UNIT-III

MANUFACTURING METHODS: Autoclave, tape production, moulding methods, filament

winding, hand layup, pultrusion, RTM.

PULTRUSION

Pultrusion is a type of continuous automated closed molding, composite processing

method. The basic mechanism of pultrusion system is same as that of the metal extrusion
process. The only difference is that in extrusion process, material is pushed through the dies
whereas in pultrusion, material is pulled through the dies. Reinforcement in terms of continuous
rovings or fiber mats is unrolled from creel holding rolls and passes through a resin tank. In resin
tank, fibers are dipped thoroughly to get completely wetted fibers. Now, these resin saturated
fibers are guided to the hot die where the desired profile is given to these resin impregnated
fibers with the help of dies. Curing of the composite also takes place in this section due to
heating. Now, the cured composite profile is pulled with the help of gripper coming from the hot
dies. Finally, putruded profiles are cut with the help of a cutter which is inbuilt after the pulling
mechanism in the putrusion system.

The schematic of pultrusion system is shown in figure 1. Sometimes, in the resin tank,
some filler materials are added which also go with the fiber roving. Though, excess resin is
removed in the hot die portion due to pressure, but in some pultrusion systems, a pre-former is
used in between the resin tank and hot die. In the pre-former, excess polymer is squeezed out and
uncured composite is generated which is then passed through hot die section. The pultrusion
process is generally used and is suitable for thermoset polymer composites and a constant cross
section profile of the composite product is produced on a continuous basis. As the cross section
of product is uniform, the fiber distribution and alignment and resin impregnation is good in this
process. Though rate of production is high but a large variation in area of cross-section is
difficult to achieve. The expenditure requirement to start pultrusion process is low as compared
to other costly and complex molding processes.

Important components of putrusion process:

There are mainly six components in the pultrusion system which govern the processing of
composites. These components are:
 Fiber Creels
 Preformer
 Resin impregnation systems
 Hot dies
 Pulling mechanism
 Cut off saws
 The creel should be located in such a way that it should provide uniform and controlled
tension to roving while transferring to the pultrusion system. For continuous and uninterrupted
supply of the roving strand, a second back-up roving package is also provided besides running
package. The shape and size of creel is decided on the basis of number of roving packages to be
handled and its dimension and the distance to be maintained in between the strands. Preform
plates are critical component of pultrusion system as it properly aligns and feeds the
reinforcement to the heated die. If pre-forming system is not properly functioning, it may lead to
bad quality output and failure of pultrusion system. Resin impregnation system has a resin bath
tank. The size of the tank depends upon the volume of resin to be handled. Resin impregnation
system may have a heating arrangement for the resin to enhance fiber wetting but the working
life of bath is decreased due to heating system. The commonly used resin impregnation system is
dip bath system which is also known as open bath.
Heating dies are the main component of any pultrusion system where part to be produced
is given shape and is cured. Pulling system pulls the product from the heated dies on a
continuous basis. Generally, a caterpillar belt is used in the pulling system. The last unit of
pultrusion system is cut off saw which cut the pultruded product in desired size. Most
commonly, a flying type of cut off saws are used in the pultrusion system.
Raw materials used in the pultrusion system:
A wide variety of reinforcement and resin systems are used to fabricate composite materials with
exceptional properties. The reinforcing materials used are: glass (E-glass and S-glass), carbon,
aramid fibers in the form of roving strands, mat (continuous filament mat, chopped strand mat)
and fabrics. Specific properties can be achieved by altering the design of the fabric
reinforcement. Sometimes veils are also used in pultrusion system to achieve high quality surface
layer of the pultruded component. These veils may have pre-printed designs and logos that
appear in the final product. Generally, unsaturated polyester, epoxy, vinyl ester resin and
phenolic resins are used as matrix materials. The fillers and additives are also incorporated
during composite fabrication as per the design requirement.

Application:
1. Products like solid rods, tubing, and long flat sheets are easily fabricated with pultrusion
process.
2. Simple and constant cross sectional structural sections such as channels, angled and flanged
beams.
3. Tool handles for high voltage work, and third rail covers for subways.
Advantages of pultrusion system:
1. This is a low cost automated system where human involvement is least which produces
high quality products.
2. The surface finish of the product is high as compared to other composite processing
methods.
3. The production rate is high as it is a continuous production process.
4. It is a straight forward and simple process which does not require specific labour skills.
5. Easy handling and low maintenance.

Disadvantages of pultrusion system:

1. The process is mainly suitable for constant cross sectional areas. Tapered and complex
shapes can not be produced with this method.
2. Control of fiber orientation is not possible in the pultrusion system.
3. Thin wall parts can not be produced with this system.

AUTOCLAVE
Autoclave molding technique is similar to vacuum bag and pressure bag molding method
with some modifications. This method employs an autoclave to provide heat and pressure to the
composite product during curing. In this method, prepregs are stacked in a mold in a definite
sequence and then spot welded to avoid any relative movement in between the prepreg sheets.
After stacking the prepregs, the whole assembly is vacuum bagged to remove any air entrapped
in between the layers. The schematic of autoclave molding process is shown in figure . After a
definite period of time when it is ensured that all air is removed, the entire assembly is
transferred to autoclave. Here, heat and pressure is applied for a definite interval of time. In this
process, matrix is uniformly distributed and intimate contact is achieved through proper bonding
between fibers and matrix. After the processing, the assembly is cooled to a definite rate and then
vacuum bag is removed. The composite part is taken out from the mold. Initially, a release gel is
applied onto the mold surface to avoid sticking of polymer to the mold surface.
Application:
The process is mainly used in applications requiring high strength to weight ratio components
such as aircraft parts, marine, military, space craft and missiles.

Advantages
1. This composite processing method allows high volume fraction of reinforcement in the
composite part.
2. This method is applicable for both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymer composites.
3. High degree of uniformity in part consolidation, better adhesion characteristics between
layers and good control over resin and reinforcement is achieved.
4. No void content in the finished part due to removing entrapped air through vacuum.
5. If cores and inserts are used, there is better bonding of these attachments due to vacuum
bag processing.
6. Complete wetting of fibers is achieved.
Disadvantages
1. There is limitation on part size which depends upon autoclave size.
2. It is a costly technique for composite processing.
3. Rate of production is low and skilled labour is required in this process.

RESIN TRANSFER MOLDING (RTM)

Resin transfer molding is a closed molding process. In this technique, as the name
indicates, resin is transferred over the already placed reinforcement. Reinforcement in terms of
either woven mat or strand mat form is placed on the surface of lower half mold. A release gel is
applied on the mold surface for easy removal of the composite. The mold is properly closed and
clamped. The clamping can be done either perimeter clamping or press clamping mechanism.
The resin is pumped into the mold through ports and air is displaced through other vents. The
uniformity of resin flow can be enhanced by using a catalyst as an accelerator and vacuum
application. After curing, the mold is opened and composite product is taken out. The schematic
of resin transfer molding process is shown in figure. Resin transfer molding can incorporate soft
or hard mold depending upon the expected duration of run. For soft mold, thermosetting
polymers like epoxy and polyester can be used for molding material. For hard mold, materials
like steel and aluminium can be used. The cost of mold varies from very low to high cost mold
with short to long life molds. The process can be automated to reduce cycle time. For complex
shapes to be produced, preformed fiber reinforcements are used. The viscosity of the resin plays
an important role in resin transfer molding process because injection time depends upon
viscosity of the resin. If viscosity of resin is high, high pressure is required which may cause
displacement of fibers, known as fiber wash.
 Important components of resin transfer molding process: There are mainly five components
in the resin transfer molding system which govern the processing of composites. These
components are:
 Resin and catalyst container
 Pumping unit
 Mixing chamber
 Resin injector
 Molding unit
There are two separate containers for resin and catalyst. Resin container is larger than the
catalyst container. Both the containers have separate outlets which pass through pumping unit
and opens in mixing chamber. Pumping unit transfers the resin and catalyst to the mixing
chamber. Resin and catalyst is mixed thoroughly in the mixing chamber. Resin injector is used to
inject the mixture to the mold cavity. Molding unit has two halves namely upper half mold and
lower half mold. Heating arrangement is integrated with molding unit. Vents are provided to
release the gases in the mold cavity during clamping.
Application:
1. Hollow shapes and complex structure can be produced.
2. Automotive body parts, big containers, bathtubs are commonly processed through resin
transfer moulding technique.
Advantages:
1. Composite part produced with this method has good surface finish on both side surface of
the product.
2. Any combination of reinforced materials (including 3D) in any orientation can be
achieved.
3. Fast cycle time can be achieved through temperature control tooling device.
4. Process can be manual control, semi-automated or highly automated.
5. Composite part thickness is uniform which is determined by the mold cavity.
6. There is low emission during composite processing.
7. Strict dimensional tolerances are possible to achieve.
8. Ability to incorporate inserts and other attachments into mold.
9. The process does not require high injection pressure.
10. Material wastage is reduced as near net shape parts are produced.
11. Higher production rate is associated with process automation.
Disadvantages:
1. Mold cavity limits the size of the composite.
2. High tooling cost.
3. There is limitation on reinforcing materials due to the flow and resin saturation of fibers.

FILAMENT WINDING
In filament winding method, fiber strands are unwind and passed continuously to the
resin tank. In resin tank, fiber strand are impregnated completely with the resin. Now, these resin
impregnated strands are passed onto a rotating mandrel. These strands are wound around the
mandrel in a controlled manner and in a specific fiber orientation. The schematic of filament
winding is shown in figure 1. Fiber tension is critical in filament winding because compaction is
achieved through the fiber tension. The fiber tension affects the percentage of fiber
reinforcement and porosity content in the composite which in turn affects the properties of the
processed composite product. The fiber tension depends upon the type of fiber, its geometry and
the winding pattern required on the rotating mandrel. The fiber tension should be at optimal level
because too high fiber tension may break the fiber completely or initiate fiber fracture at the
surface. Curing of the composite is done with heat, generally in an oven and final composite
product is taken out of the mandrel. To remove the metallic mandrel from the composite part,
hydraulic rams may be used. For complex geometry of composite part, the mandrel used may be
of soluble plaster which can be washed out after processing or it may be a collapsible rubber and
materials having low melting point. The profile of the mandrel is exactly the same as that of the
final product is required. In some cases, mandrel becomes the integral part of the assembly. A
carriage is used to keep the roving in place and to direct them to the mandrel. A high fiber
volume fraction can be achieved in the composite with this processing technique. Cores may be
used in this method but normally, product is in single skin. Now a days, computer controlled
machines are used which independently monitor every movement of the whole process.

The main components of filament winding are as follows:

1. Fiber creel
2. Resin impregnation system
3. Carriage
4. Rotating mandrel
Application:
Composite products like storage tanks, pipelines, vessels, gas cylinders, fishing rods,
missile cases, rocket motor cases, ducting, cement mixture, sail boat mast, aircraft fuselages and
golf club shafts are very common to be developed with this method. 2. Now, the application
spectrum of filament winding has expanded to complex engineered non-spherical and non-
cylindrical composite products with the use of sophisticated machinery and software.
Advantages:
1. High strength to weight ratio is possible to achieve with this process.
2. High degree of uniformity in fiber distribution, orientation and placement.
3. Labor involvement is minimal as it is an automated process.
4. Filament winding method is suitable to process composite parts requiring precise
tolerances.
5. Fiber orientation in a specific direction is possible in this process.
6. Cost of the composite part processed through filament winding method is substantially
low as compared to other manufacturing methods as this process involves less and low
cost material to produce high strength component.
7. Design flexibility in composite part is possible with the change in winding patterns,
material and curing option. 8. The size of the component is not restricted. 9. For high
production volume, process automation results in cost saving.
Disadvantage:
1. Capital investment is relatively high.
2. Very precise control over the mechanism is required for uniform distribution and
orientation of fiber.
3. Composite product configuration be such that it should facilitate in mandrel extraction.
4. It is not possible to produce the reverse curvature (female feature).
5. For some applications, mandrel may be expensive and surface of the composite part may
not be satisfactory.
6. Fiber direction can not be changed within one layer of winding.
HAND-LAYUP
Hand lay-up technique is the simplest method of composite processing. The
infrastructural requirement for this method is also minimal. The processing steps are quite
simple. First of all, a release gel is sprayed on the mold surface to avoid the sticking of polymer
to the surface. Thin plastic sheets are used at the top and bottom of the mold plate to get good
surface finish of the product. Reinforcement in the form of woven mats or chopped strand mats
are cut as per the mold size and placed at the surface of mold after perspex sheet. Then
thermosetting polymer in liquid form is mixed thoroughly in suitable proportion with a
prescribed hardner (curing agent) and poured onto the surface of mat already placed in the mold.
The polymer is uniformly spread with the help of brush. Second layer of mat is then placed on
the polymer surface and a roller is moved with a mild pressure on the mat-polymer layer to
remove any air trapped as well as the excess polymer present. The process is repeated for each
layer of polymer and mat, till the required layers are stacked. After placing the plastic sheet,
release gel is sprayed on the inner surface of the top mold plate which is then kept on the stacked
layers and the pressure is applied. After curing either at room temperature or at some specific
temperature, mold is opened and the developed composite part is taken out and further
processed. The schematic of hand lay-up is shown in figure. The time of curing depends on type
of polymer used for composite processing. For example, for epoxy based system, normal curing
time at room temperature is 24-48 hours. This method is mainly suitable for thermosetting
polymer based composites. Capital and infrastructural requirement is less as compared to other
methods. Production rate is less and high volume fraction of reinforcement is difficult to achieve
in the processed composites. Hand lay-up method finds application in many areas like aircraft
components, automotive parts, boat hulls, diase board, deck etc.
Advantages:
1. The process results in low cost tooling with the use of room-temperature cure resins.
2. The process is simple to use.
3. Any combination of fibres and matrix materials are used.
4. Higher fibre contents and longer fibres as compared to other processes.
Disadvantages:
1. Since the process is worked by hands, there are safety and hazard considerations.
2. The resin needs to be less viscous so that it can be easily worked by hands.
3. The quality of the final product is highly skill dependent of the labours.
4. Uniform distribution of resin inside the fabric is not possible. It leads to voids in the
laminates.
5. Possibility of diluting the contents
Applications:
The process is suitable for the fabrication of wind-turbine blades, boats and architectural
mouldings.
Tape Production:
Thermoplastic tape laying (Automated Layup)
 In this method layers of prepreg (reinforcing phase impregnated by liquid resin) tape
are applied on the mold surface by a tape application robot.
 Cost is about half of hand lay-up.
 used for thermoset or thermoplastic matrix.
 limited to flat or low curvature surfaces.
 Extensively used for products such as airframe components, bodies of boats, truck,
tanks, swimming pools and ducts.
Automated tape-laying machine (photo courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron). Automated
tape-laying machines operate by dispensing a prepreg tape onto an open mold following a
programmed path . Typical machine consists of overhead gantry to which the dispensing head is
attached The gantry permits x-y-z travel of the head, for positioning and following a defined
continuous path is an even speedier automated process in which prepreg tape, rather than
single tows, is laid down continuously to form parts. It is often used for parts with highly
complex contours or angles. Tape layup is versatile, allowing breaks in the process and easy
direction changes, and it can be adapted for both thermoset and thermoplastic materials. The
head includes a spool or spools of tape, a winder, winder guides, a compaction shoe, a position
sensor and a tape cutter or slitter. In either case, the head may be located on the end of a multi -
axis articulating robot that moves around the tool or mandrel to which material is being
applied, or the head may be located on a gantry suspended above the tool. Alternatively, the
tool or mandrel can be moved or rotated to provide the head access to different sections of the
tool. Tape or fiber is applied to a tool in courses, which consist of one row of material of any
length at any angle. Multiple courses are usually applied together over an area or pattern and
are defined and controlled by machine-control software that is programmed with numerical
input derived from part design and analysis. Capital expenditures for computer-driven,
automated equipment can be significant.
Advantages of automated fiber placement (AFP) process:
1. Fast speed of material deposition
2. Does not depend on the operator
3. Less labor intensive
4. Less waste of materials (lower buy/fly ratio)
5. Repeatability of results
6. Seamless transition between manufacturing and design
 7. Can handle large structures
8. Can produce unique structures
Film stacking
Stack of laminate consists of fibers, impregnated with insufficient thermoplastic matrix,
and polymer films of complementary weight to give the desired fiber volume fraction in the end
product. These are then consolidated by simultaneous application of heat and pressure. •
Generally, a pressure of 6-12 MPa, a temperature between 275 and 350º C, and dwell times of up
to 30 mins are appropriate for thermoplastics such as polysulfones and polyetheretherketone
(PEEK)

Moulding Methods
Open contact molding in one-sided molds is a low-cost, common process for making fiberglass
composite products. Typically used for boat hulls and decks, RV components, truck cabs and
fenders, spas, bathtubs, shower stalls and other relatively large, noncomplex shapes, open
molding involves either hand layup or a semi-automated alternative, sprayup.

Compression molding
Compression molding is a well known technique to develop variety of composite
products. It is a closed molding process with high pressure application. In this method, as shown
in fig, two matched metal molds are used to fabricate composite product. In compression molder,
base plate is stationary while upper plate is movable. Reinforcement and matrix are placed in the
metallic mold and the whole assembly is kept in between the compression molder. Heat and
pressure is applied as per the requirement of composite for a definite period of time. The material
placed in between the molding plates flows due to application of pressure and heat and acquires
the shape of the mold cavity with high dimensional accuracy which depends upon mold design.
Curing of the composite may carried out either at room temperature or at some elevated
temperature. After curing, mold is opened and composite product is removed for further
processing. In principle, a compression molding machine is a kind of press which is oriented
vertically with two molding halves (top and bottom halves).
Generally, hydraulic mechanism is used for pressure application in compression molding.
The controlling parameters in compression molding method to develop superior and desired
properties of the composite are shown in fig. All the three dimensions of the model (pressure,
temperature and time of application) are critical and have to be optimized effectively to achieve
tailored composite product as every dimension of the model is equally important to other one. If
applied pressure is not sufficient, it will lead to poor interfacial adhesion of fiber and matrix. If
pressure is too high, it may cause fiber breakage, expulsion of enough resin from the composite
system. If temperature is too high, properties of fibers and matrix may get changed. If
temperature is low than desired, fibers may not get properly wetted due to high viscosity of
polymers especially for thermoplastics. If time of application of these factors (pressure and
temperature) is not sufficient (high or low), it may cause any of defects associated with
insufficient pressure or temperature. The other manufacturing factors such as mold wall heating,
closing rate of two matched plates of the plates and de-molding time also affect the production
process.
Application of Compression molding:
1. Method is equally applicable for both thermosetting and thermoplastic polymer based
composites.
2. A very wide application spectrum ranging from kitchen goods to automobiles, toys,
electrical items and aeroplane parts.
3. Typical products include automobile panels, roof, life gates, battery trays, fenders, hoods,
bumpers, spoilers, air deflectors furniture kitchen bowls and trays, dinnerware, buttons,
large containers, recreational vehicle body panels, medical equipments (ultrasound
equipments).
Advantages of Compression molding:
1. Production rate is high as the mold cycle time is in few minutes.
2. Good surface finish with different texture and styling can be achieved.
3. High part uniformity is achieved with compression molding process.
4. Good flexibility in part design is possible.
5. Extra features like inserts, bosses and attachment can be molded in during the processing.
6. Raw material wastage is minimum and Maintenance cost is low.
7. Residual stresses are absent or negligible in the molded component.
8. Twisting and shrinkage in product is reduced therefore dimensional accuracy is good.
Disadvantages of Compression molding:
1. Due to expensive machinery and parts, the initial capital investment associated with
compression molding is high.
2. The process is suitable for high production volume. It is not economical for making a
small number of parts or for prototyping applications.
3. It is a labour intensive process.
4. Sometimes secondary processing (trimming, machining) of product is required after
compression molding.
5. Sometimes uneven parting lines are there.
6. There is limitation on mold depth.

Molding compounds:
Molding compounds are generally composite materials consisting of epoxy resins,
phenolic hardeners, silicas, catalysts, pigments, and mold release agents. Critical properties
considered when selecting a molding compound include its glass transition temperature, moisture
absorption rate, and flexural modulus/strength, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal
conductivity, and adhesion properties.
It can be classified two types
 SMC (Sheet Molding Compound)
 BMC (Bulk Molding Compound)
SMC (Sheet Molding Compound):
Sheet molding compounds (SMC) process is one of the main processing methods for fiber
reinforced polymer composites. Initially, continuous SMC sheets are fabricated with short fibers
impregnated with resin system. Continuous fiber roving is chopped into short fibers which fall at
uncured resin poured onto a continuously moving belt. The schematic of sheet molding
compound process is shown in fig. Sometimes, catalyst and additives are mixed with resin and
the mixture is poured onto the moving belt. The fibers are distributed in completely randomly
oriented fashion on the belt. These SMC sheets are stored for a definite period of time to achieve
dimensional stability and consistency. SMC sheets are cut as per the structure of the product to
be produced to the rough dimensions. These sheets are placed in a heated mold at a specific
constant temperature. Due to heating, polymer losses its viscosity and fills the mold completely.
Curing of the component is done at some specified temperature. After certain period of
time, component is taken out from the mold and finished through trimming for end product.
Most commonly, continuous glass fiber roving is chopped and incorporated with resin. Carbon
and other fibers can also be used depending upon the part to be produced from SMC sheets. The
most commonly used resin materials are polyesters, poly vinyl esters with cross linking agents
such as styrene and acrylic resin material. Some filler materials such as clay, calcium carbonate
and other low cost or wastes are incorporated in the resin to reduce overall cost and to increase
dimensional stability. Generally, peroxides are used in the resin as a catalyst to enhance the
curing properties of the resin. Sometimes, thickening agents are also used to increase the
viscosity of resin. Sheet molding compounds are more common raw materials for compression
molding process. Commonly available SMC sheets contain either randomly oriented short fibers,
combination of unidirectional fibers with randomly oriented short fibers and mixture of
randomly oriented short fibers with continuous fibers in specific orientation.

Applications:
This technique is used for many application areas like automotive, electrical, electronics, sanitary
ware, furniture and other structural components.
Advantages:
1. SMC method is used to produce near net shape.
2. 2. Rate of production is high.
3. 3. It is a low cost high volume production technique with moderate strength.
4. 4. Part reproducibility is excellent.
5. Disadvantage
6. 1. High Fiber-volume fraction in the composite is not achieved.