37

energy and training module

ITU Competitive Coach

Produced by the International Triathlon Union, 2007

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energy & training

 Have you ever wondered why some athletes shoot off the start line while others
take a moment to react?
 Have you every experienced a “burning” sensation in your muscles on the bike?
 Have athletes ever claimed they could ‘keep going forever!’?

All of these situations involve the use of energy in the body. Any activity the body
performs requires work and work requires energy. A molecule called ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) is the “energy currency” of the body. ATP powers most
cellular processes that require energy including muscle contraction required for
sport performance.

Where does ATP come from and how is it used?

ATP is produced by the breakdown of fuel molecules—carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins. During physical activity, three different processes work to split ATP
molecules, which release energy for muscles to use in contraction, force production,
and ultimately sport performance. These processes, or “energy systems”, act as
pathways for the production of energy in sport. The intensity and duration of
physical activity determines which pathway acts as the dominant fuel source.

Immediate
energy system

Fuel sources ATP Sport

E.g. carbohydrates, energy performance
proteins, fats “currency”
Short term
energy system E.g. swimming, cycling,
running, transitions

Long term
energy system

During what parts of a triathlon might athletes use powerful, short, bursts of speed?
1
What duration, intensity, and type of activities in a triathlon cause muscles to “burn”?
2

When in a triathlon do athletes have to perform an action repeatedly for longer than 10 or 15
3 minutes at a moderate pace?
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energy systems
Long Term (Aerobic) System
The long term system produces energy through aerobic (with oxygen) pathways.
This system is dominant at lower intensities and efforts lasting longer than 2 to 3
minutes. Production of energy, or ATP, occurs in the mitochondria of the muscle
fibers. Mitochondria contain special enzymes that permit the breakdown of fuels (e.g.
glycogen, fatty acids) through interaction with oxygen to produce large amounts of
energy. Training the aerobic system increases the number and size of the
mitochondria, making the muscles more efficient at using oxygen for fuel.

Short Term (Anaerobic Lactic) System

As intensity increases, it becomes increasingly difficult for the body to provide enough
oxygen to fuel aerobic pathways. The short term, or anaerobic lactic (without oxygen,
with lactic acid) system begins to contribute more energy to fuel the muscle. Fuel for
this system comes from glucose in the blood and stored glycogen in the muscle.
Along with energy (ATP), lactic acid is produced as a byproduct of this system. As
exercise intensity increases, so does the accumulation of lactic acid in the blood and
muscles. If this accumulation becomes too high, then the short term system cannot
continue. At maximum intensity, this system is exhausted within 60 to 120 seconds.
Athletes experience shortness of breath, pain (burning sensation), and weakness in
the muscles.
In triathlon, the aerobic and anaerobic lactic systems often operate in tandem, with
energy being supplied through both pathways as intensities fluctuate. A well-trained
aerobic system allows athletes to perform at higher intensities before lactic acid
builds up and recover faster after hard efforts.

The Immediate (Anaerobic Alactic) System

When sudden, explosive or immediate movements are required, a third system
produces ATP at a very high rate. The anaerobic alactic (without oxygen, without
lactic acid) or ATP-CP system is fueled by stored ATP and another high energy
substance, creatine phosphate (CP). Because these fuel stores are relatively small,
the immediate system only supplies energy for up to about 10 seconds of high
intensity activity. ATP-CP stores can be replenished in a few minutes of rest. During
a triathlon this system is dominant during races starts, very explosive movements like
flying bike mounts, and accelerations or surges that are less than 10 seconds in
duration.

Energy System Integration

The energy systems do not work independently. During exercise, all the systems operate
simultaneously in different degrees, depending on the energy demands placed on the
body. During a triathlon, the long term system is dominant, but the immediate and short
term systems are accessed when an athlete increases their intensity. While a majority of
the triathlete’s training will rely on the long-term system for energy, some training (starts,
surges, and fast repeats) should make use of the immediate and short-term systems.
This type of balanced training will lead to improvements in maximum oxygen uptake and
work efficiency; more work done at less cost.
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Energy Aerobic Anaerobic Lactic Anaerobic Alactic

System
(long term) (short term) (immediate)
Fuel Source Circulated nutrients Glycogen (stored carbohydrates) in Stored ATP and CP
(oxygen as a catalyst) the muscle and liver (creatine phosphate)
Limit of fuel The body’s ability to process At 100% intensity; 10 seconds to 2 Up to 10 seconds
source oxygen. minutes
*the limiting factor at maximum
intensity is the build up of lactic acid,
not the depletion of glycogen stores
Byproducts ATP, CO2, H2O ATP, Lactic acid ATP, Creatine
Intensity of Low to moderate; higher High to very high for longer than 10 Very high intensity;
exercise intensities for efforts lasting seconds explosive movements
when system longer than 2 minutes
is dominant *significant overlap with (up to 2 or 2.5 minutes at maximum (up to 10 seconds, unless
anaerobic system at higher intensity) stores have time to
intensities for events longer replenish)
than 2 minutes
Recovery of Highly dependent on intensity. Rate of lactic acid removal 50% replenished in 30
fuel stores 25% in 10 minutes seconds
after use Lower intensity, 6 to 24 hours. 50% in 25 min.
100% in 75 min. 2 minutes for complete
Higher intensity, 24 to 36 hours.
*low intensity exercise can help restoration (if resting)
“flush” lactic acid out of the muscles
and facilitate faster recovery

Replenishment of glycogen*
following continuous, high intensity
endurance activities
60% in 10 hours
100% in 48 hours

Replenishment of glycogen*
following intermittent activity
40% in 2 hours
55% in two hours
100% in 24 hours

*in order to replenish glycogen stores,

athletes must consume carbohydrate-
rich foods
Athletic Aerobic power (highest Muscular endurance (repeated Power (moving against
abilities intensity that still involves the muscle contractions) resistance or a force as
developed by aerobic (oxygen) system) fast as possible)
training this Speed (moving as fast as possible;
Aerobic endurance (ability of
system 10 seconds to 2 minutes) Maximum speed (up to
the body to supply muscles
10 seconds)
with oxygen for long periods)

Muscular endurance
Use in Dominant system in triathlon; Supplement to aerobic activity at Race starts, surges, rapid
triathlon all components. high intensities (e.g. surges, accelerations and/or
accelerations, longer than 2min) power increases up to 10
First two minutes of higher intensity seconds
activity within the race (e.g. first 100-
200m of the swim).
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The diagram below is a hypothetical “energy chart” of an athlete completing a sprint distance triathlon.
 The lighter region at the bottom represents the aerobic, or long term system. This system is dominant
throughout the race.
 The darker grey represents the anaerobic lactic system. As athletes increase intensity, for example,
cycling or running uphill, they will start to use more anaerobic energy pathways.
 The black region at the top of the graph represents the anaerobic alactic system. Athletes activate this
system for only very short periods at extremely high intensities—for example starting a race.
The span of systems an athlete utilizes during a triathlon event illustrates why it is important to balance training
using a variety of intensities. After developing an aerobic base of fitness and strength, training should be
designed to condition athletes for the specific demands of their event.

Energy Use: Sprint Distance Triathlon (750m swim, 20km cycle, 5km run)
Immediate system (anaerobic alactic) Short term system (anaerobic lactic) Long term system (aerobic)

high
Intensity

low
start 2-10min Swim 300m T-1 & Bike Bike Flats T-2 Run Run Sprint
exit to T-1 bike (flats) (rolling hills) (flats) (hills) finish
(run) mount (300m)
Race Components and Terrain
0-2 2-10 11 12-14 15 16-20 20-30 30-50 51-52 53-58 59-70 71-72
Total Race Time (in minutes)

Energy Use: Olympic Distance Triathlon (1.5km swim, 40km cycle, 10km run)
Based on the information you now know about energy systems, draw your own interpretation of an athlete’s energy
use (during an Olympic Distance triathlon) on the chart below.
Immediate system (anaerobic alactic) Short term system (anaerobic lactic) Long term system (aerobic)

high
Intensity

low
Start swim Swim 100m Bike Bike Bike Bike T-2 Run Finish
(at exit to T-1 mount (racing to (5 steep (flat, slightly 1km uphill (1km flat)
water (beach) and and keep up with hills; rolling, 4 Flat for 3km;
edge) T-1 start of another accents and surges of 10- 2km on trails;
cycle athlete) descents) 15 sec. each) 2km slight downhill;
1km with 3x100m steep hills
Race Components and Terrain
0-2 2-22 22-23 24-26 27-35 36-46 47-70 71-95 96-97 98-138 139-143

Total Time (in minutes)

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Create your own energy use diagram for a race distance of your choice. Label the terrain, components of the
course, and time for each. When you have completed the diagram, swap with another coach and analyze each
of your races. Would you change anything based on your discussion?

Energy Use: ________ Distance Triathlon (_____ swim, _____cycle, ____run)

Immediate system (anaerobic alactic) Short term system (anaerobic lactic) Long term system (aerobic)

high
Intensity

low

Race Components and Terrain

Total Race Time (in minutes)

training the energy systems

There are more and less formal methods of training the energy systems. However, it is important to realize that
MANY variables affect how well these methods work. There is no “one right way” to train each energy system.
Every athlete will respond differently to training depending on age, ability, past training, morphology (body type),
physiology (e.g. muscle fiber type), character, mental state, motivation, skill level, and other variables.
Before moving on to more formal methods of training, use the chart below to brainstorm some creative methods
of training each energy system, based on the information you already know. Just as the body uses a blend of
energy systems within a race, training also involves a combination of energy systems within practices.

Immediate system Short term system Long Term system

(Anaerobic Alactic) (Anaerobic Lactic) (Aerobic)
E.g. practice multiple swim starts with E.g. After a 15 min. warm-up, cycle spurts E.g. run for 60 minutes at ‘talking
several minutes rest between of 2-3 minutes very fast with easy riding to pace’ (easy intensity)
recover in between
E.g. flying bike mount + 200m power cycling E.g. ride repetitions of hills (1-2 minutes E.g. after a warm-up, do a 15 min. hard
(standing up) each with several minutes rest between) cycle at “race pace”
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general training guidelines

Formal training of the energy systems is part science and part art. Coaches must take into
consideration the science of “what system to train, when, and how often” with the individual needs
and capacities of each athlete. Novice athletes require different variations of training, with a focus on
the aerobic system for the first two to three years they are in triathlon. Below are some GENERAL
guidelines for training each system.

There are derivatives of the energy systems that you might be familiar with such as speed, power,
endurance, and strength. These terms refer to athletic abilities or components of fitness that
different train aspects of the energy systems and other systems in the body concurrently. More
information on these holistic concepts will be introduced later in this module.

Aerobic Aerobic-anaerobic Anaerobic Anaerobic

system mixed systems system Alactic
(lower intensities) (high intensities for longer system
than 2 min.)
Number of 3 to 5 times a week 1 to 2 times a week 2 to 3 times a week 1-2 times a week
sessions per
week
Recovery 6 to 36 hours 24 to 48 hours 24 to 36 hours 24 to 48 hours
time between
sessions
Duration or Longer than 15 10 to 30 minute efforts 20 seconds to 2 minute 5 to 10 second
time minutes per interval (moderate to high intensity) intervals intervals
or segment
2 to 10 minutes (shorter,
higher intensity efforts)
Number of Usually just one 1 for 10-30 min. efforts 4 to 12 repetitions 8 to 18 repetitions
intervals or repetition per
repetitions practice (e.g. a long 2 to 10 repetitions
run) for 2-10min. efforts
Rest between N/A 2 to 10 minutes 60 seconds to 8 minutes. 20 seconds to 5
intervals Work: Rest ratio Work : Rest ratio minutes
1 : 0.5 or 1:1 or 1:1.5 1 : 3 or 4 (usually training is done in
(e.g. for a 5 min. interval, athletes (e.g. for a 1 min. interval, sets—groups of 4 to 6
rest for 2.5 minutes, 5 minutes or 7.5 athletes rest for 3 or 4 min.) efforts—with 30-60 sec.
minutes) between efforts followed by
3-5 min. between sets to
allow ATP stores to
replenish)

Intensity Easy pace to Race pace to near maximum Near maximum effort Explosive, maximum
moderate pace (able effort effort
to talk—slightly out
of breath but not
labouring)

How do you think these training recommendations will differ for novice athletes (1-2 years in
the sport) and intermediate level athletes (2-5 years in the sport)?
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In the chart below, design a workout or activity to train each system in each of the sports. As you
apply the general guidelines, consider how you might be more creative and innovative in applying
these guidelines to designing activities. Throughout your coaching career, you will continue to
expand your knowledge of these systems, their application and how each athlete adapts to training.

Aerobic system Aerobic-anaerobic Anaerobic Anaerobic

(lower intensities) mixed systems system Alactic
(high intensities for longer system
than 2 minutes)

Swim

Bike

Run

Transition
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triathlon energy
Now that you have some knowledge of the energy systems and how to train them, it is time to apply this
information to triathlon. Training involves both general and specific components. More information on general
components will be covered later in this module. For now, we will deal with the specific energy requirements an
athlete might encounter when doing a triathlon. Based on these sport-specific requirements AND an analysis of
athletes’ strengths and weaknesses, a coach can develop specific programmes that best train the athlete to
meet their goals in the sport.
1. Read each activity under “Triathlon Component” in the chart.
2. Decide what energy system or systems would dominate in each activity and record it in the second column.
3. Discuss methods of training this activity and record ideas in the third column. Use the information you have
learned on energy systems related to frequency of training, length of efforts, and rest periods.

Triathlon Component Dominant Energy Training Methods

System(s)
E.g. Race start Anaerobic alactic  Repetitions of simulated starts
(pool starts; dive starts; beach starts)
 Reaction time drills
 Short swim sprints up to 10 sec. with 3 min. active rest
Swim (first 100-200m)

Swim (main component)

Swim exit

Travel to transition
 Short (100m)
 Long (200m+)
Swim to bike transition (T-1)
 Taking off and putting on
equipment or clothing
 Unracking bike
 Traveling with bike
through transition to
mount line
Mounting bike

First 1-2 km on the bike

1. Slow pace while
hydrating
2. Fast pace while sprinting
up to speed
Biking hills
(longer than 10 sec. each)

Biking flats

Surging to catch someone or

trying to keep pace with
another athlete (10-15 sec)
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Triathlon Component Dominant Energy Training Methods

System(s)
Dismount bike

Bike to Run Transition (T-2)

 Traveling with bike
through transition to bike
racks
 Taking off helmet;
changing shoes (if
applicable)
 Walking or running out
of transition
First 1km of the run
1. sprinting to the cheers of
the crowds
2. Jogging slowly to “warm
up the running legs”
Running up a steep, short
hill (about 12 sec.)

Running through 2km of

trails (off-road; soft surface)

Running flats (slightly higher

intensity to keep up with
someone for 2-3 km)
Running at talking pace for
10 to 15 minutes.

Sprinting the last 200m of

the run (about 45 seconds)

Walking after finishing the

race for 5 to 10 minutes

Add additional activities, skills, or components of a triathlon below that you think should be in the list.
Other:

Other:

Other:

Other:

Other:
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holistic energy systems

The energy systems require a number of systems in the body to work in synchrony.

The Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems

The cardiovascular system (heart, blood vessels, arteries) and cardiorespiratory (heart
and lungs) systems help deliver oxygen to the muscles for aerobic metabolism. The
circulatory system also removes waste products from the body, such as lactic acid, and
delivers nutrients to the muscles from food for glycogen storage and other functions.
What effect will a stronger, more efficient heart muscle have on an
athlete’s anaerobic and aerobic performance?

The Nervous System

The neural system includes the CNS (central nervous system—the brain and spinal
cord) and the PNS (peripheral nervous system—all nerves extending to all parts of the
body). No movement would occur without the functioning of this system which is
responsible for both conscious and subconscious activation of muscles. As the
nervous system fatigues, efficiency of muscle contraction decreases.
If muscle contraction decreases with fatigue how will this affect athletes’
skills and technique? How might changes in skill, or technique, affect
anaerobic and aerobic performance?

The nervous system is also responsible for psychological influences on performance

such as confidence, anxiety, motivation, emotion, and related areas. All thought
processes related to learning, memory, perception, and attention are also controlled by
the nervous system.
How might a strong mindset and positive psychological outlook affect the
rate and degree of fatigue?

The Musculo-Skeletal System

The muscular and skeletal systems create a structure for energy systems to train.
Bones provide the frame on which muscles pull to create movement. Although often
thought of as solid and inflexible, bones are actually factories that produce much of the
body’s red blood cell store. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin which transports over
95% of the oxygen in the body to working muscles.
In children, bones are pliable and flexible. Physical activity, or force of the muscles
pulling on bones, results in a stronger skeletal structure. Over the long term bones
supercompensate for the “trauma” and grow stronger. Overuse or extremely high
loads (forces) impact bone formation and in extreme cases, deformation. As people
age, bones tend to grow more brittle as mineral density declines.
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What effects might each energy system have on the skeletal system?
 Are there risks or benefits to anaerobic alactic (explosive, powerful)
training on the bones of children and older adults?
 What effects might excessive distance training have on the skeletal
system?

Muscles contract as a result of stimulation from nerve fibers or electrical signals

transmitted via the nervous system. Muscles only pull, they do not “push” so they
work in groups. During a movement, one muscle or group of muscles act as the
agonist (primary movers of a bone in a certain direction). Another group assists or
supports the movement. Antagonist muscles resist or oppose the movement, in
some cases “guarding” against injury by restricting the range of motion of a joint.
If an athlete has inefficient technique and uses “too many muscles” to
perform movements, what effect will this have on energy system
efficiency and use?

Skeletal muscles are composed of different fiber types: slow twitch, fast twitch, and
intermediate types. (Note, there are sub-groups of each type, but they will not be
detailed in this module).
 Slow twitch muscles are slow to fatigue, produce comparatively low forces, and are
small in diameter.
 Fast twitch fibers fatigue quickly, are more explosive, produce large forces, and
are large in diameter.
 Intermediate fibers have moderate resistance to fatigue, intermediate force
capacity and diameter.

People have a genetically determined ratio of each fiber type, however, these can be
modified through training. Intermediate fibers are the easiest to train and can act
MORE like slow twitch or MORE like fast twitch depending on the type of training.
Slow and fast twitch muscle fibers can be modified as well, but not to the same extent
as intermediate fibers. Someone with a majority of slow twitch fibers will be
predisposed to longer distance events. Likewise, an athlete with a majority of fast
twitch fibers will excel at shorter, more powerful speed-based events.

Are there parallels between the energy systems and muscle fiber types?

Do you think an athlete with a majority of fast twitch muscle fibers would
respond more quickly to aerobic or anaerobic training? Why?
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All systems of the body are affected by the fuel athletes consume. Energy systems
are directly and indirectly affected by innumerable connections between nutrition and
performance. A few examples that are particularly relevant to triathlon are:

 Carbohydrate is the energy nutrient. Without sufficient CHO intake, glycogen

stores will be affected and athlete performance will suffer. Consuming small
amounts of carbohydrate during training and racing can maintain glucose levels in
the blood and slow down the glycogen-depletion process.
 Glucose is vital to brain function. If glucose levels are too low the brain starts
to “slow down”, neurons misfire, and performance is inhibited.
 Water is a conductor of electricity and because nervous system and muscles
communicate through electrical signals, dehydration can disrupt nervous system
function. Water also facilitates the diffusion of oxygen from the lungs to the blood,
helps lubricate tissues in the body, aids in digestion, and regulates body
temperature, among other jobs.
 Fats (particularly unsaturated) are also critical to performance. Besides providing
energy reserves and essential components of cell membranes and nerve fibers,
fatty acids transport the vitamins A, D, E, and K. These vitamins are critical to
recovery, calcium absorption (i.e. muscle function, bone integrity—see below), red
blood cell production. What effect will insufficient fat intake have on triathlon
performance?
 Protein is the ‘healing’ nutrient and performs functions such as tissue growth,
regeneration, maintenance of the immune system, regulation of fluid balance in
the body, and production of hormones, enzymes, and hemoglobin.

How might insufficient intake of a) carbohydrates, b) fats, c) protein, and

d) water, affect the performance of the anaerobic and aerobic systems?

Vitamins and minerals are vital to performance. They do not provide energy, but
improve the efficiency of all processes related to energy production.

 Calcium is essential for bone health and plays a vital role in muscle contraction.
Best sources include dairy products, green leafy vegetables, and legumes.
 Iron is a component of hemoglobin contained in red blood cells and responsible
for over 95% of oxygen delivery in the body. Iron is also involved in ATP
production in the aerobic system. Iron is found primarily in meats, poultry, and
dried fruits (red meats providing the highest levels of iron to the body). Iron
deficiency can lead to anemia which decreases oxygen transport, increases
fatigue, and limits both training and racing ability.

*Iron deficiency has long been an issue with female endurance athletes, as iron is lost through
menstruation, sweat, and long distance running. Athletes who restrict their diets—e.g. eat
insufficient quantities of protein, red meats, and other key nutrients—are at particular risk for
iron deficient anemia.
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 Potassium and magnesium play roles in muscle and nerve function. Key sources
of these minerals are nuts, legumes, dark green leafy vegetables, seafood, poultry,
and dairy products.
 The B vitamins help the body convert carbohydrates into energy; assist in red
blood cell production; help the body use proteins; support the nervous system;
among other jobs. Sources differ depending on the vitamin. Some general
sources include fortified breads, cereals, whole grains; lean meats, eggs, legumes,
dairy products, nuts; poultry; seafood; and a variety of dark green leafy vegetables.
 Vitamin C helps the body absorb iron, promotes wound healing, and assists the
body’s immune system. Best sources include citrus fruits, strawberries, tomatoes,
broccoli, green peppers and other fruits and vegetables.

Based on the connections between nutrition and performance, discuss

the benefits of consuming a wide VARIETY of foods in the diet.

Based on the information you have just reviewed, identify all the possible connections between the energy
systems and various nutrients, minerals, and vitamins below. Keep in mind that this information represents only a
small snapshot of nutrition-performance relationships.

E.g. CHO’s are

converted to muscle
glycogen (for moderate to
high intensity aerobic work)
Aerobic Anaerobic
System System

As a coach, what recommendations would you give your athletes based on these
relationships? Justify your response.
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derivatives of the energy systems

Fitness abilities
As mentioned earlier, there are derivatives of the energy systems that define more familiar
“training methods” in sport. These terms refer to athletic abilities or components of fitness
that different train aspects of the energy systems and other systems in the body
concurrently. Think back to the list of triathlon components on pages 8 and 9. As you
read the following list, consider what fitness abilities are required in each triathlon
component. Athletic or fitness abilities are trained according to sport-specific needs.
The specific distance of the event will also help determine the specific fitness
requirements. While triathlon is primarily a contest of endurance, all the fitness abilities
play a role in an athlete’s performance.
Under each definition, write an example from triathlon.

Cardiovascular or Aerobic Endurance

The ability of the heart, lungs, and blood vessels to deliver adequate amounts of
oxygen and nutrients to exercising muscles over long periods.
Low to moderate efforts for longer than 15 minutes.

Dominant systems involved:

Aerobic energy system, circulatory system, and respiratory system
Triathlon example:

Aerobic Power or Aerobic Capacity (VO2 max)

The point (intensity) at which the maximum amount of oxygen that can be delivered to
muscles and used by the body before having to rely 100% on anaerobic processes.
Very intense efforts between 2 and 10 minutes (15 minutes for highly trained athletes).

Dominant systems involved:

Aerobic energy system, circulatory system, and respiratory system
Triathlon example:

Speed and Speed Endurance

The ability to perform a movement as quickly as possible or to move as quickly as
possible especially over short distances. Maximum intensity for up to 20 seconds.
Speed endurance is the ability to maintain a very high speed for longer periods.
Maximum intensity for up to 2 minutes.

Dominant systems involved:

Anaerobic lactic and alactic energy systems, muscular, and nervous systems
Triathlon example:

Muscular Endurance
The ability of muscles to resist fatigue and contract repeatedly over time.

Dominant systems involved: aerobic and anaerobic lactic energy systems, muscular,
and nervous systems
Triathlon example:
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Muscular Strength
The ability of a muscle to exert force; the ability to overcome great resistance.
Maximum strength involves one maximum force exerted by the muscle. Submaximal
strength involves moving a sub-maximal resistance for less than 30 seconds or less
than 15 repetitions.

Systems involved: all energy systems (anaerobic lactic and alactic dominant),
muscular, and nervous systems
Triathlon example:

Power
The ability of muscles to overcome a resistance at maximal speed (force X time); a
combination of strength and speed. Involves quick, explosive movements.

Systems involved: anaerobic alactic and lactic energy systems, muscular, and
nervous systems
Triathlon example:

Flexibility
The range of motion through which joints can move. Flexibility is influenced by length,
strength, activation, and relaxation of the muscles around a joint (e.g. shoulder, hip,
knee, ankle, etc.).

Dominant systems involved: aerobic energy system, muscular, skeletal, and nervous
systems
Triathlon example:

Balance (skill-related fitness component)

The ability to maintain equilibrium while stationary (static balance) or moving (dynamic
balance).

Dominant systems involved: all energy systems (the postural muscles responsible
for more static balances are highly aerobic; the movements required to maintain
balance in sudden, quick movements (e.g. avoiding an obstacle on the bike) require
anaerobic alactic system integration); muscular, nervous, and vestibular systems
Triathlon example:

Coordination (skill-related fitness component)

The ability to use the senses in concert with the body to perform movements smoothly
and accurately. Involves synchronization (timing, rhythm) of multiple actions.

Dominant systems involved: all energy systems (dependent on requirements of the

task), muscular, sensory, and nervous systems
Triathlon example:
 54

fitness abilities: application

Now that you have an understanding of what each fitness component requires and where it fits with
triathlon, you can apply these to planning and training in each sport. Fill out the chart below with your
own ideas, and then compare with others and record your ideas on page 17. The Planning module
will further apply energy systems and fitness abilities to annual, seasonal, and weekly schedules.
Swim Bike Run Combined sports
(transitions, bricks)

Aerobic
endurance

Aerobic
power

Speed

Speed
endurance

Muscular
endurance

Muscular
strength

Power

Flexibility

Balance

Coordination
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fitness abilities: other applications

Swim Bike Run Combined sports
(transitions, bricks)

Aerobic
endurance

Aerobic
power

Speed

Speed
endurance

Muscular
endurance

Muscular
strength

Power

Flexibility

Balance

Coordination

Notes
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coaching: best practices

As you move on to learn more formal methods of training, it is important to remember that coaching is both
science AND art. As you apply these concepts to planning, training, and finally to your own programmes, keep
the following advice in mind.

Learn about your athletes—how they respond to training; what they enjoy or dislike;
their history, morphology (body type); goals; psychology, emotions, character, and so on.

Learn the tools—training methods, how the energy systems work; evaluation methods
for measuring fitness, teaching methods…. Keep up with recent trends in research and
science, but always take a critical eye when learning. There are key principles, but there
are MORE variations within those principles than constants. Never stop learning.

Apply tools to meet your athletes’ needs. Avoid using tools “just because you have
them”. Apply tools with a purpose. Do not use tools just because someone else uses
them. Track and measure how well the tools work so changes can be made if a tool is not
working (assessment and evaluation).

concluding questions
It is now time to take this information on training and apply it to weekly, monthly, seasonal, and annual plans.
How do you schedule energy systems over a year? How do you alternate sports, training intensities, and rest
periods within a week? What differences will there be in programmes for athletes doing sprint distance
triathlons and athletes aiming for Olympic distance events?

The following questions will start you thinking about how to approach long and short term planning.
Do you think all athletes use the same combination of energy systems in each sport in a
1 triathlon (swim, cycle, transitions, and run)? Explain your answer.

What differences do you think exist between the energy systems of adults, youth and
2 children?

How would you schedule training for different energy systems and fitness abilities for a novice
3 athlete over a year-long period?

What individual differences might you expect to see in: a) athletes’ energy systems,
4 b) their requirements for training, and c) their adaptation to training?
How will these variables affect how you schedule training over a month, a season, or a year?
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references
Anderson, G., & Fernstrom, K. (Eds.) (2000). Fitness theory for healthy living. Abbotsford, Canada:
UCFV Press.

Bar-Or, O., & Rowland, T.W. (2004). Pediatric exercise medicine. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Bompa, T.O. (1999). Periodization: Theory and methodology of training: Fourth edition.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Burrell, L., & Rosenkranz, R. (2003). Registered triathlon leader. Libby Burrell.

Clark, N. (1990). Sports nutrition guidebook: Second edition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Coaches’ Association of Canada (CAC) (2005). Reference material: Competition Introduction

Weekend A & B. Canada: CAC.

Corbin, C., & Lindsay, R. (1997). Concepts of physical fitness. USA: McGraw Hill.

Greene, L., & Pate, R. (2004). Training for young distance runners: Second edition. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics.

Hoffman, J. (2002). Physiological aspects of sport training and performance. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics.

Martin, D., & Coe, P. (1997). Better training for distance runners: Second edition. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics.

McArdle, W.D., Katch, F.I., & Katch, V.L. (2001). Exercise physiology: Energy, nutrition, and human
performance. Baltimore, Maryland: Williams & Wilkins.

Rowland, T.W. (2005). Children’s exercise physiology: Second edition. Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics.

Vander, A.J., Sherman, J.H., & Luciano, D.S. (1994). Human physiology: Sixth edition. US: McGraw
Hill.
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appendix A
Reference Scale for Rating of Perceived Exertion and Training Zones
Gale Bernhardt ©2003
Zone Swim Percent of Percent of Rating of Breathing and Perception Purpose and Cross-
Pace Lactate Lactate Perceived Using Running as the reference of Terms
Threshold Threshold Exertion or Example Commonly Used To
Heart Rate Heart Rate RPE Describe Each Zone
(Bike) (Run) (Borg Scale)

1 Work on 80 and less 84 and less 6-9 Gentle rhythmic breathing. Easy, Aerobic, Recovery
form, no Pace is easy and relaxed.
clock For running, intensity is a
watching. jog or trot.
2 T-pace + 81-88 85-91 10-12 Breathing rate and pace Aerobic, Extensive
10 sec per increase slightly. Many Endurance, Aerobic
100 notice a change with slightly Threshold Endurance
deeper breathing, although (Note: Some coaches call
still comfortable. Running this region Lactate
pace remains comfortable Threshold. See text for
and conversations possible. details.)

3 T-Pace + 5 89-93 92-95 13-14 Aware of breathing a little Tempo, Intensive

sec per harder, pace is moderate. It Endurance
100 is more difficult to hold Longer distance (2-3 x
conversation. Olympic Distance) race
pace for experienced
athletes is typically within
Zones 1 to 3

4 T-Pace 94-99 96-99 15-16 Starting to breathe hard, Subthreshold, Muscular

pace is fast and beginning Endurance, Threshold-
to get uncomfortable, Endurance, Anaerobic
approaching all-out one- Threshold Endurance
hour run pace.

5a T-Pace 100-102 100-102 17 Breathing deep and forceful, Lactate Threshold

many notice a second Endurance, Anaerobic
significant change in Threshold Endurance,
breathing pattern. Pace is all Superthreshold, Muscular
-out sustainable for one- to Endurance
one-and-a-half hours. Olympic-distance race
Mental focus required, pace is typically Zones 4
moderately uncomfortable to 5a for experienced
and conversation athletes
undesireable.

5b T-Pace – 5 103-105 103-106 18-19 Heavy, labored breathing. Aerobic Capacity, Speed
sec per Pace is noticeably Endurance, Anaerobic
100 challenging but sustainable Endurance
for 15 to 30 minutes. Sprint-distance race pace
Discomfort is high but is typically Zones 4-5b,
manageable. with limited 5c for
experienced athletes.

5c As Fast as 106+ 107+ 20 Maximal exertion in Anaerobic Capacity,

Possible breathing, pace is sprinting Power
effort, high discomfort that is
unsustainable for over one
minute.

Reprinted with permission from Triathlon Training Basics, Gale Bernhardt, VeloPress, 2004.
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