment, Note: Each value of the member’s condition should be indicate clearly as
whether it is in tension (+ve) or in compression (-ve) state.
EXAMPLE 1
A pin-jointed truss supported by a pinned support at A and a roller support at G carries three loads
at joints C, D and E as shown in Figure 3.2. Determine the magnitude and sense of the forces induced
in members X, Y and Z as indicated.
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Step 1: Evaluate the support reactions. It is not necessary to know any information regarding the
frame members at this stage other than dimensions as shown in the figure, since only externally
applied loads and reactions are involved.
Step 2: Select a section through which the frame can be considered to be cut and using the same
three equations of equilibrium determine the magnitude and sense of the unknown forces (i.e. the
internal forces in the cut members).
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It is convenient to assume all unknown forces to be tensile and hence at the cut section their direction
and lines of action are considered to be pointing away from the joints. If the answer results in a
negative force this means that the assumption of a tie was incorrect and the member is actually in
compression, i.e. a strut. The application of the equations of equilibrium to either part of the cut
frame will enable the forces X(FDE), Y(FEI) and Z(FHI) to be evaluated.
Note: The section considered must not cut through more than three members with unknown internal
forces since only three equations of equilibrium are applicable.
Consider part A:
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EXAMPLE 2
Determine the support reactions and the forces in the members of the pin-jointed frame indicated by
the ‘*’ in below problem using the method of sections.
Solution.
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1.5.2 METHOD OF JOINTS FOR TRUSS ANALYSIS
The Joint resolution method is an effective method when the forces in all members of a truss are to
be determined. In this method we start by assuming that all members are in tension reaction. A
tension member experiences pull forces at both ends of the bar and usually denoted by positive (+ve)
sign. When a member is experiencing a push force at both ends, then the bar is said to be in
compression mode and designated as negative (-ve) sign.
In the joints method, a virtual cut is made around a joint and the cut portion is isolated as a Free
Body Diagram (FBD). Using the equilibrium equations of Σ Fx = 0 and Σ Fy = 0, the unknown
member forces can be solved. It is assumed that all members are joined together in the form of an
ideal pin, and that all forces are in tension (+ve reactions).
The X and Y axes should be oriented such that forces on the Free Body diagram can easily be
resolved into their X and Y components.
Example 1
Considering the same frame used in Example 1 of the method of sections, the magnitude and sense
of the forces induced in members X, Y and Z are to be determined.
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In the Figure four sections are shown, each of which isolates a joint in the structure as indicated in
below Figures (Sections are taken which isolate each individual joint in turn in the frame)
Since in each case the forces are coincident, the moment equation is of no value, hence only two
independent equations are available. It is necessary when considering the equilibrium of each joint
to do so in a sequence which ensures that there are no more than two unknown member forces in the
joint under consideration. This can be carried out until all member forces in the structure have been
determined
Consider Joint G:
Consider Joint F:
Substitute for calculated values, i.e. FFG (direction of force is into the joint)
Consider Joint H: substitute for calculated values, i.e. FGH and FFH
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Consider Joint E: substitute for calculated values, i.e. FEF and FEH
EXAMPLE 2; Determine the support reactions and the forces in the members of the pin-jointed
frame indicated below using joint resolution method.
Solution;
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Consider Joint A
Consider Joint B
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Consider joint C
Consider joint D
Consider joint E
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1.5.4 GRAPHICAL METHOD OF TRUSS ANALYSIS (MAXWELL’S DIAGRAM)
The method is based upon the condition that each joint in a truss is in equilibrium so that the forces
acting at a joint may be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a closed polygon. The
directions of the forces must be drawn in the same directions as the corresponding members and
there must be no more than two unknown forces at a particular joint otherwise a polygon of forces
cannot be constructed.
The graphical analysis was developed by force polygons drawn to scale for each joint, and then the
forces in each member were measured from one of these force polygons. The number of lines which
have to be drawn can be greatly reduced, however, if the various force polygons are
superimposed. The resulting diagram of truss is known as the Maxwell’s Diagram.
In order to draw the Maxwell diagram directly, here are the simple guidelines:
i. Solve the reactions at the supports by solving the equations of equilibrium for the entire
truss,
ii. Move clockwise around the outside of the truss; draw the force polygon to scale for the entire
truss,
iii. Take each joint in turn (one-by-one), then draw a force polygon by treating successive joints
acted upon by only two unknown forces,
iv. Measure the magnitude of the force in each member from the diagram,
v. Lastly, note that work proceeded from one end of the truss to another, as this is use for
checking of balance and connection to the other end.
This method is use full particularly when a rapid solution is required, the member forces in a truss
may be found using a graphical method.
Example 1: Determine the forces in the members of the Warren truss shown in Figure below all
members are 1 m long.
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Solution
Figure X
The support reactions were calculated as shown on above figure.
It is convenient in this approach to designate forces in members in terms of the areas between them
rather than referring to the joints at their ends. Thus, in the Figure we number the areas between all
forces, both internal and external; the reason for this will become clear when the force diagram for
the complete structure is constructed.
For the force polygon, we must start at a joint where there are no more than two unknown forces,
in this example either A or D; here we select A. The force polygon for joint A is constructed by
going round A in, say, a clockwise sense. We must then go round every joint in the same sense.
First we draw a vector 12 to represent the support reaction at A of 2.75 kN to a convenient scale (see
Fig. XX). Note that we are moving clockwise from the region 1 to the region 2 so that the vector 12
is vertically upwards, the direction of the reaction at A (if we had decided to move round A in an
anticlockwise sense the vector would be drawn as 21 vertically upwards). The force in the member
AB at A will be represented by a vector 26 in the direction AB or BA, depending on whether it is
tensile or compressive, while the force in the member AE at A is represented by the vector 61 in
the direction AE or EA depending, again, on whether it is tensile or compressive. The point 6 in the
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force polygon is therefore located by drawing a line through the point 2 parallel to the member AB
to intersect, at 6, a line drawn through the point 1 parallel to the member AE.
Thus we see from the force polygon that the direction of the vector 26 is towards A so that the
member AB is in compression while the direction of the vector 61 is away from A indicating that
the member AE is in tension. We now insert arrows on the members AB and AE in Fig.X to indicate
compression and tension, respectively.
We next consider joint B where there are now just two unknown member forces since we have
previously determined the force in the member AB; note that, moving clockwise round B, this force
is represented by the vector 62, which means that it is acting towards B as it must since we have
already established that AB is in compression. Rather than construct a separate force polygon for the
joint B we shall superimpose the force polygon on that constructed for joint A since the vector 26
(or 62) is common to both; we thereby avoid repetition. Thus, through the point 2, we draw a vector
23 vertically downwards to represent the 2 kN load to the same scale as before. The force in the
member BC is represented by the vector 37 parallel to BC (or CB) while the force in the member
BE is represented by the vector 76 drawn in the direction of BE (or EB); thus we locate the point 7
in the force polygon. Hence we see that the force in BC (vector 37) acts towards B indicating
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compression, while the force in BE (vector 76) acts away from B indicating tension; again, arrows
are inserted in Fig. X to show the action of the forces.
Now we consider joint C where the unknown member forces are in CD and CE. The force in the
member CB at C is represented in magnitude and direction by the vector 73 in the force polygon.
From the point 3 we draw a vector 34 vertically downwards to represent the 3 kN load. The vectors
48 and 87 are then drawn parallel to the members CD and CE and represent the forces in the members
CD and CE respectively. Thus we see that the force in CD (vector 48) acts towards C, i.e. CD is in
compression, while the force in CE (vector 87) acts away from C indicating tension; again we insert
corresponding arrows on the members in Fig. X
Finally the vector 45 is drawn vertically upwards to represent the vertical reaction (=3.25 kN) at D
and the vector 58, which must be parallel to the member DE, inserted (since the points 5 and 8 are
already located in the force polygon this is a useful check on the accuracy of construction). From the
direction of the vector 58 we deduce that the member DE is in tension.
FA B = -3.18 kN (compression)
Note that in the force polygon the vectors may be read in both directions. Thus the vector 26
represents the force in the member AB acting at A, while the vector 62 represents the force in AB
acting at B. It should also be clear why there must be consistency in the sense in which we move
round each joint; for example, the vector 26 represents the direction of the force at A in the member
AB when we move in a clockwise sense round A. However, if we then moved in an anticlockwise
sense round the joint B the vector 26 would represent the magnitude and direction of the force in AB
at B and would indicate that AB is in tension, which clearly it is not.
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As is seen on the figure above, the reactions at points of support (i.e A and F) are 4kN each and the
areas between the members are lettered A to M while the Joints are numbered 1,2,3..... ( different
from Example 1 where numbers 1, 2 3,...... were used for the areas while the joints carry letters
A,B,C...). Therefore in this example member forces are going to be designated by vector BH, HG
etc.
Also, The truss in this example is symetrical therefore a force polygon of half the truss will satisfy
the complete truss. The forces in members BH, HG, HI,CI etc are equal in sence and magnitude to
forces in Members EM,MG,ML,DL etc respectively
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FIK = +1.8 kN (Tension)
In physics, concurrent forces are defined as forces that pass through a common point.
In other words, a concurrent force system is a set of two or more forces whose lines of action
intersect at a point at the same time. Similarly, non-concurrent forces are forces whose lines
of action never intersect with each other, meaning that they don't have a common passing
point.
Coplanar forces are forces on a single plane. This means that all points of application are
inside that plane and that all forces are running parallel to that plane.
The concept of concurrent and non-concurrent forces are used to study the effect of various forces
on an object and whether or not an object would be in a state of equilibrium when a specific set
forces is applied on that object.
In order for an object to be in a state of equilibrium, the forces acting on the body must satisfy the
force equilibrium equations. This means that the summation of the components of forces in the x-
direction, y-direction and z-direction must all be equal to zero. For a number of forces acting upon
an object, failure to satisfy these equations produces momentum within that object and throws it out
of its equilibrium state.
i. Parallelogram of Forces (States if two forces acting simultaneously on a body at a point are
represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their
resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram
which passes through the point of intersection of the two sides representing the forces)
ii. Triangle of Forces (which states that three coplanar forces acting at point are in equilibrium
if their vectors joined end-to-end correspond to the sides of a triangle)
iii. Polygon of forces: (States that ‘n coplanar forces acting at a point are in equilibrium if their
vectors joined end-to-end complete an n-sided polygon.
iv. Non Concurrent Co-Planar Forces
1.6 REFERENCE
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McKenzie W C (2006) ‘’ Examples in Structural Analysis’’ Taylor & Francis 2 Park Square, Milton
Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Roberts A.P (2003) ’’ Statics and Dynamics with Background Mathematics’’ Cambridge University
Press Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The beam, or flexural member, is frequently encountered in structures and machines, and its
elementary stress analysis constitutes one of the more interesting facets of mechanics of materials.
A beam is a member subjected to loads applied transverse to the long dimension, causing the member
to bend.
Examining the deflection shape of Fig. 1b, it is possible to observe that longitudinal elements of the
beam near the bottom are stretched and those near the top are compressed, thus indicating the
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simultaneous existence of both tensile and compressive stresses on transverse planes. These stresses
are designated fiber or flexural stresses.
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By cutting a section from the bent section, we will have better understand of the deformed section a
shown in figure 2.
Bending moment
Geometry of the section
𝑦
Strain in 𝐸𝐹 = 𝑅 1
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𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝐹
𝐸= 2
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝐹
𝜎
𝐸= 𝑦 3
( 𝑅)
𝜎 𝐸 𝐸
= that is, 𝜎= 𝑦 4
𝑦 𝑅 𝑅
Deflection of structures can occur from various sources such as, temperature, fabrication errors, or
settlement. In design, deflections must be limited in order to prevent cracking of attached brittle
materials such as concrete or plaster. Furthermore, a structure must not vibrate or deflect severely in
order to ‘’appear’’ safe for its occupants. More Important, though, deflections at specified points in
a structure must be determined if one is to analyze statically indeterminate structures.
The deflections to be considered throughout this text apply only to structures having linear elastic
material response. Under this condition, a structure subjected to a load will return to its original
undeformed position after the load is removed. The deflection of a structure is caused by its
internal loadings such as normal force, shear force, or bending moment. For beam and frames,
however, greatest deflections are most often caused by internal bending, whereas internal axial forces
cause the deflections of a truss.
Before the slope or displacement of a point on a beam or frame is computed it is often helpful to
sketch the shape of a structure when it is loaded in order to visualize the computed results and thereby
partially check the results. The deflection diagram represents the elastic curve for the points at the
centroid of the cross sectional areas along each of the members. For most cases the elastic curve can
be sketched without much difficulty. When doing so, however, it is necessary to know the restrictions
as to slope or displacement that often occur at a support or a connection. Supports that resist a force,
such as a pin, restrict rotation. Note that if a pin connection is used at the joint, the members will
each have a different slope or rotation at the pin, since the pin cannot support a moment. Fig below
shows some deflected shapes
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0
Fig 1. Deflected shape of various type of beams. (a) Simply supported (b) overhang beam (c)
continuous (d) Cantilever
In this sub section we will develop two important differential equations that relate the internal
moment in a beam: the displacement and slope of its elastic curve. These equations form the basis
for the deflection methods and for this reason the assumptions and limitations used in their
development should be fully understood.
To derive these relationships, we will limit the analysis to the most common case of an initially
straight beam that is elastically deformed by loads applied perpendicular to the beams x axis and
lying in the x-y plane of symmetry for the beams cross sectional area. Due to the loading, the
deformation of the beam is caused by both the internal shear force and bending moment. If the beam
has a length that is much greater than its depth, the greatest will be the cause of bending, and therefore
we will direct our attention to its effects.
When the internal moment M deforms the element of the beam, the angle between the cross sections
becomes 𝒅𝜽. The arc 𝒅𝒙 that represents a portion where the elastic curve intersects the neutral axis
for each cross section. The radius of curvature for this arc is define as the distance 𝑅, which is
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measured from the center of curvature O to 𝒅𝒙. Any arc on the element other than 𝒅𝒙 is subjected
to a normal strain.
For example, the strain in arc 𝒅𝒔, located at a position y from the neutral axis is
∆𝐿 𝑑𝑠 𝑖 −𝑑𝑠
𝜀= = 5
𝐿 𝑑𝑠
Comparing deformed and undeformed elements, we have
However, 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑅𝑑𝜃 6
And, 𝑑𝑠 𝑖 = (𝑅 − 𝑦)𝑑𝜃 7
((𝑅−𝑦)𝑑𝜃− 𝑅𝜃)
So, ε= 8
𝑅𝜃
𝑦
𝜀=− 9
𝑅
1 𝜖
=−
𝑅 𝑦
10
If the material is homogenous and behaves in a linear elastic manner, then Hooke’s law applies, 𝜺 =
𝝈 𝑴𝒚
𝑬
also, since the flexure formula applies, 𝝈 = − 𝑰
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Combining these equations and substituting into the above equation, we will have
1 𝑀
= 11
𝑅 𝐸𝐼
Here,
1
𝑹= Radius of curvature at a specific point on the elastic curve (𝑅 is referred to as the curvature)
1 𝑑𝜃 𝑀
Since = =
𝑅 𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼
𝑀
Then, 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼
12
If x and y are the coordinates of point O, then
𝑑𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑑𝑥
Since 𝜃 is a very small angle, therefore take 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑2 𝑦 1
Then, 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 2
=𝑅 13
1 𝑀 1
Since 𝑅
= 𝐸𝐼
𝑀 = 𝐸𝐼 𝑅
M = bending moment
𝑑2𝑦
𝑀 = 𝐸𝐼 EI = Flexural rigidity
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦
= Curvature
𝑑𝑥 2
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P
Y
RA RB
y = deflection
𝑑𝑦
Slope =
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2
Bending moment = 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 3
Shearing force = 𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑥 3
𝑑𝑦 4
Rate of loading = 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 4
Double integration method is suitable for a single loading case, while Macaulay’s method is suitable
for several loading case.
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2.7.1.2 4.1.2 Elastic curve
Draw an exaggerated view of the beam’s elastic curve. Recall that point of zero slope and
zero displacement occur at a fixed support, and zero displacement occurs at pin and roller
support.
Establish the x and y coordinate axes. The x axis must be parallel to the undeflected beam
and its origin at the left side of the beam, with a positive direction to the right.
If several discontinuous loads are present, establish x coordinates that are valid for each
region of the beam between the discontinuities.
In all cases, the associated positive y axis should be directed upward
Example 1
Mo
A
L
Solution
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As usual, calculate the reaction(s), by drawing the FBD
∑M = 0
If 𝑀𝑜 is the moment at A
𝑑2 𝑦
Recall that, 𝑀 = 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
Then , 𝑀𝑜 = 𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = ∫ 𝑀𝑜 , integrating the equation of moment will result to equation of slope.
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = ∬ 𝑀𝑜, 2nd integration result to equation of deflection.
𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = 𝑀𝑜 𝑥 + 𝐶1 Slope equation
𝑑𝑥
𝑀𝑜𝑥 2
𝑦= + C1x+ 𝐶2 deflection equation
2𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑦
Applying boundary conditions: 𝑑𝑥
= 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0, then C1= 0
The concept of boundary conditions can be simplified by drawing the deformed shape of the
structure.
𝑑𝑦 𝑀𝑜𝑥 𝑀0𝑋2
Substituting in the above equations, 𝑑𝑥
=ɵ= 𝐸𝐼
and for deflection, 𝑦 = 2𝐸𝐼
𝑀𝑂 𝐿
𝜃𝐴 =
𝐸𝐼
𝑀𝑂 𝐿2
𝑦𝐴 =
𝐸𝐼
Example 2
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Consider the beam above to have length of 13metres, support a couple moment of 15kNm, and made
of steel having the following properties. 𝐸𝑆𝑡=29 𝑋 103 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2,I=16.4𝑚𝑚4
Example 3
W kN/m
A B
𝑙
Find maximum deflection at 𝑥 = 2
Solution
𝒘𝒍
𝑹𝒂 = 𝑹𝒃 = 𝟐
.
x
M
𝑴𝒙
A
x x
𝒙
𝑴𝑿 = 𝑹𝒂 𝒙 − 𝒘𝒙 ( )
𝟐
𝑤𝑙𝑥 𝑤𝑥 2
Therefore, 𝑀𝑥 = −
2 2
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = ∫ 𝑀𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦 𝑤𝑙𝑥 𝑤𝑥 2
𝐸𝐼 =∫ ( − ).
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2
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𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑙𝑥 2 wx3
𝐸𝐼 = − + C1 .
𝑑𝑥 4 6
𝑙 𝑑𝑦
Applying boundary condition, at 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑑𝑥 = 0 (slope is zero at the point of maximum deflection)
𝑤𝑙 3
Then, 𝐶1 = − 24
𝑑2 𝑦
For deflection, 𝐸𝐼𝑦 = 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2 = ∬ 𝑀𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑤𝑙𝑥 2 𝑤𝑥 3
𝐸𝐼 =∫ ( − + 𝐶1 )
𝑑𝑥 2 4 6
𝑤𝑙𝑥 3 𝑤𝑥 4
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = − + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
12 24
This is the required general equation for deflection at any point on the elastic curve.
𝒍
For maximum deflection, at 𝒙 = 𝟐
5𝑤𝑙 4
𝑦𝑐 = − 384𝐸𝐼 , negative sign indicates that the deflection is downward
5𝑤𝑙 4
Therefore deflection, 𝑦𝑐 = 384𝐸𝐼
Example 4
Consider a simply supported beam of span 8.74m subjected to a UDL 3.7km/m over the entire span.
If the allowable deflection at the center is 3.4mm, find the value of the load. Take E= 200Gpa and
I= 300x 106 mm4
Solution
For this example, since we have calculated the general equation for a simply supported beam carrying
a UDL in example 3 we can simply substitute the values
5𝑤𝑙 4
𝑦𝑐 = −
384𝐸𝐼
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Example 6
Consider the simply supported beam below carrying an eccentric point load, find the general
equation for the slope and deflection.
a w b
Ra c
R
L b
Solution
𝒘𝒃 𝒘𝒂
𝑹𝒂 = 𝒍
, 𝑹𝒃 = 𝒍
.
Consider section 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟏
𝒙𝟏 𝑿
Ra 𝒙𝟏
x
𝑹𝒂 (𝒙) = 𝑴𝒙 .
𝒘𝒃
𝑴𝑿 = 𝒍
𝒙.
For slope,
𝑑2 𝑦
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2 = ∫ 𝑀𝑥 .
𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑏𝑥 2
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑙
+ 𝐶1 2
𝑑𝑦
Applying boundary condition, at point c, 𝑥 = 𝑎 , 𝑑𝑥
= 𝜃𝑐
𝑊𝑎 2 𝑏
𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 = 2𝑙
+ 𝐶1, find C and subt in eqn 2
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𝑤𝑎 2 𝑏
𝐶1 = 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝐶 − 2𝑙
𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑏𝑥 2 𝑤𝑎 2 𝑏
Then general equation for slope is 𝐸𝐼 = + 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 −
𝑑𝑥 2𝑙 2𝑙
For deflection
𝑑2 𝑦
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2 =∬𝑀𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑏𝑥 2
𝐸𝐼 =∫ ( + 𝐶1 )
𝑑𝑥 2𝑙
𝑤𝑏𝑥 3
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
6𝑙
𝑤𝑏𝑥 3 𝑤𝑎2 𝑏𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = + 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 𝑥 −
6𝑙 2𝑙
This is the general equation for deflection, though will only be useful if values of slope at point c is
known.
𝑹𝒂 𝒙𝟐
x
𝑤𝑏𝑥
𝑀𝑥 = − 𝑤(𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝑙
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑤𝑏𝑥
𝐸𝐼 2
= ∫( − 𝑤(𝑥 − 𝑎))
𝑑𝑥 𝑙
𝑑𝑦
By integrating, and applying boundary condition at C, x = a, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜃𝑐
𝑤𝑎 2 𝑏
Third constant of integration 𝐶3 = 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 − 2𝑙
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𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑏𝑥 2 𝑤(𝑥−𝑎)2 𝑤𝑎 2 𝑏
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑙
– 2
+ 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 − 2𝑙
For deflection,
𝑤𝑏𝑥 3 𝑤(𝑥−𝑎)3 𝑤𝑎 2 𝑏
General slope deflection is 𝐸𝐼𝑦 = 6𝑙
− 6
+ 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 𝑥 − 2𝑙
𝑥 + 𝐶4
By simplification,
𝑤𝑎𝑏
𝐶4 = (𝑏 − 𝑎) − 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 . 𝑙
3
To obtain the value of 𝜃𝑐 , we have to find the defection at point C from the deflection equations
derive for sections AC and CB
𝑤𝑎𝑏
Therefore, 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 = (𝑏 − 𝑎)
3𝑙
𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑏
We have 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = (3𝑥 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎2 )
6𝑙
𝑊𝑏 2
𝜃𝐴 = (𝑙 − 𝑏 2 )
6𝐸𝐼𝑙
𝑊𝑏 2
𝜃𝐵 = (𝑙 − 𝑎2 )
6𝐸𝐼𝑙
𝑤𝑏𝑥 3 𝑤𝑎2 𝑏𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = + 𝐸𝐼𝜃𝑐 𝑥 −
6𝑙 2𝑙
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Substitute value of slope
𝑤𝑏𝑥
𝑦 = 6𝐸𝐼𝑙 (𝑙 2 − 𝑏 2 − 𝑥 2 ) General equation for deflection at x
𝑤𝑎𝑏 2
𝑦𝑐 = (𝑙 − 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 )
6𝐸𝐼𝑙
By symmetry, maximum deflection will occur in section CB since b>a. then for maximum deflection
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 0 subt in equation below
𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑏
𝐸𝐼 = (3𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏)
𝑑𝑥 6𝑙
𝑤𝑏
0= (3𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏)
6𝑙
3𝑥 2 = 𝑙 2 − 𝑎𝑏 2
𝑙2 − 𝑏2
𝑥=√
3
𝑤𝑎𝑥
For maximum deflection substitute value of x in 𝑦𝑐 = − 6𝐸𝐼𝑙 (𝑙 2 − 𝑏 2 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑤𝑏 3
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 9 (𝑙 2 − 𝑏 2 )2
√3𝐸𝐼𝑙
3.1 INTRODUCTION
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categories: Dead loads, live loads, fluid loads, Wind loads, snow loads, earthquake loads, thermal
loads and Earth pressure loads.
The structural members are connected together by providing different types of joints or supports.
Most common types of supports are pin-jonted or hinged, roller support and fixed support. Every
support provide some restraint (reaction) to the structural members connected to it. A pin-jonted
support will develop two reactions on the connected member because it does not allow it to translate
in any direction (along x and y) whereas the roller support can provide the reaction only in the
direction other than movement of roller i.e perpendicular to the surface on the rollers are kept. A
fixed support provide restraint to translation as well as rotation, therefore it has 3 reactions (2 forces
and one moment).
Beams are usually long, straight prismatic members. Beams can be made of concrete, steel, timber,
aluminum or a composite. Steel and aluminum beams play an important part in both structural and
mechanical engineering.
In most cases, the loads are perpendicular to the axis of the beam. Such a transverse loading causes
only bending and shear in the beam. When the loads are not at a right angle to the beam, they also
produce axial forces in the beam.
i. Concentrated load
ii. Uniformly distributed load (UDL)
iii. Gradually varied load (GVL)
iv. Concentrated moment
Beams are classified according to the way in which they are supported. Several types of beams
frequently used are shown in Fig. 1. The distance L shown in the various parts of the figure is called
the span. Note that the reactions at the supports of the beams in parts a, b, and c of the figure involve
a total of only three unknowns and, therefore, can be determined by the methods of statics. Such
beams are said to be statically determinate. On the other hand, the reactions at the supports of the
beams in parts d, e, and f of Fig.1 involve more than three unknowns and cannot be determined by
the methods of statics alone. The properties of the beams with regard to their resistance to
deformations must be taken into consideration. Such beams are said to be statically indeterminate.
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Fig.1.2 Classification of beam based on type of support
Consider, for example, a simply supported beam AB carrying two concentrated loads and a uniformly
distributed load (Fig.2a). To determine the internal forces in a section through point C we first draw
the free-body diagram of the entire beam to obtain the reactions at the supports (Fig. 2b). Passing a
section through C, we then draw the free-body diagram of AC (Fig.2c), from which we determine
the shear force V and the bending couple M.
Figure 2
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The bending couple M creates normal stresses in the cross section, while the shear force V creates
shearing stresses in that section. In most cases the dominant criterion in the design of a beam for
strength is the maximum value of the normal stress in the beam. Since the distribution of the normal
stresses in a given section depends only upon the value of the bending moment M in that section
and the geometry of the section, the elastic flexure formulas can be used to determine the maximum
stress, as well as the stress at any given point, in the section.
|𝑴|𝒄
Then, 𝝈𝒎 = 𝑰
1
𝑴𝒚
𝝈𝒙 = − 2
𝑰
Where, I is the moment of inertia of the cross section with respect to a centroidal axis perpendicular
to the plane of the couple, Y is the distance from the neutral surface, and C is the maximum value
of that distance. Also, introducing the elastic section modulus of the beam, the maximum value of
the normal stress in the section can be expressed as:
|𝑴|
𝝈𝒎 = 𝑺
3
The fact that 𝝈𝒎 is inversely proportional to S underlines the importance of selecting beams with a
large section modulus. Section moduli of various rolled-steel shapes are available in different text,
while the section modulus of a rectangular shape can be expressed as in equation
𝟏
𝑺 = 𝟔 𝒃𝒉𝟐 4
Where, band h are the width and depth of the cross section, respectively.
Equation (3) also shows that, for a beam of uniform cross section, 𝝈𝒎 is proportional to |𝑴|: Thus,
the maximum value of the normal stress in the beam occurs in the section where|𝑴|: 𝑖𝑠 largest. It
follows that one of the most important parts of the design of a beam for a given loading condition is
the determination of the location and magnitude of the largest bending moment.
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This task is made easier if a bending-moment diagram is drawn, i.e., if the value of the bending
moment M is determined at various points of the beam and plotted against the distance X measured
from one end of the beam. It is further facilitated if a shear diagram is drawn at the same time by
plotting the shear V against X.
A moment is a rotational force that occurs when a force is applied perpendicularly to a point at a
given distance away from that point. It is calculated as the perpendicular force multiplied by the
distance from the point. A Bending Moment is simply the bend that occurs in a beam due to a
moment.
Mathematically, it can be referred to as the algebraic sum of the moment of the forces to the left or
to the right of the section taken about the section.
Is the algebraic sum of the vertical forces acting to the left or right of the cut-section.
For a given section, the rate of change of shear force is equal to the rate of loading
𝑑𝐹
𝑑𝑥
=𝑤 5
The rate of change of bending moment is equal to the shear force at the section
𝑑𝑀
𝑑𝑥
=𝑉 6
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ii. Calculate Reactions
iii. Cut section (where necessary)
iv. Calculate shear forces at different values of x (distance)
v. Generate Bending moment equation (s)
vi. Calculate BM at different values of x
vii. Draw SF and BM diagram
As indicated earlier, the determination of the maximum absolute values of the shear and of the
bending moment in a beam are greatly facilitated if V and M are plotted against the distance X
measured from one end of the beam. Besides, you will understand in the next topic (deflection of
beams) that the knowledge of M as a function of X is essential to the determination of the deflection
of a beam.
In the examples and sample problems of this section, the shear and bending-moment diagrams will
be obtained by determining the values of V and M at selected points of the beam. These values will
be found in the usual way, i.e., by passing a section through the point where they are to be determined
(Fig. 3.a) and considering the equilibrium of the portion of beam located on either side of the section
(Fig.3.b). Since the shear forces V and Vi have opposite senses, recording the shear at point C with
an up or down arrow would be meaningless, unless we indicate that the same time which of the free
bodies AC and CB we are considering. For this reason, the shear V will be recorded with a sign: a
minus sign if the shearing forces are directed as shown in Fig. 3.c, and a plus sign otherwise. A
similar convention will apply for the bending moment M. It will be considered as negative if the
bending couples are directed as shown in that figure, and positive otherwise. Summarizing the sign
conventions we have presented, we state:
The shear V and the bending moment M at a given point of a beam are said to be positive when the
internal forces and couples acting on each portion of the beam are directed as shown in Fig 3.
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Figure 3
3.5.6 SIGN CONVENTION
In summary, we shall consider the following sign convention throughout, even though sign
convention is flexible.
Depending on the type of loading, shear force and bending moment diagram obey certain shapes.
The diagrams below should serve as a guide in producing relevant diagrams.
Shear and bending moment diagrams carrying point loads consist of straight lines,
For beam carrying UDL or gradually varied load (GVL), shear force diagram is connected with
straight lines while the BMD is connected with curves; hence resulting in parabolic or cubic shape.
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3.5.8 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DERIVATIONS
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Example 1.
Draw a shear force and bending moment diagram for the simply supported beam below.
Solution
i. Free body
1. Calculate Reactions
∑𝐹𝑉 = 0.
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 − 𝑝 = 0
Taking moment at B,
𝐿
𝑅𝐴 (𝐿) − 𝑝(2) =0
𝑝
𝑅𝐴 = 2.
𝑝
Substituting in equation, 𝑅𝐵 = 2
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To calculate shear force,
𝑝
At x=0, S.F = RA= 2
𝐿 𝑝
At x = 2
, S.F = 𝑅𝐴 − 𝑃 = − 2
𝑤𝑝
At X=L, S.F = −
2
Shear force
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0.
𝑅𝑎 − 𝑉 = 0.
𝑅𝑎 = 𝑉.
BM equation will be
𝑅𝐴 𝑥 -------------------------- (c)
At x=0, BM=0
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With the X extended, generate eqn.
At x=L/2
𝑃
𝑅𝑎 − 𝑃 = − 2
𝑝
𝑅𝑎 − 𝑃 + 𝑉 − 𝑅𝑎 = − 2,
𝑙
𝑅𝐴 𝑥 − 𝑝 (𝑥 − 2) = 0.
𝑝 𝑙
− 𝑥+𝑝 =0
2 2
𝑙 𝑝𝐿
At x = , BM = kNm
2 4
At X = L, BM = 0
Example 2 (Numerical)
i. Consider the beam used in example 1. If span of the beam L=4m and the value point load P=5kN
ii. If P used in Question 2a is located at 1m from support A, draw the SF and BM.
Example 2
Draw the shear and bending-moment diagrams for a cantilever beam AB of span L supporting a
pointed load W.
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Solution
Cut section
∑𝐹𝑉 = 0
𝐹𝑋 - W =0
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑊.
Shear force,
At x =0, S.F = 𝑅𝐴
At x=L, S.F = 𝑅𝐴 − 𝑊
Bending moment
∑𝑀𝑋 = 0
𝑀𝑋 + 𝑊𝑋 = 0
.
𝑀𝑋 = −𝑊𝑋
.
Considering section x-x,
At x= 0, BM = 0
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At x=L, BM= -WL
Example 3 (Numerical)
Consider example 2, if the span is 8m and the value of point load at the end is 1200N.
Calculate the reactions and also draw the shear force and bending moment diagram.
EXAMPLE 4
Draw shear force and bending moment diagram for the simply supported beam carrying a uniformly
distributed load of W kN/m
Solution
𝑊𝐿
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵 = 2
.
Shear force,
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Cut section X-X
𝑊𝐿
𝑅𝐴 − 𝑊𝑋 = 2
− 𝑤𝑥 ,
𝑤𝑙
At x=0, S.F = 𝑅𝐴 = 2
𝐿
At x= , S.F = 0
2
−𝑊𝐿
At x=L, S.F = 2
𝑥 𝑊𝐿 𝑥
𝑅𝐴 𝑋 − 𝑊𝑥 2 = 2
𝑥 − 𝑤𝑥 2
At x=0, BM = 0
𝐿 𝑊𝐿2
At X= , B.M =
2 8
At x=0, B.M =0
Example 5 (Numerical)
Consider example 5, if the uniformly distributed (UDL) load is 5kN/m and span equals 6m.
Example 6
Solution
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Y
𝑊𝑋
i.e w2 =
𝐿
At this section,
1 𝑊𝑋
Converting distributed load to point load by calculating the area, ( ) 𝑥.
2 𝐿
This load will act at the
1 2
center of the gravity of the section, i.e for triangular loading (3) 𝑥 from the hill and (3) 𝑥 from the
toe.
𝑊𝑋 2
𝐹𝑋 = 2𝐿
.
𝑊𝐿
Shear forces at 0 and L will be 0 and 2
(by substituting 0 and L in the equation of shear force
above)
Bending Moment,
∑ 𝑀𝑥 = 0
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𝑤𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑤𝑥 3
𝑀𝑥 − ( ) ( ) = 0, 𝑀𝑥 = −
2𝑙 3 6𝑙
𝑤𝑙 2
Moments will be 0 and − 6
at x equals 0 and L respectively
Example 6b
Consider the beam in example 6 to be simply supported with span 6m and gradually varied load of
5kN/m. draw the SF and BM diagram.
For the timber beam and loading below, draw the shear force and bending moment diagram and
determine the maximum normal stress due to bending.
Examples 8
A simply supported beam overhanging on one side is subjected to a U.D.L. of 1 kN/m. Sketch the
shear force and bending moment diagrams and find the position of point of contraflexure.
Solution:
4
𝑅𝐴 = 3
= 1.33𝑘𝑁
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8
𝑅𝐵 = 3
= 2.67 kN
𝑅𝐴 − 𝑤𝑥 = 0
At x=0, S.F = 𝑅𝐴
𝑥
𝑅𝐴 𝑥 − 𝑤𝑥 (2) = 0
At x= 0, BM= 0
At x= 1, BM= 0.8kNm
At x= 2, BM= 0.66kNm
At x= 3, BM= 0.51kNm
𝑥
𝑅𝐴 (𝑥) − 𝑤(𝑥) ( ) + 𝑅𝐵 (𝑥 − 3) = 0
2
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At x= 4, BM= 0kNm
Using the BM equation for section A-B (you may use equation of any section but the values should
guide you)
𝑥2
1.33𝑥 − 2
= 𝑀𝑥 = 0.
2.66𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = 0.
Solving the quadratic equation; we have 2.66m, then solving the second equation we have 4m
It should be noted that only one of the values will be reasonable. This can be observed from the
calculated values or after drawing the diagram.
It should be noted that maximum BM occurs where shear force equals Zero.
𝑑𝑀
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑉.
𝑑𝑀
= 0.
𝑑𝑥
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Consider equation for section A-B
𝑥2
𝑑 (1.33𝑥 − 2 )
=0
𝑑𝑥
1.33 − 𝑥 = 0
Example 9
Draw Shear force and bending moment diagram for the beam carrying a couple 12kNm, as shown
in figure below.
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Solution
∑𝐹𝑉 = 0.
12
𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵 − 4 − (20) = 0
∑𝑀𝑐 = 0.
𝑅𝐵 (16) − 4(18) − 12 = 0
𝑅𝐵 = 5.25𝑘𝑁.
∑𝑀𝐵 = 0.
𝑅𝑐 = −1.25𝑘𝑁.
Shear Force
At x=0, S.F = 0
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At x = 4, S.F = 0 − 4 = −4𝑘𝑁
Bending moment
3.6 REFERENCES
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Any structural analysis text book, but be mindful of units and sign conventions.
4.1 CABLES
Flexible cables have been used to form structural systems for many centuries. Some of the
earliest man-made structures of any size were hanging bridges constructed from jungle vines
and creepers and spanning ravines and rivers. In European literature the earliest description
of an iron suspension bridge was published by Verantius in 1607, while ropes have been
used in military bridging from at least 1600. In modem times, cables formed by binding a
large number of steel wires together are employed in bridge construction where the bridge
deck is suspended on hangers from the cables themselves. The cables in turn pass over the
tops of towers and are fixed to anchor blocks embedded in the ground; in this manner large,
clear spans are achieved. Cables are also used in cable-stayed bridges, as part of roof support
systems, for prestressing in concrete beams and for guyed structures such as pylons and
television masts.
Structurally, cables are extremely efficient because they make the most effective use of
structural material in that their loads are carried solely through tension. There is, therefore,
no tendency for buckling to occur either from bending or from compressive axial loads).
However, many of the structures mentioned above are statically indeterminate to a high
degree. In other situations, particularly in guyed towers and cable-stayed bridges, the
extension of the cables affects the internal force system and the analysis becomes non-linear.
Cables are often used in engineering structures for support and to transmit loads from one
member to another. When used to support suspension roofs, bridges, and trolley wheels,
cables form the main load-carrying element in the structure. In the force analysis of such
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systems, the weight of the cable itself may be neglected; however, when cables are used as
guys for radio antennas, electrical transmission lines, and derricks, the cable weight may
become important and must be included in the structural analysis. Two cases will be
considered in the sections that follow: a cable subjected to concentrated loads and a cable
subjected to a distributed load. Provided these loadings are coplanar with the cable, the
requirements for equilibrium are formulated in an identical manner.
Two categories of cable arise; the first is relatively lightweight and carries a limited number
of concentrated loads, while the second is heavier with a more uniform distribution of load.
We shall also examine, in the case of suspension bridges, the effects of different forms of
cable support at the towers.
In the analysis of this type of cable we shall assume that the self-weight of the cable is
negligible, that it can only carry tensile forces and that the extension of the cable does not
affect the geometry of the system, cable is perfectly flexible and inextensible, no resistance
to shear/bending, force acting on the cable is always tangent to the cable at points along its
length. When a cable of negligible weight supports several concentrated loads, the cable
takes the form of several straight-line segments, each of which is subjected to a constant
tensile force. We shall illustrate the method by examples.
Examples
𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 0.745𝑇𝐵𝐶
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∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0; 𝑇𝐴𝐵 (1⁄ ) + 𝑇𝐵𝐶 (1⁄ ) − 20 = 0
√10 √2
1.265 𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 20
𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 15.81𝑘𝑁
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2. A hoisting device uses the cable system shown. If the load of 𝑃 = 5𝑘𝑁, then the load at
point B is?
𝑇𝐵𝐶 = 2.25 𝑘𝑁
𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 3.02 𝑘𝑁
𝐵 = 1.42 𝑘𝑁
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3. Cable ABCD supports the loading shown below. Determine the maximum tension in the
cable and the sag at point B.
Approach
Step 1
−1 3
∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0; 𝑇𝐴𝐵 + 𝑇𝐵𝐶 = 0
√𝑦𝐵2 + 12 √(𝑦𝐵 − 2)2 + 32
𝑇𝐴𝐵 3𝑇𝐵𝐶
=
2 +12
√𝑦𝐵 √(𝑦𝐵 −2)2 +32
(4𝑦𝐵 −2)𝑇𝐵𝐶
= 40 (1)
√(𝑦𝐵 −2)2 +32
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Step 2.
−3 0.5
∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0; 𝑇𝐵𝐶 + 𝑇𝐶𝐷 = 0
√(𝑦𝐵 − 2)2 + 32 √0.52 + 22
6 𝑇
𝑇 = √0.5𝐶𝐷
√(𝑦𝐵 −2)2 +32 𝐵𝐶 2 +22
−(𝑦𝐵 − 2) 2
∑ 𝐹𝑌 = 0; 𝑇𝐵𝐶 + 𝑇𝐶𝐷 − 60 = 0
√(𝑦𝐵 − 2)2 + 32 √0.52 + 22
(14−𝑦𝐵 )𝑇𝐵𝐶
= 40 (2)
√(𝑦𝐵 −2)2 +32
Step 3.
14 − 𝑦𝐵 60 3
= =
4𝑦𝐵 − 2 40 2
28 − 2𝑦𝐵 = 12𝑦𝐵 − 6
14𝑦𝐵 = 34
𝑦𝐵 = 2.43𝑚
Step 4.
(4×2.43−2)𝑇𝐵𝐶
= 40
√(2.43−2)2 +32
𝑇𝐵𝐶 = 15.7𝑘𝑁
From
𝑇𝐴𝐵 3𝑇𝐵𝐶
=
√𝑦𝐵2 + 12 √(𝑦𝐵 − 2)2 + 32
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𝑇𝐴𝐵 3 × 15.7
=
√2.432 + 12 √(2.43 − 2)2 + 32
𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 40.9𝑘𝑁
From
6 𝑇𝐶𝐷
𝑇𝐵𝐶 =
√(𝑦𝐵 − 2)2 + 32 √0.52 + 22
6 × 15.7 𝑇𝐶𝐷
=
√(2.43 − 2)2 + 32 √0.52 + 22
We shall now consider the more practical case of cables having a significant self-weight.
Cables provide a very effective means of supporting the dead weight of girders or bridge
decks having very long spans. A suspension bridge is a typical example, in which the deck
is suspended from the cable using a series of close and equally spaced hangers.
In order to analyze this problem, we will first determine the shape of a cable subjected to a
uniform horizontally distributed vertical load Fig. a. Here the x, y axes have their origin
located at the lowest point on the cable, such that the slope is zero at this point. The free-
body diagram of a small segment of the cable having a length is shown in Fig. b. Since the
tensile force in the cable changes continuously in both magnitude and direction along the
cable’s length, this change is denoted on the free-body diagram by The distributed load is
represented by its resultant force which acts at from point O.
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Applying the equations of equilibrium yields
Dividing each of these equations by ∆𝑥 and taking the limit as ∆𝑥 → 0 and hence ∆𝜃 →
0, ∆𝑦 → 0 and ∆𝑇 → 0 we obtain,
𝑑(𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
=0 (1)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
= 𝑤° (2)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 (3)
𝑑𝑥
𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑤° 𝑥 (5)
𝑑𝑦 𝑤° 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥 = (6)
𝐹𝐻
𝑤
𝑦 = 2𝐹° 𝑥 2 (7)
𝐻
𝑦 = ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑤° 𝐿2
𝐹𝐻 = (8)
2ℎ
ℎ
cable profile yields equation of a parabola 𝑦 = 𝐿2 𝑥 2 (9)
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𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝐹𝐻2 + (𝑤° 𝐿)2 (10)
From (8)
2
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑤° 𝐿√1 + (𝐿⁄2ℎ) (11)
Examples
1. The cable supports a girder which weighs 12 kN/m. Determine the tension in the cable at
points A, B & C.
12kN/m
The origin of the coordinate axes is established at point B, the lowest point on the cable
where slope is zero,
wo 2 12kN/m 2 6 2
y x x x (1)
2 FH 2 FH FH
𝑦 = 0.0389𝑥 2
6 2
6 x' FH 1.0 x'2 (2)
FH
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From B to A
6
12 [(30 x' )] 2
FH
6
12 2
[(30 x' )] 2
1.0 x'
x' 2 60 x'900 0 x' 12 .43 m , from (2)
𝐹𝐻 = 154.4𝑘𝑁
𝑦 = 0.0389𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
Integrating, 𝑑𝑥 = 0.0777𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
dy
tan C 0.966
dx x 12.43
C 44.0o
FH 154.4
TC 214.6kN
cos C cos 44.0o
dy
tan A 1.366
dx x 17.57
A 53.79 o
FH
TA 261.4kN
cos A
2. The suspension bridge in the figure below is constructed using the two stiffening trusses
that are pin connected at their ends C and supported by a pin at A and a rocker at B.
Determine the maximum tension in the cable IH. The cable has a parabolic shape and the
bridge is subjected to the single load of 50 kN.
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∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; −12𝐶𝑦 + 8𝑇°
𝑇° = 1.5𝐶𝑦 (1)
∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0; −12𝐶𝑦 + 50 × 9 − 8𝑇° = 0
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𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑥
°
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 28.12
𝑑𝑥
𝑤° 𝑥
𝑦=∫ 𝑑𝑥
28.12
𝑤° 𝑥 2
𝑦= + 𝐶1
28.12
𝑤° × 122
8=
2 × 28.12
𝑤° = 3.125 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
𝑤° 𝑥 = 12 × 3.125 = 37.5𝑘𝑁
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3. For the structure shown, determine the maximum tension of the cable
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; 𝐵𝑦 × 5 + 𝑇° × 0.5 = 0
∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0; 𝐵𝑦 × 20 + 20 × 10 − 𝑇° × 8 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑤° 𝑥
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑑𝑥 25
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𝑤° 𝑥
𝑦=∫ 𝑑𝑥
25
𝑤° 𝑥 2
𝑦= + 𝐶1
25
𝑤° × 202
8=
2 × 25
𝑤° = 1.0 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
𝑤° 𝑥 = 20 × 1 = 20𝑘𝑁
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Exercises
1. Determine the tension in each segment of the cable shown in the figure below. Also,
what is the dimension h ?
Ans. TCD = 6.79 kN, TCB = 4.82 kN, TBA = 6.90 kN, h = 2.74 m
2. The cable shown below is pinned to supports at A and B and carries a concentrated
load of 10 kN at a point C. Calculate the tension in each part of the cable and the reactions
at the supports.
3. Calculate the tension in each of the parts AC, CD and DB of the cable shown below
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TCA = 29.1 kN, TDB = 28.4 kN, TCD = 27.6 kN
4. Calculate the tension in each segment of the cable known in the Figure below and
also the vertical distance of the points B and E below the support points A and F
Ans. TAB = TFE = 26.9 kN, TBC = TED = 25.5 kN, TCD = 25.0 kN, 1.0 m.
5. Calculate the sag at the point B in the cable shown in Fig. below and the tension in
each of its segments.
Ans. 0.81 m relative to A. TAB = 4.9 kN, TBC = 4.6 kN, TCD = 4.7 kN.
6. Calculate the sag, relative to A, of the points C and D in the cable shown in Fig.
below. Determine also the tension in each of its segments.
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Ans. C = 4.2m, D = 3.1m, TAB=11.98kN, TBC=9.68kN, TCD=9.43kN.
Ans. 8.73 m.
8. A suspension cable is suspended from two points 102 m apart and at the same
horizontal level. The self-weight of the cable can be considered to be equivalent to 36 N/m
of horizontal length. If the cable carries two concentrated loads each of 10 kN at 34 m and
68 m horizontally from the left-hand support and the maximum sag in the cable is 3 m,
determine the maximum tension in the cable and the vertical distance between the
concentrated loads and the supports.
The cable passes over frictionless pulleys at the top of each tower which are of the same
height. If the anchor cables are to be arranged such that there is no bending moment in the
towers calculate the inclination of the anchor cables to the horizontal. Calculate also the
maximum tension in the cable and the vertical force on a tower.
10. A suspension cable passes over saddles supported by roller bearings on the top of
two towers 120 m apart and differing in height by 2.5 m. The maximum sag in the cable is
10 m and each anchor cable is inclined at 55" to the horizontal. If the cable carries a uniform
horizontally distributed load of 25 kN/m and is to be made of steel having an allowable
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tensile stress of 240 N/mm', determine its minimum diameter. Calculate also the vertical
load on the tallest tower.
11. A suspension cable has a sag of 40 m and is fixed to two towers of the same height
and 400 m apart; the effective cross-sectional area of the cable is 0.08 m2. However, due to
corrosion, the effective cross-sectional area of the central half of the cable is reduced by
20%. If the stress in the cable is limited to 500 N/mm2 calculate the maximum allowable
distributed load the cable can support. Calculate also the inclination of the cable to the
horizontal at the top of the towers.
12. A suspension bridge with two main cables has a span of 250 m and a sag of 25 m. It
carries a uniform horizontally distributed load of 25 kN/m and the allowable stress in the
cables is 800 N/mm2. If each anchor cable makes an angle of 45" with the towers calculate:
Ans. (a) 5270 mm', (b) (i) 4210 kN, 930 kN (ii) 5530kN, 0.
13. A suspension cable passes over two towers 80 m apart and carries a load of 5 kN per
metre of span. If the top of the left-hand tower is 4 m below the top of the right-hand tower,
calculate the maximum tension in the cables. Also, if the cable passes over saddles on rollers
on the tops of the towers with the anchor cable at 45" to the horizontal, calculate the vertical
thrust on the right-hand tower.
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4.2 ARCHES
Like cables, arches can be used to reduce the bending moments in long-span structures.
Essentially, an arch acts as an inverted cable, so it receives its load mainly in compression
although, because of its rigidity, it must also resist some bending and shear depending upon
how it is loaded and shaped. In particular, if the arch has a parabolic shape and it is subjected
to a uniform horizontally distributed vertical load, then from the analysis of cables it follows
that only compressive forces will be resisted by the arch. Under these conditions the arch
shape is called a funicular arch because no bending or shear forces occur within the arch.
A typical arch is shown in Fig.1, which specifies some of the nomenclature used to define
its geometry. Depending upon the application, several types of arches can be selected to
support a loading. A fixed arch, Fig. 2, is often made from reinforced concrete. Although it
may require less material to construct than other types of arches, it must have solid
foundation abutments since it is indeterminate to the third degree and, consequently,
additional stresses can be introduced into the arch due to relative settlement of its supports.
A two-hinged arch, Fig. 3, is commonly made from metal or timber. It is indeterminate to
the first degree, and although it is not as rigid as a fixed arch, it is somewhat insensitive to
settlement. We could make this structure statically determinate by replacing one of the
hinges with a roller. Doing so, however, would remove the capacity of the structure to resist
bending along its span, and as a result it would serve as a curved beam, and not as an arch.
A three-hinged arch, Fig. 4, which is also made from metal or timber, is statically
determinate. Unlike statically indeterminate arches, it is not affected by settlement or
temperature changes. Finally, if two and three-hinged arches are to be constructed without
the need for larger foundation abutments and if clearance is not a problem, then the supports
can be connected with a tie rod, Fig. 5. A tied arch allows the structure to behave as a rigid
unit, since the tie rod carries the horizontal component of thrust at the supports. It is also
unaffected by relative settlement of the supports.
Fig 1.
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Fig 2.
Fig 3.
Fig. 4
Fig 5.
To provide some insight as to how arches transmit loads, we will now consider the analysis
of a three-hinged arch such as the one shown in Fig. 4. In this case, the third hinge is located
at the crown and the supports are located at different elevations. In order to determine the
reactions at the supports, the arch is disassembled and the free-body diagram of each
member is shown in Fig. 6. Here there are six unknowns for which six equations of
equilibrium are available. One method of solving this problem is to apply the moment
equilibrium equations about points A and B. Simultaneous solution will yield the reactions
and The support reactions are then determined from the force equations of equilibrium. Once
obtained, the internal normal force, shear, and moment loadings at any point along the arch
can be found using the method of sections. Here, of course, the section should be taken
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perpendicular to the axis of the arch at the point considered. For example, the free-body
diagram for segment AD as shown in the fig 6.
Fig. 6
Three-hinged arches can also take the form of two pin-connected trusses, each of which
would replace the arch ribs AC and CB in Fig. 6. A three hinged arch may be either of the
following two types, depending upon the geometry of its axis. The analysis of this form
follows the same procedure outlined above. The following examples numerically illustrate
these concepts.
Consider a three hinged parabolic arch ACB, having hinges at the supports A and B as well
as at crown C, as shown in the Figure below. Now, consider a point X, on the axis of the
arch, at a distance x from A.
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𝑦 = rise of the point 𝑋 from the springings, and
Now, taking A as the origin, we know that, equation for the centre line of a parabolic arch
is,
𝑦 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) (1)
𝑙 𝑙 𝑘𝑙 2
𝑦𝑐 = 𝑘 ∙ (𝑙 − ) =
2 2 4
4𝑦𝑐
𝑘=
𝑙2
4𝑦𝑐
𝑦= ∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) (2)
𝑙2
This is the required equation for the rise 𝑦 of an arch axis, from its springings at a distance
𝑥 from the support A or B.
𝑙 4𝑦𝑐 𝑙 𝑙 3𝑦𝑐
When 𝑥 = 4 , 𝑦 = ∙ 4 (𝑙 − 4) =
𝑙2 4
The slope of the angle 𝜃may be found out by differentiating (2) with respect to 𝑥
4𝑦𝑐 4𝑦𝑐
𝑦= ∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) = ∙ (𝑙𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑙2 𝑙2
𝑑𝑦 4𝑦𝑐
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 2 (𝑙 − 2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑙
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Consider a three hinged circular arch ACB, having hinges at the supports A and B as well
as a crown at C. now consider a point X, on the axis of the arch at a distance x from D.
𝜃 =angle, which the tangent at 𝑂𝑋 makes with the center line 𝑂𝐶,
2 ∝=angle which the two supports A and B make at the centre of the arch O.
𝑥, 𝑦 =coordinates of the point X, with reference to the point D, which is middle of the span
AB of the arch.
Since the arch is a circular one, therefore from the geometry of the figure, we find that
𝐴𝑂 = 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑅
𝑙
𝐴𝐷 = 𝐷𝐵 =
2
𝐷𝐶 = 𝑦𝑐
𝑂𝐸 = 𝑂𝐷 + 𝐷𝐸 = (𝑅 − 𝑦𝑐 ) + 𝑦
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𝑋𝐸 = 𝑥
𝑂𝑋 2 = 𝑂𝐸 2 + 𝐸𝑋 2
𝑅 2 = [(𝑅 − 𝑦𝑐 ) + 𝑦]2 + 𝑥 2 , this is the required equation that the relation between x and y.
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙2
𝑦𝑐 (2𝑅 − 𝑦𝑐 ) = × =
2 2 4
𝑙2
2𝑅 − 𝑦𝑐 =
4𝑦𝑐
𝑙2
2𝑅 = + 𝑦𝑐
4𝑦𝑐
𝑙2 𝑦𝑐
𝑅= +
8𝑦𝑐 2
𝐵𝐷 𝑙 1 𝑙
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝= = × =
𝐴𝑂 2 𝑅 2𝑅
𝑂𝐷 𝑅 − 𝑦𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝= =
𝐵𝑂 𝑅
𝑥 = 𝑂𝑋𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
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4.2.3 HORIZONTAL THRUST IN A THREE HINGED ARCH
The arches having hinged supports, at their two ends and also having a third hinge anywhere
between the two ends are known as three hinged arches. The third hinge is usually placed at
the crown of the arch. Since no bending moment can exist at the hinges, therefore the line
of thrust in a three hinge arch must pass through the three hinges. The reaction at the two
ends have both horizontal and vertical components when an arch is subjected to vertical
loads only. The horizontal components at the two supports will be equal and opposite. When
the two ends of an arch are at the same level, the two vertical reactions R A and RB may be
found out in the same way as a simply supported beam.
A simple calculation will show that the bending moment at the crown of the arch,
𝑀𝑐 = 𝜇𝑐 − 𝐻𝑦𝑐
𝜇𝑐 =beam moment at c due to loading (by considering the arch as a simply supported beam
of span l)
Since the arch is hinged at its crown and the bending moment at the crown will be zero, then
𝜇𝑐 − 𝐻𝑦𝑐 = 0
𝜇𝑐 = 𝐻𝑦𝑐
𝜇𝑐
𝐻=
𝑦𝑐
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Examples
1. A three hinged parabolic arch of span 40m and rise 10m is carrying a Uniformly
Distributed Load as shown below. Find the horizontal thrust at the springings.
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; 𝑉𝐵 × 40 − 30 × 20 × 10 = 0
40𝑉𝐵 = 6000
𝑉𝐵 = 150𝑘𝑁
𝜇𝑐 = 𝑉𝐵 × 20 = 150 × 20 = 3000𝑘𝑁
𝜇𝑐 3000
𝐻= = = 300𝑘𝑁
𝑦𝑐 10
2. A three hinged circular arch of span 21m has a rise of 4m. The arch is loaded with a point
load of 80kN at a horizontal distance 6m from the left support. Determine the horizontal
thrust, the two reactions and bending moment under the load.
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; 𝑉𝐵 × 21 − 80 × 6 = 0
21𝑉𝐵 = 480
𝑉𝐵 = 22.86𝑘𝑁
𝑉𝐴 = 80 − 22.86 = 57.14𝑘𝑁
21
𝜇𝑐 = 𝑉𝐵 ×
2
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𝜇𝑐 = 22.86 × 10.5 = 240𝑘𝑁
𝜇𝑐 240
𝐻= = = 60𝑘𝑁
𝑦𝑐 4
𝑅𝐴 = √𝑉𝐴2 + 𝐻 2
𝑅𝐴 = √57.142 + 602
𝑅𝐴 = 82.86𝑘𝑁
𝑅𝐵 = √𝑉𝐵2 + 𝐻 2
𝑅𝐵 = √22.862 + 602
𝑅𝐵 = 64.21𝑘𝑁
𝑙2 𝑦𝑐
𝑅= +
8𝑦𝐶 2
212 4
= + = 15.78𝑚
8×4 2
𝐷𝐵 10.5
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = = = 0.6654
𝑂𝐵 15.78
∝= 41°42′
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Similarly from the figure OXE, we find that
𝑋𝐸 10.5 − 6 4.5
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = = = 0.2866
𝑂𝑋 15.78 15.78
𝜃 = 16°39′
𝑦 = 𝑅(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝)
= 15.78(𝑐𝑜𝑠16°39′ − 𝑐𝑜𝑠41°42′)
= 15.78(0.9581 − 0.7464)
Bending moment at X,
𝑀𝑋 = (𝑉𝐴 × 6) − (𝐻 × 3.34)
3. A three hinged parabolic arch of span 20m has a rise of 5m. The arch is loaded with a
point load of 200kN at a horizontal distance 6m from the left support. Determine the
horizontal thrust and the two reactions under the load. Draw the bending moment diagram
and indicate the position of maximum bending moment.
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; 𝑉𝐵 × 20 − 200 × 6 = 0
20𝑉𝐵 = 1200
𝑉𝐵 = 60𝑘𝑁
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𝑉𝐴 = 200 − 60 = 140𝑘𝑁
𝜇𝑐 = 𝑉𝐵 × 10 = 600𝑘𝑁𝑚
600
𝐻= = 120𝑘𝑁
5
𝑅𝐴 = √𝑉𝐴2 + 𝐻 2
𝑅𝐴 = √1402 + 1202
𝑅𝐴 = 184.4𝑘𝑁
𝑅𝐵 = √𝑉𝐵2 + 𝐻 2
𝑅𝐵 = √602 + 1202
𝑅𝐵 = 134.2𝑘𝑁
i. Draw the arch ACB with the given span and rise
ii. Since the bending moment at A, B and C is zero, therefore join B and C and extend
the line.
iii. Draw a vertical line through D, meeting the line BC at E.
iv. Join AE.
Now, AEB is the required bending moment diagram. From the bending moment diagram
we see that the maximum positive bending moment takes place under the load. Rise of the
arch at D,
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4𝑦𝑐 4×5 6 × 14
𝑦= ∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) = × 6(20 − 6) = = 4.2𝑚
𝑙2 202 20
From the bending moment diagram, we also see that the maximum negative bending
moment occurs at the section CB. Let the maximum negative bending moment take place at
the distance x from B. we know that rise of x from B.
4𝑦𝑐 4×5
𝑦= 2
∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) = × 𝑥(20 − 𝑥)
𝑙 202
𝑥 𝑥2
= (20 − 𝑥) = 𝑥 −
20 20
𝑥2
𝑀𝑋 = 𝑉𝐵 𝑥 − 𝐻𝑦 = 60𝑥 − 120 (𝑥 − )
20
Now, for maximum bending moment, we differentiate the above equation with respect to x
and equate to zero.
𝑑(6𝑥 2 − 60𝑥)
=0
𝑑𝑥
12𝑥 − 60 = 0
𝑥=5
4𝑦𝑐 4×5 5 × 15
𝑦= 2
∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) = 2
× 5(20 − 5) = = 3.75𝑚
𝑙 20 20
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𝑀𝑋 = (𝑉𝐵 × 𝑥) − (𝐻 × 𝑦) = (60 × 5) − (120 × 3.75)
= −150𝑘𝑁𝑚
4. A parabolic three pinned arch has a span of 20m and a central rise of 4m. it is loaded with
a uniformly distributed load of 20kN/m for a length of 8m from the left hand support. Draw
the bending moment diagram for the arch and find the position of maximum bending
moment over the arch.
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; 𝑉𝐵 × 20 − 20 × 8 × 4 = 0
20𝑉𝐵 = 640
𝑉𝐵 = 32𝑘𝑁
𝑉𝐴 = (20 × 8) − 32 = 128𝑘𝑁
𝜇𝑐 = 𝑉𝐵 × 10 = 320𝑘𝑁𝑚
320
𝐻= = 80𝑘𝑁
4
i. Draw the arch ACB with the given span and rise.
ii. Since the bending at A, B and C is zero, therefore join B and C and extend it to E
such that the horizontal distance from E to A is 8m.
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iii. Now draw a parabolic curve AFE, after locating the point E.
From the bending moment diagram, we also see that the maximum positive bending moment
occurs at the section AD. Let the maximum positive bending moment take place at the
distance x from A. we know that rise of x from A.
4𝑦𝑐 4×4
𝑦= 2
∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) = × 𝑥(20 − 𝑥)
𝑙 202
𝑥 4𝑥 𝑥 2
= (20 − 𝑥) = −
25 5 25
𝑥 4𝑥 𝑥 2
𝑀𝑋 = 𝑉𝐴 𝑥 − (20𝑥 × ) − 𝐻𝑦 = 128𝑥 − 10𝑥 2 − 80 ( − )
2 5 25
16𝑥 2 34𝑥 2
= 128𝑥 − 10𝑥 2 − 64𝑥 + = 64𝑥 −
5 5
Now, for maximum bending moment, we differentiate the above equation with respect to x
and equate to zero.
𝑑 34𝑥 2
(64𝑥 − )=0
𝑑𝑥 5
68𝑥
64 − =0
5
𝑥 = 4.7𝑚
4𝑦𝑐 4×4
𝑦= 2
∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) = × 4.7(20 − 4.7) = 2.88𝑚
𝑙 202
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Maximum bending moment at 4.7m from A,
20 × 4.72
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑉𝐴 × 𝑥) − − (𝐻 × 𝑦) = (128 × 4.7) − (10 × 4.72 ) − (120 × 3.75)
2
= 150.3𝑘𝑁𝑚
From the bending moment diagram, we also see that the maximum negative bending
moment occurs at the section CB. Let the maximum negative bending moment take place at
the distance x from B. we know that rise of x from B.
4𝑦𝑐 4×4
𝑦= 2
∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) = × 𝑥(20 − 𝑥)
𝑙 202
𝑥 4𝑥 𝑥 2
= (20 − 𝑥) = −
25 5 25
4𝑥 𝑥 2
𝑀𝑋 = 𝑉𝐵 𝑥 − 𝐻𝑦 = 32𝑥 − 80 ( − )
5 25
16𝑥 2 16𝑥 2
= 32𝑥 − 64𝑥 + = − 32𝑥
5 5
Now, for maximum bending moment, we differentiate the above equation with respect to x
and equate to zero.
𝑑 16𝑥 2
( − 32𝑥) = 0
𝑑𝑥 5
32𝑥
− 32 = 0
5
𝑥 = 5𝑚
4𝑦𝑐 4×4 5 × 15 × 16
𝑦= 2
∙ 𝑥(𝑙 − 𝑥) = 2
× 5(20 − 5) = = 3𝑚
𝑙 20 20 × 20
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Bending moment at 5m from B,
= −80𝑘𝑁𝑚
4.2.4 EXERCISE
1. A three hinged parabolic arch of span 20m has a rise of 3m. The arch is loaded with a point
load of 100kN at a horizontal distance 7.5m from the left support. Determine the horizontal
thrust and the two reactions under the load and bending moment at a point 7.5m from the
right support.
2. A three hinged parabolic arch of span 𝑙 and central rise 𝑦𝑐 carries a uniformly
distributed load of 𝑤 per unit length over the left half of the span. Show that the
𝑤𝑙2
maximum positive bending moment is equal to .
64
3. A three hinged parabolic arch of span 84m has a rise of 18m. The arch is loaded with
a uniformly distributed load of 20kN/m over a 1/3 of the span from the left support.
Calculate the bending moment at the quarter span point.
4. A three hinged circular arch of span 25m has a rise of 5m. The arch is loaded with a
point load of 100kN at a horizontal distance 7.5m from the left support. Determine
the horizontal thrust and the bending moment under the load.
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5.0 Stability of Gravity Section
Retaining structures are structures designed to retain back soil, liquids or other materials. There are
many types of retaining structures. However, from the point of view of the source from which the
retaining structure achieve stability, retaining structures are generally categorised as gravity and non-
gravity types.
The gravity type retaining structures derive their stability utilising their self-weight while in the case
of the non-gravity structures, stability is achieved by factors other than the self-weight. Further
discussion on retaining wall in this text will be restricted to stability analysis of gravity type retaining
structures. Gravity retaining wall can fail in three different ways. Sliding, Toppling, and soil bearing
capacity failure. Again, in this section, we will look at the first two ways only.
Figure 5-1
5.1 SLIDING
The retaining wall can slide. This is called a sliding failure. The example is below; the retaining wall
will fail if the Force is less than the resultant Vertical Force. The Factor of Safety (𝐹𝑜𝑆) is given by
𝐹𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟
(𝐹𝑜𝑆) =
𝐹
Where:
𝐹𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 is the resistance against sliding due to the weight of the dam, and
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The resistance against sliding 𝐹𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 is obtained from
where
5.2 OVERTURNING
In the case of the stability of the section against overturning, the retaining wall will fail if the
overturning moment (𝐹 (ℎ/3)) is greater than the resisting moment (𝑊 × 𝑥). The Factor of Safety
(𝐹𝑜𝑆) against overturning is given by
(3 × 𝑊 × 𝑥)
(𝐹𝑜𝑆) =
(𝐹 × ℎ)
Where:
Example 1
A gravity retaining wall with sand backfill and no groundwater has a height ℎ of 10𝑚. The weight
of the retaining wall is 2400 𝑘𝑁 for a meter length of the wall and the weight acts at a distance of
4𝑚 from the tow of point A. The friction angle of the soil backfill is 30𝑜 . The soil backfill mainly
consists of sandy soil. The density of the soil is 980 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3. The friction angle between the soil
and earth at the bottom of the retaining wall was found to be 20o. Find the factor of safety for the
retaining wall shown above.
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Figure 5-2
Solution
Step 1: Calculate 𝐾𝑎 .
ℎ
𝐹 = 𝜎 × (2 ) = 32 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2 × (10𝑚/2) = 160𝑘𝑁 per meter of wall
𝐹𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 = 𝑊 × 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝛿) = 2400𝑘𝑁/𝑚 × 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (20) = 873.5𝑘𝑁 per meter of wall
𝐹𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 873.5
(𝐹𝑜𝑆)𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = = 5.5
𝐹 160
𝑀𝑟 = 𝑊 × 𝑥 = 2400𝑘𝑁 × 4𝑚 = 9600𝑘𝑁𝑚
𝐹 × ℎ 160𝑘𝑁 × 10𝑚
𝑀𝑜 = = = 533𝑘𝑁𝑚
3 3
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𝑀𝑟 9600
(𝐹𝑜𝑆)𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 18
𝑀𝑜 533
So the concern limiting Factor of Safety is the sliding failure which is 5.5. This is still acceptable.
Consider a unit length of a rectangular dam, retaining water on one of its vertical sides, as shown in
Figure 5-3
Figure 5-3
Let
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑔. 𝑏ℎ
The weight 𝑊 will act through the center of gravity of the dam section. Also, the intensity of the
water pressure is zero at the water surface and increases by a straight line law to 𝑤ℎ at the bottom.
Thus the average intensity of pressure on the exposed face of the dam is equal to
𝑤ℎ
2
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Therefore, the total pressure on a unit length of the dam is
𝑤ℎ 𝑤ℎ2
𝑃= ×ℎ =
2 2
This water pressure 𝑃 will act at a height of ℎ⁄3 from the bottom of the dam as shown in fig. the
resultant of water pressure 𝑃 and the weight of the dam 𝑊 are related by
𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 𝑊 2
Let 𝑥 be the horizontal distance between the center of gravity of the dam and the point through which
the resultant 𝑅 cuts the base (i.e. the distance 𝐽𝐾 in Figure 5-3). From similar triangles 𝐿𝑀𝑁 and 𝐿𝐽,
we see that
𝐽𝐾 𝑁𝑀
=
𝐿𝐽 𝐿𝑁
𝑥 𝑃 𝑃ℎ
∴ = ⟹ 𝑥=
ℎ⁄ 𝑊 3𝑊
3
The distance 𝑑 between the toe of the dam 𝐴 and the point where the resultant 𝑅 cuts the base is
given by
𝑏 𝑏 𝑃ℎ
𝑑 = 𝐴𝐾 = 𝐴𝐽 + 𝐽𝐾 = +𝑥 = +( )
2 2 3𝑊
𝑏
𝑒=𝑑−
2
This eccentricity will induce a moment on the dam which in turn will induce bending stress at the
base section of the dam. The magnitude of this moment is
𝑀 =𝑊×𝑒
The moment 𝑀 is related to the dam section properties through the relation
𝑀 𝑝𝑏
=
𝐼 𝑦
Where
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𝑦 = the distance between the center of gravity of the base section and the extreme fiber of the base
𝑏
(= 2 in this case).
𝑝𝑏 =bending stress in the fiber at a distance 𝑦 from the center of gravity of the base section, and
𝑏2
𝐼 = 12 is the moment of inertia of the base section about the center of gravity. Thus
6𝑊𝑒
𝑝𝑏 =
𝑏2
Now the distribution of direct stress 𝑝𝑜 due to the weight 𝑊of the dam at the base is
𝑊
𝑝𝑜 =
𝑏
A careful examination will reveal that the maximum stress at the base will occur at 𝐵 while the
minimum stress will occur at 𝐴, hence
𝑊 6𝑒
𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑝𝑜 + 𝑝𝑏 = (1 + )
𝑏 𝑏
𝑊 6𝑒
𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑝𝑜 − 𝑝𝑏 = (1 − )
𝑏 𝑏
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