Volume-9 | Issue-1 | January-2019 | ISSN - 2249-555X | IF : 5.397 | IC Value : 86.

18
Original Research Paper
Psychology

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN PSYCHOLOGY – AN INDIAN

PERSPECTIVE

Pragya Lodha Research Assistant, Desousa Foundation, Mumbai.

Consultant Psychiatrist and Founder Trustee, Desousa Foundation,
Avinash De Sousa* Mumbai.*Corresponding Author
KEYWORDS :
INTRODUCTION OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
Research is central to the various activities that one engages in, as a Before conducting a psychology experiment or study, it is essential to
scientist or as psychologists, with increased relevance in modern life, create firm operational definitions for both the independent variable
in general. Research is a careful and detailed study into a specific and dependent variable. Operational variables (or operational
problem, concern, or issue using a scientific method of investigation. It definitions) refer to how the researcher will define and measure a
is constant and competitive; it begins with an issue that comes from specific variable as it is used in the study. An operational definition
observation. The strict definition of scientific research is performing a describes how the variables are measured and defined within the study
methodical study in order to prove a hypothesis or answer a specific that has made it absolutely clear what the researcher means by the
question. Research must be systematic and follow a series of steps and terms as they were studied and measured in the experiment.
standard guidelines. Operationally defining the variables in a study or experiment is
important because variables are subject to holding multiple meanings
Psychological researchers want to learn and understand human depending upon the context in which they are being used. For example-
behavior. It can be about how people think, how they feel, how they studying health in children in different from studying health in adults.
behave, or some combination of these issues. More specifically, An advantage of operational definitions is that provides a clear,
psychological research is used to measure, describe, and categorize relevant and objective definition of complex variables. It also makes it
human behavior. This results in the understanding of behaviors of the easier for other researchers to replicate a study and check for reliability
clinical and non-clinical populations. Keeping in the mind the [5-6].
diversity of topics that are investigated and studied under the
framework of research, there are diverse sets of research methodology
that are applicable to study an area of interest depending upon the topic
RESEARCH METHODS
under study and the context in which it is placed.
The process used to collect information and data for the purpose of a
research study is referred to as a research method. A wide range of
PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH
research methods are used in psychology. These methods vary by the
Some of the preliminary concepts in research are –
sources of information that are drawn on, how that information is
1. Hypothesis
sampled, and the types of instruments that are used in data collection.
2. Variables
Methods also vary by the nature of data that is collected for the purpose
3. Operational Definition
of study and thus may be studying qualitative data, quantitative data or
4. Research Methods
both [7].
HYPOTHESIS
Research methods may be of various types as listed below –
Hypotheses are statements, framed formally in a clear and precise
form. They serve as the purpose of research on the basis of which the
entire research study is designed. Hypotheses are the basic building Ÿ Qualitative Research Methods – Qualitative psychological
blocks of much of psychology. Some research attempts to test research is where the research findings are not arrived at by
hypotheses, other research attempts to explore hypotheses, and yet statistical or other quantitative procedures. Qualitative research is
other research seeks to generate hypotheses. In their simplest form, said to be naturalistic. Qualitative research is the examination,
hypotheses propose that a relationship exists between a minimum of analysis and interpretation of observations for the purpose of
two variables [1-2]. discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationships,
including classifications of types of phenomena and entities, in a
VARIABLES manner that does not involve mathematical models. That is, its
A variable is anything that can vary, i.e. changed or be changed. goal is to understand behavior in a natural setting. Two other goals
Variables are generally used in psychology experiments to determine if attributed to qualitative research are the understanding of a
changes to one variable results in change in another. One is called the phenomenon from the perspective of the research participant and
independent variable (IV) and the other the dependent variable (DV). understanding the meanings people give to their experience.
Qualitative researchers believe in studying phenomena in its
Independent variable (IV) is the variable that the experimenter context rather than concentrating on narrow aspects of the
manipulates (i.e. changes) – it is assumed to have a direct effect on the phenomena. Qualitative psychological research has crystallized as
dependent variable. Dependent variable (DV) is the variable that the one of the most effective ways of gathering insight into the
experimenter measures, after making changes (manipulating) to the IV behaviors, attitudes and decision-making processes of marketing
that are assumed to affect the DV. research, educational psychology and several other settings [8-9].

Apart from the IV and DV, controls are important variables that kept as Ÿ Quantitative Research Methods – Quantitative psychological
constant or kept same throughout the experiment, and it is not of research is where the research findings result from mathematical
primary concern in the experimental outcome. Any change in a control modeling and statistical estimation or statistical inference.
variable invalidates the correlation of dependent variables (DV) to the Quantitative research is the systematic empirical investigation of
independent variable (IV), thus creating invalid and unreliable results. observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical or
computational techniques. The objective of quantitative research
Variables that are present in the environment and that cannot be is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or
controlled by the experimenter are called as extraneous variables. hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement
They affect the relationship between the IV and the DV. For example- is central to quantitative research because it provides the
noise, mental or physical state of the participant, etc [3-4]. fundamental connection between empirical observation and
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mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. methodology do not undermine the validity of the data, as long as
Quantitative data is any data that is in numerical form such as they are recognized and allowed for during the whole
statistics, percentages, etc. Statistics is widely used in quantitative experimental process [19-20].
psychological research. Typically a project begins with the
collection of data based on a theory or hypothesis, followed by the Example – if we study the effect of maternal alcohol use when the
application of descriptive or inferential statistical methods [10- mother is pregnant, we know that alcohol does harm embryos. A strict
11]. experimental design would include that mothers were randomly
assigned to drink alcohol. This would be highly illegal because of the
Ÿ Experimental Research Methods – An experiment is an possible harm the study might do to the embryos
investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested. In an
experiment, an independent variable (the cause) is manipulated Ÿ Opinion Based Research Methods – Opinion based researcher
and the dependent variable (the effect) is measured; any includes mainly questionnaires, interviews and polls. A
extraneous variables (all variables, which are not the independent questionnaire is a set of questions that can either have open ended
variable, but could affect the results (DV) of the experiment. answers or closed ended questions. Some questionnaires ask
Experiments should be controlled where possible) are controlled. participants to rate statements such as in a personality
The key features of experimental research method are control over questionnaire these are called linker type questions.
variables, careful measurement, and establishing cause and effect Questionnaires are cheap and relatively easy to produce. The
relationships. An advantage of experiments is that the study is downside of questionnaires is that if they are printed they are not
objective in nature [12]. The views and opinions of the researcher eco-friendly. Another disadvantage is that they can produce a lot of
are less likely to affect the results of the study, making it more qualitative data that can be hard to wholly collect and interpret. In a
reliable and valid. way the fact it can produce qualitative data can be an advantage to
There are three types of experiments in psychological research viz. the researcher if this provides them with the data needed to
complete the study. An example of a questionnaire is the
1. Laboratory / Controlled Experiments – This type of experiment Attribution Style Questionnaire, this is can be used to predict and
is conducted in a well-controlled environment – not necessarily a diagnose depression [21-22]. Interviews are another tool that
laboratory – and therefore accurate measurements are possible. involve either a face to face or over telephones or emails a
The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at reciprocal exchange, between the interviewer and interviewee, of
what time, with which participants, in what circumstances; using a thoughts, beliefs and opinions on a construct being measured in a
standardized procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to study. Polls are a simple, yet another tool to record the opinion of
each independent variable group. A strength of this method is that people on a construct, theme or issue.
it is easier to replicate (i.e. copy) a laboratory experiment. This is
because a standardized procedure is used. They allow for precise Ÿ Observational Research Methods – An observational research
control of extraneous and independent variables. This allows a method is where an experimenter researches participants by
cause and effect relationship to be established. A limitation of this watching their behavior in their natural setting. Participant
method is that the artificiality of the setting may produce unnatural observations involve an experimenter partaking in the observed
behavior that does not reflect real life, i.e. low ecological validity. behavior from within the culture. For this to work effectively the
This means it would not be possible to generalize the findings to a researcher must be accepted into the participant's culture or group.
real life setting. Demand characteristics or experimenter effects If they are not accepted they will not observe the true natural
may bias the results and become confounding variables [13-14]. behavior of others. The data that is collected from participant
2. Field Experiments – Field experiments are done in the everyday observations is mainly qualitative. Participant observations are
(i.e. real life) environment of the participants. The experimenter extremely demanding and intensive. This is because they are very
still manipulates the independent variable, but in a real-life setting time consuming taking months or even years to complete. Direct
(so cannot really control extraneous variables). The behavior in a observations are when an experimenter watches a culture or group
field experiment is more likely to reflect real life because of its behavior without intruding; to watch without intervening. Direct
natural setting, i.e. higher ecological validity than a lab observations are more focused onto a smaller group and are
experiment. There is less likelihood of demand characteristics intensively investigated. Direct observation is advantageous as it
affecting the results, as participants may not know they are being allows the experimenter to gather the actual behavior however the
studied. This occurs when the study is covert. The limitation is that bias or faking of behavior may also take place. If the participant is
there is less control over extraneous variables that might bias the aware of the experimenter's presence, they may not behave
results. This makes it difficult for another researcher to replicate naturally. Also, observations may be time consuming and the
the study in exactly the same way [15-16]. experimenter may have to wait till the desired behavior occurs [22-
3. Natural Experiments – Natural experiments are conducted in the 23].
everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the participants, but here
the experimenter has no control over the IV as it occurs naturally RESEARCH DESIGN
in real life. Behavior in a natural experiment is more likely to A research design is a systematic plan and structure to study a scientific
reflect real life because of its natural setting, i.e. very high problem. The design of a study defines the study type (whether it will
ecological validity. There is less likelihood of demand be descriptive, correlational, semi-experimental, experimental,
characteristics affecting the results, as participants may not know review, meta-analytic) and sub-type (e.g., descriptive-longitudinal
they are being studied. Can be used in situations in which it would case study), research question, hypotheses, independent and
be ethically unacceptable to manipulate the independent variable. dependent variables, experimental design, and, if applicable, data
They may be more expensive and time consuming than lab collection methods and a statistical analysis plan. Research design is
experiments. There is no control over extraneous variables that the framework that has been created to find answers to research
might bias the results. This makes it difficult for another questions. It gives direction to research and ensures it is systematic in
researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same way [17-18]. nature. The choice of a research design helps the researcher determine
v Quasi-Experimental Research Methods – The prefix quasi if the study will generate reliable results [23].
means “resembling.” Thus quasi-experimental research is There are different types of research designs that are used with specific
research that resembles experimental research but is not true advantages and disadvantages kept in mind. The choice of a particular
experimental research. Although the independent variable is research design depends on the aims of the study and the nature of the
manipulated and quasi experiments resemble quantitative and phenomenon. They can be discussed as below –
qualitative experiments, participants are not randomly assigned to
conditions or orders of conditions. Quasi-experiments are most DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
likely to be conducted in field settings in which random Descriptive research design is a scientific method which involves
assignment is difficult or impossible. They are often conducted to observing and describing the behavior of a subject without influencing
evaluate the effectiveness of a treatment. It eliminates the it in any way. This method is used to obtain a general overview of the
directionality problem because it involves the manipulation of the subject. The results from a descriptive research cannot be used as a
independent variable. It does not eliminate the problem of definitive answer or to disprove a hypothesis but, if the limitations are
confounding variables, however, because it does not involve understood, they can still be a useful tool in many areas of scientific
random assignment to conditions. The inherent weaknesses in the research. Advantage of the descriptive design is that the subject is

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being observed in a completely natural and unchanged natural and can be an extremely powerful research tool. As long as surveys are
environment, giving a chance to observe and study the authentic designed well and are prepared to be self-critical, one can still obtain an
behaviors. True experiments, whilst giving analyzable data, often accurate representation of opinion [32].
adversely influence the normal behavior of the subject [24].
Surveys can be conducted through various means- face to face, via
Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to quantitative emails or even on telephones (if the surveys are shorter). Face to face is
research designs, the general overview giving some valuable pointers the most traditional method of the survey research design. It can be
as to what variables are worth testing quantitatively. This research very accurate as it allows the researcher to be selective about to whom
design is used to describe characteristics of a population or they want to ask questions to and they can explain anything that is not
phenomenon being studied. It does not answer questions about understandable. In addition, a judgment about utilizing time in the best
how/when/why the characteristics occurred. Rather it addresses the way to get the accurate responses can be managed. There are a few
'what' question. The characteristics used to describe the situation or things to be careful of with this approach; firstly, people can be
population is usually some kind of categorical scheme also known as reluctant to give up their time without some form of incentive. Another
descriptive categories [25]. factor to bear in mind is that is difficult to ask personal questions face to
face without embarrassing people. It is also very time consuming and
Qualitative research often has the aim of description and researchers difficult to obtain a representative sample [33].
may follow-up with examinations of why the observations exist and
what the implications of the findings are. Hence, descriptive research Surveys through mails and post is a good way of targeting a certain
cannot describe what caused a situation. Thus, descriptive research section of people and is excellent if the researcher needs to ask
cannot be used to as the basis of a causal relationship, where one personal questions. The problems with this method are that one cannot
variable affects another. Because there are no variables manipulated, be sure of how many responses they will receive until a long time
there is no way to statistically analyze the results. Many scientists period has passed. One must also be wary of collecting personal data;
regard this type of study as unreliable and 'unscientific'. In addition, the most countries have laws about how much information you can keep
results of observational studies cannot be replicated [26]. about people so it is always wise to check with somebody more
knowledgeable [34].
CASE STUDY RESEARCH DESIGN
The case study research design has evolved over the past few years as a SEMI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
useful tool for investigating trends and specific situations in many Ÿ Field Experiments – A field study is an experiment performed
scientific disciplines. This method of study is especially useful for outside the laboratory, in the 'real' world. Unlike case studies and
trying to test theoretical models by using them in real world situations. observational studies, a field experiment still follows all of the
A case study is an in depth study of a particular situation rather than a steps of the scientific process, addressing research problems and
statistical survey. It is a method used to narrow down a very broad field generating hypotheses. The obvious advantage of a field study is
of research into one easily researchable topic. The case study research that it is practical and also allows experimentation, without
design is useful for testing whether scientific theories and models artificially introducing confounding variables. Field experiments
actually work in the real world. It is important to understand specific can suffer from a lack of a discrete control group and often have
cases and ensure a more holistic approach to research in those cases many variables to try to eliminate. A major concern shared by all
where a comprehensive and deeper understanding of the subject is disciplines is the cost of field studies, as they tend to be very
required. It is flexible in nature in the sense that a case study might expensive. The changeable nature of the external environment and
introduce new and unexpected results during the course of a research, the often-prohibitive investment of time and money mean that
and lead to research taking new directions [27]. Some argue that field experiments are rarely replicable, so any generalization is
because a case study is such a narrow field that its results cannot be always tenuous [15].
extrapolated to fit an entire question and that they show only one
narrow example. On the other hand, it is argued that a case study Ÿ Quasi-Experimental Design - Quasi-experimental design is
provides more realistic responses than a purely statistical survey [28]. regarded as unscientific and unreliable, by physical and biological
The truth probably lies between the two and it is probably best to try scientists, the method is, nevertheless, a very useful method for
and synergize the two approaches. It is valid to conduct case studies but measuring social variables. The inherent weaknesses in the
they should be tied in with more general statistical processes. The methodology do not undermine the validity of the data, as long as
advantage of the case study research design is that you can focus on they are recognized and allowed for during the whole
specific and interesting cases. This may be an attempt to test a theory experimental process. Quasi experiments resemble quantitative
with a typical case or it can be a specific topic that is of interest. and qualitative experiments but lack random assignment of groups
Research should be thorough and note taking should be meticulous and or proper controls, so firm statistical analysis can be very difficult
systematic [29]. [20].

NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS Quasi-experimental design involves selecting groups, upon which a

In many scientific disciplines, naturalistic observation is a useful tool variable is tested without any random pre-selection processes. After
for expanding knowledge about a specific phenomenon or species, this selection, the experiment proceeds in a very similar way to any
where the subject of interest of study is studied in their natural other experiment, with a variable being compared between different
setting/environment. Most naturalistic observation is unobtrusive. groups, or over a period of time. Advantages of quasi experimental
There is often little attempt at analysis, quantitative or qualitative, but design are great. Especially in social sciences, where pre-selection and
the observational study does uncover unknown phenomena and randomization of groups is often difficult, they can be very useful in
behaviors [30]. Naturalistic observation has its own advantages and generating results for general trends. Quasi-experimental design is
disadvantages. Where on one hand, it allows the experiment to record often integrated with individual case studies; the figures and results
and study the authentic and natural behavior of the subject of interest to generated often reinforce the findings in a case study, and allow some
the study, on the same hand, bias or error may also occur. There are two sort of statistical analysis to take place. In addition, without extensive
errors that naturalistic observation is prone to- participant bias pre-screening and randomization needing to be undertaken, they do
(participants, if aware of being observed may not behave in the nature reduce the time and resources needed for experimentation.
way and may fake behavior to appear socially desirable or to hide Disadvantages aside, as long as the shortcomings of the quasi-
natural behavior) and experimenter bias (experimenter sees and experimental design are recognized, these studies can be a very
records only those behaviors that are of his or her interest) [31]. powerful tool, especially in situations where ''true experiments are not
possible. They are very good way to obtain a general overview and
SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN then follow up with a case study or quantitative experiment, to focus on
The survey research design is often used because of the low cost and the underlying reasons for the results generated [21].
easy accessible information. It is a very valuable tool for assessing
opinions and trends. Even on a small scale, such as local government or TWIN STUDIES
small businesses, judging opinion with carefully designed surveys can Twin studies reveal the importance of environmental and
dramatically change strategies, proving in the benefit of the researcher. geneticinfluences for traits, phenotypes, and disorders. These studies
Despite the drawbacks of some of them being too long or people faking have been used to track traits ranging from personal behavior to the
answers to appear socially desirable, surveys are still a powerful tool presentation of severe mental illnesses such as schizophrenia. Twins

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are a valuable source for observation because they allow the study of tested while observers watch and take notes. Several other test
environmental influence and varying genetic makeup viz. 'identical' or instruments such as scripted instructions, paper prototypes, and
monozygotic (MZ) twins share nearly 100% of their genes, which pre and post-test questionnaires are also used to gather feedback
means that most differences between the twins (such as height, on the product being tested. The aim is to observe how people
susceptibility to boredom, intelligence, depression, etc.) are due to function in a realistic manner, so that developers can see problem
experiences that one twin has but not the other twin. Fraternal or areas, and what people like. Techniques popularly used to gather
dizygotic (DZ) twins share only about 50% of their genes, the same as data during a usability test include think aloud protocol, co-
any other sibling [35]. discovery learning and eye tracking [42].

Twins also share many aspects of their environment (e.g., uterine 1. Proof of Concept Study - Proof of concept (POC) is a realization
environment, parenting style, education, wealth, culture, community) of a certain method or idea in order to demonstrate its feasibility or
because they are born into the same family. The presence of a given a demonstration in principle with the aim of verifying that some
genetic trait in only one member of a pair of identical twins (called concept or theory has practical potential and use. A proof of
discordance) provides a powerful window into environmental effects. concept is usually small and may or may not be complete. Concept
Twins are also useful in showing the importance of the unique Testing is how people, without prompting, interpret a sketchy idea
environment (specific to one twin or the other) when studying trait for a new product or service. Concept testing is most often used in
presentation. Changes in the unique environment can stem from an concept development to test the success of a new product idea
event or occurrence that has only affected one twin. This could range before it is marketed. Potential consumers are involved to provide
from head injury or a birth defect that one twin has sustained while the their reactions to written statements, images or graphics, or actual
other remains healthy [36-37]. implementations of the basic idea for the product. Concept testing
is most often a Go/No Go screening that serves to eliminate those
The classical twin design compares the similarity of monozygotic concepts that have very little potential [43-44].
(identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins. If identical twins are
considerably more similar than fraternal twins (which is found for REVIEWING EXISTING RESEARCH
most traits), this implicates that genes play an important role in these Ÿ Literature Review – A literature review is a critical and in depth
traits. By comparing many hundreds of families with twins, evaluation of previous research. It is a summary and synopsis of a
researchers can then understand more about the roles of genetic effects, particular area of research, allowing anybody reading the paper to
shared environment, and unique environment in shaping behavior establish why you are pursuing this particular research program. A
[38]. good literature review expands upon the reasons behind selecting a
particular research question. A literature review can be a precursor
STUDIES CONDUCTED PRIOR TO DOING LARGE SCALE in the introduction of a research paper, or it can be an entire paper
STUDIES in itself, often the first stage of large research projects. A literature
Ÿ Pilot Study - A pilot study is a standard scientific tool for 'soft' review should not be mistakenly understood as a chronological
research, allowing scientists to conduct a preliminary analysis catalog of all of the sources, but it is an evaluation, integrating the
before committing to a full-blown study or experiment. To test the previous research together, and also explaining how it integrates
feasibility, equipment and methods, researchers will often use a into the proposed research program. All sides of an argument must
pilot study, a small-scale rehearsal of the larger research design. be clearly explained, to avoid bias, and areas of agreement and
Generally, the pilot study technique specifically refers to a smaller disagreement should be highlighted. A good literature review
scale version of the experiment, although equipment tests are an should also have some evaluation of the quality and findings of the
increasingly important part of this sub-group of experiments. Pilot research. A good literature review should avoid the temptation of
studies are also excellent for training inexperienced researchers, impressing the importance of a particular research program.
allowing them to make mistakes without fear of losing their job or Whilst some literature reviews can be presented in a chronological
failing the assignment. Logistical and financial estimates can be order, it is best avoided [45-46].
extrapolated from the pilot study, and the research question, and
the project can be streamlined to reduce wastage of resources and Ÿ Systematic Reviews - Systematic reviews are a powerful way of
time [39]. Unfortunately, there are seldom paper reporting the isolating and critically evaluating previous research. The principle
preliminary pilot study, especially if problems were reported, is behind the systematic reviews process is that the researcher
often stigmatized and sidelined. This is unfair, and punishes critically evaluates previous studies, in a much more
researchers for being methodical, so these attitudes are under a comprehensive and systematic way than a standard literature
period of re-evaluation. Discouraging researchers from reporting review. In many cases, statistical meta-analysis tools are used to
methodological errors, as found in pilot studies, means that later give the review a quantitative foundation, allowing correlations to
researchers may make the same mistakes. The other major be documented and conclusions to be drawn. After a critical
problem is deciding whether the results from the pilot study can be analysis, there is a process of combining all of the findings in a
included in the final results and analysis, a procedure that varies systematic review, sometimes qualitatively, but usually
wildly between disciplines. Pilots are rapidly becoming an quantitatively, using meta-analysis and is usually a combination of
essential pre-cursor to many research projects. Whilst there are both. Whilst the techniques are mainly used by medicine and
weaknesses, they are extremely useful for driving procedures in an psychology, there is a growing trend towards using system reviews
age increasingly dominated by technology, much of it untested in other branches [47]. As with most systems, despite the
under field conditions [40]. protocols, systematic reviews do have some inherent weaknesses.
The main problem is the rapid advancement of research and
Ÿ Usability testing - Usability testing is a technique used in user- technology, often meaning that many reviews are out of date
centered interaction design to evaluate a product or idea for before they are even published, forcing researchers to update their
research by testing it on users and identifying the importance of the findings constantly. There is the problem of selection bias, as with
issue under study. Usability testing focuses on measuring a any subjective review, where contradictory research is jettisoned.
human-made product's capacity to meet its intended purpose. Whilst not a perfect system, systematic reviews are far superior to
Usability testing measures the usability, or ease of use, of a specific the traditional narrative approach, which often allows a lot of good
object, set of objects or ideas and behaviors and their relevance to research to fall through the cracks [48].
human interaction and human motivation of that object/behavior Ÿ Meta Analysis – Meta analysis is a statistical technique developed
on a daily basis [41]. It usually involves systematic observation by social scientists that are limited in the type of experiments they
under controlled conditions to determine how well people can use can perform. Meta-analysis is the process of drawing from a larger
a product. However, often both qualitative and usability testing are body of research, and using powerful statistical analyzes on the
used in combination to better understand users' conglomerated data. This gives a much larger sample population
motivations/perceptions, in addition to their actions. Rather than and is more likely to generate meaningful and usable data. The
showing users a rough draft and asking, "Do you understand this field of meta-study is also a lot more rigorous than the traditional
?", usability testing involves watching people trying to use literature review, which often relies heavily upon the individual
something for its intended purpose. Setting up a usability test interpretation of the researcher [49]. Meta-analysis is an excellent
involves carefully creating a scenario, or realistic situation, way of reducing the complexity and breadth of research. For rare
wherein the person performs a list of tasks using the product being researchable conditions, it allows researchers to collect data from

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further afield than would be possible for one research group. As the experimental studies to fully understand the phenomenon analyzed. It
method becomes more common, database programs have made also combines data from theoretical and empirical literature, and has a
the process much easier, with professionals working in parallel wide range of purposes, such as definition of concepts, review of
able to enter their results and access the data. This allows constant theories and evidence, and analysis of methodological problems of a
quality assessments and also reducing the chances of unnecessary particular topic [57].
repeat research, as papers can often take many months to be
published, and the computer records ensure that any researcher is An integrative review is a specific review method that summarizes past
aware of the latest directions and results [50]. empirical or theoretical literature to provide a more comprehensive
understanding of a particular phenomenon or healthcare problem.
When used with the databases, a meta study allows a much wider net to Integrative reviews, thus, have the potential to build nursing science,
be cast than by the traditional literature review, and is excellent for informing research, practice, and policy initiatives. Well-done
highlighting correlations and links between studies that may not be integrative reviews present the state of the science, contribute to theory
readily apparent as well as ensuring that the compiler does not development, and have direct applicability to practice and policy. The
subconsciously infer correlations that do not exist [51]. However, there integrative review contributes to the presentation of varied
are a number of disadvantages to meta-analysis, of which a researcher perspectives on a phenomenon of concern and has been advocated as
must be aware before relying upon the data and generated statistics. important to nursing science and nursing practice. However, the
The main problem is that there is the potential for publication bias and complexity inherent in combining diverse methodologies can
skewed data. Research generating results not refuting a hypothesis contribute to lack of rigor, inaccuracy, and bias. Integrative reviews are
may tend to remain unpublished, or risks not being entered into the the broadest type of research review methods allowing for the
database. If the meta-study is restricted to the research with positive simultaneous inclusion of experimental and non-experimental
results, then the validity is compromised. The researcher compiling the research in order to more fully understand a phenomenon of concern.
data must make sure that all research is quantitative, rather than Integrative reviews may also combine data from the theoretical as well
qualitative, and that the data is comparable across the various research as empirical literature. In addition, integrative reviews incorporate a
programs, allowing a genuine statistical analysis [52]. wide range of purposes: to define concepts, to review theories, to
review evidence, and to analyze methodological issues of a particular
It is important to pre-select the studies, ensuring that all of the research topic [58].
used is of a sufficient quality. One erroneous or poorly conducted study
can place the results of the entire meta-analysis at risk. On the other CRITICAL REVIEW
hand, setting almost unattainable criteria and criteria for inclusion can A critical review is the summarization and evaluation of the ideas and
leave the meta-study with too small a sample size to be statistically information in an article. It expresses the writer's (your) point of view
relevant. Meta-analysis is an invaluable tool for research, and is in the light of what you already know on the subject and what is
rapidly gaining momentum as a stand-alone discipline [53]. acquired from related texts. Reviewing critically means thinking
carefully and clearly and taking into consideration both the strengths
SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF REVIEWS and weaknesses in the material under review. Two skills are employed
Systematic reviews of individual studies were required to appraise, to write a critical review: seeking information (scanning the literature
summarize and bring together existing studies in a single place. efficiently to become well-informed on the subject and reviewing
However, decision makers are increasingly faced by a plethora of such effectively (questioning the information in the text and presenting an
reviews and these are likely to be of variable quality and scope, with evaluation, or judgment, of it) [59].
more than one review of important topics. Systematic reviews (or
overviews) of reviews are a logical and appropriate next step, allowing Efficient critical reviewing, or evaluating, requires an awareness of the
the findings of separate reviews to be compared and contrasted, gist (central idea), the purpose and the intended audience of the text.
providing clinical decision makers with the evidence they need. There The text is looked at from a variety of perspectives (from related
are different methods used to identify and appraise published and sources) and evaluated in relation to the theories, approaches and
unpublished reviews systematically, drawing on the researcher frameworks of the expected task. This evaluation involves analyzing
experiences and good practice in the conduct and reporting of the content and concepts of the text, separating them into their main
systematic reviews. The process of identifying and appraising all components, and then understanding how these interrelate, connect
published reviews allows researchers to describe the quality of this and influence each other. A critical review is generally one to four
evidence base, summarize and compare the review's conclusions and pages in length and is structured [60].
discuss the strength of these conclusions [54].
MIXED STUDIES REVIEWS
Methodological challenges and possible solutions occur within the Mixed studies review is a literature review approach in which
context of (i) sources, (ii) study selection, (iii) quality assessment (i.e. qualitative, quantitative and mixed method studies are systematically
the extent of searching undertaken for the reviews, description of study identified, selected, appraised, and synthesized. The topic of mixed-
selection and inclusion criteria, comparability of included studies, methods systematic reviews arises directly from engaging with
assessment of publication bias and assessment of heterogeneity), (iv) decision makers to try to produce more relevant research. Although
presentation of results, and (v) implications for practice and research. systematic reviews are a key method for closing the gap between
Locating and retrieving relevant literature is challenging, yet crucial to research and practice, they have not always proved to be that useful.
the success of a systematic review [55]. The work being done with mixed-methods reviews is an effort to
address this issue and make systematic reviews more relevant. By
The material sourced provides the information from which evidence, including other forms of evidence from different types of research,
conclusions and recommendations are drawn. However, establishing a mixed-methods reviews try to maximize the findings—and the ability
systematic search strategy, before commencing the literature search, is of those findings to inform policy and practice. Integrating qualitative
fundamental to appropriate and successful information retrieval. This evidence into a systematic review can enhance its utility and impact
planning assists in meeting the requirements of the systematic review [61].
and in answering the research question. In developing a search
strategy, the scope of the search, its thoroughness and the time There are three ways in which the reviews are mixed viz. (i) The types
available to conduct it, all need to be considered. The aim is to ensure of studies included in the review are mixed; hence, the types of findings
that the systematic review of reviews is comprehensive, thorough and to be synthesized are mixed, (ii) The synthesis methods used in the
objective. Conducting a systematic review of reviews highlights the review are mixed—statistical meta-analysis and qualitative and (iii)
usefulness of bringing together a summary of reviews in one place, The review uses two modes of analysis—theory building and theory
where there is more than one review on an important topic. The testing [62].
methods described here should help clinicians to review and appraise
published reviews systematically, and aid evidence-based clinical UMBRELLA REVIEWS
decision-making [56]. With the increased number of systematic reviews available, a logical
and appropriate next step has been the conduct of reviews of existing
INTEGRATIVE REVIEW systematic reviews, allowing the findings of separate reviews to be
Integrative review is the most comprehensive methodological compared and contrasted, thereby providing decision makers in
approach of reviews, and it allows including experimental and non- healthcare with the evidence they need. Reviews of systematic reviews

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are referred to by several different names in the scientific literature, of coal miners suffering from lung cancer with those clear of the
including umbrella reviews, overviews of reviews, reviews of reviews, disease, and try to establish the underlying cause. If the majority of
a summary of systematic reviews and also a synthesis of reviews. the cases arose in collieries owned by one company, it might
Irrespective of their name, all of these types of reviews have a defining indicate that the company's safety equipment and procedures were
feature in common: a systematic review is the principal and often sole at fault. Possibly the most famous case control study using this
'study type' that is considered for inclusion [63]. method was a study into whether bicycle helmets reduce the
chance of cyclists receiving bad head injuries in an accident.
In this study, the review of existing systematic reviews and meta- Obviously, the researcher could not use standard experimentation
analyses will be referred to as an umbrella review. The term research and compare a control group of non-helmet wearers with helmet
synthesis is also used to encompass study types, systematic reviews wearers, to measure the chances of head injury, as this would be
and meta-analyses, throughout this study. The principle reason for the unethical. The main weakness of the case control study is that it is
conduct of an umbrella review is to summarize the evidence from very poor at determining cause and effect relationships [67-68].
multiple research syntheses. Conduct of an umbrella review may also
offer a means for a rapid review of the evidence to address a broad and Ÿ Randomization - Randomization is the process by which each
high-quality evidence base in relation to a topic. Umbrella reviews are subject has the same chance of being assigned to either
conducted to provide an overall examination of the body of intervention or control. Neither the subject nor the investigator
information that is available for a given topic, and to compare and should know the treatment assignment before the subject's
contrast the results of published systematic reviews. The wide picture decision to enter the study. This removes investigator bias which is
obtainable from the conduct of an umbrella review is ideal to highlight a systematic error, or 'difference between the true value and that
whether the evidence base around a topic is consistent or contradictory, actually obtained due to all causes other than sampling variability'.
and to explore the reasons for the findings [63]. Randomization tends to produce groups that are comparable with
respect to known or unknown risk factors, guarantees the validity
The aim of an umbrella review is not to repeat the searches, assessment of statistical tests. Thus, it prevents the selection bias and insures
of study eligibility, assessment of risk of bias or meta-analyses from against the accidental bias. It produces the comparable groups and
the included reviews, but rather to provide an overall picture of eliminates the source of bias in treatment assignments. Finally, it
findings for particular questions or phenomenon. For example, permits the use of probability theory to express the likelihood of
compared with a systematic review or meta-analysis limited to one chance as a source for the difference of end outcome. There are
treatment comparison, an umbrella review can provide a broader several methods for making random treatment assignments. Many
picture of many treatments. This is more useful to inform guidelines attempt to balance treatment groups over time, over stratification
and clinical practice when all of the management options need to be factors, or both. Randomization ensures that each patient has an
considered. The objective of the umbrella review will determine equal chance of receiving any of the treatments under study,
whether the review will include analyses of different interventions for generate comparable intervention groups, which are alike in all the
the same condition or investigation of the same intervention and important aspects except for the intervention each groups receives.
condition, but where different syntheses address and report on It also provides a basis for the statistical methods used in analyzing
different outcomes. Furthermore, a reviewer may wish to summarize the data. The basic benefits of randomization are as follows: it
more than one research synthesis for different conditions or eliminates the selection bias, balances the groups with respect to
populations. The growth in the number of systematic reviews has been many known and unknown confounding or prognostic variables,
in part fueled by the development of review methodologies to answer and forms the basis for statistical tests, a basis for an assumption of
questions of 'how' and 'why' interventions do or do not work, and how free statistical test of the equality of treatments. In general, a
recipients of the intervention may experience them rather than being randomized experiment is an essential tool for testing the efficacy
focused on the effectiveness of interventions [64]. of the treatment [69-70].
TYPES OF RESEARCH EXPERIMENTS
ARCHIVAL RESEARCH
Ÿ Pre and Post test Design - For many true experimental designs,
An archive is any collection of records. Traditional archives include
pretest-posttest designs are the preferred method to compare
library records, courthouse records, and business records. Most
participant groups and measure the degree of change occurring as
a result of treatments or interventions. Pretest-posttest designs archives are valuable so pains are taken to keep them safe.. Archival
grew from the simpler posttest only designs, and address some of research is a type of primary research which involves seeking out and
the issues arising with assignment bias and the allocation of extracting evidence from original archival records. Archival data are
participants to groups. Pretest-posttest designs are an expansion of collected for a variety of reasons These records may be held either in
the posttest only design with nonequivalent groups, one of the institutional archive repositories, or in the custody of the organization
simplest methods of testing the effectiveness of an intervention. (whether a government body, business, family, or other agency) that
With pretest being the test conducted before the experiment or originally generated or accumulated them, or in that of a successor
study, post test is the test conducted after the study or experiment body [71].
and the difference between the results on pre and post tests are
studied to see the effect of treatment and change. Statistical It is another type of observational method that is commonly associated
analysis can then determine if the intervention had a significant with qualitative data. Archival research is data collected by someone
effect. Pre and post designs are of various types depending upon other than the researcher but serves as important complementary data
the nature of study- only posttest design, two group design and that supports a study. Statistical records, survey archives, and written
others [65]. and mass communication records are examples of archival research
and are unobtrusive measures as well. Archival research is generally
The main problem with this design is that it improves internal validity more complex and time-consuming than library and internet research,
but sacrifices external validity to do so. There is no way of judging presenting challenges in identifying, locating and interpreting relevant
whether the process of pre-testing actually influenced the results documents. Archival records are often unique, and the researcher must
because there is no baseline measurement against groups that remained be prepared to travel to reach them. Some finding aids to archival
completely untreated. The other major problem, which afflicts many documents are hosted online, but many more are not, and some records
sociological and educational research programs, is that it is impossible lack any kind of finding aid at all. Although most archive repositories
and unethical to isolate all of the participants completely [66]. welcome researchers, and have professional staff tasked with assisting
them, the sheer quantity of records means that finding aids may be of
Ÿ Case Control Study - The case control study uses groups of only limited usefulness: the researcher will need to hunt through large
patients stricken with a disease and compares them with a control quantities of documents in search of material relevant to his or her
group of patients not suffering symptoms. Medical records and particular enquiry. Some records may be closed to public access for
interviews are used to try to build up a historical picture of the reasons of confidentiality; and others may be written in archaic
patient's life, allowing cross-reference between patients and handwriting, in ancient or foreign languages, or in technical
statistical analysis. Any trends can then be highlighted and action terminology. Archival documents were generally created for
can be taken. Statistical analysis allows the researcher to draw a immediate practical or administrative purposes, not for the benefit of
conclusion about whether a certain situation or exposure led to the future researchers, and additional contextual research may be
medical condition. For example, a scientist could compare a group necessary to make sense of them [72].

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FIXED VERSUS FLEXIBLE RESEARCH situations. It is important to consider each of these factors before
In fixed designs, the design of the study is fixed before the main stage beginning the experiment. Non-experimental research designs do not
of data collection takes place. Fixed designs are normally theory involve a manipulation of the situation, circumstances or experience of
driven; otherwise it is impossible to know in advance which variables the participants [77].
need to be controlled and measured. Often, these variables are
measured quantitatively. CORRELATION STUDIES
Correlation does not imply causation, and rather identifies dependence
Flexible designs allow for more freedom during the data collection of one variable on another. Correlational designs are helpful in
process. One reason for using a flexible research design can be that the identifying the relation of one variable to another, and seeing the
variable of interest is not quantitatively measurable, such as culture. In frequency of co-occurrence in two natural groups. There are three
other cases, theory might not be available before one starts the types of correlations that are identified – [78-79]
research. An example of flexible research designs is Grounded theory
research which is a systematic research process that works to develop 1. Positive correlation – Positive correlation between two variables
"a process, and action or an interaction about a substantive topic" [73]. is when an increase in one variable leads to an increase in the other
and a decrease in one leads to a decrease in the other. For example,
QUANTITATIVE VERSUS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH the amount of money that a person possesses might correlate
Quantitative research is considered to have as its main purpose the positively with the number of cars he owns.
quantification of data. This allows generalizations of results from a 2. Negative correlation – Negative correlation is when an increase
sample to an entire population of interest and the measurement of the in one variable leads to a decrease in another and vice versa. For
incidence of various views and opinions in a given sample. Yet, example, the level of education might correlate negatively with
quantitative research is not infrequently followed by qualitative crime. This means if by some way the education level is improved
research which then aims to explore select findings further. in a country, it can lead to lower crime. Note that this doesn't mean
that a lack of education causes crime. It could be, for example, that
Qualitative research is considered to be particularly suitable for both lack of education and crime have a common reason: poverty.
gaining an in-depth understanding of underlying reasons and 3. No correlation – Two variables are uncorrelated when a change in
motivations. It provides insights into the setting of a problem. At the one doesn't lead to a change in the other and vice versa. For
same time, it frequently generates ideas and hypotheses for later example, among millionaires, happiness is found to be
quantitative research. uncorrelated to money. This means an increase in money doesn't
lead to happiness.
The main differences between quantitative and qualitative research
consist in respect to data sample, data collection, data analysis, and last A correlation coefficient is usually used during a correlational study. It
but not least in regard to outcomes [74]. varies between +1 and -1. A value close to +1 indicates a strong
positive correlation while a value close to -1 indicates strong negative
CONFIRMATORY VERSUS EXPLORATORY RESEARCH correlation. A value near zero shows that the variables are
Confirmatory research tests a priori hypotheses— outcome predictions uncorrelated. It is very important to remember that correlation doesn't
that are made before the measurement phase begins. Such a priori imply causation and there is no way to determine or prove causation
hypotheses are usually derived from a theory or the results of previous from a correlational study. This is a common mistake made by people
studies. Exploratory research on the other hand seeks to generate a in almost all spheres of life.
posteriori hypotheses by examining a data-set and looking for
potential relations between variables. It is also possible to have an idea COMPARITIVE RESEARCH
about a relation between variables but to lack knowledge of the The second type is comparative research. These designs compare
direction and strength of the relation. If the researcher does not have two or more groups on one or more variable, such as the effect of
any specific hypotheses beforehand, the study is exploratory with gender on grades. Comparative research, simply put, is the act of
respect to the variables in question (although it might be confirmatory comparing two or more things with a view to discovering something
for others). The advantage of exploratory research is that it is easier to about one or all of the things being compared. This technique often
make new discoveries due to the less stringent methodological utilizes multiple disciplines in one study. When it comes to method, the
restrictions. Here, the researcher does not want to miss a potentially majority agreement is that there is no methodology peculiar to
interesting relation and therefore aims to minimize the probability of comparative research. The multidisciplinary approach is good for the
rejecting a real effect or relation, this probability is sometimes referred flexibility it offers, yet comparative programs do have a case to answer
to as β. In other words, if you want to see whether some of your against the call that their research lacks a seamless whole [80].
measured variables could be related, you would want to increase your
chances of finding a significant result by lowering the threshold of There are certainly methods that are far more common than others in
what you deem to be significant [75]. comparative studies, however. Quantitative analysis is much more
frequently pursued than qualitative, and this is seen by the majority of
STATE PROBLEMS VERSUS PROCESS PROBLEMS comparative studies which use quantitative data. The general method
A distinction can be made between state problems and process of comparing things is the same for comparative research as it is in our
problems. State problems aim to answer what the state of a everyday practice of comparison. Like cases are treated alike, and
phenomenon is at a given time, while process problems deal with the different cases are treated differently; the extent of difference
change of phenomena over time. An example of state problems is the determines how differently cases are to be treated. If one is able to
types of failure in a communication system. An example of process sufficiently distinguish two carry the research conclusions will not be
problems is the build-up of packet queue under a particular very helpful. Secondary analysis of quantitative data is relatively
communication scenario. State problems are easier to measure than widespread in comparative research. Comparative research can take
process problems. State problems just require one measurement of the many forms. Two key factors are space and time. Spatially, cross-
phenomena of interest, while process problems always require national comparisons are by far the most common, although
multiple measurements [76]. comparisons within countries, contrasting different areas, cultures or
governments also subsist and are very constructive. Recurrent
E X P E R I M E N TA L V E R S U S N O N - E X P E R I M E N TA L interregional studies include comparing similar or different countries
RESEARCH or sets of countries, comparing one's own country to others or to the
In a good experimental design, a few things are of great importance. whole world [81].
First of all, it is necessary to think of the best way to operationalize the
variables that will be measured. Therefore, it is important to consider LONGITUDINAL DESIGN RESEARCH
how the variable(s) will be measured, as well as which methods would The third type of non-experimental research is a longitudinal design.
be most appropriate to answer the research question. In addition, the A longitudinal design examines variables such as performance
statistical analysis has to be taken into account. The researcher should exhibited by a group or groups over time. A longitudinal study is
consider what the expectations of the study are as well as how to observational research performed over a period of years or even
analyze this outcome. Finally, in an experimental design the researcher decades.
must think of the practical limitations including the availability of
data-set or experimental set-up that are representative of the real Longitudinal studies allow social scientists and economists to study

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long-term effects in a human population. A cohort study is a subset of and much more [87].
the longitudinal study because it observes the effect on a specific group
of people over time. Quite often, a longitudinal study is an extended While this type of participant-observation allows researchers to delve
case study, observing individuals over long periods, and is a purely deeper into a culture by forming relationships, it could potentially
qualitative undertaking [82]. entail less objective results, since the researcher is emotionally
invested in the culture and its people. In contrast, a less involved type
Longitudinal research is used to discover relationships between of participant observation would include simply being a bystander in
variables that are not related to various background variables. This the culture in question. This allows for a more objective approach, yet
observational research technique involves studying the same group of individuals may be more hesitant to answer questions—creating a less
individuals over an extended period. Data is first collected at the outset in-depth study. Limitations of participant observation include that it
of the study, and may then be repeatedly gathered throughout the can be difficult to get time / privacy for recording. For example, with
length of the study. covert observations researchers can't take notes openly as this would
blow their cover. This means they have to wait until they are alone and
They are observational in nature and are a type of correlational reply on their memory. This is a problem as they may forget details and
research. Longitudinal research is often contrasted with cross- are unlikely to remember direct quotations [88].
sectional research, but longitudinal research involves collecting data
over an extended period, often years or even decades. Cross-sectional IN DEPTH INTERVIEWS
research involves collecting data at a single point in time [83]. In-depth interviewing is a qualitative research technique that involves
conducting intensive individual interviews with a small number of
The benefit of this type of research is that it allows researchers to look respondents to explore their perspectives on a particular idea, program,
at changes over time. Because of this, longitudinal methods are or situation. In-depth interviews are useful when one wants detailed
particularly useful when studying development and lifespan issues. information about a person's thoughts and behaviors or wants to
Researchers can then look at what the participants have in common explore new issues in depth. Interviews are often used to provide
versus where they differ to see which characteristics are more strongly context to other data (such as outcome data), offering a more complete
influenced by either genetics or experience. As longitudinal studies picture of what happened in the program and why [89].
take place over a period of years (or even decades), they can be very
useful when looking at changes in development over time. Researchers In-depth interviews should be used in place of focus groups if the
can utilize this kind of research to establish a sequence of events when potential participants may not be included or comfortable talking
looking at the aging process.However, longitudinal studies require openly in a group, or when one wants to distinguish individual (as
enormous amounts of time and are often quite expensive. Because of opposed to group) opinions about the program. They are often used to
this, these studies often have only a small group of subjects, which refine questions for future surveys of a particular group.
makes it difficult to apply the results to a larger population. Another
problem is that participants sometimes drop out of the study, shrinking The primary advantage of in-depth interviews is that they provide
the sample size and decreasing the amount of data collected [84]. much more detailed information than what is available through other
data collection methods, such as surveys. They also may provide a
Types of Longitudinal Research - there are three major types of more relaxed atmosphere in which to collect information— people
longitudinal studies viz. [85] may feel more comfortable having a conversation with you about their
program as opposed to filling out a survey. However, there are a few
Ÿ Panel Study – Involves sampling a cross-section of individuals. limitations and pitfalls, each of which is described below. These
Ÿ Cohort Study – Involves selecting a group based on a specific interviews are prone to bias- the respondent may say socially desirable
event such as birth, geographic location or historical experience. things merely for the sake of 'proving' or being in good light.
Ÿ Retrospective Study – Involves looking to the past by looking at Responses from community members and program participants could
historical information such as medical records. also be biased due to their role or for a number of other reasons. Every
effort should be made to design a data collection effort, create
QUALITATIVE METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY instruments, and conduct interviews to allow for minimal bias [90].
Qualitative research allows investigators to develop a deeper
understanding of a topic than can be obtained through quantitative In depth interviews are time-intensive: Interviews can be a time-
research alone. Qualitative research uses methodologies such as focus intensive evaluation activity because of the time it takes to conduct
groups, in-depth interviews, and direct observation so researchers can interviews, transcribe them, and analyze the results. Interviewer must
investigate stakeholders' attitudes, beliefs, and preferences – the how be appropriately trained in interviewing techniques to provide the most
and why of decision-making. Qualitative research methods provide an detailed and rich data from an interviewee. They must also be sure to
opportunity for a systematic, in-depth evaluation of a question that use effective interview techniques, such as avoiding yes/no and
may not be easily answered through quantitative methods. leading questions, using appropriate body language, and keeping their
Furthermore, these methods can add to quantitative results through personal opinions in check. It is not a generalized technique because
explanations and clarifications with the target population [86]. in-depth interviews are conducted, generalizations about the results
are usually not able to be made because small samples are chosen and
There are three most common Qualitative methods of Research random sampling methods are not used [91].
employed in conducting studies, and are enumerated as below –
FOCUS GROUPS
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION STUDIES Focus groups share many common features with less structured
Participant-observation is one of the key research methods in interviews, but there is more to them than merely collecting similar
anthropology. It is often used by socio-cultural anthropologists, and data from many participants at once. A focus group is a group
other academics, in attempt to thoroughly understand the various discussion on a particular topic organized for research purposes. This
aspects of a culture. Participant-observation is a method where discussion is guided, monitored and recorded by a researcher
researchers choose to live directly in the cultural group they are (sometimes called a moderator or facilitator) [92].
studying. By living and immersing oneself within a culture for a long
period of time, participant-observation allows anthropologists to get Focus groups are used for generating information on collective views,
deeper into the complexity of culture. Participant-observation is a type and the meanings that lie behind those views. They are also useful in
of field research that produces qualitative data. It can involve note- generating a rich understanding of participants' experiences and
taking, interviewing, and journaling about experiences in a different beliefs. Suggested criteria for using focus groups include –As a
cultural group. Often researchers choose different theoretical standalone method, for research relating to group norms, meanings
approaches to guide the type of information they're interested in, but and processes
participant-observation is largely a holistic study—meaning it Ÿ In a multi-method design, to explore a topic or collect group
considers all aspects of a culture to be interrelated and relevant. There language or narratives to be used in later stages
are different types of participant-observation that researchers can Ÿ To clarify, extend, qualify or challenge data collected through
undertake. In some situations, the researcher chooses and requests to other methods
play an active role in that culture—including living with a local family, Ÿ To feedback results to research participants.
participating in cultural rituals and activities, speaking the language, The composition of a focus group needs great care to get the best

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quality of discussion. There is no 'best' solution to group composition, Video is increasingly the data collection tool of choice for researchers
and group mix will always impact on the data, according to things such interested in the multimodal character of social interaction. The use of
as the mix of ages, sexes and social professional statuses of the video has also been expanded by increased access through the low cost
participants. What is important is that the researcher gives due of video cameras high quality video facilities on mobile phones, cheap
consideration to the impact of group mix (eg, how the group may webcams and free easy to use computer applications for editing. The
interact with each other) before the focus group proceeds [93]. qualities of video differ from any other form of data (recording). It
provides a fine-grained multimodal record of an event detailing gaze,
Interaction is the key to a successful focus group. Sometimes this expression, body posture, and gesture. It is a sharable, malleable digital
means a pre-existing group interacts best for research purposes, and record in which all modes are recorded sequentially.
sometimes stranger groups. Pre-existing groups may be easier to
recruit, have shared experiences and enjoy a comfort and familiarity Video can be used in a number of ways for research including
which facilitates discussion or the ability to challenge each other participatory video, videography, the use of existing video data, video
comfortably. Group size is an important consideration in focus group interviews and elicitation and video based fieldwork. Each of these
research. Small groups risk limited discussion occurring, while large ways of using video embeds video data in a particular disciplinary
groups can be chaotic, hard to manage for the moderator and history and trajectory of practice and debates about the place of truth,
frustrating for participants who feel they get insufficient opportunities objectivity and subjectivity, and the roles and power of researcher and
to speak. The venue for a focus group is also important and should, participant.
ideally, be accessible, comfortable, private, quiet and free from
distractions. Focus groups are usually recorded, often observed (by a Participatory video has an underlying aim to reduce the gap between
researcher other than the moderator, whose role is to observe the the concepts and models of researchers and those of individuals and
interaction of the group to enhance analysis) and sometimes communities by giving participants control of the camera and the
videotaped. At the start of a focus group, a moderator should process of making their experiences visible. It has parallels with data
acknowledge the presence of the audio recording equipment, assure collection techniques of diary keepers. Participatory video is a process
participants of confidentiality and give people the opportunity to or an intervention in which research participants are provided with
withdraw if they are uncomfortable with being taped [94]. access to video recording equipment and training to ensure they can
use it in order to document an aspect of their lives.
NOTE TAKING IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Notes can have many uses in research. Researchers point out that notes Videography is an ethnographic approach to video making which often
are useful when one compares projects as they use them to get an idea goes hand in hand with participatory video and visual ethnography. It
of what project to do or not do. Notes are unique to the researcher and involves a different understanding and focus of video than say
they can help in understanding projects in relation to other projects. workplace studies or traditional observational video studies. It uses
Notes help to identify what a researcher would like to follow or not video primarily to gather data 'rich nonverbal cues' to stimulate critical
follow in the course of the study. They can also help set parameters reflection rather than as a way to collect observational data or
against which to evaluate possible research ideas. Therefore, even descriptions of phenomena. Videography understands and uses video
when two people are reviewing the same projects, their notes may not as a tool to re-orientate the power of the researcher gaze and to give
be the same because they may be looking for different things in the voice to research subjects/participants.
projects. Sometimes even when they are looking for the same things,
they may differ in what they consider important and essential; thus The use of existing videos as data is increasingly common for research
their notes may be different hence the uniqueness [95]. to be undertaken with videos that are already available rather than
video generated by researchers for research. There are many examples
CHARACTERISTICS OF FIELD NOTES – of research re-purposing videos for research including 'home-made'
Ÿ Be accurate. You only get one chance to observe a particular domestic video, broadcast media, automated CCTV recordings and
moment in time so, before you conduct your observations, practice YouTube videos. The repurposing of existing video data, whether it is
taking notes in a setting that is similar to your observation site in from an archive, YouTube, or an institutions video database raises
regards to number of people, the environment, and social many issues that are key for video-based and visual research. Including
dynamics. This will help you develop your own style of the need to understand the history of a video, its context of production,
transcribing observations quickly and accurately. its original purpose and audience, and how these factors are embedded
Ÿ Be organized. Taking accurate notes while you are actively in the video as an artifact, as well as what is missing in the video record.
observing can be difficult. It is therefore important that you plan Video elicitation can be used alongside interviews or focus groups to
ahead how you will document your observation study. Notes that prompt a discussion, stimulate recall or provide a basis for reflection.
are disorganized will make it more difficult for you to interpret the This is usually done by asking teachers to narrate a sequence of video
data. or select a sample for detailed discussion, asking participants to 'call
Ÿ Be descriptive. Use descriptive words to document what you out' what they consider is noteworthy in viewing; 'stopping points' –
observe. For example, instead of noting that a classroom appears pausing the video to comment; or developing participants 'selective
"comfortable," state that the classroom includes soft lighting and attention' by focusing on a range of different events that are visible in a
cushioned chairs that can be moved around by the study video and developing techniques for reasoning about the phenomena
participants. Being descriptive means supplying yourself with that they view on video.
enough factual evidence that you don't end up making assumptions
about what you meant when you write the final report. Video elicitation can be a useful way for researchers to validate and
Ÿ Focus on the research problem. Since it's impossible to cross check their interpretations when working with video of 'naturally
document everything you observe, include the greatest detail occurring' data [95-96].
about aspects of the research problem and the theoretical
constructs underpinning your research; avoid cluttering your notes AUDIO RECORDING IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
with irrelevant information. Technology, recording and transcription of interviews have become a
Ÿ Record insights and thoughts. As you observe, be thinking about staple of qualitative research. It was not until the 1970s, when portable
the underlying meaning of what you observe and record your audio recording could be taken directly into the field, that transcription
thoughts and ideas accordingly. This will help if you to ask became a viable method and researchers could analyze, interpret, and
questions or seek clarification from participants after the report participants' own words.
observation. To avoid any confusion, subsequent comments from
participants should be included in a separate, reflective part of your The process of audio recording, transcribing, and analyzing textual
field notes and not merged with the descriptive notes. data is the accepted norm. The latest methodological shift has been
brought on by the use of video analysis. Video analysis extends the
VIDEO RECORDINGS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ability of researchers to visit a site by enabling them to virtually re-visit
Video and film have featured in the development of social. Video is the studied scene repeatedly and as many times as necessary, gaining
increasingly a significant resource for many contemporary social greater insight and interpretation of transpired events.
researchers. The increased presence of video in the people's everyday
lives as well as institutional practices and public environments means Researchers can either take notes during their interviews (transcribing)
researchers often have access to 'naturally occurring' video data. or observations, or take a recording, or they may using a tape recorder.

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In audio recording, the researcher can concentrate and listen and the population get an equal opportunity to be selected as a
respond better, the discussion flows better when there are no representative sample. Non-probability sampling is a method of
distractions, in note taking there is an increased risk of the researcher sampling wherein, it is not known that which individual from the
being more subjective, the entire interview/observation is recorded, population will be selected as a sample [100].
which gives a better, more holistic picture of what is going on, the
participants may feel less observed if the tape recorded is used in a There are several types of non-probability samples that researchers
discreet way and during analysis, the researcher has the opportunity to use. These include purposive samples, snowball samples, quota
go back over material. samples, and convenience samples. While the latter two strategies may
be used by quantitative researchers from time to time, they are more
Ideally, the audio recording of interviews gives an accurate summary typically employed in qualitative research, and because they are both
of the interview, as all the answers captured during the interview, as non-probability methods, we include them in this section of the
well as the comments by the researcher, are saved for reference. The chapter.
interviewing committee can rewind and listen to them repeatedly to get
clarity on the interview. Moreover, the tone, body language, pitch of PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
the voice, speed of the speech etc. can be assessed. The recorded Purposive sampling, also known as judgmental, selective or subjective
interviews can be used for transcription of the answers, which is sampling, is a type of non-probability sampling technique. It is a
necessary for including relevant quotes in the research report. sampling technique in which researcher relies on his or her judgment
when choosing members of population to participate in the study. To
The disadvantage of audio recording the interviews is that one needs to draw a purposive sample, a researcher begins with specific
depend on the equipment and if it fails to function properly then there perspectives in mind that he or she wishes to examine and then seeks
must be a backup plan. In order to overcome the problems of out research participants who cover that full range of perspectives.
equipment failure, one can check it beforehand and take note of the
important points during the interview. With this, you will be having While purposive sampling is often used when one's goal is to include
some record even if the equipment fails. Some interviewers may be participants who represent a broad range of perspectives, purposive
nervous of the tape-recorders, which may spoil their performance in sampling may also be used when a researcher wishes to include only
the interview. In some interviews, the non-verbal information may be people who meet very narrow or specific criteria [101].
as necessary as the spoken part. Here, audio recording will not be
adequate and video recording is necessary [97-98]. SNOWBALL SAMPLING
Snowball sampling is an especially useful strategy when a researcher
TRANSCRIPTS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH wishes to study some stigmatized group or behavior. Snowball
Qualitative research in primary care deepens understanding of sampling is sometimes referred to as chain referral sampling. One
phenomena such as health, illness and health care encounters. Many research participant refers another, and that person refers another, and
qualitative studies collect audio or video data (e.g. recordings of that person refers another—thus a chain of potential participants is
interviews, focus groups or talk in consultation), and these are usually identified. In addition to using this sampling strategy for potentially
transcribed into written form for closer study. Transcribing appears to stigmatized populations, it is also a useful strategy to use when the
be a straightforward technical task, but in fact involves judgments researcher's group of interest is likely to be difficult to find, not only
about what level of detail to choose (e.g. omitting non-verbal because of some stigma associated with the group, but also because the
dimensions of interaction), data interpretation (e.g. distinguishing 'I group may be relatively rare [102].
don't, no' from 'I don't know') and data representation (e.g. representing
the verbalization 'hwarryuhh' as 'How are you?'). QUOTA SAMPLING
Quota sampling is another non-probability sampling strategy. This
Representation of audible and visual data into written form is an type of sampling is actually employed by both qualitative and
interpretive process which is therefore the first step in analyzing data. quantitative researchers, but because it is a non probability method,
Different levels of detail and different representations of data will be we'll discuss it in this section. When conducting quota sampling, a
required for projects with differing aims and methodological researcher identifies categories that are important to the study and for
approaches. This article is a guide to practical and theoretical which there is likely to be some variation. Subgroups are created based
considerations for researchers new to qualitative data analysis. Data on each category and the researcher decides how many people (or
examples are given to illustrate decisions to be made when transcribing documents or whatever element happens to be the focus of the
or assigning the task to others [99]. research) to include from each subgroup and collects data from that
number for each subgroup [103].
ADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Ÿ Issues and subjects covered can be evaluated in depth and in detail. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
Ÿ Interviews are not limited to particular questions and can be Finally, convenience sampling is another non-probability sampling
redirected or guided by researchers in real time. strategy that is employed by both qualitative and quantitative
Ÿ The direction and framework of research can be revised quickly as researchers. A convenience sample is made up of people who are easy
soon as fresh information and findings emerge. to reach. To draw a convenience sample, a researcher simply collects
Ÿ The data in qualitative research depends on human experience and data from those people or other relevant elements to which he or she
this is more compelling and powerful than data gathered through has most convenient access. This method, also sometimes referred to
quantitative research. as haphazard sampling, is most useful in exploratory research. It is also
Ÿ Complexities and subtleties about the subjects of the research or often used by journalists who need quick and easy access to people
the topic covered is usually missed by many positivistic inquiries. from their population of interest. If you've ever seen brief interviews of
Ÿ Data is usually gathered from few individuals or cases therefore people on the street on the news, you've probably seen a haphazard
findings and outcomes cannot be spread to larger populations. sample being interviewed. While convenience samples offer one
However, findings can be transferred to another setting. major benefit—convenience—we should be cautious about
Ÿ With this type of research, the researcher has a clear vision on what generalizing from research that relies on convenience samples [104].
to expect. They collect data in a genuine effort of plugging data to
bigger picture. ACCEPTABLE RECRUITMENT METHODS
In preparing recruitment materials the researcher should consider the
SAMPLING purpose of the research, the setting in which the research will be
Sampling is the process of choosing a representative sample from a conducted, and be particularly cognizant of the special problems of
target population and collecting data from that sample in order to research involving vulnerable populations, such as children, prisoners,
understand something about the population as a whole. Sampling pregnant women, mentally disabled persons, or economically or
means to select a particular group or sample to represent the entire educationally disadvantaged persons [105]. There may, however, be
population. Sampling methods are majorly divided into two categories extenuating circumstances in which one of the methods might not be
probability sampling and non-probability sampling. In probability appropriate for a particular study.
sampling every member of the population gets a fair chance of
selection which is not in the case with non-probability sampling. Ÿ Direct recruitment of potential study participants – With this
Probability sampling is a sampling technique, in which the subjects of method considerable care will have to be taken so that the person

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contacted does not feel pressured to participate. Difference Between Qualitative And Quantitative Methods [108]
Ÿ Recruitment letters – Ideally the recruitment letter would come Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods
from someone or some agency or clinic known to the prospective
subject informing the prospective participant about the study. Methods include focus groups, Surveys, structured interviews &
Preferably, the letter would ask the person to call for additional in-depth interviews, and reviews observations, and reviews of
information or if interested in participating in the study or return a of documents for types of records or documents for numeric
post card or send an e-mail. However, there may be situations, for themes information
example for large scale low risk studies, in which it would be Primarily inductive process Primarily deductive process used to
acceptable to ask the person to opt out if not interested or when used to formulate theory or test pre-specified concepts,
contacted by phone or e-mail or in person. The recruitment letter hypotheses constructs, and hypotheses that
can be brief but it should include information about how the person make up a theory
was identified to be sent the letter, what is involved if the person More subjective: describes a More objective: provides observed
participates and an overview of any risks or potential benefits. It problem or condition from the effects (interpreted by researchers)
should also let the person know how to inform someone if he or she point of view of those of a program on a problem or
wants to participate, not to participate, or where to get answers to experiencing it condition
additional questions, and, of course, who is doing the study and
why. Text-based Number-based
Ÿ Random or other probability sampling – This could include More in-depth information on a Less in-depth but more breadth of
snowball sampling, random digit dialing, or other methods used few cases information across a large number
primarily in the social and behavioral sciences. of cases
Ÿ Referrals – Referrals may be from non-investigator healthcare Unstructured or semi-structured Fixed response options
providers, snowball sampling, participants referring other response options
participants. No statistical tests Statistical tests are used for
Ÿ Participant Pool – These are pools for which potential research analysis
participants have given permission for future contact. Can be valid and reliable: Can be valid and reliable: largely
Ÿ Review of medical records to identify potential research largely depends on skill and depends on the measurement
participants rigor of the researcher device or instrument used
Ÿ Review of publicly available records.
Time expenditure lighter on the Time expenditure heavier on the
Ÿ Review of other records.
planning end and heavier during planning phase and lighter on the
The following elements should be included in recruitment materials the analysis phase analysis phase
that you distribute – [106] Less generalizable More generalizable

Ÿ The word “research.” Participants need to know that they are VALID INFORMED CONSENT
responding to a research study, not to a promise for free treatment Informed consent is so important that in the 9th revision of the
or payment. American Psychological Association's Ethical Code it has its own
Ÿ A general description of the purpose of the study. Potential section, 8.02. And, no, you won't be tested on that exact detail.
participants should have a basic idea of what the study entails. However, it is worth mentioning because informed consent has its own
This information does not need to be detailed, but it should be dedicated section. It is that important. Informed consent provides
explained in layman's terms. Where possible, include information participants with sufficiently detailed information on the study so that
about what participants will do and the time required of the they can make an informed, voluntary and rational decision to
participant. participate [109].
Ÿ Details on how to enroll. It will be difficult for participants to
enroll if they don't have your contact information. This includes:
Ÿ Inclusion/ Exclusion criteria (where appropriate). You may be Ÿ The purpose of the study
looking for a participant with certain criteria, or there may be Ÿ Expected duration
reasons why a participant would not be eligible to participate. Ÿ Procedures of the study
Including this information in your recruitment materials will Ÿ Information on their right to decline or withdraw
prevent wasting the ineligible participant's time and yours. Ÿ Foreseeable consequences of withdrawing or declining
Ÿ Potential risk, discomfort or adverse effects
You may include the following – Ÿ Prospective research benefits
Ÿ Payment incentives. You can inform participants that you are Ÿ Incentives, such as payment or rewards
including an incentive for participation, but this should not be the Ÿ Whom to contact for questions
emphasis of the advertisement, letter, email, etc.
Ÿ Benefits. This can be a tricky element to include and generally the Lastly, as part of obtaining informed consent, a researcher must allow
Board will not allow it. A benefit to an individual must be time for questions the participants might have. The answers should
something that the researcher can guarantee. If you are offering a provide sufficient information without compromising the study. We
treatment, for example, that is recognized and known to be will discuss how convoluted this gets with deceptive studies in a
beneficial, this can be considered a benefit. A “potential benefit,” second.
however, is not guaranteed and is not allowed on recruitment
materials. All of the previously mentioned aspects must be provided to
participants before they are entered into the study. Informed consent
The following elements should not be included in your recruitment –
must be either documented by written consent or by oral consent in
[107]
language that is reasonably understandable. Most researchers use a
written form that the participants sign and date because there might be
Ÿ Misleading information. Recruitment materials should never
problems later on. One can never really predict the future and written
lead a participant to believe in something that is untrue about a
study. For studies where deception is involved, the recruitment proof is valuable in the courtroom setting.
materials should not be a part of the deception. The Board
recognizes that it is important in a deception study (and other Informed consent is a process for getting permission before
similar studies) not to bias participants by providing full conducting a healthcare intervention on a person. A health care
disclosure; however, the participants should be provided with true provider may ask a patient to consent to receive therapy before
information that will help them to make the right decision about providing it, or a clinical researcher may ask a research participant
their participation. before enrolling that person into a clinical trial. Informed consent is
Ÿ Overemphasis of payment incentives. The title of an collected according to guidelines from the fields of medical ethics and
advertisement should never be “Free Money!” or “Easy Cash!” research ethics [110].
Instead, payment information should be clearly described at the
bottom of the advertisement after the purpose of the study is An informed consent can be said to have been given based upon a clear
described. Such payment should not be bolded or otherwise appreciation and understanding of the facts, implications, and
emphasized. consequences of an action. Adequate informed consent is rooted in

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respecting a person's dignity.[1] To give informed consent, the tested—why did you choose the ones you did over others?
individual concerned must have adequate reasoning faculties and be in
possession of all relevant facts. Impairments to reasoning and If you have good hypotheses, they will lead into your Specific Aims.
judgment that may prevent informed consent include basic intellectual Specific aims are the steps you are going to take to test your hypotheses
or emotional immaturity, high levels of stress such as PTSD or a severe and what you want to accomplish in the course of the grant period.
intellectual disability, severe mental illness, intoxication, severe sleep Make sure –
deprivation, Alzheimer's disease, or being in a coma. Ÿ Your objectives are measurable and highly focused;
Ÿ Each hypothesis is matched with a specific aim.
Some acts can take place because of a lack of informed consent. In Ÿ The aims are feasible, given the time and money you are
cases where an individual is considered unable to give informed requesting in the grant.
consent, another person is generally authorized to give consent on his
behalf, e.g., parents or legal guardians of a child (though in this Long-Term Goals –
circumstance the child may be required to provide informed assent) Ÿ Why are you doing this research?
and conservators for the mentally ill. Ÿ What are the long-term implications?
Ÿ What will happen after the grant?
In cases where an individual is provided insufficient information to Ÿ What other avenues are open to explore?
form a reasoned decision, serious ethical issues arise. Such cases in a Ÿ What is the ultimate application or use of the research?
clinical trial in medical research are anticipated and prevented by an
ethics committee or Institutional Review Board. These questions all relate to the long-term goal of your research, which
should be an important undercurrent of the proposal. Again, they
Informed Consent Form Templates can be found on the World Health should be a logical extension of the research question, hypotheses, and
Organization Website for practical use. The process of informed specific aims.
consent is at the very heart of ethical research practice and underpins
the design and management of research and clinical trials. Informed It is also helpful to have a long-term plan for your own career
consent is essential to protect the rights and safety of patients in development.
research and is the major consideration when ethical and institutional
approvals are granted prior to studies being undertaken [111]. FINER criteria for a good research question [113]
F Feasible • Adequate number of subjects
How To Write A Research Question And Hypothesis • Adequate technical expertise
A Research Question is a statement that identifies the phenomenon to • Affordable in time and money
be studied. For example, 'What resources are helpful to new and • Manageable in scope
minority drug abuse researchers?’ I Interesting • Getting the answer intrigues investigator, peers
and community
To develop a strong research question from your ideas, you should ask
yourself these things: N Novel • Confirms, refutes or extends previous findings
Ÿ Do I know the field and its literature well? E Ethical • Amenable to a study that institutional review
Ÿ What are the important research questions in my field? board will approve
Ÿ What areas need further exploration? R Relevant • To scientific knowledge
Ÿ Could my study fill a gap? Lead to greater understanding? • To clinical and health policy
Ÿ Has a great deal of research already been conducted in this topic • To future research
area?
Ÿ Has this study been done before? If so, is there room for PICOT criteria [114]
improvement? P Population (patients) What specific patient population are
Ÿ Is the timing right for this question to be answered? Is it a hot topic, you interested in?
or is it becoming obsolete? I Intervention (for What is your investigational
Ÿ Would funding sources be interested? intervention studies only) intervention?
Ÿ If you are proposing a service program, is the target community
interested? C Comparison group What is the main alternative to
Ÿ Most importantly, will my study have a significant impact on the
compare with the intervention?
field? O Outcome of interest What do you intend to accomplish,
measure, improve or affect?
A strong research idea should pass the “so what” test. Think about the T Time What is the appropriate follow-up
potential impact of the research you are proposing. What is the benefit time to assess outcome
of answering your research question? Who will it help (and how)? A
research focus should be narrow, not broad-based. For example, 'What GOOD VS BAD HYPOTHESIS [115]
can be done to prevent substance abuse?' is too large a question to Hypotheses Tips –
answer. It would be better to begin with a more focused question. A Ÿ The question comes first. Before you make a hypothesis, you
well-thought-out and focused research question leads directly into have to clearly identify the question you are interested in studying.
your hypotheses. What predictions would you make about the Ÿ A hypothesis is a statement, not a question. Your hypothesis is
phenomenon you are examining? This will be the foundation of your not the scientific question in your project. The hypothesis is an
application [112]. educated, testable prediction about what will happen.
Ÿ Make it clear. A good hypothesis is written in clear and simple
Hypotheses are more specific predictions about the nature and language. Reading your hypothesis should tell a teacher or judge
direction of the relationship between two variables. Strong exactly what you thought was going to happen when you started
hypotheses: your project.
Ÿ Give insight into a research question; Ÿ Keep the variables in mind. A good hypothesis defines the
Ÿ Are testable and measurable by the proposed experiments; variables in easy-to-measure terms, like who the participants are,
Ÿ Spring logically from the experience of the staff; what changes during the testing, and what the effect of the changes
will be.
Normally, no more than three primary hypotheses should be proposed Ÿ Make sure your hypothesis is "testable." To prove or disprove
for a research study. A proposal that is hypothesis-driven is more likely your hypothesis, you need to be able to do an experiment and take
to be funded than a “fishing expedition” or a primarily descriptive measurements or make observations to see how two things (your
study. variables) are related. You should also be able to repeat your
experiment over and over again, if necessary.
Make sure to –
Ÿ Provide a rationale for your hypotheses—where did they come To create a "testable" hypothesis make sure you have done all of these
from, and why are they strong? things:
Ÿ Provide alternative possibilities for the hypotheses that could be Ÿ Thought about what experiments you will need to carry out to do

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