2014

MATHEMATICS 101

Paul Jorel R. Santos

2
Table of Contents
1 Set ................................................................................................................................................ 4
1.1 Definition and Representation............................................................................................................ 4
1.2 Cardinality ........................................................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Subset.................................................................................................................................................. 6
1.4 Operations on Set ............................................................................................................................... 8
2 Numbers ..................................................................................................................................... 12
2.1 Real Numbers .................................................................................................................................... 12
2.2 Properties of Real Numbers .............................................................................................................. 13
3 Integer Exponents ...................................................................................................................... 15
4 Algebraic Expressions ............................................................................................................... 18
4.1 Variable and Constant....................................................................................................................... 18
4.2 Polynomial ........................................................................................................................................ 19
5 Special Products ......................................................................................................................... 25
6 Binomial Expansion ................................................................................................................... 28
6.1 Binomial Theorem ............................................................................................................................. 28
6.2 Pascal’s Triangle ................................................................................................................................ 31
7 Factoring .................................................................................................................................... 34

3
1 Set
1.1 Definition and Representation
Definition 1.1.1 A Set is a collection of well-defined objects. An object of a set is called an
element. A set may be named by a capital letter or not and its objects are enclosed with braces
{ and }.
Examples 1.1.1
}

Since a is an object in set E, then a is an element of E, denoted by .

Since b is not an object in set G, then b is not an element G, denoted by .
There are two ways of writing a set. The first is called the Roster Method; this method is
the usual way of writing a set. Elements are listed and separated by commas. The second is
called the Set-builder Notation (Rule Method), in this method a variable that represent an
element of a set is written, followed by either of the two symbols | or : (such that), and a true
statement about the elements. It is usually on the form

Definition 1.1.2 A Venn – Euler diagram is a pictorial way to illustrate sets and relationship
among sets. Circles, polygons, and closed curves are the usual figures that are used in Venn –
Euler diagram.
Example 1.1.2

4
1.2 Cardinality
Definition 1.2.1 The Cardinality of A, denoted by , is the number of distinct elements
of A.
Examples 1.2.1

Definition 1.2.2 Let A be a set. A is said to be Empty / Null, denoted by if .

Illustration 1.2.2
Based on examples 1.2.1, Since , hence T is an empty set.

Definition 1.2.3 Let A be a set. A is said to be Singleton if .

Illustration 1.2.3
Based on examples 1.2.1, Since , hence Q is a singleton.

Definition 1.2.4 Let A be a set. A is said to be Finite if .

Illustration 1.2.4
Moreover, a set is said to be finite if the elements of a set can be counted. This goes to
show that the examples in 1.1.1 are all finite sets.

Definition 1.2.5 Let A be a set. A is said to be Infinite if it is not finite.

Some examples of infinite sets will be discussed in Chapter 2 (p.12)

Definition 1.2.6 Let A and B be sets. A and B are said to be Equivalent, denoted by , if
.
Illustration 1.2.6
Since , , and , thus,
.

5
Theorem 1.2 If A and B are singleton sets, then A is equivalent to B.
Proof: Let A and B be singleton sets. Show . Since A and B are singleton sets, hence,
and . This goes to show that , hence .

1.3 Subset
Definition 1.3.1 Let A and B be sets. A is said to be a Subset of B, denoted by , if every
element of A is in B. .
Example 1.3.1

Q is a subset of itself and L. Since 7, which is the only element of Q, is also an element of
itself and L. F and G are subsets of O. Since every element of F and G is consonant, thus, every
element is also in O, which is the set of all consonants.
Let and . Since 1,2, and 3 which are elements of Y, are in J, then
. The same with 9 and 10, which are elements of Z, are in L, thus .

Definition 1.3.2 Let A and B be sets. A and B are said to be Equal, denoted by , if every
element of A is in B, and every element of B is in A, , otherwise, A is not
equal to B .
Example 1.3.2
If and , then . Since every element of A is in K,
and every element of K is in A, thus A and K are equal. Even though B and Q are equivalent,
since an element of B is not in Q and an element of Q is not in B, thus B is not equal to Q.

6
Theorem 1.3 If A is a set, then A is equal to A.
Proof: Let A be a set and suppose , thus one can say that if , then . Since set is
a well – defined collection of objects, thus only one of the statement and must be
true. . Since the assumption leads to contradiction, the assumption is false and
the conclusion is true.

Definition 1.3.3 Let A and B be sets. B is said to be a Proper Subset of A, denoted by , if

every element of B is in A, and there is an element of A not in B.

Example 1.3.3

Since every element of {a,e} is in E, and there is an element of E not in {a,e}. Thus, {a,e}
is a proper subset of E. Since every element of G is in O, which is the set of consonants, and
there exists an element of O, i.e. not in G, thus G is a proper subset of O.

Definition 1.3.4 Let A be a set, the Power Set of A, denoted by P(A), is the set of all subsets of A.
Example 1.3.4

Definition 1.3.5 Let A be a set. The cardinality of the power set of A, denoted by
,is two raised to the cardinality of A.

7
Example 1.3.5

The cardinality of the power set of G is 16. If n(G) will be substituted by its value, then it
will be . Since , hence, . This goes to
show that the cardinality of the power set of T is 1. The cardinality of the power set of Q is two
raised to the cardinality of Q . Hence, , and shows that the
cardinality of the power set of Q is 2.

1.4 Operations on Set

Definition 1.4.1 Let A and B be sets. The Intersection of A and B is the set of all elements that is
both in A and in B, denoted by .
Illustration 1.4.1

The intersection of E and J is an empty set, for there is no element of E, at the same time
element of J. Q is the intersection of K and L, since Q is the singleton that contains 7, which is
the only element of K and at the same time element of L.

Theorem 1.4.1 If A and B are sets, then and

Proof: Suppose A and B are sets. Show that and . By
the definition of intersection, . By simplification, . By commutativity,
and by simplification . Hence, and

Definition 1.4.2 Let A and B be sets. The Difference of A and B is the set of all elements of A, but
not in B, denoted by .
Illustration 1.4.2

8
 The difference of Q and T is Q, since subtracting nothing (T) to Q will still be Q. The
difference of K and L is the set of 5 and 6, because {5,6} contains the elements of K, that are not
in L.

Definition 1.4.3 Let A and B be sets. The Union of A and B is the set of all elements of A or all
elements of B, denoted by . If , then z will be written once.
Illustration 1.4.3

The union of R and S is the set of 1, 2, … ,19, for all elements of R and S are in that set.
The union of M and O is defined as , since this set is the set
of vowels (M) or consonants (O).

Theorem 1.4.3 If A and B are sets, then .

Definition 1.4.4 Let A and B be sets. The Symmetric Difference of A and B is the set of all
elements of the union of the difference of A and B, and the difference of B and A, denoted by

The symmetric difference of F and G is the set of b, c, d, f, j and k, since

, Thus . Since
, hence .

Definition 1.4.5 Let C and D be two nonempty sets. C and D are said to be:
i.) Joint if
ii.) Disjoint if

9
Example 1.4.5
Joint Disjoint
K and L M and E M and O R and S
I and O F and G J and K H and I
K and L are Joint, because the cardinality of the intersection of K and L
is 1 i.e. greater than 0. M and O are Disjoint, because the cardinality of the
intersection of M and O ) is 0.

Definition 1.4.6 Let be a subset of , the Complement of A with respect to S, denoted by A’, is
the set of all elements of S that are not elements of A. .

Theorem 1.4.6 If A’ is a complement of A with respect to S, then

i.
ii.
Example 1.4.6
Let , it is obvious that C is
a subset D, thus the complement of C with respect to D,
denoted by C’, is the set of all elements of D that are not
in C i.e. . It is also obvious that E is a
subset of D, thus the complement of E with respect to D,
denoted by E’, is the of all elements of D that are not in E
i.e. .

10
Exercises 1
1. Use the roster method to illustrate the set containing the lowercase letters of the English
alphabet. (name it A)
2. Draw a Venn – Euler diagram of A.
3. Determine the cardinality of A.
4. Is A finite set? Explain.
5. Create a subset of A whose elements are the first 3 letters in English alphabet. (Use the
Roster method and name it X)
For nos. 6 – 10. Let
6.
7. Determine the power set of Y and its cardinality.
8. Write the ff. in roster method:
a. b. c. d. X’
e. f. g. h. Z’
9. Determine if the ff. pair of set is joint or disjoint.
a. X and Z b. X and Y c. Y and Z d. A and Z
10. Explain each of your answer in #9.

11
2 Numbers
2.1 Real Numbers
Definition 2.1.1 A Natural or Counting number is the number 1 or any number obtained by
adding 1 to it one or more times. A set of all natural numbers is denoted by . )
Remarks: The three dots “ ... ” called ellipsis means “and so on” or “up to”.

Definition 2.1.2 The union of and the singleton that contains zero is called the set of Whole
numbers, denoted by . . A number x is said to be whole if .

Definition 2.1.3 An additive inverse is a number that when added to a given number gives zero,
e.g. the additive inverse of 7 is – 7, while the additive inverse of – 4 is 4. The set of Integers,
denoted by is the union of and the set of all additive inverses of natural numbers. A number
x is said to be an integer if . or

Definition 2.1.4 The set of Rational numbers is the set of all numbers that can be expressed as a
quotient of p and q, such that p and q are elements of integers, but q is not 0, denoted by
.A rational number when express in decimal will either be

terminating or repeating, e.g.

Definition 2.1.5 A number is said to be Irrational if it is neither repeating nor terminating

decimal, or a number that cannot be expressed as a quotient of two integers. The set of irrational
numbers is denoted by .
Example 2.1.5
and 0.010010001000010000010000001…

Definition 2.1.6 A number is said to be Real if it is a rational or irrational number. The set of
Real numbers is the union of the set of rational numbers and irrational numbers.

12
2.2 Properties of Real
Numbers
The following are true for all

1. Commutative Property of Addition

2. Commutative Property of Multiplication
3. Associative Property of Addition
4. Associative Property of Multiplication
5. Distributive Property
6. Existence of Additive Identity
7. Existence of Multiplicative Identity
8. Existence of Additive Inverse
9. Existence of Multiplicative Inverse

10. Addition Property of Equality

11. Multiplication Property of Equality
12. Multiplication Property of Zero
13. Division Property of Zero

14. Division by Zero is Undefined

15. Multiplication by
16. Placement of Minus Sign
17. Product of Two Additive Inverses

13
Exercises 2
1. Write Q if the number is rational, and I if the number is irrational. If the number is
rational, write Z if the number is integer.
a. e. i. m.

b. f. j. n.

c. g. k. – o.

d. h. l.

2. True or False
a. b. c. d.

e. f. g. h.
i. j. k.
l. m. n.

o. p. q.
3. Name the property used to justify the statement.
a. b.
c. d.
e. f.

g. h.

i. j.
k. l.
m.
4. Is joint or disjoint? Why?
5. Is joint? If yes, what is ?

14
3 Integer Exponents
Definition 3.1.1 Let . The expression , read as a raised to n, represents the
product of n factors of a i.e. , where a is called the base and n is called the
exponent. From this statement, one can deduce that .
Example 3.1.1.a

Example 3.1.1.b
Simplify the following expression, ):
a. b. c.

d. e. f.

Solution :
a)
Definition 3.1.1
Associative
Definition 3.1.1
b)
Definition 3.1.1
Definition 3.1.1
Associative
Definition 3.1.1
c)
Definition 3.1.1
Definition 3.1.1
Associative
Commutative
Associative
Definition 3.1.1

15
d)

Definition 3.1.1

A number a (i.e. not zero)

when divided to itself is equal to 1.
Definition 3.1.1

e)

Definition 3.1.1

A number a (i.e. not zero)

when divided to itself is equal to 1.
Definition 3.1.1

f)

Definition 3.1.1

Associative

Definition 3.1.1

Theorem 3.1.2 Laws of Exponents: If and , then

1. Product Rule
2. Quotient Rule

3. Power Rule
4. Power of Products
5. Power of Quotient

16
Definition 3.1.3 A Multiplicative Inverse of number , except 0 and denoted by , is a number

when multiplied to n, the product will be 1, e.g. the multiplicative inverse of 3 is , since its

product is 1, or .

Definition 3.1.4 Let a be a nonzero real number and n be a natural number, then .

Definition 3.1.5 If a is a real number and a is not zero, then .

Exercise 3
Simplify the following expression.

a)
b)

c) d)

e)

17
4 Algebraic Expressions
4.1 Variable and Constant
Definition 4.1.1 A Variable is a letter or symbol that represents a set of values. A Constant is a
symbol that does not change its value. An example of a constant is a number.
Example 4.1.1
- Letters of the English alphabet may be a variable.
- A Greek letter may also be a variable
or even a heart, circle, square, or star.

Definition 4.1.2 An Algebraic expression is a result when adding, multiplying or taking roots on
any combination of constants and variables.
Example 4.1.2
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Definition 4.1.3 A Term is a combination of constants and one or more variables raised to
exponent. Two or more terms are said to be Similar if:
1) those terms have the same variable(s); and
2) the exponents of the same variables are equal.
If at least one condition is violated, then the terms are called Dissimilar
The following are examples of similar and dissimilar terms:
Similar terms Dissimilar terms

and are similar terms because those terms have the same variable and the

exponents of the same variables are equal.

18
 and are similar terms because those terms have the same variables

and the exponents of the same variables are equal.

Since the second condition was violated in and , hence the two terms are
dissimilar. and are dissimilar terms because the exponents of x and y in the

first term are not equal to the exponents of x and y in the second term respectively.
Remarks: The constant of a term is called the numerical coefficient of that term.

4.2 Polynomial
Definition 4.2.1 A term of the form is a monomial in x if:
1) 2)
A set of all Monomials in variable x may be defined as .
Example 4.2.1

Definition 4.2.2 A Binomial in x is a sum of two monomials in x with different variables’

exponents. A Trinomial in x is a sum of three monomials in x with different variables’ exponents.
Example 4.2.2
Binomial Trinomial

Definition 4.2.3 Let . A Polynomial in x of degree n is an

expression of the form , where . The number
is called the leading coefficient and the number is called the constant term.
A monomial, binomial, trinomial or an expression with more than three terms of
polynomial are polynomials

19
Definition 4.2.4 The degree of a monomial in x is the exponent of x. In case that a monomial has
more than one variable, then the degree of that monomial is the sum of the exponents of all its
variables. The degree of a polynomial is the degree of its highest-degree monomial.
Illustration 4.2.4
Polynomial Degree
0
2

1
3
7

4.2.5 Evaluating Polynomials

There are no specific or particular procedure to evaluate polynomials, but one may write
first the given and replace the variable of the polynomial by its value, then one may apply one’s
own knowledge on arithmetic to simplify the expression.
Example 4.2.5
1. Find the value of .
Given
Given
Replace x by its value
Definition 3.1.1
Multiplication
Addition
2. Find the value of when
Given
Given
Replace x by its value

20
 Definition 3.1.1
Multiplication
Multiplication
Addition

4.2.6 Operations on Polynomials

There are times that addition and subtraction of polynomial are the same with combining
similar terms. For example, based on Definition 4.1.3, and are similar terms. Hence, the
sum of and is ; and the difference of and is . Since dissimilar terms
cannot be combined, there are times that terms of a polynomial can neither be added nor
subtracted. For example, according to Definition 4.1.3 and are dissimilar terms.
Hence, the sum of and is simply ; and the difference of and is
.
Illustration 4.2.6
The sum of and is . The difference of
and is .
Solution:
Given
Distributive
Commutative
Combine similar terms
Given
Distributive
Commutative
Combine similar terms

Multiplication of real numbers, distribution and application of the laws of exponents are
the usual procedures that are used to multiply polynomials. Consider the monomials and ,
to multiply monomials with same variables; multiply the numerical coefficient of the terms and
apply the product rule in Theorem 3.1.2. Hence, the product of and is .
Consider the polynomials , , and .

21
a) The product of and is .
b) The product of and is .
c) The product of and is .
d) The product of and is .
Solution (a):
Given
Distributive
Multiplication
Theorem 3.1.2
Solution (b):
Given
Distributive
Multiplication
Theorem 3.1.2
Solution (c):
Given
Distributive
Distributive
Multiplication
Theorem 3.1.2
Distributive
Combine similar terms
Solution (d):
Given
Distributive
Distributive
Multiplication
Theorem 3.1.2
Distributive
Combine similar terms

22
 One should remember when dealing with dividing polynomials, the addition of similar

fraction, e.g. and whenever applicable one may use the Quotient Rule in

Theorem 3.1.2.
Consider the polynomial and the monomial . The quotient of

the said polynomial and monomial is .

Solution:
Given

Division

Theorem 3.1.2

When dividing a polynomial by another polynomial one must take note that polynomials
(dividend) can only be divided by a polynomial (divisor) whose degree is less than the degree of
the dividend. Consider the polynomials and .

Solution:

23
Exercises 4
1) Determine each of the following if it is a variable or a constant.
a) b) c) d) e)
f) g) h) i) j)

2) Determine if the given pair of terms similar or dissimilar.

a) b) c) d)

3) State whether the given term a monomial or not.

a) b) c) d) e)

4) Determine the degree of the following polynomials:

a) b) c)

d) e) f)
5) Find when .
6) What is the sum of the polynomials and ?
7) Find the product when is multiplied by .
8) What is the product of the polynomials and ?
9) Find the quotient when is divided to .
10) What is the quotient when is divided by ?

24
5 Special Products
Variables usually represent numbers, but the concept of representation is also applicable
to a term. For example, suppose , thus . In this section, a term of a
polynomial is usually represented by a variable.

Theorem 5.1 If a and b represents terms, then the following statements are true:
1. Square of a Binomial

2. Cube of a Binomial

3. Product of Sum and Difference of Two numbers

4. Square of a Trinomial
Proof (1) Square of a Binomial:
Given
Definition 3.1.1
Distributive Property
Distributive Property
Definition 3.1.1
Associative Property of Addition
Combining similar terms
(2) Cube of a Binomial:
Given
Definition 3.1.1
Theorem 5.1.1
Distributive Property
) Distributive Property
Theorem 3.1.2
Combining similar terms

25
(3) Product of Sum and Difference of Two numbers:
Given
Distributive Property
Distributive Property
Distributive Property
Definition 3.1.1
Combining similar terms
(4) Square of a Trinomial:
Given
Definition 3.1.1
Distributive Property
Distributive Property
Definition 3.1.1
Commutative Property of Addition
Combining similar terms

Examples 5.1
a)
b)
c)
Solution (a):
Given
Definition 3.1.1
Distributive Property
Distributive Property
Multiplication/Definition 3.1.1
Distributive Property
Combining similar terms
Another way to obtain the answer is to use the Theorem 5.1.1.
Theorem 5.1.1
Let a be equal to and b be equal to . Hence,
26
 Substitution
Multiplication/Definition 3.1.1
Solution (b):
Given
Definition 3.1.1
Theorem 5.1.1
Distributive Property
Distributive Property
Multiplication/Theorem 3.1.2
Combining similar terms
Another way of solving is to use the Theorem 5.1.2.
Theorem 5.1.2
Let a be equal to x and b be equal to . Hence,
Substitution
Multiplication/Definition 3.1.1
Solution (c):
Given
Distributive Property
Distributive Property
Multiplication/Definition 3.1.1
Distributive Property
Combining similar terms
Another way to obtain the product is to us the Theorem 5.1.3.
Theorem 5.1.3
Let a be equal to and b be equal to . Hence,
Substitution
Multiplication/Definition 3.1.1

27
6 Binomial Expansion
6.1 Binomial Theorem
There are two ways to expand a binomial that is raised to a whole number exponent. The
first one is through the binomial theorem.
Theorem 6.1.1 Binomial Theorem

Illustration 6.1.1 The symbol,

where read as “n factorial”.

This implies that

Illustration 6.1.2 The symbol (Greek letter “sigma”) represents the sum of the
polynomials , from up to n.
Example 6.1.2 Suppose, , the sigma notation
.
Example 6.1.3 Suppose, , the sigma notation

28
Illustration 6.1.3 The expanded form of the binomial , when it is raised to , is .
Binomial Theorem

Substitution

Simplifying Sigma notation

Illustration 6.1.1/Definition 3.1.5

Multiplication
The expanded form of the binomial , when it is raised to , is .
Binomial Theorem

Substitution

Simplifying Sigma notation

Illustration 6.1.1/Definition 3.1.5

Multiplication
The expanded form of the binomial , when it is raised to is .

29
The expanded form of the binomial , when it is raised to , is

The expanded form of the binomial , when it is raised to , is

30
6.2 Pascal’s Triangle
Another way to expand a binomial is through the Pascal’s Triangle. The uppermost
portion of this triangle is a triangulation of 1.

The side of this triangle is always and the number in between is the sum of the two numbers
above it.

This shows the coefficient of the binomial when raised to a whole number exponent. The
uppermost number is the result when a binomial is raised to . The next row represents
the numerical coefficients of the binomial when raised to . The third row shows the
numerical coefficients of the binomial when raised to , and so on.
After knowing the coefficients of the expanded form, the literal coefficient of the first
term i.e. the term with 1 as numerical coefficient, will be the first term of the binomial raised to
. The literal coefficient of the second term will be the first term of the binomial raised to

31
multiply to the second term of the binomial raised to 1. The literal coefficient of the third term
will be the first term of the binomial raised to multiply to the second term of the binomial
raised to 2. The literal coefficient of the fourth term will be the first term of the binomial raised
to multiply to the second term of the binomial raised to 3; or in other words, in each term,
as the exponent of the first term decreases, the exponent of the second term increases.

32
Exercises 5
1. Find the product of the following:

2. Evaluate the following combinations:

3. Evaluate the following sigma notations:

33
7 Factoring
In multiplication of polynomials, the given are the factors and the result will be the
product, while in factoring, the product is given and one must find its factors.
Definition 7.1.1 According to Baccay, Canlas, Dioquino, Salvacion and Diaz (2003),”Factors
are two or more numbers whose product is a given number”.

34
Bibliography
Alferez, M. S., Duro, M. C., & Tupaz, K. K. (2008). MSA ADVANCED ALGEBRA. Quezon City,
Philippines: MSA Publishing House.
Alfrez, M. S., & Duro, M. C. (2006). MSA STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY. Cainta,
Philippines: MSA Publishing House.
Baccay, E. S., Canlas, M. F., Dioquino, A. D., Salvacion, M. M., & Diaz, R. V. (2003).
COLLEGE ALGEBRA: Learning Mathematics the Easy Way. Manila: PNU Printing
Press.
Fraleigh, J. B. (1999). A First Course in ABSTRACT ALGEBRA (6th ed.). Boston: Addison-
Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.
Leithold, L. (1989). COLLEGE ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY. Boston: Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, Inc.
Rosen, K. H. (2012). Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications (7th ed.). New York City:
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Stewart, J., Redlin, L., & Watson, S. (2007). Algebra and Trigonometry (2nd ed.). Singapore:
Brooks/Cole.

35