AFFILIATED TO

GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

INDUSTRY DEFINED PROJECT REQUIRED FOR THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

CIVIL ENGINEERING

(2016-17)

BY

VRAJ PANDYA 130280106072

AXIT SHAH 130280106104
DEEP SHAH 130280106105
KARAN SHAH 130280106107

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

PRITI J. MEHTA
 L.D. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Certificate

This is to certify that the project entitled “ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON OF LATERAL
LOAD ON HIGH RISE STRUCTURE USING SOFTWARE” submitted for requirements for
the award of Bachelor of Engineering degree in Civil engineering at the L.D. COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING is an authentic work carried out under my supervision and guidance.

Date: 11 Oct. 2016.

Asst. Prof. P.J.MEHTA

Applied Mechanics Department

L.D. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

AHMEDABAD-380015
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Every project big or small is successful largely due to the effort of a number of wonderful
people who have always given their valuable advice or lent a helping hand. I sincerely
appreciate the inspiration; support and guidance of all those people who have been
instrumental in making this project a success.

We take this opportunity to express our profound gratitude and deep regards to my guide
(Professor P.J.Mehta) for her exemplary guidance, monitoring and constant encouragement
throughout the course of this thesis. The blessing, help and guidance given by her time to
time shall carry me a long way in the journey of life on which I am about to embark.

I would also like to thank all the faculty members of L.D. COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING for their critical advice and guidance without which this project would not
have been possible.

Last but not the least I place a deep sense of gratitude to my family members and my friends
who have been constant source of inspiration during the preparation of this project work.

VRAJ PANDYA (130280106072)

AXIT SHAH (130280106104)

DEEP SHAH (130280106105)

KARAN SHAH(130280106107)

B.E. (SEMESTER - 7)
 Literature Review

INTRODUCTION:
The concept of tall structures is not new to the world, yet the trend of high-rise construction
started in the nineteenth century. High-rise or multi-storey buildings are being constructed
either to cater for a growing population or as a landmark to boost a country’s name and get
recognition. The choice of thesis topic is examined and argued in the context of the research
background, with examples of real-life structures. A description of composite constructions is
given. This literature emphasises that the scholarly material available usually deals with
individual components of composite buildings, such as composite columns or composite
beams. Moreover, the academic literature concentrates on the characteristics and properties of
wind and earthquake loadings. There is little academic work on the overall behaviour of
composite buildings under horizontal loadings.

MULTI-STOREY CONSTRUCTION:
The onset of modern buildings can be traced back to the nineteenth century. High-rise
buildings have become characteristic of commercial districts or cities. These are the result of
meticulous thinking and precise design to accommodate a large number of people and supply
all the modern day amenities to the occupants.

Any structure, to be reliable and durable, must be designed to withstand gravity, wind,
earthquakes, equipment and snow loads, to be able to resist high or low temperatures, and to
assimilate vibrations and absorb noises.

The main and primary concern is the stability and reliability of the entire structure and
structural components, as well as their ability to carry applied loads and forces. Tall and lean
buildings are more susceptible to lateral sway and deflections. The minimum limit to
structural sizes suggested by various codes and standards are usually enough to support the
weight of the building as well as the imposed dead loads and live loads. However, the real
challenge for the structural engineer is to find out the structural behaviour of a building under
wind and seismic actions. The effects of these external horizontal forces are highly
unpredictable, and these mainly depend on building shape, size, mass, floor plan layout, and
climatic conditions.

RESEARCH PROBLEM:
In recent times the frequency of earthquake is increased and further as the tall structures are
the main aspect for the commercial cities, the stability of high rise structures under seismic
and wind loads is essential. This analysis aims to study the behaviour of composite multi-
storey buildings under horizontal loads using analytical as well as using software. This topic
is analysed in the context of available academic material and the gaps in academic research
are pointed out. The G+14 storey structure is analysed for wind as well as earthquake
loading. Further the comparison is made between this two types of loads and between
aerocon bricks and RCC is done.

BASIC ASPECTS OF SEISMIC DESIGN:

The mass of the building being designed controls seismic design in addition to the
building stiffness, because earthquake induces inertia forces that are proportional to the
building mass. Designing buildings to behave elastically during earthquakes without damage
may render the project economically unviable. As a consequence, it may be necessary for the
structure to undergo damage and thereby dissipate the energy input to it during the
earthquake. Therefore, the traditional earthquake-resistant design philosophy requires that
normal buildings should be able to resist

(a) Minor (and frequent) shaking with no damage to structural and non-structural elements;

(b) Moderate shaking with minor damage to structural elements, and some damage to non-
structural elements; and

(c) Severe (and infrequent) shaking with damage to structural elements, but with NO collapse
(to save life and property inside/adjoining the building).

Therefore, buildings are designed only for a fraction (~8-14%) of the force that they would
experience, if they were designed to remain elastic during the expected strong ground
shaking, and thereby permitting damage. But, sufficient initial stiffness is required to be
ensured to avoid structural damage under minor shaking. Thus, seismic design balances
reduced cost and acceptable damage, to make the project viable. This careful balance is
arrived based on extensive research and detailed post-earthquake damage assessment studies.
A wealth of this information is translated into precise seismic design provisions. In contrast,
structural damage is not acceptable under design wind forces. For this reason, design against
earthquake effects is called as earthquake-resistant design and not earthquake-proof design.

BASIC ASPECT OF WIND FORCE:

At present days, buildings are made very tall, slender and asymmetrical, with special
architectural and aesthetic requirements. Due to developments of new building materials and
construction techniques, these buildings are becoming much lighter and more slender than
earlier. These buildings are very susceptible to wind load. These buildings are often built in
groups, and their responses are different from the response of an isolated building. This is due
to the flow interference effects. The fast modernization of cities with increasing numbers of
high-rise buildings, interference effects among groups of tall buildings have become an
increasingly important issue. Hence, the effect of wind load on such buildings is to be
determined with a high level of confidence to ensure their safety. Due to a number of variable
conditions, wind action over a building is quite difficult to predict. The variables are: building
size and shape, surrounding terrain conditions, relative distance between the principal
building and the interfering building and wind direction. These variable conditions may either
slow down or accelerate the wind effect in certain regions.

Wind is a phenomenon of great complexity because of the many flow situations

arising from the interaction of wind with structures. Wind is composed of a multitude of
eddies of varying sizes and rotational characteristics carried along in a general stream of air
moving relative to the earth’s surface. These eddies give wind its gusty or turbulent character.
The gustiness of strong winds in the lower levels of the atmosphere largely arises from
interaction with surface features. The average wind speed over a time period of the order of
ten minutes or more tends to increase with height, while the gustiness tends to decrease with
height.

In Summary, the loading imposed by earthquake shaking under the building is of

displacement-type and that by wind and all other hazards is of force-type. Earthquake shaking
requires buildings to be capable of resisting certain relative displacement within it due to the
imposed displacement at its base, while wind and other hazards require buildings to resist
certain level of force applied on it. While it is possible to estimate with precision the
maximum force that can be imposed on a building, the maximum displacement imposed
under the building is not as precisely known. For the same maximum displacement to be
sustained by a building, wind design requires only elastic behaviour in the entire range of
displacement, but in earthquake design there are two options, namely design the building to
remain elastic or to undergo inelastic behaviour. The latter option is adopted in normal
buildings, and the former in special buildings, like critical buildings of nuclear power plants.

A consequence of turbulence is that dynamic loading on a structure depends on the

size of the eddies. Large eddies, whose dimensions are comparable with the structure, give
rise to well correlated pressures as they envelop the structure. On the other hand, small eddies
result in pressures on various parts of a structure that become practically uncorrelated with
distance of separation.

Some structures, particularly those that are tall or slender, respond dynamically to the
effects of wind. The best known structural collapse due to wind was the Tacoma Narrows
Bridge which occurred in 1940 at a wind speed of only about 19 m/s. It failed after it had
developed a coupled torsional and flexural mode of oscillation.

There are several different phenomena giving rise to dynamic response of structures
in wind. These include buffeting, vortex shedding, galloping and flutter. Slender structures
are likely to be sensitive to dynamic response in line with the wind direction as a
consequence of turbulence buffeting. Transverse or cross-wind response is more likely to
arise from vortex shedding or galloping but may also result from excitation by turbulence
buffeting. Flutter is a coupled motion, often being a combination of bending and torsion, and
can result in instability.
An important problem associated with wind induced motion of buildings is concerned with
human response to vibration and perception of motion. At this point it will suffice to note that
humans are surprisingly sensitive to vibration to the extent that motions may feel
uncomfortable even if they correspond to relatively low levels of stress and strain. Therefore,
for most tall buildings serviceability considerations govern the design and not strength issues.

A building has to perform many functions satisfactorily. Amongst them are the utility of the
building for the intended use and occupancy, structural safety and compliance with hygienic,
sanitation, ventilation and daylight standards.

Wind is essentially the large scale horizontal movement of free air. It plays an important role
in design of tall structure because it exerts loads on Building.
 HIGH RISE BUILDING :-

 Buildings between 75 feet and 491 feet (23 m to 150 m) high are considered high-rises.
Buildings taller than 492 feet (150 m) are classified as skyscrapers.
 The materials used for the structural system of high-rise buildings are reinforced concrete and
steel.
 High-rise structures have certain features. The structures are high & lead to higher vertical
loads and higher lateral loads (mainly due to wind stress) in comparison with lower buildings.

Loads on high rise structures:-

Vertical loads:-

 Dead loads arise from the weigh to the individual construction elements and the finishing
loads.
 Live loads are dependent on use depending on the number of stories; live loads can be
reduced for load transfer and the dimensioning of vertical load-bearing elements.
 However, the reduction of the total live load on a construction element may not exceed
40%.

Horizontal Loads:-

 Calculation of lateral loads should be carefully scrutinized.

 It generally arises from unexpected deflections, wind and earthquake loads

Unexpected Deflections:-

 It arises from imprecision in the manufacture of construction elements and larger

components.
 Another cause is the uneven settling of the foundation at an in-homogeneous site.
 Any deflection produces additional lateral forces.

Wind Loads:-

 High-rise buildings are susceptible to oscillation. It should not be viewed as statically

equivalent loads, but must be investigated under the aspect of sway behaviour.
 Wind tunnel experiments are used to see the influence of the building?s shape on the wind
load.
 The ability of wind loads to bring a building to sway must also be kept in mind. This
oscillation leads both to a perceptible lateral acceleration for occupants, and to a maximum
lateral deflection.
 Earthquake Loads:-

Definition:-

 Seismology (from the Greek seismos= earthquake and logos= word)

 scientific study of earthquakes
 propagation of elastic waves through the Earth.
 studies of earthquake effects, such as tsunamis
 diverse seismic sources such as volcanic, tectonic, oceanic, atmospheric, and artificial
processes such as explosions.

Type of High-Rise Structure:-

 Braced Frame
 Rigid Frame Structure
 Infilled Frame Structure
 Flat Plate and Flat Slab Structure
 Shear wall structure
 Coupled wall structure
 Wall-frame structure
 Framed tube structure
 The trussed tube
 Tube in tube or Hull core structure
 Bundled tube structure
 Core and Outriggers system
 Hybrid structure
Comparison of AEROCON BRICK and CLAY BRICKS
Wind Analysis:
Scope of application

(1) Target strong wind

Most wind damage to buildings occurs during strong winds. The wind loads specified
here are applied to the design of buildings to prevent failure due to strong wind. The strong
winds that occur are mainly those that accompany a tropical or extra tropical cyclone, and
down-bursts or tornados. The former are large-scale phenomena that are spread over about
1000km in a horizontal plane, and their nature is comparatively well known. Down-bursts are
gusts due to descending air flows caused by severe rainfall in developed cumulonimbus.
Since the scale of these phenomena is very small, few are picked up by the meteorological
observation network. It is known that tornados are small-scale phenomena several hundred
meters wide at most having a rotational wind with a rapid atmospheric pressure descent. The
characteristics of the strong wind and pressure fluctuation caused by tornados are not known.
The number of occurrences of down-bursts and tornados is relatively large, but their
probability of attacking a particular site is very small compared with that of the tropical or
extra tropical cyclones. However, the winds caused by down-bursts and tornados are very
strong, so they often fatally damage buildings. These recommendations focus on strong winds
caused by tropical or extra tropical cyclones. However, the minimum wind speed takes into
account the influence of tornadoes and down-bursts.

(2) Wind loads on structural frames and wind loads on components/cladding

The wind loads provided in these recommendations is composed of those for structural
frames and those for components/cladding. The former are for the design of structural frames
such as columns and beams. The latter are for the design of finishings and bedding members
of components/cladding and their joints. Wind loads on structural frames and on
components/cladding are different, because there are large differences in their sizes, dynamic
characteristics and dominant phenomena and behaviours. Wind loads on structural frames are
calculated on the basis of the elastic response of the whole building against fluctuating wind
forces. Wind loads on components/cladding are calculated on the basis of fluctuating wind
forces acting on a small part. Wind resistant design for components/cladding has been
inadequate until now. They play an important role in protecting the interior space from
destruction by strong wind. Therefore, wind resistant design for components/cladding should
be just as careful as that for structural frames

6.1.2 Estimation principle

(1) Classification of wind load

A mean wind force acts on a building. This mean wind force is derived from the mean wind
speed and the fluctuating wind force produced by the fluctuating flow field. The effect of the
fluctuating wind force on the building or part thereof depends not only on the characteristics
of the fluctuating wind force but also on the size and vibration characteristics of the building
or part thereof. Therefore, in order to estimate the design wind load, it is necessary to
evaluate the characteristics of fluctuating wind forces and the dynamic characteristics of the
building.

The following factors are generally considered in determining the fluctuating wind force.

1) Wind turbulence (temporal and spatial fluctuation of wind)

2) Vortex generation in wake of building

3) Interaction between building vibration and surrounding air flow

Fluctuating wind pressures act on building surfaces due to the above factors. Fluctuating
wind pressures change temporally, and their dynamic characteristics are not uniform at all
positions on the building surface. Therefore, it is better to evaluate wind load on structural
frames based on overall building behavior and that on components/cladding based on the
behavior of individual building parts. For most buildings, the effect of fluctuating wind force
generated by wind turbulence is predominant. In this case, horizontal wind load on structural
frames in the along-wind direction is important. However, for relatively flexible buildings
with a large aspect ratio, horizontal wind loads on structural frames in the across-wind and
torsional directions should not be ignored. For roof loads, the fluctuating wind force caused
by separation flow from the leading edge of the roof often predominates.

Therefore, wind load on structural frames is divided into two parts

1. Horizontal wind load on structural frames

2. Roof wind load on structural frames.

(2) Combination of wind loads

Wind pressure distributions on the surface of a building with a rectangular section are
asymmetric even when wind blows normal to the building surface. Therefore, wind forces in
the across-wind and torsional directions are not zero when the wind force in the along-wind
direction is a maximum. Combination of wind loads in the along-wind, across-wind and
torsional directions have not been taken into consideration positively so far, because the
design wind speed has been used without considering the effect of wind direction. However,
with the introduction of wind directionality, combination of wind loads in the along-wind,
across-wind and torsional directions has become necessary. Hence, it has been decided to
adopt explicitly a regulation for combination of wind loads in along-wind, across-wind and
torsional directions.

(3) Wind directionality factor

Occurrence and intensity of wind speed at a construction site vary for each wind
direction with geographic location and large-scale topographic effects. Furthermore, the
characteristics of wind forces acting on a building vary for each wind direction. Therefore,
rational wind resistant design can be applied by investigating the characteristics of wind
speed at a construction site and wind forces acting on the building for each wind direction.
These recommendations introduce the wind directionality factor in calculating the design
wind speed for each wind direction individually. In evaluating the wind directionality factor,
the influence of typhoons, which is the main factor of strong winds in Japan, should be taken
into account. However, it was difficult to quantify the probability distribution of wind speed
due to a typhoon from meteorological observation records over only about 70 years, because
the occurrence of typhoons hitting a particular point is not necessarily high. In these
recommendations, the wind directionality factor was determined by conducting Monte Carlo
simulation of typhoons, and analysis of observation data provided by the Metrological
Agency.

(4) Reference height and velocity pressure

The reference height is generally the mean roof height of the building. The wind loads are
calculated from the velocity pressure at this reference height. The vertical distribution of
wind load is reflected in the wind force coefficients and wind pressure coefficients.

(5) Wind load on structural frames

The maximum loading effect on each part of the building can be estimated by the dynamic
response analysis considering the characteristics of temporal and spatial fluctuating wind
pressure and the dynamic characteristics of the building. The equivalent static wind load
producing the maximum loading effect is given as the design wind load. For the response of
the building against strong wind, the first mode is predominant and higher frequency modes
are not predominant for most buildings. The horizontal wind load (along-wind load)
distribution for structural frames is assumed to be equal to the mean wind load distribution,
because the first mode shape resembles the mean building displacement. Specifically, the
equivalent wind load is obtained by multiplying the gust effect factor, which is defined as the
ratio of the instantaneous value to the mean value of the building response, to the mean wind
load. The characteristics of the wind force acting on the roof are influenced by the features of
the fluctuating wind force caused by separation flow from the leading edge of the roof and
the inner pressure, which depends on the degree of sealing of the building. Therefore, the
characteristics of roof wind load on structural frames are different from those of the along-
wind load on structural frames. Thus, the roof wind load on structural frames cannot be
evaluated by the same procedure as for the along-wind load on structural frames. Here, the
gust effect factor is given when the first mode is predominant and assuming elastic dynamic
behavior of the roof beam under wind load.

(6) Wind loads in across-wind and torsional directions

It is difficult to predict responses in the across-wind and torsional directions theoretically

like along-wind responses. However, a prediction formula is given in these recommendations
based on the fluctuating overturning moment in the across-wind direction and the fluctuating
torsional moment for the first vibration mode in each direction.
(7) Small-scale buildings

For small buildings with large stiffness, the size effect is small and the dynamic effect can be
neglected. Thus, a simplified procedure is employed.

(8) Effect of neighbouring buildings

When groups of two or more tall buildings are constructed in proximity to each other, the
wind flow through the group may be significantly deformed and cause a much more complex
effect than is usually acknowledged, resulting in higher dynamic pressures and motions,
especially on neighbouring downstream buildings.

(9) Shielding effect by surrounding topography or buildings

When there are topographical features and buildings around the construction site, wind loads
or wind-induced vibrations are sometimes decreased by their shielding effect. Rational wind
resistant design that considers this shielding effect can be performed. However, changes to
these features during the building’s service life need to be confirmed. Furthermore, the
shielding effect should be investigated by careful wind tunnel study or other suitable
verification methods, because it is generally complicate and cannot be easily analyzed.

ALONG AND CROSS-WIND LOADING

Not only is the wind approaching a building a complex phenomenon, but the flow pattern
generated around a building is equally complicated by the distortion of the mean flow, flow
separation, the formation of vortices, and development of the wake. Large wind pressure
fluctuations due to these effects can occur on the surface of a building. As a result, large
aerodynamic loads are imposed on the structural system and intense localised fluctuating
forces act on the facade of such structures. Under the collective influence of these fluctuating
forces, a building tends to vibrate in rectilinear and torsional modes, as illustrated in Fig. 3.
The amplitude of such oscillations is dependent on the nature of the aerodynamic forces and
the dynamic characteristics of the building.

ALONG WIND LOADING

The along-wind loading or response of a building due to buffeting by wind can be assumed to
consist of a mean component due to the action of the mean wind speed (eg, the mean-hourly
wind speed) and a fluctuating component due to wind speed variations from the mean. The
fluctuating wind is a random mixture of gusts or eddies of various sizes with the larger eddies
occurring less often (i.e. with a lower average frequency) than for the smaller eddies. The
natural frequency of vibration of most structures is sufficiently higher than the component of
the fluctuating load effect imposed by the larger eddies. i.e. the average frequency with which
large gusts occur is usually much less than any of the structure's natural frequencies of
vibration and so they do not force the structure to respond dynamically. The loading due to
those larger gusts (which are sometimes referred to as "background turbulence") can
therefore be treated in a similar way as that due to the mean wind. The smaller eddies,
however, because they occur more often, may induce the structure to vibrate at or near one
(or more) of the structure's natural frequencies of vibration. This in turn induces a magnified
dynamic load effect in the structure which can be significant.

The separation of wind loading into mean and fluctuating components is the basis of the so-
called "gust-factor" approach, which is treated in many design codes. The mean load
component is evaluated from the mean wind speed using pressure and load coefficients. The
fluctuating loads are determined separately by a method which makes an allowance for the
intensity of turbulence at the site, size reduction effects, and dynamic amplification
(Davenport, 1967).

The dynamic response of buildings in the alongwind direction can be predicted with
reasonable accuracy by the gust factor approach, provided the wind flow is not significantly
affected by the presence of neighbouring tall buildings or surrounding terrain.

CROSS WIND LOADING

There are many examples of slender structures that are susceptible to dynamic motion
perpendicular to the direction of the wind. Tall chimneys, street lighting standards, towers
and cables frequently exhibit this form of oscillation which can be very significant especially
if the structural damping is small. Crosswind excitation of modern tall buildings and
structures can be divided into three mechanisms and their higher time derivatives, which are
described as follows:

(a) Votex Shedding.

The most common source of crosswind excitation is that associated with
‘vortex shedding’. Tall buildings are bluff (as opposed to streamlined) bodies that
cause the flow to separate from the surface of the structure, rather than follow the
body contour. For a particular structure, the shed vortices have a dominant periodicity
that is defined by the Strouhal number. Hence, the structure is subjected to a periodic
cross pressure loading, which results in an alternating crosswind force. If the natural
frequency of the structure coincides with the shedding frequency of the vortices, large
amplitude displacement response may occur and this is often referred to as the critical
velocity effect. The asymmetric pressure distribution, created by the vortices around
the cross section, results in an alternating transverse force as these vortices are shed. If
the structure is flexible, oscillation will occur transverse to the wind and the
conditions for resonance would exist if the vortex shedding frequency coincides with
the natural frequency of the structure. This situation can give rise to very large
oscillations and possibly failure.
ANALYSIS OF WIND LOAD ON A STRUCTURE
NATURE OF WIND IN ATMOSPHERE

In general, wind speed in the atmospheric boundary layer increases with height from zero at
ground level to a maximum at a height called the gradient height. There is usually a slight
change in direction (Ekman effect) but this is ignored in the Code. The variation with height
depends primarily on the terrain conditions. However, the wind speed at any height never
remains constant and it has been found convenient to resolve its instantaneous magnitude into
an average or mean value and a fluctuating component around this average value. The
average value depends on the averaging time employed in analyzing the meteorological data
and this averaging time can be taken to be from a few seconds to several minutes. The
magnitude of fluctuating component of the wind speed, which represents the gustiness of
wind, depends on the averaging time. Smaller the averaging interval, greater is the magnitude
of the wind speed.

BASIC WIND SPEED

Basic wind speed is based on peak gust speed averaged over a short time interval of about 3
seconds and corresponds to 10m height above the mean ground level in an open terrain
(Category 2). Basic wind speeds have been worked out for a 50-year return period.
The figure gives basic wind speed of India, as applicable to 10 m height above mean ground
level for different zones of the country.

The wind speeds recorded at any locality are extremely variable and in addition to steady
wind at any time, there are effects of gusts, which may last for a few seconds. These gusts
cause increase in air pressure but their effect on stability of the building may not be so
important; often, gusts affect only part of the building and the increased local pressures may
be more than balanced by a momentary reduction in the pressure elsewhere. Because of the
inertia of the building, short period gusts may not cause any appreciable increase in stress in
main components of the building although the walls, roof sheeting and individual cladding
units (glass panels) and their supporting members such as purlins, sheeting rails and glazing
bars may be more seriously affected. Gusts can also be extremely important for design of
structures with high slenderness ratios.
DESIGN WIND SPEED (Vz)
The basic wind speed for any site shall be obtained from Fig. 1 and shall be modified to
include the following effects to get design wind speed, Vz at any height, Z for the chosen
structure:

(a) Risk level,

(b) Terrain roughness and height of structure,

(c) Local topography, and

(d) Importance factor for the cyclonic region.

It can be mathematically expressed as follows:

Vz = Vb* k1* k2* k3 ,

where

Vz = design wind speed at any height z in m/s,

K1 = probability factor (risk coefficient) (see 5.3.1),

K2 = terrain roughness and height factor (see 5.3.2),

K3 = topography factor (see 5.3.3), and

NOTE: The wind speed may be taken as constant upto a height of 10 m. However,
pressures for buildings less than 10m high may be reduced by 20% for stability and design of
the framing.

RISK COEFFICIENT (K1 FACTOR)

The peak wind speed considered for design is based on the probability of occurrence of the
maximum/severest storm over the design life of the structure. It is known that storms of
greater severity are less frequent, that is, such storms have a longer return period. Thus for
economical design of structures, the design wind speed has been related to the return-period
of storms, with Vb defined for 50-years return period considering the generally acceptable
value of probability of exceedence as 0.63 for the design wind speed over the life of the
structure. This has been termed as the risk level PN in N consecutive years (Table –1) and the
corresponding value of the risk coefficient, k1, for N taken as 50 years, would be 1.0. The
values of k1 for N taken as 5, 25 and 100 years, and for various zones of the country, are
given in Table-1. The designer may, however, use a higher value of N or k1, if it is
considered necessary to reduce the risk level of an important structure.
TERRAIN, HEIGHT AND STRUCTURE SIZE FACTOR (K2 FACTOR)
Selection of terrain categories shall be made with due regard to the effect of obstructions
which constitute the ground surface roughness. The terrain category used in the design of a
structure may vary depending on the direction of wind under consideration. Wherever
sufficient meteorological information is available about the wind direction, the orientation of
any building or structure may be suitably planned.

Terrain in which a specific structure stands shall be assessed as being one of the following
terrain categories:

Category 1 – Exposed open terrain with a few or no obstructions and in which the average
height of any object surrounding the structure is less than 1.5 m.

NOTE – This category includes open sea coasts and flat treeless plains.

Category 2 – Open terrain with wellscattered obstructions having height generally between
1.5 and 10 m.

NOTE – This is the criterion for measurement of regional basic wind speeds and includes
airfields, open parklands and undeveloped sparsely built-up outskirts of towns and suburbs.
Open land adjacent to seacoast may also be classified as Category 2 due to roughness of large
sea waves at high winds.

Category 3 – Terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of building-
structures up to 10 m in height with or without a few isolated tall structures.
NOTE 1 – This category includes well-wooded areas, and shrubs, towns and industrial areas
fully or partially developed.

NOTE 2 – It is likely that the next higher category than this will not exist in most design
situations and that selection of a more severe category will be deliberate.

NOTE 3 – Particular attention must be given to performance of obstructions in areas affected

by fully developed tropical cyclones. Vegetation, which is likely to be blown down or
defoliated, cannot be relied upon to maintain Category 3 conditions. Where such a situation
exists, either an intermediate category with speed multipliers midway between the values for
Category 2 and 3 given in Table 2 may be used, or Category 2 be selected having due regard
to local conditions.

Category 4 – Terrain with numerous large high closely spaced obstructions.

NOTE – This category includes large city centres, generally with obstructions taller than 25
m and well-developed industrial complexes.
Terrain Category 1 Terrain Category 1

Terrain Category 2 Terrain Category 3

Terrain Category 4
TOPOGRAPHY (K3 FACTOR)
The basic wind speed Vb given in Fig. 1 takes account of the general level of site above sea
level. This does not allow for local topographic features such as hills, valleys, cliffs,
escarpments, or ridges, which can significantly affect the wind speed in their vicinity. The
effect of topography is to accelerate wind near the summits of hills or crests of cliffs,
escarpments or ridges and decelerate the wind in valleys or near the foot of cliffs, steep
escarpments, or ridges.

The effect of topography will be significant at a site when the upwind slope (θ) is greater than
about 3o , and below that, the value of k3 may be taken to be equal to 1.0. The value of k3 is
confined in the range of 1.0 to 1.36 for slopes greater than 3o . A method of evaluating the
value of k3 for values greater than 1.0 is given in Appendix C. It may be noted that the value
of k3 varies with height above ground level, at a maximum near the ground, and reducing to
1.0 at higher levels, for hill slope in excess of 17o

DESIGN WIND PRESSURE

The wind pressure at any height above mean ground level shall be obtained by the following
relationship between wind pressure and wind speed:

Pz = (0.6) Vz2

where Pz = wind pressure in N/m2 at height z,

and Vz = design wind speed in m/s at height z.

The design wind pressure Pd can be obtained as,

pd = Kd. Ka. Kc. pz

Where

Kd = Wind directionality factor

Ka = Area averaging factor

Kc = Combination factor

NOTE 1 – The coefficient 0.6 (in SI units) in the above formula depends on a number
of factors and mainly on the atmospheric pressure and air temperature. The value chosen
corresponds to the average Indian atmospheric conditions.

NOTE 2 – Ka should be taken as 1.0 when considering local pressure coefficients.

Area Averaging Factor, Ka

Pressure coefficients given in Section 6.2 are a result of averaging the measured pressure
values over a given area. As the area becomes larger, the correlation of measured values
decrease and vice-versa. The decrease in pressures due to larger areas may be taken into
account as given in Table 4.

Offshore Wind Speed

Cyclonic storms form far away from the sea coast and gradually reduce in speed as they
approach the sea coast. Cyclonic storms generally extend up to about 60 kilometres inland
after striking the coast. Their effect on land is already reflected in basic wind speeds specified
in Fig.1. The influence of wind speed off the coast up to a distance of about 200 kilometres
may be taken as 1.15 times the value on the nearest coast in the absence of any definite wind
data.

Force Coefficients
The value of force coefficients apply to a building or structure as a whole, and when
multiplied by the effective frontal area Ae of the building or structure and by design wind
pressure pd, gives the total wind load on that particular building or structure.

F = Cf A e p d
where F is the force acting in a direction specified in the respective tables and Cf is the force
coefficient for the building.

NOTE 1 –The value of the force coefficient differs for the wind acting on different faces of a
building or structure. In order to determine the critical load, the total wind load should be
calculated for each wind direction.

NOTE 2 – If surface design pressure varies with height, the surface area of the
building/structure may be sub-divided so that specified pressures are taken over appropriate
areas.

NOTE 3 –In tapered buildings/structures, the force coefficients shall be applied after
subdividing the building/structure into suitable number of strips and the load on each strip
calculated individually, taking the area of each strip as Ae.
EXAMPLE

A multi-storeyed building 20 m*30 m plan dimension is shown in fig.

Height of building = 30 m
Bay width = 5 m in both direction
Storey height = uniform
Location = Ahmedabad
Category = 3
Topography = plane with upwind slope less than 3ᵒ

Life of building = 100 years

Determine wind loads acting on an internal frame at nodal points.

Solution:

1. Design Wind Speed (Vz) :

Vz = Vb*k1*k2*k3

Vb = basic wind speed

For location Ahmedabad,

From Appendix-A or Map of India,

Vb = 39 m/sec

 k1 = 1.06 (risk coefficient for 100 years of design life) IS: 875 (III) – 1987
Table 1, P.11

 Terrain category 3 IS: 875 (III) – 1987

greatest dimension of the building is 30m. Table 2 ,P.12
So,Class B.
 Height of building = 30 m

Height K2
10 m 0.88
15 m 0.94
20 m 0.98
30 m 1.03
 k3= 1.0 (topography factor- Ɵ<3ᵒ) IS: 875 (III) – 1987
Cl.5.3.3.1, P.12

 Design Wind Speed (at 30 m height)

Vz = Vb*k1*k2*k3

Vz = 39*1.06*1.03*1

Vz = 42.58 m/sec

2. Design Wind Pressure:

 Pd = 0.6 (Vz)2 IS: 875 (III) – 1987

Cl.5.4, P.12

Table-1 : Calculation of Pz

Height Vb k1 k2 k3 Vz = Vb*k1*k2*k3 Pd =
(m/s) 0.6(Vz)2
(N/m2)

10 m 39 1.06 0.88 1.0 36.37 794

15 m 39 1.06 0.94 1.0 38.85 906
20 m 39 1.06 0.98 1.0 40.51 985
30 m 39 1.06 1.03 1.0 42.58 1087

3. Design Wind Load:

 From Cl.6.3 ; IS: 875 (part 3) – 1987

F = Cf *Ae*Pd
 We have,

a = 20 m

b = 30 m

h = 30 m

so,

h/b = 30/30 = 1

a/b = 20/30 = 0.67

Cf = 1.22 (from fig)

o The building is unbraced.

o There are 7 raws of columns.
o Since slab will act as rigid diaphram because all frames are symmetrical.
o Length of building = 30 m

Ae= Effective frontal area

= (30/7)*1
= 4.285 m2

Therefore loading on the frame per metre height of wall,

F = Cf *Ae*Pd

= 1.22 * 4.2858 * Pd
 = 5.23 *Pd N/m

Wind Load per metre height,

Table–2 : Calculation of Wind Load per metre height

Height Pd (N/m2) F = 5.23 *Pd (N/m) F (kN/m)

10 m 794 4153 4.15

15 m 906 4738 4.74
20 m 985 5152 5.15
30 m 1087 5685 5.69

 Nodes are considered at the centre of the beam-column joint.

 Assume overall depth of beam = 500 mm
 Any node carry the wind load of half the height of upper floor and half the height of
the lower floor.

Table–3 : Calculation of Wind force at node points

Node Loading Level (m) Load (kN/m) Nodal Point Load

(kN)
7-7 26.75 to 30 5.69 5.69*3.25 = 18.49
(28.75 m)
6-6 22.75 to 26.75 5.51 5.51*4 = 22.04
(24.75 m)
5-5 18.75 to 22.75 5.30 5.30*4 = 21.20
(20.75 m)
4-4 14.75 to 18.75 5.05 5.05*4 = 20.20
(16.75 m)
3-3 10.75 to 14.75 4.71 4.71*4 = 18.84
(12.75 m)
2-2 6.75 to 10.75 4.23 4.23*4 = 16.92
(8.75 m)
1-1 2.375 to 6.75 4.15 4.15*4.375 = 18.16
(4.75 m)
G-G 0 to 2.375 4.15 4.15*2.375 = 9.86
(-0.75 m)
EARTHQUAKE ANALYSIS:
What is earthquake?
Momentary shaking of the ground or vibrations or oscillations of the ground caused by the
slip or by volcanic or magnetic activity or sudden stress changes in the earth are called
earthquakes.

Seismic waves

Surface
Body waves
waves

Love
P-waves
waves

Rayleigh
S-waves
waves

Magnitude
The magnitude of the earthquake is the measure of amount of energy released during an
earthquake.

It is a quantitative measure of the actual size or strength of the earthquake. Earthquake

magnitudes are based on direct measurements of the size (amplitude) of seismic waves, made
with seismographs.

For a particular earthquake magnitude is same for all the places.

Magnitude scales
 Richter magnitude scale
 Surface wave magnitude
 Body wave magnitude
 Moment magnitude
 Duration magnitude
Intensity:-
Intensity is a qualitative measure of the actual shaking at a location during an earthquake and
is assigned as Roman capital numerals. For a particular earthquake intensity of earthquake
decreases with distance from the epicentre.

Intensity scales
 Modified Mercalli Intensity
 MSK intensity scale(MSK 64)

Classification of earthquake:-

Based on location:-
 Interplate earthquake
 Intraplate earthquake

Based on focal depth:-

Earthquake Focal depth
Shallow <70 km
Medium 70 – 300 km
Deep >300 km

Based on size of magnitude:-

1. Great - 8 or more
2. Major - 7 - 7.9
3. Strong - 6 - 6.9
4. Moderate - 5 - 5.9
5. Light - 4 - 4.9
6. Minor - 3 -3.9

Based on epicentral distance:-

1. Local earthquake----- <1⁰
2. Regional earthquake----- 1⁰ to 10⁰
3. Teleseismic ------ >10⁰
Effects of earthquake
Primary effects
Primary effects of an earthquake are those resulting directly from the earthquake itself.
These include; buildings collapsing; roads cracking; bridges giving way; shattering of glass
and injuries / deaths resulting from these.

Secondary effects
Secondary effects are those that result from the primary effects. For example ground shaking
may result in the cracking of gas and water pipes (primary effects) this can result in severe
fires due to explosion from escaping gas and difficulties in putting out fires due to lack of
water from burst mains (secondary effects). Other secondary effects include, homelessness,
business going bankrupt and closing etc.

Philosophy of earthquake resistant design

Design philosophy
1. Under minor but frequent shaking, the main members of the buildings that carry vertical
and horizontal forces should not be damaged; however buildings parts that do not carry
load may sustain repairable damage.

2. Under moderate but occasional shaking, the main members may sustain repairable
damage, while the other parts that do not carry load may sustain repairable damage.

3. Under strong but rare shaking, the main members may sustain severe damage, but the
building should not collapse.
Earthquake resistant design is therefore concerned about ensuring that the damages in
buildings during earthquakes are of acceptable variety, and also that they occur at the right
places and in right amounts. This approach of earthquake resistant design is much like the use
of electrical fuses in hou ses: to protect the entire electrical wiring and appliances in the
house, you sacrifice some small parts of electrical circuit, called fuses; these fuses are easily
replaced after the electrical over-current. Likewise to save the building from collapsing you
need to allow some pre-determined parts to undergo the acceptable type and level of damage.

Earthquake resistant buildings, particularly their main elements, need to be built with
ductility in them. Such buildings have the ability to sway back-and-forth during an
earthquake, and to withstand the earthquake effects with some damage, but without collapse.
Four virtues of earthquake resistant structures
Lateral strength:-

Maximum lateral force that it can resist is such that the damage induced in it does not result
in collapse.

Adequate stiffness:-

Its lateral load resisting system is such that the earthquake induced deformation in it does not
damage its content under low to moderate shaking.

Good ductility:-

Its capacity undergo large deformations under severe earthquake shaking even after yielding,
is improved by favourable design and detailing strategies.

Good structural configuration:-

Its size, shape and structural system carrying loads are such that they ensure a direct and
smooth flow of inertia forces to the ground.

Lateral load resisting systems

1. Load bearing wall system
2. Moment resisting frame system
3. Dual system(frame + shear wall/ bracings)
4. Tube system
5. Load bearing shear walls
6. Shear wall with columns
7. Infilled shear walls
8. Bracings
9. Diaphragms

Building configurations
The structure should ,

 Be simple and symmetrical

 Be not too elongated in plan or elevation
 Have uniform and continuous distribution of mass,strength and stiffness
 Be without re-entrant corners
 Have sufficient ductility
 Be preferably without large cantilever projections
 Have stiffness related to soil properties
Guidelines for efficient earthquake resistant structural design:-
 Design of building should be based on seismic codes IS 1893(PART 1)2002 and IS
13920-1993.
 Integral action of the soil-foundation-superstructure system.The different elements of
the whole substructure and superstructure system should be tied together so that they
can work as single unit.
 The builing should be light in weight and avoid unnecessary masses.
 The structure should not have large height/width ratio
 The load bearing elements should be uniformly distributed.
 The columns and walls should be continuous and without offsets
 The structure should have low centre of mass relative to ground
 The beam should be free of offsets.
 The columns and beams should be co-axial and of equal width
 Avoid ground floor soft storey
 Structure should be designed as per strong column weak beam theory
 Shear walls should be employed to increase stiffness
 The structure should have uniform floor height
 The structure should be ductile as far as possible

Indian seismic codes

IS 1893 (PART1) 2002

IS 4326, 1993

IS 13827, 1993

IS 13828, 1993

IS 13920, 1993

IS 13935, 1993

Assumptions in earthquake resisting design:-

 Earthquake causes impulsive ground motions, which are complex and irregular in
character, changing in period and amplitude each lasting for a small duration.
Therefore resonance will not occur as it would need time to build up such amplitudes
 Earthquake is not likely to occur simultaneously with wind or maximum flood or
maximum sea waves.
 The values of elastic modulus of materials for dynamic analysis is taken as same as
for static analysis
Method for Elastic Analysis
Tree methods of elastic analysis covered under IS 1893 (part-1)-2002 are,

1. Equivalent lateral force method

Or
Seismic coefficient method
Or
Static coefficient method

2. Response spectrum method

Or
Model method
Or
Mode superposition method

3. Elastic time history method

Seismic coefficient method:-

Seismic analysis of most structures is still carried out on the basis of lateral force assumed
equivalent to the actual loading. Although earthquake force is dynamic, the routine analysis is
done by assuming it to be static. The base shear which is the total horizontal force acting on
the structure is calculated on the basis of structure mass, fundamental period of vibration and
corresponding mode shape. The base shear is distributed along the simplest method of
analysis and required less calculation. This method is usually conservative for low to medium
height with a regular configuration.

Response spectrum method:-

This method is applicable for those structures where modes other than the fundamental one
affect significantly the response of the structure. Generally, the method is applicable to
analysis of dynamic response of structure, which are asymmetrical or have area of
discontinuity or irregularity, in their range of behaviour. This method is based on the fact
that, for certain forms of damping, which are reasonable models for many building, the
response in each natural mode of vibration can be computed independently of the others, and
the model response can be combined to determine the total response.

Elastic time history method:-

A linear time history analysis overcomes all the disadvantages of a model response spectrum
analysis, provided non-linear behaviour is not involved. This method required greater
computational efforts for calculating the response at discrete times. One interesting advantage
of such a procedure is the relative signs of response quantities are preserved in the response
histories. This is important when interaction effects are considered among stress resultants.
The main difference between the seismic coefficient method and the response spectrum
method lies in the magnitude of the base shear and distribution of the lateral forces. Whereas
in the response spectrum method the force calculations are based on compound periods and
mode shapes of several modes of vibration, in the seismic coefficient method, they are based
on an estimate of the fundamental period and simple formulae for distribution of forces which
are appropriate for building with regular distribution of mass and stiffness over height.

The seismic coefficient method is mainly suited for preliminary design of the building. The
preliminary design of the building is then used for response spectrum analysis or elastic time
history method.

Seismic coefficient method:-

Design lateral force and shear force procedure:

Step 1: calculation of lumped masses to various floor levels

Dead load

Imposed or live load

Total seismic weight of building

Step 2: calculation of fundamental natural period (Ta )

0.09ℎ
Ta =
√𝑑

Step 3: design seismic base shear (VB )

VB = Ah*W

Step-4: Vertical distribution of base shear

𝑊 ℎ2
𝑖 𝑖
Qi = VB* ∑𝑛 𝑊
1 ℎ2
𝑖 𝑖
 Example based on seismic coefficient method:-

No. of bay in X direction – 4

No. of bay in Y direction – 3
Bay width= 4 m (both directions)
Thickness of slab – 120 mm
Internal wall thickness – 115 mm
External wall thickness – 230 mm
Size of beam – 250mm*500 mm
Size of column – 600mm*300mm
Number of storey– 6
Imposed live load intensity – 4 KN/m2
Storey height – 4 m

 Step-1: Lumped mass to various floor levels

 Dead load:
Assume terrace water proofing = 1.5kN/m2
Floor finish = 0.8kN /m2

i. Weight of typical slab:

= 16*12*[25*0.12 + 0.8]
= 729.6 kN

ii. Weight of roof:

=16*12 [25*0.12 + 1.5 + 0.8]
= 1017.6 kN

iii. Weight of longitudinal beams

= (4*4)*(4-0.3-0.3)*(0.25*0.5)*25
=170 kN

iv. Weight of transverse beam

=(5*3)*(4-0.15-0.15)*(0.25*0.5)*25
=173.48kN

v. Weight of parapet wall per m height

= (2*16 + 2*12)* 0.115*20
=128.8 kN/m

vi. Weight of external wall per m height

= [2*(4-0.3-0.3)*4+2*(4-0.15-0.15)*3]*0.23*20
 = (27.2+22.2)*0.23*20
=227.24 kN/m

vii. Weight of internal wall per m height

= [8*(4-0.3-0.3)+9*(4-0.15-0.15)]*0.115*20
=139.15 kN/m

viii. Weight of column per m height

=20*(0.3*0.6)*25
=90 kN/m height

 Live Load:

i. Live load on Roof = 0 IS 1893(I):2002

Cl. 7.3.2, PG:17

ii. Live Load on each floor IS 1893(I):2002

Table 8, PG: 24
We have,
L.L. = 4 kN/m2
(For, L.L. > 3 kN/m2, 50% of L.L. is to be considered)
 L.L. = 2 kN/m2
So,
Total live load on each floor
= (16*12)*2
= 384 kN
 Lumped mass of Roof:
= D.L. + L.L.
4.0−0.5 4.0−0.5 4.0
= [1017.6 + 170 + 173.48 + 128.8 + 227.24( 2 ) + 139.15( 2 ) + (90 ∗ 2 )]+ 0
= 1489.9 + 397.67+ 243.51 + 180
= 2311.08 kN

 Lumped mass of typical floor

=[729.6 + 170 + 173.48 + (2*397.67) + (2*243.51) + 2*(180)] + 384
=3099.44 kN

 Total Seismic weight of building

W = 2311.08 + 5(3099.44)
 W = 17808.28 Kn

 Step-2: Fundamental natural period(Ta)

0.09ℎ
Ta = IS1893(I):2002
√𝑑

Cl. 7.6.2, P : 24
Where,
h = height of the building in meter
= 6*4.0
= 24 m
d = 16 m
0.09∗24
Ta =
√16
= 0.54 s

 Step-3: Design seismic base shear(VB) IS 1893(I):2002

Cl.7.6.5.3, P : 24

VB = Ah*W

Here,
W = 17808.28 kN
Ah = horizontal seismic coefficient
Z∗I∗Sa
= IS 1893(I):2002
2∗𝑅∗𝑔

Cl. 4.6.2 , P:14

Z = zone factor
= 0.16 (Zone III Ahmedabad) IS 1893(I):2002
Table-2

I = Importance factor for residence building= 1 IS 1893(I):2002

Table- 6 , P:18

R = Response reduction factor IS 1893(I):2002

Table-7 , P :23
Consider SMRF,
R = 5
For soft soil and Ta = 0.54 s IS 1893(I):2002
Fig -2, P :16
𝑆𝑎
= 2.5
𝑔
0.16∗1∗2.5
Ah = 2∗5
 Ah = 0.04
VB = Ah*W
= 0.04*17808.28
VB = 712.33 kN

 Step-4: Vertical distribution of base shear

𝑊 ℎ2
𝑖 𝑖
Qi = VB* ∑𝑛 𝑊 IS 1893(I):2002
1 ℎ2
𝑖 𝑖

Cl. 7.7.1 , P : 24

Wi hi Wihi2 𝑾𝒊 𝒉𝟐𝒊 Qi Vi
Floor kN m ∑ 𝑾𝒊 𝒉𝟐𝒊
6 2311.08 24.0 1331182.08 0.3279 233.57 233.57
5 3099.44 20.0 1239776.00 0.3054 217.54 451.08
4 3099.44 16.0 793456.64 0.1954 139.18 590.26
3 3099.44 12.0 446319.36 0.1099 78.28 668.54
2 3099.44 8.0 198364.16 0.0481 34.26 702.80
1 3099.44 4.0 49591.04 0.0122 8.69 711.49
∑ 𝑾𝒊 𝒉𝟐𝒊 =
4058689.28
 6 233.57 233.57

5 217.54 451.08

4 139.18 590.26

3 78.28 668.54

Floor 2 34.26 702.80

Level
1 8.69 711.49

LATERAL LOAD SHEAR DIAGRAM

DIAGRAM