Phylogeny and The Tree of Life
Phylogeny and The Tree of Life
Phylogeny and The Tree of Life
LECTURE 1: DISSECTING PHYLOGENETIC TRESS AND BASICS OF PHYLOGENY
Three Domains of Life (based on genetic data)
Archaea and Bacteria – Prokaryotes
Eukarya – Eukaryotes
Tree of Life
All life is interconnected by descent
Key Evidence
Cells look alike – consistent morphology
Cells function the same
DNA has the same dictionary for all living things
The TOL is a phylogeny that depicts the true evolutionary relationships among all living organisms
‐ Is there more that 1 possibility for the TOL?
No. There is only one true common ancestor for all life forms.
‐ Have we determined the absolutely correct TOL?
No. There is a lot of data that is missing
Phylogeny is a hypothesis about the evolutionary relationships between organisms ‐ a hypothesis well
supported by the data
May be more that 1 proposed phylogeny
May change as more data become available
SYSTEMATICS
Field of biology dealing with diversity and evolutionary history of life
Includes taxonomy: DINC
Description
Identification
Nomenclature
Classification
Goal: determine TOL – evolutionary history (phylogeny) of life
1. Description
Assign features
Character: a feature
Character states: two or more forms of a character
2. Identification
Taxonomic Key: dichotomous key
Cladistics: phylogenetic analysis or a combo of both
3. Nomenclature
Hierarchical Classification: broad to narrow
Binomial Nomenclature: Genus + species identifier
4. Classification
Placing objects
Taxon: a taxonomic group
Phylogenetic Trees
Same number of taxa (3)
Same number of nodes (2)
Same number of sister taxa (1)
Rooted and Unrooted Trees
How do we root a tree?
Ingroup: group studied
Outgroup: group not part of ingroup, used to root tree
LECTURE 2: UNDERSTANDING RELATIONSHIPS THROUGH PHYLOGENY
Dissect/Describe the Phylogeny
1. How many nodes?
Five nodes
2. How many terminal taxa? What are they?
Six terminal taxa (other even toed ungulates, hippopotamuses, cetaceans, seals, bears and other
carnivores)
3. Describe 1 specific relationship highlighted by the tree
Cetaceans and Seals: convergent evolutions (Analogous)
Hippo and Cetaceans/ Seals and Bears: sister taxa
Other even toed ungulates and hippo: paraphyletic group
Cetaceans and Seals: polyphyletic group
4. Circle the most common recent common ancestor of cetaceans and seals. Why would the ancestor not
be a part of a cetacean – seal group defined by body forms?
Cetaceans and seals converged to adapt to marine environment
But the ancestor was a terrestrial organism
CHARACTERS
1. Apomorphies
Taxa are group by apomorphies
Derived Characters (traits): are the results of evolutions (characters not found in common
ancestor)
adaptive features
Taxa sharing apomorphies underwent same evolutionary history should be grouped together
Scales (ancestral feature) ‐> feathers (derived feature)
2. Synapomorphies
Shared derived characters (for groups/ sister taxa)
E.G. Koala and Dingo
Anal and urogenital openings separate Synapomorphies (indicate that koala and dingo
Mammary glands with teats are more closely related to each other than
Egg shell absent either is to platypus
3. Autapomorphy
Each branch of a cladogram is supported by one or more synapomorphies (for individuals)
Each taxon has one or more unique characters that distinguish it from other terminal taxa
4. Sympleiomorphies
Ancestral character
Plesiomorphic character or plesiomorphy
Shared plesiomorphies (shared ancestral traits)
Sympleiomorphies
E.g. platypus, koala and dingo – hair, internal fertilization and suckle the young
They are shared among all the members so do not show the pattern of relationship among the
taxa
1. What is the context (reason) of the researchers investigation?
Wanna know how much meat is legal
2. What data was udes to create the phylogeny depicted?
MtDNA sequences
3. What conclusions can you make?
Not all meat came from legal sources
4. Did they use all of their own sequence data?
Collected and sequenced their meat and then they used the known sequences that were published
Homologous and Analogous Characters
Homologous: same structure, different functions ‐> divergent evolution
Analogous (Homoplasy): different structures, same function ‐> convergent evolution
LECTURE 3: PRACTICE AND APPLICATIONS OF PHYLOGENY
Impact of Horizontal Gene Transfer on Interpretation of Phylogeny
Vertical Gene Transfer ‐> Parent to offspring
Horizontal Gene Transfer ‐> organism 1 to organism 2
Other considerations for interpreting Phylogeny
Oscillating selection: Traits can evolve in one direction, then back the other way
Evolutionary reversal: process in which a species re – evolves the characteristics of an ancestral
species
Molecular Clocks and Measuring Evolutionary Times
DNA as a ‘timer’ – as every mutation (insertions, deletions, substitutions) represents a certain amount
of time
Adverse Mutations: adversely affect the function of a critical gene are eliminated by natural selections
If neutral changes accumulate at a near constant rate, they can be used to measure evolutionary time
– act as a molecular clock.
Estimating Time: Rates of Change in Genetic Code
No single molecular clock: different segments accumulate mutations at different rates
‐ Allows investigations of different evolutionary timeframes
High rates of mutations: DNA where base substitutions accumulate rapidly – mitochondrial DNA
(mtDNA) and chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) – useful for phylogeny of closely related organsims
Slow rates of mutation: highly conserved regions (ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes) ‐ useful to study back
the origin of life, 4 billion yrs ago
Molecular Clocks
The molecular hypothesis states: Among closely related species, a given gene usually evolves at
reasonably constant rate
These mutations events can be used to predict times of evolutionary divergence.
Therefore, the protein encoded by the gene accumulates amino acid replacements at a relatively
constant rate.
Competing Phylogenies: How to Decide Between Competing Hypotheses?
Principle of Parsimony (Occam’s Razor) – simplest explanation
The simplest explanation accounting for the observations is the preferred explanation.
Select the phylogeny that requires the fewest evolutionary changes
Maximum Likelihood – most likely sequence of events
Mathematical modeling describes rates of DNA change over time
Represent most likely sequence of events
Incorporates more info about evolutionary change than do parsimony methods