NPTEL - Mechanical Engineering - Forming

Introduction and classification of forging processes

R. Chandramouli

Associate Dean-Research

SASTRA University, Thanjavur-613 401

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Table of Contents
1. Introduction and classification of forging processes ................................................................................ 3
1.1 Introduction: ....................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Forging: ............................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Types of forging: ................................................................................................................................. 4
1.4 Open die forging: ................................................................................................................................ 5
1.5 Closed die forging: .............................................................................................................................. 5
1.5.1 Forging load for impression die forging: ...................................................................................... 7
1.6 Precision die forging: .......................................................................................................................... 8
1.7 Flashless forging .................................................................................................................................. 8
1.8 Roll forging: ......................................................................................................................................... 9
1.9 Rotary forging: .................................................................................................................................... 9

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1. Introduction and classification of forging processes

1.1 Introduction:
Bulk deformation processes involve shaping of materials to finished products which have small
surface area to thickness or surface area to volume ratio. Sheet metal forming produces parts
having large surface area to thickness ratio. In sheet metal forming thickness variations are not
desirable. Examples for sheet metal forming are: beverage cans, automobile body etc.

Bulk forming processes may be primary processes such as rolling of ingot to blooms or billets, in
which the cast metal is formed into semi-finished raw material. In secondary forming, the raw
materials, such as blooms, billets are converted into finished parts such as gears, wheels,
spanners etc.

Rolling, forging, extrusion and drawing are bulk forming processes. The present module
describes the salient aspects of forging process.

1.2 Forging:
In ancient times, people employed forging for making coins, jewelry, weapons,

Forging is a deformation processing of materials through compressive stress. It is carried out

either hot or cold. Hot forging is done at temperatures above recrystallization temperatures,
typically 0.6 Tm, or above, where Tm is melting temperature. Warm forging is done in the
temperature range: 0.3 Tm to 0.5 Tm. Cold forging has advantages such as good surface finish,
high strength and greater accuracy. Hot forging requires lower loads, because flow stress gets
reduced at higher temperatures. Strain rates in hot working may be high – 0.5 to 500 s-1. Strains
in hot forging are also high – true strains of 2 to 4. Are common.

Typical applications of forging include bolts, disks, gears, turbine disk, crank shaft, connecting
rod, valve bodies, small components for hydraulic circuits etc.

Forging has several advantages. Closer dimensional accuracies achieved require very little
machining after forging. Material saving is the result. Higher strength, greater productivity,
favorable grain orientation, high degree of surface finish are other merits. However, complex
die making is costly.

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1.3 Types of forging:

In forging the material is deformed applying either impact load or gradual load. Based on the
type of loading, forging is classified as hammer forging or press forging. Hammer forging
involves impact load, while press forging involves gradual loads.

Based on the nature of material flow and constraint on flow by the die/punch, forging is
classified as open die forging, impression die forging and flashless forging.

Open die forging: In this, the work piece is compressed between two platens. There is no
constraint to material flow in lateral direction. Upsetting is an open die forging in which the
billet is subjected to lateral flow by the flat die and punch. Due to friction the material flow
across the thickness is non uniform. Material adjacent to the die gets restrained from flowing,
whereas, the material at center flows freely. This causes a phenomenon called barreling in
upset forging.
Upper die

Lower die

Fig. 1.3.1: Axisymmetric Upset Forging Fig. 1.3.2: Plane strain forging

Fig. 1.3.3: A forged rectangular billet exhibiting bulging

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Impression die forging both die and punch have impressions, shapes which are imparted onto
the work piece. There is more constrained flow in this process. Moreover, the excess metal
flows out of the cavity, forming flash.

Flashless forging – in this the work piece is totally constrained to move within die cavity. No
excess material and hence no flash forms. Flashless forging involves high level of accuracy.
Design of shape of die cavity, finished product volume are important.

1.4 Open die forging:

In open die forging a cylindrical billet is subjected to upsetting between a pair of flat dies or
platens. Under frictionless homogeneous deformation, the height of the cylinder is reduced and
its diameter is increased. Forging of shafts, disks, rings etc are performed using open die forging
technique. Square cast ingots are converted into round shape by this process.

Open die forging is classified into three main types, namely, cogging, fullering and edging.

Fullering and Edging operations are done to reduce the cross section using convex shaped or
concave shaped dies. Material gets distributed and hence gets elongated and reduction in
thickness happens. Cogging operation involves sequence of compressions on cast ingots to
reduce thickness and lengthen them into blooms or billets. Flat or contoured dies are used.

Swaging is carried out using a pair of concave dies to obtain bars of smaller diameter.

1.5 Closed die forging:

It is also known as impression die forging. Impressions are made in a pair of dies. These
impressions are transferred to the work piece during deformation. A small gap between the
dies called flash gutter is provided so that the excess metal can flow into the gutter and form a
flash. Flash has got a very important role during deformation of the work piece inside the die
cavity. Due to high length to thickness ratio of the flash gutter, friction in the gap is very high.
Due to this the material in the flash gap is subjected to high pressure. There is high resistance
to flow. This in turn promotes effective filling of the die cavity. In hot forging, the flash cools
faster as a result of it being smaller in size. This enhances the resistance of the flash material to
deformation resistance. As a result of this, the bulk of work piece is forced to deform and fill
the die cavity more effectively – even intricate parts of the die cavity is filled.

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Flash is subsequently trimmed off in order to obtain the required dimensions on the forged
part. Often multiple steps are required in closed die forging.Flash is to be properly designed so
that the metal could flow and fill the intricate parts of the die cavity. A thin flash with larger
width requires higher forging loads. Before getting forged to intermediate shape inside the
primary die set called blocking die, the billet is fullered and edged. This is called preforming.
Subsequently, it is forged to final shape and dimensions in the finishing die. Closer dimensional
accuracy is possible in closed die forging. However, higher forging loads are required. Parts with
wider and thinner ribs, or webs are difficult to forge as they require higher forming loads.
Impression dies are usually provided with taper called draft of 5o in order to facilitate easy
removal of the finished part. Die preheating may be required to prevent the die chilling effect
which may increase the flow stress on the periphery of the billet. As a result, incomplete filling
or cracking of the preform may occur.

Dies Closed
For Complete die filling
gin
g
loa Forging energy
d

Flash begins

Contact between die and work piece

Stroke

Fig. 1.5.1: Load-stroke diagram for closed die forging

Dimensional tolerances in impression die forging may be as close as ±0.5% of the dimensions of
the forged part. In case of hot forging, dimensional accuracy is less.

Some of the factors such as die surface finish, draft allowance, accuracy of die impression
dimensions, die wear, lubrication etc control the quality of finished product.

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Fig.1.5.2: Parameters of impression die forging

Fig.1.5.3: Stages of closed die forging process

1.5.1 Forging load for impression die forging:

Predicting the forging load for impression die forging is rather empirical due to the complexities
of material flow involved.

One empirical relation for forging load, given by Schey is as followed:

F = C1YfAf, where C1is a shape factor or constraint factor which depends on the complexity of
the forging process. Yfis the flow stress of material at the given strain,Af is the projected area of
the forging.

Typical values of C1:

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Simple upsetting 1.25 to 2.5

Flashless forging (Coining) 5 to 8

Complex forging with flash 8 to 12

From the above equation, one can determine the capacity of forging press, as the force
predicted by the empirical equation is the highest.

1.6 Precision die forging:

Near-net-shape forming is possible through precision die forging, in which high dimensional
accuracy, elimination of after-machining and complex shapes of parts are achieved through
precision dies and higher forging loads are achieved.

Alloys of aluminium, titanium, magnesium are commonly precision forged. Ferrous materials
are difficult to precision-forge because of die wear, higher temperatures of forging, excessive
forging loads requirement.

1.7 Flashless forging

It is a closed die forging process in which the work volume is equal to die cavity volume, with no
allowance for flash. Excess material or inadequate material will lead to defective part. If billet
size is less then underfilling takes place. Over sized billet leads to die damage or damage to the
press.

A variant of closed die forging is isothermal forging. In this process, the die is heated up to the
same temperature of the billet. This helps in avoiding die chilling effect on work piece and
lowering of flow stress. This process is suitable for complex parts to be mass-produced.

Coiningis a special type of closed die forging. Complex impressions are imparted to both
surfaces of the blank from the die. Forging loads involved are very high – as high as 6 times the
normal loads. Minting of coins is an example of this process.

Coining, when used for improving surface finish of products is called sizing.

Piercing: It is a process in which a punch makes deep indentations to produce cavity on

workpiece. Work piece may be kept inside a die or may be free. Higher forming loads are
required.

Heading: Heads of bolts, nails are made by heading, which is an upsetting process. Special types
of machines are used for heading.

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1.8 Roll forging:

In this process, the bar stock is reduced in cross-section or undergoes change in cross-section
when it is passed through a pair of grooved rolls made of die steel. This process serves as the
initial processing step for forging of parts such as connecting rod, crank shaft etc. Finished
products like tapered shafts, leaf springs can also be made.

Fig.1.8.1: Roll forging

A particular type of roll forging called skew rolling is used for making spherical balls for ball
bearings. In this process, the cylindrical bar stock is fed through the gap between a pair of
grooved rollers which are rotating. Continuous rotation of the rolls and the stock gives raise to
formation of a spherical shaped blank, which is subsequently finished to required dimensions.

Fig. 1.8.2: Skew rolling process

1.9 Rotary forging:

In this process the punch is given orbital rocking motion while pressing the workpiece. As a
result of this the area of contact between work and punch is reduced. Therefore lower forging
loads are sufficient. The final part is formed in several smaller steps. Example of parts produced
by this process include bevel gears, wheels, bearing rings.

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Fig. 1.9: Swaging

Hubbing: It is a pressing operation in which a hardened steel block, with one end machined to
the form, is pressed against a soft metal. This process is used for making mold cavities.
Hardened steel form is called hub. Hubbing is advantageous because it is easy for machining the
positive form than machining the negative cavity.

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