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-JOHN -FRYER*
CHINESE- LIBRARY-
 A CJvAAl.MAK

i>K TIIK

CHIXE^E COLLOQUIAL LANGUAdE

COMMONLV CALLED THE

MANDARIN J) 1 A J. KCT

i;»

JOSEPH EDKINS 1]. A. I.ond.

FOREinN A8S0CIATB OP THB KTIINOORAPIIICAL SOCrETY OF KRAXCBi

OK TDK

L(»NDON MISSION AUY SOCIETY

TKKINCr.

SECOM) KDlTlOy.

SHANGHAI:
I'itfASnVTKr.FAN MISSION pRKSS.

1864.
 '»

V
 Main Lib.

JOHN FRYER
CHINESE LIBRARY
 y^;^^ /^ ^

£2?
^

PREFACE.

In this edition many corrections have been made.

new In pronunciation
a fuller exhibition of the northern sounds as heard in Pckinfj and Chili will
be found. Some new northern idioms have been introduced, and an attempt
has been mad«i to distinguish such idioms as are exclusively northern or
southern by notes wheie they occur.
The Mand;i'-in of INI. Hazin, and the Hsin Ching Luof Mr. Wade,
Grammar
have snpplied some- valuable assistance.
The results of further inquiiies into tiic laws of tones and accent in th^
Pekinc? dialect have been embodied.
If the first part of the work looks forbidding to the beginner on account ol
the pliiioIo<rical discussions it contains, he will find no lack of simple exam-
ples in the second and third parts. Ry first studying those portions where cx-
amp'tis aboun 1 he will he supplied with many modes of expression useful in
daily life.

The plan of the work embraces the northern and southern m-nvlarin. This
renders it impossible to be uniform in orthography, in m.my instances
where the sound differs, the northern and southern form of it have both been
4
given
writing for himself to adopt such modifica-
I

The reader is rccommendod in

as are rendered n(>cess.iry by the dialect of the native who is
tions in sp<'llinir
his instructor in the lanmi.ise. If he has a Pekinese teacher it will not be ne-
cessary to maintain the distinction between the initials h and * where they
coalesce in the metropolitan dialect, as they do before the vowels i and u.
The same remark may be made with respect to is and /.• which coalesce,
and b<comc nearly r/t, befor*; the same vowels and u.
i It will Ixj more

convenient to write the one h or s, or hs. and the other ch uniformly. Na-
tives of Tientsin and Hankow al.so pronounce in this way. Hut in writing
in the dialects of Chefoo and Nanking it will be requisite to keep h and s
separate in all cases, as also is and k.
IX

i»Ki:i'Aci: TO THi; nus'r kditiox, isjT.

'Vho study ol tilt' CliiiiC'se latiguaiix- i:s inuc}i too extensive to be convenient-
ly comprised witliia the limits of a siriirlc work. The eliicid.-ition of one por-
tion only of Chinese irrunmnr has ()een undertaken in the present work, viz.
that ol llie mandarin dialect. The field thus embraced coincides with thai of
}*remare in tlie first part of his work, and with the second division of J?cnni-
sat's L^r:inmi;a\ I v<'ry much regret that I have not yi't s^-en .M. Hazin's work
on colloquial mandarin, published this year. 'I'he manner in which lhi^ author
prefers to discuss the spoken languaire, is however clearly seen in his earlier
brochure on the same subject, given to the public several years sine;.'. His
aim has b<'en to exhibit in all their copiousness and variety, the laws of com-
bination existing in cfroups of words, and lurther to trace the origin and pro-
gress of the mandarin language by means of its literature. This mode of
treatment is in harmony with the advancement of mod(>rn philology oroncrally.
and has resulted in several valuahh^ contributions to Chinese philology in par-
I iiular.
TIk; works of Morrison and Marsbman on the grammar of this language,
(ail to convey to the mind of the student, the richness of its idioms, and the
extended development of its p-jculiar principles. Tbev were not aware of
what their predecessors had already accomplished, aiid consequently spent
seviTal years in acquiring such a knowledge ol the subject, as may now be
gained in one, by means of Premare and the otiier helps since place^l in the
liands of the learner.
Pr«'Mnan' liimself with all his breadth of view, learning and ta-5.te, lived too
early to be influenced by modern iniprovements in the study ot languages.
'J'hat part of his treatise which is occupied with the mandarin dialect, ischiefjy
a dietionary of ]");u'ticles with copious examples of their use. Invaluable as
such a work is to the student, it is nt)t properly speaking a grammar, nor did
the author adopt I'or it that •itle.
The province of the grammarian I imderstand to be, to find out the laws of
tb«' language, and arrange them in the most natural and convenient manner.

It has lM>en my endeavour to do some little towards realizing this conception,

but practised comparative philologists must study Chinese grannnar closely,

before a treatise upon it free from blemishes can be composed. Ere long pro-
bably, well-qnalified scholars in Europe, will pursue their researches in 'liis
lic^ld. and m the ct,gnate languages sj)oken in the Hirman jjeninsula. If so
the best mode of arranging the <rranmiar oi a monosyllabic language will re-
ceive full COILS iderat ion.
That scholars of high reputation still forjn erroneous viows of the Chinese
languairt'. may be seen in the manner in winch Dr. K. ]\ Bokker speaks of
it. in his profound work on the OrgJuLsm of language.* He says, "'I'he old-
* Organism dor Sprnclie, von Dr. K. F. Bekkor.
 IIJ

rst history ol" the and orolliLi iiiunosyllubic lanjiuagos is uiialtttiiuible

(.'liiiiese

l«v US. \\ t' not to a position evc-ii to coiijectun' with any prohnbihty,
art'

what tloviutions from early development, or what outward causes, liave occa-
>ioned in these lanqnages the early and entire loss ol' inflLClions, or their ori-
triiiul absence. IJut the whole organic structure of tluse languaiies, is less
perfect than that ol'laniruages having inflections. Vet'' he continues. '' philo-
logy ni.iy obtain valuable illnstrali()n.s from abnormal langnaees, just as phy-
siology i£ains information from misshapen orLranisms in the animal world.''
A better acquaintance with the (.'hiaese language will probably lead to the
abandonment of such words as ''abnormal '" and ''misshapen." in the descrip-
tion o( it. It will rather be spoken of, as possessinij a very copious and ad-
mirable development of the principles of monosyllabic language,— as indeed
the most perfect example of that class o( languages. Comparative philology
has hitherto directed its efforts too exclusively, to languages whose words
consist of a root and some addition to or modification of the root. The Chi-
nese must be regarded as the best type ol those languages, which do not admit
any modification of the rool. but allow the appendage of auxiliary words un-
der a strict law of limitation. The scientific investigation of it is adapted to
throw light on the strncmre of a language like the Fiiialish. The lOnglish
occupies a middle ]>osition between the classical LiUropean languages, and the
monosyllabic languages in Asia. To the former, it is related by its tense and
case endings etc. to the latter, by its formation ol compounds and its auxi-
;

liary verlis, etc. 'i'onic pronunciation also is found more fully developed in
(^hina than elsewhere, and a competent knowledge of it as there existing, will
lead to a better understanding of the local accent found in provincial dialects
of Cnglish and othfM- modern languages, and ol the syllabic accents of Greek
and .Sanscrit.
The line of distinction drawn in the present work, lietween natural tones
belongjnij to the dialect of a city, and tone-classes extending over several pro-
vinces or the entire empire, will be found essential to clearness of views on
the suliject of tonic pronunciation. The sketch here attempted of the origin
and growth of the mandarin pronunciation, of .secular <'hanges in the tone-
classes, and of the older form of the languag(\ as it was l''om about the eighth
century upwards, will shew that the earliest history of this language, is per-
haps not ''unattainable." The description of native mandarin diciionarie.s,
and the notice at the end of native researches in philology. ^'iH shew that the
Chiin"-o have airearlv doiv no little to aid foreign siMinlnr^ in tlios'> iuvestiorn-
tidif^.
In' the department of etyuioloey* the auxiliary substantives, and the remark-
able development of the verb, have received particular attintion.
I still feel some uncertainty as to the distinction to be preserved between

etymology and syntax but such deviations as ore here observable, from the
;

plan of a former work on the Shanghai dialect, will probably be regarded as

improvements.
Tin- examples have been taken jiartly from the lips of natives, and jtartly
from l)Ooks in collociuial mandarin. Two works, tlie Sarrrd Edict Cnl/ot/i/inl-
i zed nnd the Dream of the lied f.at?ibcr,holh written since the timeof Pre-
(.

mare, have furnished a eoiisi(l( rab!'' nnmlxr of them.

In reffard to the spellmg of the rhinese sounds a few words are here re-
quisite. Inaccuracies in preceding works on the langnncre had to be corrected.
In Prcmare for example, the syllables pxran, c/ii.jht and chil had to be alterL'd,
to p'ni, c/ii, jen and c/m, in the ortlioi:raphy of this work. In .Morrison, the
syllables shcii, ?nun, and chnrj^. needed to be changed into shau. men and
clieng. Tiiese chanires, and otbers of the s;imc class, will possibly be objected
to by those who are accustomed to follow without questioning the sounds of
these writers. But they are necessary for correctness. Premirc appears to
have betMi inflnenced by the dialects west of Nanking, and ^Morrison by those
of the southern provinces.
That such improvements as these should not have been made till the present
time, IS a convincing proof that a reform in our spellin;^ of Chinese sounds is
mucli wanted.
In adopting Sir "William Jones' mode of spelling, as proposed in the Chinese
Repository, some modifications have been introduced to obviate the frequenl
use of accents.
In preparing the present work, while J have been far from indifferent to the
advancement of scientific philology, in application to the Chinese language,
my liighest wish is that it may be useful in opening the treasures of the lang-
uage to C'hristian Missionaries. "With the hope that it may in some liumble
degree, aid in conveying religious truth to the Chinese nation, I commit it to
the blessing of God.
 T A1]L K F r N T K NTS.

PART T— ON SOUND. Tp. 1—%.

cnAPTEn 1,

Alphabet aiul Tone Symbols. pn^cl

ClIAl'TEll 2.

Systems of M.irdarin Prouunciation, central, northern and western. pa^c 7

cnAPTER 3.

On — Natural Tones. — List of Natural Tones

Tones. witli tlieir modifications. — On
Tone-classes. — Their provincial — Characteristic of Short-tone
variations. Word.s.
Natural Tones now the niaiulariu-speaking
iu u.^^e, in — Examples cities. for practice.
— On Accent. — On the present of "Words among the
distribution Tone-clasijes.
Table of "Word.s that have changed from the second to the third Tone-class, page 10

rUArTKR 4.

Oil tlie Initial.-;. — Ti.nal variations. Native system.^.

— "Work of Chcu-teh-t'sing. p. 31

OHArTER 5.

Our the Finals. — —

Systems of native author.s. Table of syllables. Number of .sounds. —
— Local variations in the consonant finals, —
in the vowel final.^, in the short-tone —
finals. —
Len^^thening of word.s in the short tone. —
Table to find the modern tone-
class, of words formerly in the .short-tone class, for the Peking dialect. Examples —
for practice. —
Table of variation.^ in vowels in words of the fourth tonc-cla.«s'<, in the
l>riueipal Mandarin Dialects —
Faults in Mandarin Dialects. P^gc 41

ClIAl'TER G.

Native mode of Writing Somul.-;. —

Dictionaries of Local Dialects. — Syllabic Spelling.
— Phonetic Characters. —
Modern Alphabetic Writing. png<^71

CHAPTER 7.

On the Age of the Mandarin Pronunciation. page 79

VI

illAI'TKU 8.

On the Partnt Stem of the Mandarin and other modern Dialects. — Its aljihabetic ele-
ments. — Its partial rt-tention in variuus cxi!^ting Dialects. — Table of the principal
vowel changes. —
Traces of old .rounds in old native works and translations. — Secular
changes iu Tones. page ^4

PART II.— THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. Pp. OG— 21S.

(•HAPTEU 1.

Iniroduotory. — A of list Mandarin Particles. — Native Literature in the Mandarin

Dialect. — Subdivisions iu Style page 00

CnAI'TEIl 2.

On Words. — Old words in modern u.<«e. — Changes in words. — Arrangement, page 100

CIIArTKR 3.

Divi.sion of words into Parts of Speech. — Indeterminateness of this division. }>ago 105

CHAPTER 4.

On the Substantive — Formation of Compounds. — Aiixiliary suffixes. — Different Kinds

ofMuuns — Sex and Gender. — Number. — Ca.se. page 107

CUAriER f).

On Auxiliary Substantives or Numeral Particles. Classification. — — Distinctive Numeral

Particles. —
Significant Numeratives. Collectives. —
Numeral — l^articles to Verbs.
]'age 127
CHAPTER 6.

On Adjectives. — Corapari.son of Adjectives: — Comparative. — Superlative. — Numbers.

— Further rcmaiks on the Degrees of Comparison. page 143

CHAPTER 7.

On Pronouns. — Personal Pronouns. — Reflexive Pronoiins. — Demonstrative Pronoims.

— Interrogative Pronouns. — Relative Pronouns. — Distributives. — Pro- Indefinite
nouns. — Adjective Pronouns. — Substitutes Pronoun.s. for page 157

CHAPTER 8.

On the Verb. —
Formation of Compounds: Co-ordinates. — Auxiliary words- —
(Jroups —
of two. —
(Jruups ofthree and four. —
Atfirmative and Negative Groups Groups form- —
ed by Repetition and Antithesi.s. —
Different kinds of Verbs. — Modes of Verbs. — Par-
ticles of Time forming Tenses of Verbs, page 172

CHAPTER 0.

On Preposition? and Postpositions. page 197

 vn

ciiAni:!; U'.

On Advorlts. — — Adverbs of Manner, —of lutonslty

Cuuii>uiuuls. and Quantlt}-, — of
Plaee and lUrectiou. — Affirmative, Negative and Knipliatic Particles, page iiOl

1 IIAI'TKK 1 1.

( )ii ('..iiiuiicfiniis. — Adversative — (\>njnmti\ — Causal. — e. Illative. — Ilypotlictioal.

page lil-i

I IIAIIKII 12.

^litfecllaucuus Partieles and lutcrjeetiun.s. page 217

I'AKT 111— ^•V^'TAX.

lll\l•TKli 1.

On (Jovernnient - - page 218

1 IIAITKI: '2.

Infltionte of J\)sitii)n on the Parts of Speech. — Sub.stantive.s. — Adjeetives. —Verbs.

Preposition.s. — Adverbs. page 219

' iiAiTKii ;!.

lleduetiun and Expausiou. P^g^-' --2

rilAl'TKK 4.

Internal S tract ure of Giuups. —

Governnn'nt in (jroup.'^. Antltlie.sis. Repetition. — —
—
Order of Speeics and (Jenu.s. Order of Matter and Piirni. -Order of Natural Prio- —
rity. —
Order of Time. —
Order of Arbitrary Choiee. Order of a I'roposition. —
Variation in Order. page 224

• IIAI'TKK 5.

External ll'lation.>i of ( IioajL-j. — In.separable (!roup«. — Separable Group.s. pngc 2o2

ntAl'TKK 0.

Ou *in>ple Propositions —
Extension of the Subjcet. Extension of the Predicate. —
Extoo.siuu of the Copula. —
Commands and (juestious. page 237

CIIAl'TKU 7.

Subordinate Sentences. —
Cireunistantial Clau.scs. The Object as a >'eparate Clause. —
Relative Clausets. —
Final Clause."*. Explanatory Clau.ses. — Comparing Clauses. —
Clau.-)cs expressing Similarity. —
C«)nditional (clauses Superadded Clau.'ies. i>. 2l(J —
(IIAITKR 8.

Co-ordinate Sentences. —
Simple Couneetiou Councctivc Particles. —
Sentences with —
Adversative Conjunctions. l)i.«jun<-tive —
Sentences. Illative and Transition Sen- —
toueca, —
Uuestious cousistiug of two Sentences. Comparison. —
page 255
Till

niAI'TKK .'.'.

Ellipsis aud Ploouabin. jtago "JO 1

CIlAriKI! |(».

AutitliC'sis. j)!igc.' 203

CirAPTKU H.
llliytliiuus. ])ag<! 20")

APrHNJ)lX I.

Ou rcccut Philological researches in Cliiua. — 2soticc of Authors. page 267

APPENDIX II.

Ou Alauduriu Literature. pugu 209

APPi'LXDIX III.

Ou the Southern Mandarin Dialect. page 278

RULES FOR USING THE OllTIlOCillAPHY HERE ADOPTED.

1. The five vowels i, c, a. o, u, in an open .sellable, have the Italian sound. They are
the vowels contained in the words feel, fail, fatlser, foal. fool.
2. The vowels i, c, before n and ng are pronounced as the vowels in fin, fun. IJut
after i aud y and before u, the letter e is to be pronounced a.i e in sent.
3. The vowels a, o, u, in closed syllables are the same as in opeu .syllables.
4. ^Yords iu the fourth tone-class (juh sheng) are terminated by h, to indicate that the
sound closes abruntlv thou2;h without an articulate consonant.
5. The symbols ii, e, are pronounced as c in lasscl, u in the French word ///, and
i',

the first c in there.

6. The unites k, t, p. f, ch, thouirh sometimes a little softened in norUurn pntnuncia-
tiou, so as to .'iouud like g, d, b, v, are to be considered hard like the i'jngli.>sli conso-
nants k, t, p, f.
7. The aspirated consonants k', t', p', c'h, t's, are the corresponding mutes pron(mnced
with a dif^tinct aspiration immediately fnllowinf.' them.
8. IJefore the vowels i aud ii. the letters k and is, are in the Peking and many other
dialects heard as one sound, which appears to be approaching ch, but is not yet defi-
uitely arrived at that sound. Before the same vowels, iu the .same dialects, h and s
also coincide.
9. The marked iu the following manner: I. ,t'i; II. 't-i; TIT,
five tone-classes are —
t'i'; l^^ t'ih; V.
In Kiang-nan and the south, the regular four tone-classes are
.t'i.

subdivided into an upper and lower scrie.-^, making eight in all. In mandarin this
subdivisiuu extends gemrallv. unlv tn the fii^t which is subdiv ided iutit the first and
the fifth.
 A (JUAMiMAU
OK Till::

CIIINESK COLLOQUIAL LANGUAGE,

COMMONLY CALLED THE

MANDARIN DIALE C' T

I'AR'r \.~ON so USD.

CHAPTLK \.

Am'hahet and Tone Symhols.

1. ('oNsoNANTs. — Tlio foUowiiig syiiibols will be employed for consonants:

gutturals, /t, /:•, ii'^; dentals.^, t'. n; labials, />, ;/, tn; aspirates,/, h; sibilants,

s, nh.j^ Is, i^s, c/i, c'/i; liquids, /, ;•; semivowels, w, y.

p ^ ,kai, oughl. iTfJ jk'ai, to opoi. !<: ^ngni, to grieve.

li, bottom. IJ.;; I'l, boffl/.

tt
^ pu', 5/r;). ^^( 'p'u, the whole. ^^ \\\\\\ a grave.
,// ;fang, square. >7H Jiwan;^, desolate. y^ jsieu, elegant.

H/^ sheu, gather in. J{^ .jau, /A?<^'. ^12 'tscu, to wall:.

Y)\ jt'sieu, autumn, rJ cheu, «// round. •fill jC'lieu, r/7-a?/) out.

i'ij^ .leu, upper room.

v\
7Q
.

.n, son. m^ ,wan, /o bend.

^^ ,yru, sad.

The aspirated consonants /:'•, t\ ;*•, arc pronounced by inserting the sound
h, after the letters A-, /, ;/. To obtain, for example, the aspirated form of t or

;>, enunciate the word Tahiti, without the vowel a, and fiap-hazard, without the
initial hu These consonants, rare as they are in western languafjes, occur

A
2 MANIiARIN CIKA.M.MMJ. I'AUl' I.

extensively in those of southern and eastern Asia, and after snmo practice arc

as easily distinguishaljle to the foreicj;n ear, as they arc

to the native.

The consonant iii^, whether initial or final, is pronounced as in the word

/.•/??''•. Jt should jiavc a single letter as its symhol, but the Roman alphabet

does liot lurnish one, • jtfdoes not occur as an initial in tlie English language.

/.^1^<r""agiti.r*ata;/'. hag-, a- Citrons: harsh enunciation, apjiroaching before the

vowels /, 1/, to s, and inniany dialects coalescing with that consonant.* This

letter will also be used at the end ol words, as by many previous writers, to

denote that they take a short intonation.

/ is the French /, and might be written c//. It is sometimes in English

written z as azure, also si as in confusion.

Sh, properly a single consonant like ng, is written Avitli two letters for want
of a better symbol.

Ts and cit, with their aspirated forms, are the only compound initials, or

initials consisting of more than one consonant, found in Chinese words. Ch

formed of t and s/t, is written ch instead of ish for brevity. The aspirate in

these compound consonants, occurs after t, not after s, lor if t be omitted, the

aspirate cannot be pronounced. Ts is pronounced as z in the German

lano-uage, and as ts in Whitsuntide. Like ng and ;*, it does not occur as an

initial in English, and lience, as in the case of those consonants, some effort

is usually required by speakers of English, to attain the pronunciation.

2. Tn addition to the twenty two conso7iauts occurring in the mandarin

dialect, eight more will be necessary to express provincial sounds. They are
g, d, b, r, //j z, dz, dj. Tliey form a series of soft consonants, whose place is

next to the aspirated letters /•', iK dec. of the first paragraph.

The symbol // is used for a weak aspirate, whieh in some dialects accompa-

nies the common harsh aspirate of mandarin pronunciation.

/)/ is allied to r//, as g to /,*, dz to Is, *fcc. It is the English / as '\n jewel.

Dj and dz though really compounds of r/, z and / are for convenience treated

as single consonants, according to native usage.

Since the publiration of the
fir.st edition, Mr. Wade in his hook o( ex|HTiinenl.s, htis introduced
the represent the strong hissin<T aspirate desrrilicd almve. The peculiar nature of this
fij'inhol hs lo
aspirate is thus constantly before the learner's mind, hut I prefer for myself to keep the distinction be-
tween the two sets of wonU beginning with k and respectively. .i
 •ii.\»'Tf;u 1. AI.IMlAfUl' ANIi J'ttNF. SVMl'.iM.S. [i.

The pronunciation of Snellen and llangclicn havini;^ tljf:5(! eight eonsonants,

in addition to those ahove-mcntioned, possesses a Hcxihility and variety, which

do not Ikilong to the mandarin dialect.

o Vowel StCiN.s. — Tiie vowels required for expressinii^ the sounds of lh<'

Kwan-hwn, or mandarin pronunciation an- — i. e, r. a. o, n. Y. n and ei

I Din /

iSi//iihnls.
J'Jnu-lish Value. Examples of Use.

1 I ni marine. U ;Si, west.

i 1 m win-,'-. sing, iftar.

e u m sun. \:7t ,fen, divide. l-It: neng, r.f/«.

e, e e in there. she', cottage. pf shell, tonque.

,tMen, heaven. -^- snieh. snow.

a a in father, ft 'waug, to go. fpl p'..',/rr/r.

o o in lone, 'k'o, can.

u n in prune. ,tu, (dl. i|l 'tung, understand.

e ill tnsscl or in ,si, thinh'. / ,tsi, sister.

ample. ri: rar. /»M rill; I: now.

u u in plat. (Fr.) ^ii, must. 4^ lei in I, cAie/*.

ei ei in ein. (Ger.) wei', because tf.

4. W hen a large iiumher ot vowds is needed, as in writing provincial

sounds, accew/5 will be introduced according to the well-known system of .Sir

William Jones. P^or the mode of using the accents adopted in the j)rpscnt

work, sec the fifth page. No great inconvenience occurs from dispensing with

the accents in mandarin as will be found on trial.

5. Some reasons lor not adopting Dr. Morrison's spi^lling for the vowels

will be now given.

First. It is better to spell a single vowel sound with one letter than with

two, both for brevity and (or accuracy. In writing 'ku, ancient, or ,c*he, a

carriage, koo and ,c'hay, there is a sacrifice of analogy with other lansna^cs,

in the use of vowel symbols in favor ot our own irregular orthography, and

more than thi.s, there is a loss of time in writini:, through the inrreasod length

of the words.
4 MANDARIN (.KAMAIAK IWIVV 1-

Second. Dr. Morrison's spellinir i.s jiot unilorni. For rxainple, >clien,

tnic ; .men, door ; ^keng, watch, whicli have the same vowel, are written by

him chin, mun, kan^. So also 'chi, paper, tsr, self, tsi', limit, 'si, die, 'si, to

wash are written in his system incorrectly with the same vowels: thus, die,

tsze tse, sze, se. By adopting another symbol for the vowel sound contained

in the first, second, and lourlh of these words, this irregularity is avoided.

Further tV, to meet, kliS a sentance, having the same vowel, arc spelt by Mor-

rison yu, keu. By using the diaeresis y and c may both be omitted with ad-

vanta'^e. INIorrison spells .hwei, to return, and .wei, to do, two words which

exactly rhyme in their sound, in two modes hwuy and wei. So also the

former of these words rhymes according to the same author with JSP^suiand

^(B, jChui, which he spells suy, cliuy. In fact, ei should follow kic, hw and
ID, while ui is preceded by t, s, ts, ch, j, n and /. The voice passes quickly

over w as in "swerve," but rests on u as in "ruin" Two symbols lo^n^u are

tlieretore necessary, a vowel and consonant.

(i VowiiLs. —The symbols i, v., will be observed to have two sounds, ac-

cording as their position is at the end or in the middle of a word. The me-
dial lis always short in mandarin; the f^nal. except with the short intonation

is always long. Final ii, which will be used to indicate the short tone, does

not count as anything but a lone-mark.

For the short a of Sanscrit, represented in sun and^o^iby u and o, e is liere

employed. This agrees with the usage of Prcmare and other French writers-

If A or u were taken as the symbol of this sound, it would be necessary to in-

troduce the accent for long quantities, in a large number of words. The same
symbol e, will be appropriated to express the final vowel in .she, a snake, and
similar words, and the grave accent will be used to distinguish the vowel in

"^ cheh, from that in -i|'- keh. the former being pronounced as v in '-there,'

and the latter as a in ^^son."

The vowels a and o arc in mandaiin both long, whether as medial or final,

and are never shortened into the a and o of the English words hat, hot. Tiie

accent therefore is unnecessary for these vowels, except for provincial dialects.

Wln'ii " follows /

in words endiiiL'" with //, the sound ri;prri;ented is that
CHAPTER I. ALIMIABKT AND TONE SYMBOLS. 6

heard iii the Eii^^lisli words "men," "mend," e. 2:- 'ti<'ii |!^|4 a jjui/il. Tliis c

is pronounced «, in many parts i>f North China.

Perhaps the u^rcatest difficulty in framing nn ortho<rraphy for Chinese
sounds, is in findinsf a representative for tin' vowel part of the words rT, tieo,

s'C. foni\ tsr, a character, chr, Lnoipledv:c, \\ jdi, a <luij^ and siniihr words.
Tiio sound is easierto imitate than to writedown. It is produced hy enuncia-
ting the consonant without any of the common vowels foUowiuir, only taking
c:ire to m dvc the sound distinctly audilile hy a full expiration ot vocal hreath.

To express it in writing, a new symbol, viz. i is here employed.* l?y this

means, the insertion of z is dispensed with, and confusion in the use of i or e

is also avoided. A further advantage attending the use of a distinct symbol

for this vowel is, that .sounds such as |^^, p| ? [|^. pronounced shih, ji'h, chih,

can thus be more accur.itoly represented than by the spelling shih, jih, chih.

No vowel / is heard, and these words differ only in tone from the sound of

p^ shi, /^ chi, ifcc. To omit a vowel symbol altogether as in the system

of the Chinese Repository, seems to me uncalled for, since the sound answers

all the purposes of a true vowel.

7. In expressing the much larger number of vowel sounds found /;/ pro-

vincial dialects, many more symbols are needed, which arc o'^taincd l)y the

use of accents. The acute accent is used (or long vowels. The grave and
circumflex accents, with the diaeresis, denote other modifications of the vowel.

In the short tone, linal h is added, as also /r, t. />. when reqnired.

8. Vowels with Diacritical Mark.s.

1. i as ce in sec ; i as i in sit ; i as e in tassel.

E. e as ay in /kii/; e as u in but; as c in thore, t/irn.

A. A as a in culm; a as a in cat; a as a in man.

O. 6 as o in tone; o as o in lot; 6 as o in ffonc; o as Ti in Gothe.

U. u as 00 in fool; u as nfitll; n as n in nul (French); u nso pronounced

long ; d as u in but pronounced long.
• For the same vowel i may be ii»o<l if prefrrrctl. But it is »uggcstive of short quantity whirh is
an objcciion. matters not
It what symbol is employcti, if only the sound be known, and the symbol
s*'!^:!!^! 1h; suggestive of it.
6 MANDARIN (i RAM MA 11. PAUr I.

The sound here written i, may Ue ilhistrated further hy words sucli as ma-
son, Whit.mntide, where the sound exists after s and ts. To obtain it, the n

that lollows must be omitted.

9. This is the system, slightly modified, introduced in the Chinese Reposi-

tory several years since, and retained in other works issued at the Canton press.

The unaccented a is here made the symbol of a in liat, a sound not pro-

vided for in the Canton system, tliough often needed.

10. Comparative Table of Orthoghaphies. — The following table will

show how the orthoijraphy here adopted differs Irom those of Morrison and

Medhurst. Premare. Goncalves and the Chinese Repository.

 rn Al* TKIl 'i. SYSrKMS ok .M ANH.MIIX l*Jtt^Nr\riATlt>N. 7

1 I Tones. —Tlie only reiuaiiiinjr symlwls to be noticed arc those for tones.

Tlie Chinese use a small circle at one of the tour corners of the character to

mark the tone. Instead of this niarlc, a comma turned away trom the word
will be employed for the 1st, 2nd, '.ird and 1th tones, and a full stop for the
fifth tone. Thus i»j5 ii. (jW I'i,
|^ tM , fi} til. ,
7^ .t'i. The Chinese
n unos of the tone-classes, to which these five word.-^ respectively belonir. are

Jl I**
sl»''"i?
l'"'!,%
""j'*
_[l W ^li^"'ir sheng, ^ ^ff k'ii shcng, /^ ^:i^juh
sheng, and P hiap'ing. Hut for reasons stated in the chapter on tones
they will lor convenience be spoken of as 1st, 2nd, 5th, (fcc, in preference to
retaining the native nomenclature.

In illustrating the colloquial language from dialects where the tone-classes

are more niunrrous, full stops and double connnas may be used. In sucli

cases, there is always an arrangement in two series. For the ujiper scries

commas may be employed, fnll stops for the lower, and double commas for

other subdivisions. Thus, 71" sheng, 'pi 'shen<:, ^^ sheng, p^ .shih

'fj|(|i .sheng, 3l shang, _J2 sliaug-, li|^:jliien', ^ shih..

CHAPTF-R II.

Systems of Mandarin Pronunciation.

1. The native name of the pronunciation used at court, and in public ofR-

ces is kwan hwa, or iiutndarin* dialed. Tiiis dialect is in its essential fea-

tures, the common language of the people in the provinces north of the Yang-
tsi-kiang, in Si-chwcn, Yim-nan, Kwei-cheu, and in parts of Hu-nan and
Kwang-.>i. At least, there is sufficient similarity in the sounds employed
through this wide extent of country, embracing two-thirds of China, to war-
rant their being called by a conmion name.
2. If is usual for the people, while includuig the dialects of so wide a ter-

ritorv under the designation Inran liwa. to distinguish them bv locals names:
e.g. S/iantmig' kwan hwa, the mandariti spoken in Shantiiug ; but it is still

• The word mandarin, ihoiich Portujjurse in origin, u too convrnicnl to Ik* rwi^nod .is an V.nz-
lUh cqniv.ilcnt for Kwav. The term " court dialect " is not oxlrnnivi' cnoii;;h to nprocnt the public
colloquial medium of conversation in all [(ulilic offirrx throu;;'' '''•" fintry, nnd niiioni! thi- |>eop|e •

throujjhout twothirdu of it.

O .MA.NJiAlilN CiHAMMAH PAliT I.

correct to recognize the dialects of tlie provinces mentioned as Genuine man-

darin, allowance beina made for some admixture ol hlaiig tan, or provincial-

isms.

3 Naxking Mandarin. -The pronunciation of these regions readily se-

parates into tlirce systems; that of Nanking, of Peking with the northern

provinces, and of the wes'ern provinces. Jn the first of the systems, tlie words
are distributed into five classes, with a tone proper to each. The fourth of

these is short. The filth class does not admit the initials /•, /, y;, ch. ts with-

out the aspirate. The final ii becomes ng^ after tlie vowels o, i. No conso-

nant final exists except ;/ and //g, which is also true of all mandarin dialects.

The confusion of the finals ;/ and ng is not authorised by dictionaries, and

should be marked as a defect to be avoided. Morrison and other writers,

though professedly following the Nanking pronunciation, have been guided
by the dictionaries, and the Peking dialect, where natives of Nanking are faulty,
as in this instanc eaiid in confounding the initial n with /.

4 Peking Mandarin. — In the Peking dialect, ^ pj^" ching hwa, the

words offourth tone-class are all distributed among the other four classes, Avith

no rule but custom to determine into which they have wandered. The short
vowels common to this class, are all lengthened so as to admit of their being
pronounced with the long vowel tones. There is thesame rule as at Nanking
respecting aspirates in the fifth tone-class, but words transferred from the fourth

to that class, do not assume the aspirate, if it docs not belong to them original-
ly. The finals n, 7ig, are kept distinct from each other after all vowels, and
are the only consonants that can terminate a word. The initials /* and /,-,

when they stand before i or w, change to s and ts (or ch.)*

5 Northern Provinces. — The pronunciation of the ncighbourino- pro-

vinces is guided by similar laws. I3ut words of the fourth tone-class, in

changing their class, and lengthening their vowels, do so without uniformity.

Among the dissimilarities of the northern dialects, this is the chief Tiic ir-

Scholars who arc nativos ol Pckirur clistinijuish

the metropolitan dialect from the Kwan-hwa.
SoundN used and words found in i.rinted mandarin books, form tlie Kwan-hwa. i^ounds
in reading:,
not used in readin? and words not found in l)ooks are referred to the local dialect. Of iho i)rr.>onal
pronouns, npn. I, nl. 30U, are fvwnn-hwa, while vo and niii na arc Ching-hwa, the first of tfiesc last
inav on account of its almos>l universal use he called Ivwan-hvra.
—
 CIIAPTKU 2. SVSTK.M OK MANDAUIN PRONUNCIATION. 9

regular distribution of the short-tone words, nmonjT the other tones, is found
to extend southwards to the Yano-tsi-kiiiiiii: in llu-j)tli, but on the sea coast,
not farther than the mouth of the \'('llo\v Kiver.

6 Westeun Mandakin. — 'riiroui^h pohtical and teinpoiary arrangements,

the Peking dialect as that of the capital is the standard of Kwan-hwa, but true

philology must embrace in its researches the whole territory, where in its es-

sential characteristics, the same spoken laniruagc prevails. Accordingly a

tliird mandarin system must here be introduced. The Nanking and Pekinji^

dialects are at least as wide apart, as that ot Si-c-hwen is from either of them.
In fact, the tliree are varieties of the same great dialect.

In Wester)i Mamhirin, taking C'heng-tu-fu the capital of Si-c'hwen as the

standard, there are four tone-classes; they are the first, second, third and filllr

Words orisdually in the fourth or short tone-class, are here found to be all in

the fifth, without however assuming the aspirate after /.-, /, c)'c., properly be-

longing to that class, unless they had it originally.

The final ng, when it follows /, changes to n, so that sing ,

fainUij vavie
for example, has tlie same pronunciation as sin, to believe. Tlie same law

exists for the initials h and /.-, as in northern mandarin. Before the vowels /, w,

they coalesce with 5 and ^.s\

The same system seems to be spread throughout. a great part of tlie western
j)rovinces. It exists so far as respects the tone system, in Kwei-chcu and
parts of Kwang-si.

7 ('ritkrion of Mandarin. — From tliis analysis of the preceding dialects,

it aj)pears that mandarin, so far as sound is concerned, may be defined as that

system which has either five or four tones, has only n and ng for consonant
finals, and is wanlinor in the letters g^ d, 6, z, r, among its initials.

8 Standakl) of Mandarin. — l-^oreigners in writing Chinese sounds, have

usually adopted a mixture of the Nanking and Peking proniincintion as a

standard, and where it varies from the orthography of the national dictionaries,

as given in initials and finals, the latter has been sometimes followed.* In the

• It h.os hrcn silrntlv tnkrn for c'Tinlrd l«v • -- that the ort' '
v of (nodrrn Jiclionarirs
reprosoiils thr proniini'i.'ition of oilier tiiii's. > in f • mfv - tlictiunnries rcUin the
forj;otlcn sounds o( a tl)0U!ian(l vcam ajjo Mornv>n in pr> is vrrv useful syllatiir dir-iionary
from the native work Wu t'hc yun fu w ; n ..i ir.- that iLl i - ^ he followed were iiot Mandarin
at all, bnt «n obsolete pronunciation.

K
10 MANOARIN' GUAMiMAU. PART I.

present work, ali these modes ol proininciatioii, will be illustrated as far as

appears suitable to the character oftlie book.

The Peking dialect must be studied by tliosewho would speak the language

of the imperial court, and what is, when purified of its locahsms, the accre-

dited kwan hwa of the empire. It has not been selected as the only standard

of spelling in the ]iresent instance, because it is too far removed from the an-

alogies of the dialects in the southern half of the country. While many de-

tails respecting it will be found here, the form of tiie sounds hitherto adopted

by ioreigners on the principle of compromise, will not be abandoned. The

Pekinj? dialect is more fashionable, but that of Nanking is more widely under-

stood and is better suited by its central situation to the scope of this work,

which aims to collect and compare the characteristics of many dialects. The
Peking sound of characters, where different from that of Nanking, will be usual-

ly inserted in a parenthesis.

CHAPTER III.

On Tones.

Values of the vowels as used in this work.

Medial, i as in ring ; e as in run ;

a as in rather ; o as in roll ; u as in r?de

Final, i a^s in reel ; e as in there ; a as in rather ;

oas ia yoq ; u as in trwe;

u as in in ; i as in rattle.

1. In trcatino^ of tones, it is necessary to distinguish natural tones from

TONE-CLASSES. By natural tones are meant certain injlcxions of the voice,

and variations in time and pitch, used with vowels and consonants to form

spoken words. By toiic-classcs arc meant those word-groups, into which the

words of a dialect are divided, in order to receive the inflexions or other tonic

variations preferred by that dialect. The tone-classes vary in num])er from

four to ei<>-ht. The natural tones are upwards of twenty. From them each

dialect chooses arbitrarily a set sufficient to furnish an intonation for each of

the classes referred to. For example, in the Nanking dialect, the words are

distributed inio live classes, ;iiid a distinctive intonation is applied to each

 rilAl'TKK ."}. ON Tin: SAII l;\l v>\v II

thus j Ji -^- ni|i 'ji^ }j'\^ all written t'o, bclonjj to difTcront classes uiuuljcr-

ed from I to V, and roceivc dillerent intonations.

On the Natural Tonks.

2. Till" natural tones nrc the even or monotone, the rising and fjillin" in-

flexion, and the risini,' and tailing circnmncx. These five tones are donhled
in nninhcr by pronouncinir them ([uickly and slowly. IJy placing the ten in
tonations thus obtained, in a high or low key, they are still further increased-

to twenty. Four more are formed by applying the rising and falling inflexion

to syllables short in quantity, or terminated by a mute Consonant, or dis-

tinguished in some other way.

i. The ;/iono/o;te is identical with a note of a musical instrument, or the

sound ot a bell. Writers on elocution mark the monotone as that which should

be used in describing wlnt is sublime and awful. The long monotone is much
more used than the short, as an intonation in Chinese dialects.

ii. The ris^iyiff hijlcxion^ or slide of tlie voice upwards, is that modification

of sound, used in English to express indignation and astonishment when

placed in an interrogative form, also simple questioning and contrast. It may
be called the interrogative tone, but it has not this character in Chinese pro-

nunciation. It is a common fault of foreigners, in addressing Chinese listen-

ers to ask questions in the same tone they would erajjloy in Knglisli. This
should be avoided as giving a foreign complexion to the pronunciation. In-

terrogation is expressed exclusively by the words, and the syntax which com-

bines tliem. The most emphatic utterance of the interrogative or rising in-

flexion, cainiot make it interrogative to a Chinese ear. If it exists in his dialect

as most probably it wil 11)0 found to do, the words to which he applies it should
be noted, and the intonation in question carefully attached to them, and also

to all words in their class.

iii. The falling- ivjlexion is the tone applied in linglish conversation and
reading to emphatic assertion, admiration, expostulation, and scorn. It is also

used in sentences containing a contrast, and then stands in antithesis with the

risint' inflexion: e.g. " Professing themselves to Ije wise, tliey l>ecame fools."
\2 MANJJAIUN" (.IIAAIMAK PART I.

'^To-day? No, next week." The lorei^ner in proiioiincin? Chineso is prone

to make constant use of this tone in indicative and imperative sentences. To

remedy the constrained and incorrect elocution thus produced, some attention

should be given to discover, to which tone-class in the interlocutors dialect

this intonation belongs. It is perhaps the most easily recognized of all the in-

tonations. IJy exclusively employing it for words in its own class, a per-

ceptible advance will be made in clearness of enunciation.

iv. In reading Ihiglish the falling inflexion is commonly employed be-

fore a full stop, and the risinu: before a comma. The ri^iljig and fall ins- clr-

ciunjlex are compounded ot arising and falling inflexion, and of a f;illmg

and rising inflexion respectively. In English reading they express mockery.

In Russell's Pulpit Pilucution, the following passage is thus accentuated:

"And Elijah mocked the priests of Baal, and said, cry aloud, for he is a god.

From the description given by this author, it is clear that the inflexions he re-

fers to, are the same with those just mentioned as the rising and falling cir-

cumflex of Chinese dialects.

3. These compound inflexions are not so common in Ciiinese dialects, as

the two preceding. When slow they give a whining effect to a dialect. If

two intonations are appropriated to one tone-class, the slower of the two is

very frequently a circumflex. \Vhen a majority of the tones are quick, and
pronounced with decision, a dialect is said to be //,«?•(/, ying'. In the opposite

case, it is said to be soft, jwan or jk'ing (t'sing).

4. When tones differ in key, the interval is not usually greater than a se-

cond, or two full musical notes, for common conversation. In emphatic and

harsh enunciation, occurring in the elocution of individuals and in dialects,

this interval is sometimes extended to half an octave.

5. The nine words required in describing tones, viz. even, rising, falling,

circumflex, upper, lower, quick, slow, short, constitute a tone-alphabet, and

may as such be represented for brevity by their initial letters. Thus for ex-

pressing diflerences in inflexion, there are four symbols, e, r, f, c; in key two,

u, l; in time two, u, s ; and one more for short quantity, sh.

6. A correct nomekcl.vtiu;e/'>/- the natural tones must evidently be

CIlAl'TKR O. ON TIIK NATURAL TONKS. 13

one descriptive nf their natural character : while tlicit of the tone-classes

should be niimercial. The Chinese by usitig a nonienclalurc of the former

kind for the classes, without distinguishing them from the intonnlions with

wliich they are enunciated, have introduced a confusion into the subject, which

can only be removed by the adoption of a more correct system. Using the

initial letters according to the method here proposed, as symbols of the 21 na-

tural tones, they stand thus :

List of Natural Tonks.

]. q. e. lower quick even tone.

I. q. f. lower quick falling lone.

1. ([. f. c. lower quick falling circumflex.

1. ([. T. lower i[uick rising lone.

I. tj. r. c. lower ([uick rising circmnllex.

I. s. e. lower slow even tone.

1. s. f. lower slow falling tone.

1. s. f. c. lower slow falling circumflex.
1. s. r. lower slow rising tone.
1. s. r. c. lower slow rising circumliex.
I. sh. f lower short fnllimj tone.

I. sh. r. lower short rising tone.

II. q. e. upper (juick even tone,
u. q. f. upjK'r quick falling tone.

u. <[. f. c. uppfT quick falling circumflex.

u. q. r. upper quick rising tone.
u. q. r. c. upper quick rising circumflex.
u. s. e. UpjK'r slow even tone.

u. s. f. upper slow falling tone.

IL s. f. c. upjx;r slow falling circtunll<'x.

u. s. r. upper slow rising tone.

u. .s. r. c. upper slow rising circumflex
u. sIl f. upper .short falling tone.

u. sh. r. npjwr short rising tone.

14 MANPAHrX (JRAMMAU. PART 1.

On "in: 'J'onk-Classks.

7. The tone-classes or groat groups into whicli the words of the Ian2:uapfe

are divided for purposes of intonation are national, while the natnral tones are

local,

8. In Chinkse books, the tone-classes have the namrs p'ing, even, shang,

rising, k'ii. departing, and juh, entering, applied to them. When they are

more than four, they are distingnished by the words nppor and loicer: e. g.

shang p'ing, iqyper even tone : hia k-ii. lower departing tone. It is more con-
venient to number them, thus I, shang p'ing; II, shanij shang; III, shang k'ii

(c'hti); IV, shang juh; V, hia p'ing; VI, hia shang; VII, hia k'ii ; VllI, iiia

juh. In mandarin, class VI is part of II, VII of HI, and VIII of IV.
9. The native name for tone is 'feif sheng. sound. The names '"j**
p'ing,

J2 shang, -^ k'li, /\ juh were given when there were but four tones in

the language, about a.d. 500. They were so chosen that each name cxem-
plied its own class. The word shang has now left the second tone-class, and

passed mto the third. The division into an upper and lower series was a sub-
sequent moditication, occasioned by changes in the tone system of the langu-

age, and the words shang upper, and hia lower, were introduced to distinguish

the two series from each other. Words are distributed in the upper series

in the same manner throughout China, with very few exceptions. It is in the

lower series that variations exist.

10. The number of tone-classes contained in a dialect varies much in dif-

ferent parts of China. In the mandarin provinces the first five of the eight

just mentioned are in use. In the system of the national dictionaries four on-

ly are recognized, indicatincr thnt such was (he number in a.d. 500 and for

several centuries after, that beins the period to which those words belong.
Many dialects in the central parts of China at present have only four. Can-

ton has all the eisjht. At Amoy and Fnh-cheu the sixth coalesces with the

second. In the Ilak-ka (t^ ^) dialect, and its parent the Kia-ying-clieu

dialect, the sixth and seventh classes coalesce respectively witli the second and
third. In the Tie-chin dialect, the third and seventh form between them three

tone-classes. In this case the additional class, called k-ii sheng, is composed
 fMlAI'TKIl '.i. ON Tlir. TONr.-( l.ASSKH. 15

chiefly of words clscwlierc boloiiijin? to tho sixth and sovenlli rlassos. In

parts of llii-pi'h, ns at Ta-ye near Wii-e'hnncr, tho sovoiith class doos not, as

ill other regions whore mandarin is sj)oken, coalesce with the third : so that

althongh the dialect there agrees in general character with northern mandarin,
it dillers from it in havinir six tone-classes instead of five. At llwei-rlien,
where as happens in many dialects, the same words have a different pronun-
ciation wlien read to tliat which they have in conversation, the irrecrnlarities

in the tone-clnsses are very great. Tin- natural intonations applied there to

the classes in rending, differ from those l)elongin£j to the same classes in col-

loqnial nsa^e. The eighth is prononnced as the fourth in reading, hut in col-

loquial it pa.sses principally into the first, and partially into tho second. Words
of the seventh class, if they terminate in a vowel, pass into the eighth, if in a

consonant into the second or third ;

hut words of the latter kind often choose

n different class for reading, to that which they adopt for colloquial use. The
sixth class agrees as elsewhere with the second. This anomalous tonic deve-
lopment is accompanied, as is shewn on, further by changes equally irregular

in the vowels and consonants that form the remainder of the words.
11. In Cheh-kiang and southern Kiang-nan the eight tone-classes of the

more southern dialects are separated by alphabetic differences into two series.

''Classes I to IV, take as their initials k, t, p, ts, ch, either pure or aspirated,
with s, f, h, sh, w, y, and the vowels. All the other letters g, d, b, ilz, dj, z,

V, //, J. /, m. 71, 7ig, r, and the vowels and semivowels form initials to

classes V to VIII. The intonations applied to these classes usually agree in

inflexion but differ in pitch, the former series lieing heard a musical second

higher than the other. Such is the law of the dialect at Hang-ch(Mi. The
sixth class however is there not distinguished from the second in pitch or in-

flexion, but only in the initial consonants. In other dialects where this sys-

tem prevails, the seventh and eighth classes differ in pitch only tVom the third
and Ibuith. while the fifth and sixth vary in inflexion also: e. g. Shanghai and
Sucheu.
12. Tones .sometimes aff«3ct the ortiiography of words. Thus in the Fuli-

chen dialect, the finals

i<"» -MANDAKIN «;ilA.-\l.M AK I'AUl' I.

ung, iu, iii,:r, ti, iie, I'l, eiiij, ui, iiiifT, 6ng, i, eiig, ui, o, oil,

are changed in the third and seventh tone-classes to

ong, eu, eng, uii, oe, 6, aing, 6i, eiing, aung, e, aeng, aui, ae. aiu.

In the fourth tone they become

okj euh, ek, eiih, oeh, oh, aik, oih, eiik. auk, cli, aek. auih, ae, ainh.

13. Tliere are sometimes two intonations to one tone-class, one of which
is used it may be when the word stands alone, and the other when it occupies
certain positions in a group of words. Thus in Peking, words of the third
tone-class receive usually the intonation lower-slow-falling-circumflcx when
alone, but when quickly spoken and when they stand last in a collocation ot

two words, they are heard in the lower-quick-falling intonation.

14. The average distance at which the intonations applied to the tone-
classes are found to change, may be stated at 100 English miles. In the east-

ern parts of China, places at this distance, are found to liave dialects whose

intonations differ considerably.

On the Characteristic of Short-Tone Words.

15. In the short lone long vowels would be scarcely expected, yet they oc-

cur frequently. Each dialect selects its own vowels, long and short, to be used
in the juh-sheng, as for the other tones. Hence the diflerence between the short
tone and the others is not one of the quantity of vowels in most instances.

In the Nanking pronunciation a, 6, u, i", ii, are constantly found in the

juh-sheng, as in the words -g^ fah, ^ koh. f|L] shCdi, ^ chili (rhyming
witli ,chi ^P), ti. siih, ^ ch'iih.

16. In the tonic dictionaries of the general language, the juh sheug is dis-

tinguished frorii the other tones by the mute finals /,-, t, p. They also serve

for its peculiar mark in Canton. For the dialects of Tie-chiu and southern
Fuh-kien, some words in this tone are pronounced without the final conso-
nant. Foreigners usually write h to fill the vacancy. In such cases, the only
distinguishing mark of the tone, is the abruptness of the intonation applied in

pronouncing the word. Father north, where the final k only is preserved as
at Fuh-chcu and Shanghai, and where i, p, only liold their place as in Kiang-
 CIIAI'TIR "J. OX TUK SHOUT TON'K. 17

si, it is Still more necessary to rofT.ird the shortness oftlic intonation as the

characteristie of the juh-.sheng. At .Nankiiiir, where the mutt' consonants en-

tirely disappear, and many vowels are \<m'g^ the (luiekness of the enunciation

remairis as the only characteristic. At Suclieu, and in many of the dialects

near it. this is combined with a chanjrc or shortenina; of the vowel. Thus u

and i in the long tones, become 6 and i in the short. For examj)lt' j'}\^ jku,

"^ 'ki'i, /jZ l<u. j^Y lv«jli, nnd y'^ ki, if(i l<i, fi'G ki, f^ kih.

17. All these characteristics of the jiih-sheng, viz. the Jinal consonants, the

(juickness o( the intonation, and tlu; short quantity of the vowels, are wantinq^

i') the north nnd west of ( hina : so that this tone-class as a whole has lost its

individuality, and taken its place among the long tones.

Intoxatio.vs Now ivi Vhk.

IS. The inflexions of tlie voice at present api)lied to tlic five tone-classes

in the principal cities where mandarin is spoken, will now be described as far

ns they have been ascertained.

19. Mr. -'\Ieadows* has staled the Pkkinc; toxks to be. — I, shang ping,
high nnd even ;
H, shang, commencinjr low and rising still higher; III, ch'fi,

commencing low and sinking still lower ;

V, hia ping, conmiencing liigh and
rising still higher.

The following account di/fers but little from this. It has been drawn up

from the pronunciation of a native of Ta-hing, one of the two districts included

in the city ol Peking.

I. I'pp'T ([uick falling torn", or upper even tone.

II. Lower (juick rising tone.

Ill Lower quick falling tone, or lower slow falling circumflex tone.
I\ . Distributed among the other four.

V. I'pper (piick rising lone, or upper quick falling circumflex tone.

20. The following table, where the Roman numerals represent the lone-

classes, nnd letters the natural tones, will illustrate the thrne systems, at present

prevailing in the provinces where mandarin is spoken.

• Desultory Notes on Cliiin.

IS MAN'DAfllN' CiHAMMAK. PART I

Taule of Tonus in Five Cities.

8i-iii:;iii. Nunkiiiff. C'lieiig-tu.

Tion-tsin. Hwa-yanij.
Tu-liing. San-viit-'H- ^ Slinng-yuen. ^

^-1 11. (]. f. I. s. c. I. q. f. 'H 1. e. or 1. s. 1. ^ 11. e. or II. q. r.

n. q. ^ 1. s. r. J; u. q. f.
5 11. 1.(1. r. 1. (]. r. f.

sill. 1. .!• f. u. ([. r. ju. e. :: 1. q. r.

!,„ (,n. q. f. I.e. I.q. f.

I = sh. "t 1. q. c. or 1.
(J.
1".

o*^- 1. ,|. i-.^.^c. 1. q. r. \'c. ii.(|.f.A;c. \

^
y.
V. u. q. r. u. q r. 1. q. r. 11. q. r. I.q. o. orl q. f.

21. Words in the fonrtlt tone-class, are short only in central mandarin-

In the nortliern system they are divided

irregnlnrly among the other fonr

and in the western tiiey coalesce in all cases with the fifth class, or
classes

lower p'ing shcng. This last class whicli is new, is thus seen to be partly

established on the ruins of

an older one, as is shewn more fully farther on.

22 The particulars in the table here given, are taken from the lips of natives

of the cities and districts

named. In the pronunciation at Peking, I is sometimes

also heard 1. s. f. c; and V is also u. q. f. c. It is not uncommon

u c •
ITT is

Chinese dialects for two intonations to be appropriated to one tone-class.

in

23 The following modification.s will be found to take place in the Peking

tones.

1. \ word in shan,"' sheng' before another word in shnng shcitg takes the

upper quick iisin<r intonation, or that usually appropriated to hia pMng e. ^.

'si 'lien, wash the face is pronounced with the intonations u. q. r. and 1. q. r

2. When a word in c^hii shens, follows anotiier in cliii shcng it rises in

pitch, so that the intonation 1. q. r. becomes u. q. r.

3. There is a singular effect of accent, M'hon placed on the first of the two

words, in altering the intonation of the second. The unaccented word, Avhat-

ever bo its tone class, takes for its intonation a lightly pronounced low even mo_

notone. atid it is said by the Pekinese to have chaneod into shangp'wg: Ex-

amples |^' n v.n men, Magistrates' office :)g "fl^

ehe' Vo\ this

"^ f^
-^- \f]

.shen mo,
shr ts'in?, thinsr ^]l^X\\ 'hw^o c^hV, aosistant in trade

what >
5i "f ' '
'^^'^ *°" ^ S5 ^^^^' '•'• ^'^''^- 'T'lie last word in each of these
 CHAPTER 3. ON INTONATIONS.
19

conii)(»iind words takos the intonation 1. q. e. and is said to l>c in the fir.st tone
•1. \\ h.Mi /Q ri follows a word as a snliix, it is ollcn heard as a final ;•

forming a pa-t of the preceding word. Its lone is then lost in that ofth,; word
to which it is joined. I-^xamjm.k.s ~j' t'snn ri or t-.snr', a„ inr/t j^ ~^' ^^^i

<;ang .ri or I'.ar | |

men .ri or .nier, a door iU.j 'mar, a horsc—^Ji ^i^ j;
^tj^Mi

.ri, or i' 'tier, ti little, a little more.

24. Conversation with individnals from man y j)arts of the western provinces
led me to the belief that the fonr tone-classes (the J Vtli cunntini,^ as part of the
A'lh), receive there nearly the same intonations over an e.xtent of conntry em-
bracing two or three provinces. The symbols given above for C'licn^-tu the
capital of Si-c'hwen, answered for many otiier dialects in that
part of China
25. The intonations in nse at Tsi-nan-fu, the provincial
capital of Slian-
tung, n.s taken from the lips of a native of that city, are the following
:— I. u.
0. n, n. ti. r. Ill, 1. s. r. IV, distribnled among the olliers. V, u. (i. f or
1. s. r. c.

20. In writing down natnral tones with appropriate symbols

in the mode
already explained, it is necessary to state the native city of the
speaker, or that
of his school instrnclor. In the examples given here, the district
to wiiich he
])elongs is mentioned In large cities snch varieties in pronunciation
.some-
times exist, as to lead the people to say that two dialects arc spoken
within
their walls.

27. In listening to tones, a variation will sometnnes be hciwd in

the enun-
ciation of the same word. The proper tone of a word is that given to it
wjien
.'it'xnding alone and uttered with distinctness. If another is observed to
be at-
tached to it, it will be on account of quick speaking, or of the word
occupying
a particular position in the sentence or grouj) to which it belongs. Further
examination will shew whether the word is capable of receiving two natural
intonntions in nil positions, or only in some one. Of course, the limitations
under which any one word is found to Imj placed in regard to change
in tone
belong to all words in the same class. In these matters each dialect
has its
own peculiar laws, to discover which requires long and careful observation.
A like distinction l)clongs to the (piantity of vowels in (ircek and I,.-,(i„ poetrv
20 SlANJ^AlilN tiUAiMAlAli. fAKT I.

they mny be lonsr by nature or l>y position.

28. It u learner does not wisli to confine himself to any one dialect or any

one teacher of the language, he may safely neo-lect the tones. His intclliiribj-

litv wi" depend on his connnand of conversational idiom. In sue]] :i ca.se,

his position Avith natives to whom ho sipeaks casually will be just tli.it of an

inhabitant of C-heng-tu-fu, or any other distant city, conversing with a native

of Pckin"'. The intonations differ and the meaning is learned from the ar-

rant^ement of the sentence, and the general resemblance of the sounds in re-

o-ard to their vowels and consonants.

When the same persons arc conversed with day by day, the imitation of

their tones is essential to quick commmunication and tlie prevention of mistakes.

The necessity of repeating the idea in various ways, with the help of signs

addiessed to the eye, is thus avoided.

A little pains in noticing a teacher's intonations and imitating them, is more

than repaid by the incre;;sed power thus acquired of sustaining a connected
conversation, in which both parties understand quickly what is said.

29. Some examples are here placed, of words rhyming together but in cbf-

ferent tones, for practice with a teacher of the language.

rHAPTEU 3. ON TllK TONE-CLASSES. 21

30 Whoro tlio fifth class lias no word in these exam})lt's, it is becaufio the

initials k, t, r, en, unless they take an aspirate, do not oQcnr in that class.

When the first class has no word, it is because L, m, n, r, do not occur as in-

itials in that class. The e>rigin of these two laws will be subsequently discussed.
Exanijjlcs of words rhyniinjjj together, and having the same intonation are
here given:

,pien.]g;p fj,,!
p' ^^ t^s ^ik' (t^s)lHltt %l^M ts 7^ «
f^k (ts)

.nien^n ^ ,,• $^i: jjf&c' (t'sjKn.EHfjT^ h (s) Jg y }^l

l.ien'f^I. Jt p' :i; n p!ii 1

JM^ Mn.:;^Ck' (t's) li h (s) >^k (Is)
poh fil^p ; i p' ^ ni ^l f ?#1 ^d^llt t^ ^ 8 -ff ts
Further Exami'Les for Practice in Tones.

31 First Tone.

Ifll P'" fo spread out; /JU l^i'^j fo add; ^ kwa, a melon;

IKti, ^o/y; ArrWer

HI fci, ^jy///; rj|} t-i, (/

^ chui, to pnrsKc ;
^ k'wei, /oss ^ hwei, at^hcs ;

^* hii [sii], empfi/; /j tJ^ig sv/jmre; T/< i, to obey;

Ijf-I k-ai, <o o;ic/i; 51 * t;'huen, <o;3M< on; ]^ ken, to follow;

5^ shen, rftT^j M t'o, to draio] |Wj kau, ///yA ;

^ hweu, 6'<?<^>«W ; ic keng, ?/?o/t; ^ to, many ;

^ kung, puhUcJufit; ^k si, private, selfish; p)'^ swan, acvW;

t® yen, smoATj/oiflcco/i^c; I'i^"' «'^«/ ^ l»^i"> ''^ ^^''""^^ ^^P;

^& k'ieUj/o^t'rtt/orc^mu'inJ t'ung,iYj'«rea«o;ia6/f; it conveys the meaninrj

Second Tone.

up; y\' »"". mo///er; 5jf na, that;

Ifli pu, /o///
-51- kwo, /V«j7; S J^' to provoke; \L)C kai, /o c/R/n^rt.-

'•"'"•
M: si, /o (/tV; l^'i ". .^
'1
tsau, C'^yVy;

fJH tan,
^*
//« liver; S
-1-11
siang, /o /Aj«^:
I

^>» kin, ^'.7//^;

lui, 6«^/; I'U l<an, ^; </«;-6-; fl. wang, /o .-ry;

 MANDARIN (".llAMMAU PAllT I.
22

shew rcKurd la; reason; ^<^ kii (tsu). to raise up;

Jlp li, to isorern ; to

^ \.a\, old; J'l^O iii\.u,lip-^\:tf'C month;

throw
hi
^
t'C'H, to

"r
light;

%^' hil (su),/o grant; ^^ ^hc, to let go; to •^^'-'^

^-'''''A, ^lill-

air ay ; ntg:
proniise;

t'o, 5a/e; f r|? sail, ^o sjf^e;); l^ kwan to attend to : to

;;^
shencr, /o render ride;
;^ mien, aroiW; /or o-iyf'/^'
it

nieii, /o i;«//ow; needless; a province; p, linj, ^o /<?«^/.

f;]l-

Third Tonk.

7]/ pu, a s^e/?; ^^ ye, n/>A^-

^^pai, to worship; -i^lai. to carry ;

^^^ tsai, again; i /y^- k"\vai, quickly;

tsi; to sacrifice P^-

p^ pei, the back; HLk P"^'';

^'^ match; y^ tui, /o exchange;

-^ tsi, a character; '^ku (tsu). a^en/cz/ce; i k-il, /yo-o;

^^ pien, then; ^pcbaii, to stand;

p^ mian. a temple;
[llq^ kwei, <o kneel; |i]j|
nau, noisy; -^ 5\\, common; plain;

3^ sung, /o present; fin hwaj-MJorf/^ ,•

Tx sing, /Ac natural dispo-
4-'
p-an, to judge;
===;][* sheu, longevity; sition;

^^\\\e\^\.to think; to rend i^l tuu2:, ^0 freeze t'ung, /o /ceZ ;^a/«

aloud; )'j^ chano, ^/ic rising of //Z fang, ^o Ze/ ^o ;

^^ yang, /o 6r/y?^ ?//> ^^'^ ^'^^^ ; iC chanij, to rely upon;

to pierce; to prick; f i?f tsie, /o borrow yjj sfie, to shoot an arrow;

"filj t'si,
^vl^
kjeu, ^0 5at"e;
I-
\n, to forbid llfj iigdii.dark
^JlX.
,«.-

n^ hwan, ^0 ca/Z /o.- 1 ilk wan. (iccustonied;

Fourth Tonk.
+4-
(.pan), thin; ^IJ koh, to cut J.'^ t'ah, a pagoda
J^^: poll
;

5^ siiiehjS/ioir ; ^
vpij
kioh. a horn : nf^ t'oh, /o entrust to;

^ loh,;o?/;

^'»L shuh, r/y^e;

j^qj]

^j^*
choli, turbid;

hwohj //y//;^;
J
^>-;J

jx
lit,

h\vi\h,

p^^^i^ fo
slippery;

pluck up ;

t'sih, to paint ;paint;^\ tieli. /o/«// t/oif^j;

^P t'ieh. /y ;;a.v/e ;
) ;<]>

-f •-»

lij^ciiali. /o i///(/ : l''J\liir'li; to rest: t^niih, to seek

tl''- kcli. /o take away : to seperate; H4 P"^-''":

animal prinrij,al nfUfr.
 CIIAnKII rl. (IN ilU: Ti)Ni:-(LASSKS. 23

Fifth 'ro.M;.
"''"-
II'i' II""
lltl^ iniLii. t) hi' (h)ini : \\]^ man, lo hide: JJ '^^ ficn, tu sjtrtutl ,-

'Jm nan. r/////#////; -^Ijj Won, to rnn/nr/; Jj'f^ yen, severe :

^.j'- siiiii. /fj Ate/.-;

j[2l''^'""' "•'•'"'i Iy t'iiig, /o.v^)y>.•
'^I'l'' f'r'j -i^-
I'i: t'smar^ fo follow: ll'j^. k'nig, to left up ; \J[ liwang. y^V/ojr;

i'iC t'fii, /o^o towards, )T|[ lieu, tojlow: i^^ c'liau, « //t.vA

J-J: in;>i. /"y/// HI the ground 'jl|l l an, to vlay the lu'.i]>

H/ c-ljweii, to hand down: ."^j Ikui, to hold in the mouth •

j2i liien. string- of a musical instrument: —

AVOIDS I.N LOMIilXATIOX ARRAN(ij:i) FOR PKACTICi:
I.\ TONFS.

riUST TiXVK, ^"-

J; SIIANG I'MNG.

^-C 1^ ,kia,kiuen','jr//eanf/yfl/n////.-^<. A^l\ A&a ,%l family property : /Q

|>§ jlvwaiiir .y\n, {lis:ht and dar/:ncss) tijne:j[^ }]']' ,sin ,kan, {heart and liver)
the heart: '{i\ li\] ,h\ycn,yii],7narriagc:1i% j 7[; .shii 'si, /o co;/??> a/u/ ^f^a^A

one's self: J] ^ ~J .chuu's^hou. bcchon irith l/ir hand : flti

'7'* .shen 'shcu, to

stretch out the hatid;^^ jJH ,slicn "t'i, the body: j}^ ;y|s: ,k\va *k\vo, melons
andfruits: 7L 1^ .kwang 'kino^, appearance of things] '-y,^ Wj .tsiohu*

''to assist: 7\^ ^J;!, .t-ieii k'i' (Chi'), the weather; 7'' -^ yh'i tan*7o knoic

lUj m M'-o »o''iS " hindrance: \{\ [§ ,i kieii', as before: \\^i J\, ,sl)C

k'ien* (c'hien'), to sell on long credit;?^ jjj^ .t-sin vsih, relations by rnarriagc
and birth: ^\ \] .shenj? jih, birth-day; H '^ T\^ jSIkhi sJiih, to collert and ar-
range: 3C \V\ •iiU'.iiiHr'h (,sie), to rest; 1^< }]\x i Inli, rhthes :>fi^ lJV ,sin

pill, a new pencil: | i/Jl ,ya t'ou, « serving girl: k\J\ X, ,s'i , wen, refncd in

manner; ^ .]'
ffj ,shu ,fang, room for study :A^ )|l'p ,siii .slion, the mind. \li\^
fUjjkcn.t'sim-/. /o/o/Zo/c: ;]\ IH .kin .ii, a ^o/r//t.v//; ^jjt: |',','j \}'j yon .wo
,1'ani^, bird's-nest soup; ^»J/ ih^ ^>K

-p
•' '^'^^'O" -''i') ''^ car/// f'jr/-;
>l\f\j ^ ^fv
,t\van c-Iia.lai, to bring tea: "{jJ^ Jilt jnu yin 'tsi, to wrap up silver: ^X
P^^^ .shni^k''\{c'\i'i)M, to collect: y\l ';j l
'
Asu Aan-^'lsi, to Id a house;

m ^^ "J"* ,tiin«x, ku' tsi, ^)/)^ fT />?<f/(M/W w«w :

^'il /L 'V,t*sinliiun«xti,

an own youufjcr brother \\y I ^>\\\ \ As'uv^nV .'yn, a quick-witted man ; ^{^
Q -^"^ fipf .]n\i\.you'k'\>\n'u.pl'iuMihfeninh'ii.'<iin(nfjufftrn)-ds: y[_^ }(;
24 MANDARIN (lUAMMAU. *
PART I.

M> /[_,i^'in 'inan i" tsiili, wishes fully (j rat [fie d :

^-Jj /\< '\ij^ ~ZF^ ,fcUi .lai

full k'ti (c'liii), to turn round and round ] ^ Ij/j^. IH 3i j^ung .t'siau

,si waug', to look this ivay and that] ^^ 7^ f*' '

lUi .nirai .t'ien kiaii' ti',

caUinr/jyiti/idlf/onhcaveyiandearthfor aid :
Ha J ti /// ~f^ ,sheu sliih

.fang 'tsi, to put a house in order; Jn/ )[l'|l

.'UJ Tllj j^^i'i (cliii) .slien 'k'ien

(ch'ien) ,tsiang,^o coc7Te sjDiVzYs «?ic? commission {heavenly) generals; j\^

M hrJ T^C j^ii^ 'k'eu 'liaiii!: y^iis' ^intentions opposite to ivords; false in

his speeches; -^ ^VC J^T^ ^ ,kin -vi" 7^^^^^ 'v^^h (/old, silver, pearls and
other p>^'€cio%is th in gs.

/jif SHANG SHENG.

FiR ^ ^t'sing jiigan, to ask after a friend's health and prosperity; /y jlvf

'siau ,si, ivaiti7ig hoy; 1 Y^'ta' saw, to siveep; jl If^ 'ta t'ing, to

make inquiries about ; Ipv '

:^ 'cliweii jshen, to turn round; ^J^ ^ 'tien

jhiang, to light incense; ^ "T^ 'lau 'tsi, father; ^x ]x\^ 'pi 't'si, this and
that; ^* 'J^ 'kwan 'pan, to look to and protect ; ^>\\ n^/ 'chi 'ma, a pa-

per horse; \\X ]\H 'yiu 'tsieii, to drink ivine; IJ^ /y 'i-M\'^\im timid -y^^

^ 'tso 'shell, the left hand ; JL J^ 't'u c^hun, produce of the land;
V P ^^ 'hng siaii', sardonic smile; 3PX p5^ 'hwei pang', to blame and
calumniate ; /'[;yi p^f 'kan sie', gratefully thank; _^ ^^ 'sliang tsan',

reward and praise: %^ oT 'Invo ki' (c'hi), an assistant in trade; 3(T

^H 'hau ban', a {/oocZ/c7Zo?y ; -^ ^J5{ 'tsau fan', f/te wjonii'Hj/ ?«e«/; ^^
'teug lieu', to wait for ;
:^- Bitl 'weik'iih (,c'hu), {bent and crooked) hard-
ships; ]j^ >^\] 't'si k'eh (k'o'), now ; JJ ^^^ 'ta tali, fo se7ifZ; Wi @
'yen mull, suli, s?/»?7:>of7<!/3t'; 'sing ('sbeng)
^/<e e?/es ; 1]^ j'lljl.'t'i
"Tg ^j^
c^\i2\\,to inquire into; q± "^p 'wang .nicn, /a6f ^c'r/r ; v |j -^ 'leng .c'ha.

cold tea ; •^ )^ 't.sau .c'lien, m the mourning ; l;}\ [i^ 'tien .t'eu, to nod
the head; :\'\\ /\. 'ch'i .jen, a paper man; ^-p U^- 'wu .sliT, noon (11 A.

M. to 1 VM.):/lS 'iM liiii .niang, mother; /y '\^% 'J^ 'siau ,p'u 'tsi, «
smai^/ shop; ^. S f ^ 'tsen 'mo yang', ]/(^ }Ji^' :JC 'si 'lien 'shui, water

for wasliing the fact ;)yj 'jf^ /"[liy^ "iiang ,cliang 'clii, two sheets of paper; %
/V =^ 'lau .jen ,kia. an old man ; JJ 7(>\^
-j-' 'in kieh 'tsY. to fir a knot

-f J ]j] 1'^ ta sheu shih, ^u^vJti unaments in order; 3( t;^ yQ '^ii •^''^^
 rilAI'TKU 3 ON Tin: TONE-CLASSKS. 25

.ri, a girl \ Al iLi>» f' S' tso , si veil' 'siiiii;.';, ^o ///////.• ojvr (7 matter; ^\}l

^ Itfii
j^4 'i'"'i'i-^''"o 'l>'«i'i ,«',

ffrJ
wullcenst
"7/ ~T-"
and
i^
''^
iacsf;J\')i "(•
f> -l^t ^'ts'ii, pci
.c'ha .lai, bn'ixj <i rup of tai ; -^ /J ^\: pl\ 'shwa tau luiij;-, ,t'sianf^, to
|] I.! / '/
,1. ' ^ -J.
;t)/rty ?t'iV/i su'on/.s and speor-s :l^[ ||?/[l
X(J- .-^>. 'n,ai 'wan 'liau .c'lia, bu// a
vHj) <)/ (/()(><f fed ; /P J
j^J il I
'siau ,ya .t'cii .iirmi, ijouu<j scrvintj f/irls;

-^ 'Tr'l ^ '^ 'sii' k*'! .jell I<-ai!\, /(>/('>•//('/(</• y)^r.so7?«fo see; -^ jl} vj'
'hi ,c'huhi\vai%/o«(^ o/f/o/;<;/ oM^; ^ -^ JMv :^ 'fan puli tuiig' ,slien,

he on the contrary would not more.

TlllUn TOXK, ^ Jj^ K'i;' SIIKXC.

-p .A^ iiair .t'icn. {Jialf a dni) a cmfiiderahle time; yy j^ wai' ,i)ien,

oHt-siife; %^ >J>'i fu" ,t'siii, /W^//t'r; Jl[l "f-{^ chunijj^hwa, ^o/>7rn?^/oj<?er.s-;f:|?

T^P i>aii' ,clri, to iii/hnit of: ^^, g- nien' ,sliu, to rcadjjt ^ffjk'wiu' 'tsui,

(/ quiek fon(/ue;^jf .f||- pair 'li, arranfje for; manage; j^ ^' cliii- 'slioii,

stay your hand; ^=i^\v W, in the night;

^^ J"t,"ang' 'shoi, fo ivarm
one's hands with hot water ; ^ -j^ chc' 'lie. 7/(-;r; 'I'TI & si' '.sian<j;, fa

think earefidly of; til 'J -It k'iucir "clri, urge to stop; v'/L .LLk'wjiiig' 't'sie.

' and sti/l more; _£^ v^j shang' 'ma, ^> mount a //o>-sc;j=i" p/]*kan' su', fo /;^-

form; ^ ,^1,^ k'air hi' (si), /o^sce «2'A'//;]'-l lllj '' P^'i' ^^^ prej^ai'c he-

forehand; "^ ;v^' \\\\\'V i\ /o eomprehcnd; -j,( /rjici' yiing', expeiises

;

'^J
-4- tiii' tso', ^) sjY opposite; ]^ I'^s: wang hwai', /b^-^cf ; JJIH .^i^jiyiien' i'

willing ; i^^ lilj'

tsien' tah (t'a) ^> ^rew// doivn ;
^- y kau' jioli (]>ai), to

advertise jndtliely; ^^ ^;X •"iig' shall, /"o /.•///; Jlj- ^l l"'"' ^^>ih, honest
liberal; ^f^ /] V)' \\]\, strengh: /3<C I I
'"' j'"^'- (f<>/'"ss the days) make
shift to live; \-^] \ \
\)V men, to shut the door; "3 Ir ij
ying' .c'hcu, to

have intercourse with the world; returning civility for civilittf: y fllhia'
.k'i, j)lay at chess; y* ,•
|^>J |
kair .t'si, to say farwelf ;
~]i- '|
pj shi' .t'sinnr^

matter;thing ; -j\\i x)y( Is'iu' x'heu'^ enter a city; JMH ('L' J-hiiir .f-surig. to

comply with and obey; yC 'i^ m* ^^^ ''^^" -y^^- honound sir; j^ ^< ]y^
hwan' jifuh, ^> (7m7/;/e owc'« (/re**; -MJ, \t j chc' hwei' 'tsi, /or thin

time; ^^ i^U. ^^fC sung' kwo* .lai. /o ^/Av over a„d present; ±\j jfj" h"

tau' kiai (chic) shang', go into the street; \;ii ^< :^c tso* ,i .shajig, to

make clothes; ,Al -II yv ta' ,kung ,fu, « v^vr^f undrrf eking; ^'j-|
26 MAXDAIIIN <.IIAMMAH P\ l:r I.

^ tso' yih (.i) tso', to mt a little ; iJft IJC f^lmi- > ili \<-\ to puss a
night ; iM i^H pfjj lui ju 'u, fears fallhnj like rain
"77
; ^
/*=-*
jj;f
-3^
f^"
';!''
^ pan'
jSin^r piihkicu' (cliii-u), lialf ncir, not xcorn out; .^, '^(^ :^ 'j^:if^
^j.-n k-i'

(t'si) t'un jslieng, to repress anger and keep si/ent; 3v^ " '
y> ))ji|l yang'
yih (,i) yang' .shon. to recover one's spirits a little; ^} J Wj '
IJjJi tiiiig'

'shew tunf:,'-\d()]\ (chian), to motr hands and feet; fh ^'i- T^ til tsai" 'ii

pub if^ixv , at home or not \ \\i\ y^ |]i) J.U. wen' .c'liang win' tv,im.tnusk

aboutthis and that.

^l^ .nil SHKNCi.

PEH "^' iwh ,^hxi, to read aloud ; to studu; p ^C Imh ,kia, the whole ^'a-

wi7?/; (/^ tj\ fall ,tai, /o he mad; ^IJ p^' k'eh ,sliu, fo engrave a book;

pq rR c'huh ,slieng, t7o7;iesfK'««/mcf?j?;/v U c'liili t'sun-. /ee^ and in-

ches; length ;2Jj^ '^' ytih ,tsan. a jade-stone hair pin ; J^ ~y toh 'shcu,

to p>ull out of his lands; ^(th '/q pih 'si, to kill hij oppression :
J Prrl ^'^'^h

'
'chn, to act as master ;^^ J
teh "slicu, to be successful; I I ~J' jih 'tsi,

a day; time; fp :;^c kieli (.tsie) 'kwo,^oifor/7-?/iV ; JK 'f^:;*

cliili 'kwan,

just give your 7nind.to}^J!j Hfj dnili fir, to give directions*{\^ Tt|/ sih fu',

daughter-in-lawj\\ j .j- fuli.'jlj'r, j'o wait upon: n>L on sliwoli Inya'. i'l)

^r///.- :
f^|- 2A^ tall yiug*, to answer; Jjj^J (,lii!| nah men-, to became sad; ^4"

\]^ tseli poi% to blame: ^^ /£ tscli (.cliai) ting', to f.v ones choice upon \

/lii y;2 yiieli fah, so much the more; ^^ ^"^ choli(chau) kill, f/nximcsand
hurried; H^ §J§ e'hih yoh (.c-hi yau'), to take medicine; fj\ .^ liieli

(,sie) sih, to rest :^i ^\] tsih k'ch (k'o'), immediatehj W\'. \] tsoh jih,

yesterday; ^^ Jiioh (.siau) .fang, school-room :u^^ H slnvoh .niing,

explain clearly: ^ "j^f sheh.t'eu, the tongue; pJ ^)K. c'huh .fheng, to go

out of a city; \^- ^ toll (t'o') .lai, come on purpose; '
ipj yih .t'ung,
together; ^^
)j '/^ t'oh i- .slumg, to undress; \] ^ f^jili loh heu',
after sunset; /fC [}} /|^ nmli .n ,shong, noise of beating the wooden fish;

*ili» a'iJ %f I'^^'ili ,t'ing tch, he suddenly heard; g^ -|?y \ tuh ,Khu
^en, one of the literati; | ^^ ^("- sliih slnr .uien, more than ten years;

^L pk y^ <^'liih .c'hang ,chai. to keep long fasts; Q 9^^ fl^^ P^li (-pai)
,tan koh. to lingerfor no use : \\\ '^'\^
^ ^^ c'huh .lai tsin' k'li' (o'hii).
 cHAj'iKi: ;;. ox TUfc; TONK-l'LASSKS. •27

ijniiil in or nnl; '^ij^

J'y'yi fl|( ^[j( p-oli j)',.li sail Puh, (/mnpi'jiq and
sj,lot</n'n;f olnntf; f ^ ^(/^ >^ IJl'l piiii juli Jolnvu', t/iere is no need of many
u'orils; ;!n ^i\ i\Vi ^'^ vi ("'li k-air yiieh iijj^ai'. Me more he saw the more
he hvt'd: j?x
-y- 7/"i' ^"^
(ill :& ~1< t^ieli ,t\i tsiir k'ir (c'hnO.^o meet and condvrt
in
/// -'|\ '^y yt2>
:
)l:_»'
pull liau i- .sY, ashamed;
rilTM T-'NK, r ^p- HIA I'MNC.

5y ."&*
.l»''^"o jpi'^'iN'"'
<'/'•>•/</' :
I^Ji^ V-]"-
iiciin; ,kaii, j»oicer; [H] ^^^ .liwei
.kia, to return home; ^p /j,*; .iiicn ,kong, o«c'« a</r : lijij ,[_^^ .sui ,siii,f/o as
l/ou p/eaae-.lU -4^ .']ii M'ln.ftt present; v.'Ct Tl<j •^"•''' ''i'i'>> distressed in
mind; Jjfj "J^ .yau 'sheii, t<> irave the hand: J'i: |^^ .t'i 'siu^', fn auudcen
to a saisc of dutu ^^' dan'jer : i^, '^y^ .liaiig ,.sluii, rold icater; %II ij|^ .ju

't'si, thns; ^SC 11! ^^'''11 'li, bennty *f style; ^f- fL .uini ki', //«<>•*; -^
-J- .!:unLC tsi". name; 'K\j[ |,(3 .fan luoii', (jrievid; il< 'JJC yiii k'u', frm-
/^^ •'ft JZ? ^77
sM/w/ ; xf J/Q .yung inair, eountenanee ;
.^C ^j'j^ .c'heng jeii', fo acknow-
hd'je ;
|;'^ IJii l'"? X^'"'' efertuaJ ; pf TM k'i (t-''^') k^^"'. .s^/-««r/c ;|^:(|

S .sui \\ as i/nu fdease; 7} \s\ .iniugjih, to-m<>rrnic ; |^|.) nS-liU'U shwoh,

?W/c /«/A* ;
-f/|: ^S .t'i pill, /'//r uj) a peneil ;
^/Iv^.wcnynli, a written secn-
>•''///; Ifli n'i.nanshwi.li, h(rrdto f<fii/;)jj ^l.i'ivvj; n\i,a house; <^f\Z lien

.nianfr, immediate/f;f/v]
urn ]j-":j:
^ .Im .Vu,^
f,
foafish y[\i ,<
(I -r\/- , . , .
.uii .t'sai, a stave
-4 4- "=*="
;

y\[ y^< .fan .k'in, ;)A/// the harp : |L1| /jv .Invci .lai. to return ; f\>- ^|i

.C-lia .liii, t(((-pof: \\^\ Y I

^Jy .Ian .kan .i)'aiig, beside the bahtsfradr: Jpi

/^ i^ .t'siang kioh [.chiaii] ,l>i('M. at the earner of the wall ; |jj |{lJ, |j'

.yi'U ,t'a .incM, A7 /A«'//? 'A> <V ; 1H . ^i> l"J •^^'" 'i'^'' •l^<^ no other plan

ofaetion ; Tpj .(^J /'l^ •t'>diig yucn' .lai. / desired to come;

'
"^ ^ 5tJ
Mix kwo' .\i\\. brinfj over here; "f ,1/ ijl/ J van .yaii sshrii, /o /^rtt'c <Ac

hand;'^^\ \\\\ fi"|.lm sluing'. men, /?;/f/f////.v^ ;>r<V.v/.«» :fjj' ff'J

Jp J"!/ -ling

li' ,kwai 'k'iau, clever and cunninir\\^ illi Uf! "-i'T

•''^^^' 1^^^"' •^^'" ^'"'

[c'liii'], <o ^Mrn^/i<'/(raf/ rriray; ^-Jl -^Q j,'^ ^I'j" .>inii si mill hwdli, .vomc

seeking death and others life 5k ^I' Jl y"*^" l'" J^^ '^''*»j '< »« ^^''^

^/<r *a;«r ; [^ ill

— j^ '
;

t'ung
]li\

tstii' yili c'hu', to be together at a place;

v}\ tl'j :!!l ^\i -^^'i .t'sing .wu i', without a feeling of kindness; '\^ ^
* llu tu' is common in rhihli. but ,t'a is the proper sound.
28 MAXDAHIN l.RAM.MAU I'ART I.

pl /lii .t-'sunf; ,kin [cliiii] jili 'k'i, herjinniiKj from tin's (hnj ; >|cX ^^ ^^
on the lueatlivr •,%\ "©
1M i^ii '^i^' li'i" ,wcn, /o fr;/Z: « //^/t' n=f ^JC J'l -ii

toll 'ehui, liJccfsh on (/aiiiintj the wofcr.

Ox Accent.
32 If the nutivo pronunciation bo carefully observed, an accent will bo

noticed in groups of two, three and four words, such as those in tie? j)rece-

ding exercise. It falls in a group of two usually on the last syllable, in the

Peking dialect (when the group consists of an adjective and its substantive

or a verb and its object) for example, \pji ^f'/ tso' hwoh do icorlc. In a

few dialects, as at Sung-kiang near Shanghai, the accent falls on the first of

two combined words. The elocution in such dialects has an a})pearance of

eaf'crness imparted to it as compared to that of other dialects.

33 Particles and enclitic words refuse the accent ; e. g. /\. 7li 'X'^' IIJ
.jensh'i' 'hau tih, ^Ae man is (food; the word 'ha u is i)ronounced more empha-
ticallv than in /v %£ ^^ Jl^- .jenshi' 'hauhan', the man is a hero, because

0-;/ being a ]>article the accent is thrown back on the preceding word. In the

term ^j. ~4 'lau 'ts'i, father, tsi' is enclitic and the accent is on lau : yet

when it means the Tauist philosoi)her, tsi takes the accent.

34 In groups of three, four, and five words, there is a subordinate as well

as a principal accent. It is placed on the first of three words, as in /.'itl,'''i}(l

-^ lah clndi ,hiang [s], candles and incense ;^^ "J^ J'^ .yin 'tsi .t'sien,

silver and coppermoncy;^^ i(^ T^ hiau' fu' 'nui, to honour one' s father

and mother.
35 It occurs on the second of four and five icords, as in llJiifj^ Uflil'Lj
.
I
. -^^l • T- tlj'
'li i' .lien 'c'hi, 7:>o//^e'??c.S6-, tiprightness, modestij ; pt ^ll^^- pj :i;'',- kn .king

'ku 'tien, ancient classical hool's; ^ ^i J/L iiir ku'tungwan'k'i' [c'h],

curiosities and toi/s ; ^ §\k IH "Wi -^^i" O'in •^'^''^^

'P''^"'
(/old, silver, and
valuables ;^ .4^ TJC / V fll ,1^'" I'^^li 'f^l""i '1^*^ 't'u, metal, wood, water,

f re and earth ; ] /L f f fi/l jtS >tii» ^'I'l"' -yt'" f^lii' jt'ing ,s'i, features,

speech, sight . hearing and fhinkinrj.

 CUAI'Tiac 3. UN ACfliNT 29

3") The princlpnl accent fulls rogularly on the hist word in all such ex-
uniphs I'XL-opt wIr'U it is II partick'.

3{) In Rontoncos of sovcn words, such ns arc met with in proverbs and
ballads, there is a ctBAMra commonly after the fourth word, dividing the sen-

tence into two grouj)s of four and three words each. These take the accent
as if tiiey formed indcpend(mt groups e. g. in T7, tjl \h *
kY
;
'-jf,l "^f l'^
,wu kuh ,fung ,t('n<; .nien sui- 1i:ui, the five kinds of grain are abundant, it

is a good year ; ^ jH: 5n ^ ^ H^ H ^^f^"' •''»!" kung' 'hiang t'ai*

.pMng jYh, the people are together enjoying peaccfid times.

37 The word accent is here used in the sense in which it is applied to En-
glish words, as when the verb convict is said to differ from the substantive

cOnvict, in the accent being placed on tlie last syllable.

Ox THE Present Distribution of Words Among the Tone-Classes.

38 The circumstance that the tone-classes, with the intonations applied to

them, are subject to secular changes, explains many facts which otherwise it

would be difficult to find a reason for. For example, the student is not to
be suri)rised when he notices that the intonations used by any native do not
correspond with thefiames he assigns them. Probably no dialect retains the
intonations just as they were when they W(Te first examined and their nomen-
clatiu*e decided on. Further as already shewn, the '^territorial extent of the
same intonations is very limited. If a word said to be ''in the even tone"

does not appear even to the ear in one dialect, it may be so in another.

39 Another difficulty occurring to the student is that some words do not

belong to the same tone-class in different dialects. According to the general

analog)' of the language they should do so thus pj \ a song
; .ko, ; 3c ,A''«",

to join with ; are in the first tone-class or shang p'ing in all dialects. But
why do words such as %\i fu', a married woman ;
I|l chung', heavy
'fi chu', a pillar, appear in the Canton dictionary Fen-yini in the loivcr

shang sheng, while in mandarin they are in tin- /j'lt ehcng? The re^ison is

that these with many other words, including all whncp initials are mute or

sibilant in the lower tone-series, have l)een slowly making a transition from
the shang sheng or chv<s VI, to th<' k'ii shong or ehus.s VII. This transition
30 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART I.

is in the Canton, Shanghai, and some other dialects, not quite completed.

40 The circumstance that the class shauf/ p^uu/ does not admit l, m, n, j,

R except in a few recent words of colloquial origin, and that the hiaji'ing does
not admit k, t, r, ts, cii, (except in words from the short tone.) is accounted

for on the supposition, that these two classes were originally one. When this

class separated into two, one appropriated certain initials, and the other the

remainder. The aspirate and vowel initials still remain conunon to these

two tone-classes.

41 In classes III and 7]^ of Mandarin many words have one sound, which

differ in their tone in the southern provinces. Thus ^JyCkieu', to save; '^kiciv

o7r7; with JQ shan', <7/a?i ; ^ shan', virfuous, and 'i^/ t^iS to carry,

W tai', a generation, are placed in classes IIT, YII, in the south eastern

and west.
provinces, while they all belong to class III in the north So also

y^ sh'ih, to lose, "U shih, a stone have one sound in Nanking and Western

Mandarin, but are placed in classes IV and VIII respectively in the south

west. The second tone-class furnishes no examples, because the mute and
sibilant initials which should be found under class VI. have been long since

transferred to class VII. In this point the modern prounciation is in opposi-

tion to the the national dictionaries, where S, 'liia, summer; ^ 'heu after ;

;^'tso, to sit and nearly two hundred other words are marked as belonging to

the second tone, though in mandarin they are pronounced witli the third tone,

and in many of the south-eastern dialects with the seventh.

Two tones to one ivord.

42 These changes in tone must not be confounded with that power which
many words have of assuming two tones, according as they take the form of

a substantive or verb. Tlius "j^- c'hwen, to hand doivn, changes from class

I to III when it becomes a noun chwen', a history. Here the change in tone

is to distinguish between two different but contemporaneous senses of the

same word, and examples of this kind are not uncommon. The distinction

in the case of some words having two senses, fomerly marked by the intona-

tion has been obliterated by modern changes in pronuciatiou.

43 The following are examples of words having two tones now in uae»
 CHAPTKJl .*! ON VAUIATIONS IN TONE. 31

^fl c'hunr,^ ,sin, afnsl ; Ij,! i^'tin dmupc' hcavicsf of all : W lYj
till, ;/()(>(/; fi /t£ W AlT \\] l)'uh sill' hair i' tili, not wUJiug, not

(hfiirous, not infi'nfinu(t/-/J/ (|J sli.nr ti)\ a i/oufli :

^J^ ^.j UJ 'sliau'vou
till, there nre/ew; fy]- j^l .l<iai ,«lii«') sun<r', to escort a pristmer p]^
J -yj^yf-

'k'ui'i {i:\nv) i^hw'oh, to explc ill. ^'J Nn liing .c-Invni set thr boat sailing;

t:J (T.tch liiiij;', viiiue; [^ /.U .fliaiior 'twan, long and sl„>rt; j'^ J^
Vhaiii; shan^'% a irKpen'nr. j^i /V iiir,,li
.i,.,!,^ f,„(l utan ; ^^J Jl^Vk'o wu',
Imte/uL iMl ^ .i-it'ii .i, c/iedp ;
|%" p{J .siii ])ion', ax yo?f ;>/ra.sr ; ,it //our

coni^enience. f^P H| ,cliiiiii,^ ,ki(Mi, //<f wiiW/c; 'P J cliun^^' 'liaii, //f // Of!

Jilt the mnrk'xu "K j^'I"^" 51»»»J-'j ^'> <^' ^^ soldier; -JH- ^f^ 'ticii taii«;-, a paicn-
shop. t(lj 'j»|', kic'ir [q\\\ .k'iaiig, [c'h], strong in body; ^'j'k'iaiij^pa*,
>jl[«

to claim unjustly.}]^ %-y /Min^'haw, friendly ; Tl'lTi? ^i«'ing- ,pang /o

o.s-.sj'.sY. -^ Tli] 'tsai siaiig', prime minister, ^f ^ .yuiig i', c«.s?^; ^
^y .kong yih (i'), to change, q} ,\ ^^ f^ 3(t .wei .jciriiau piilrhau,
is he a good man or 7iof '/ [a| .-f"!/ ,yin vrQi', because. ^'Ij'' ~i^<-lHiiig-'tsi,

«ecf/; |[|( _C J cluing' sliang' 'liau, it is planted, ^(^j^ f'ljf i|f. the*

cluing shi', this viattej'. j'-ll J j^ 'shi Invan', ^:) employ a person; -^ 'f^
,kung shi (,or 'shi)rtw ambassador. Jp! ^ "in
shi' 'die,
t—
a messenger. Hj 3£|*

jdian k\va\ f>> divine by linear symbols; 'j>i» |_^ 'kMang dian', to size up-
on unjustly |5k ^'Ie ?^>^'" "^"S misfortunes ; ^'jl j=f .nan t.h, hard to

^<> nourish; bring up ;

procure. ^^ ^i
^J '\mvx \\\\\, to
yj^",i? y^^S \V^ '\^ kung' yan"-*,

to attend upon. 1^1: ^ ,t'8ung .yung. at ease: pjli f^c .sui .t'sung, ^oo^/ey;
—
follow. )^ J^lt tir .hang, j/ewcroj/s; jjj, ' yf h;uig' yihliang'. 7;?'Y7.s?/rc

if- i'ti .ni fii, carM; H j; kwuh tir, « ///'.V'^ow. :^7^ |j|-| ,t'ou

,k-ai, to divide : ^ 77 .niing fen', s/mrf ; t/?//y. ///^j 'ji'jf .siurn Cjiwcn, ^o

<M/;i round; $'0' :l!iy. ^ dnvcn' kwo' .lai, ^o /wni 6ocA-. liJ )4' ,sianff

.c\\y>-cn, mutually hand down; },,) j',/ yih, p'ion cliwcu', « />joyrr/y)/<//.

^^J 113^ ho mull, harmonious; ^\i ijlrij ln)' tiau', to accord with. j|^ j,^
jt'ing kifu', ^o hear: ^ f'!:
tMng' .t'snng. to obey, jj"*,^
jj mo' sluh, a
grindstone; \])^ J^-. yen .mOy to grind. J^'^ ^ .mo mien' grind meal;
.mo tan grind a knife; "7^ »a{7; 3)J
)%i' Jj ,
"J- J .tinLr ,tsV. «7
_t ting'

Bhang', to naU ; US ']^ ,ying ,tang, omj//</; j)^ j^J ying' tui', to answer.
32 MANDARIN GRAMMAR, PART I.

^f W. II -^^'Jin Jnw^ .si, to watch over things; ^:f 'TF^ k'air' ping', ^o

atttiid sick pcraons. -t^ lil]j 'lau ,slii, teacher; /Q nrj? .yum .slnvai'

general in chief. ^V^ ^C tsai' 'mi, to carry rice ; ' '

^ '-\^ Jji)^ vili (,i)

.nien pan' 'tsai, a year and a half.

44 In some words this assumption of more tlian one tone has disappeared.

For exam])le the shang sheng intonation in tlie lower series (chiss VI) has
been lost, and with it the corres])onding exceptional sound of certain c'hu

sheng words. For example, c'hii sheng was formerly used in pronouncing

_£1 shang, j''

hia and "pi tsai, in the first three of the following six

pairs of words, and shang sheng in the last three: JH •^ shang' ,king,

to go to the capit d; y /Ijpf hia'. c'hwen, ^o^ectue a hoot ; }y\ -^ 'so tsai',

a place; J^ \b\ , shang mien', the upper side; y [rJ 'hia mien', &e/o?r;

yj\ ^j^ pull 'tsai, he is not here; At present in ;il] such Avords, -^ )^
k'ii (c'h) sheng is used without exception.
45 The dialects of Amoy and C'hau-cheu, in the ijrovinces of Fuh-kien

and Canton, contain some anomalies on wliicli liglit is thrown hy the liypo-

thesis of progressive changes in tones. At Amoy the words -f^ ^lau, old;

^ 'jeuhave; ILL 'wnfve; H^ 'liang, fj^o; ^'^\'a,tdes; \^il 'ii, rain;

s^ 'ri', the ear; ^t^ 'wang a net; are all read as book words in the second

tone-class, but in colloquial use they are in the seventh. Tliese words all

belong to the sixth tone-class in dialects where that subdivision exists.

Sujjposing that it formerly existed at Amoy, and was gradually merged in

the second, these and a few otlicn- Avords, preferring the low pronunciation

they had originally, passed for a time into the seventh tone-class, where
they could conveniently retain it.

46 In the Tie-chiu dialect the third tone-class of mandarin will be found

divided ;'ito three. Of these, the _Q -^ shang k'ii corresponds to the

tone-class of the same name in other dialects. The transition words already

spoken of will lie found under y -^C hia k'ii, together with many words
belonging to tone VII. Some of the transition words, with a i)art of those be-

longing to tone VII and a very few from tone III, form a new class, viz. tone

IX, called "^ ^j^f k'iis sheng. The mode in which these tones are distri-
CHArTEU 3 ON VARIATIONS IN' TONK 33

buted may be seen in Rev. J. Goddard's Tie-chlii Voca])ulary.

47 The fulluwin^ list of words formerly in the second, but now in the

third tone-class has been i'onned j)artly iVom tlie ilictionary '^y; jjA^ ll', HJ^
of the fourteentli ceiituiy, (juoted in JiL J|'- liM VlTfJ-
'^'^"* ^'^^^ ^*'"^<' ^^^^^ *
dictionary several centuries older, called /j,lf \\l\ 'Ivwan;:; yiiir. The
words have been checked one by one for their modern sound by the modern
Mandarin dictionary T/, yy 7C ^-I' '^"^^ ^Y ^^e j)ronunciatiou of a native
of Peking,

Amont; them will be found none with vowel initials, or eomnvneinc^ with

the consonants sa, s, m, l, u, .j, the transition being limited to the mute and
sibilant initials. Thus f-}- wang, fo go, in class VI, coalesces with f j^
'wang, crooJccd, in class II. So also yp ^. I
•( pT^ 'yen, mrjf ma, jy*

lii ZTL 1'" JLii' >% ^^^- '^^'^ ^^^ "1 class II. The former difrerence in sound
between ^:[: "wang and fx ,wang, is considereel by native writers to be that

of the initial letters, and not a variation in tone. There can be little doubt
that it was a variation in ])itch, while the intonation was the same. It is

carried through all the four tones. Thus j^ /p ^Jj^ wang, yeu', yih., are

said to ditiVr in initial from ^X 'Jj iSl ,^vang, yen', yih^. That this differ-

ence occurs in the earlier dictionaries in which four tones only are recognized,

shews that the dinsion of words into an u])|ier and lower series existed when
they were compiled, and that it was a vju'iation in the height of the voice,

but not in inflection. We cannot, as the Chinese do, call a high w and a low
w ditferent lettei^s. They differ only in height. The modern pronunciation
in Kiang-nan agrees with this account of the sound formerly given to words

beginning with a vkwcI, and therefore conlirms it.

TABLE OF WORDS THAT HAVE

CHANtJKI) FROM SHANCx SHENO TO K'F SHENG.

^(I'-l WJ tung, l[r Chung, $ fung, l|/ Vi ^|i il; ± h\i f^ ^\^
sM, ffi pei, f^ /( If m 1.. \a 'ii m v^ nii \\\\^ - ^p^^ ti,

"& IP III ^1 • '':[•

iB HI MiNl^ m
k... siH., fJ; \\"y [y ^r tl^
'

If ch«, ./^ ^ IH i& sn, ^ A§l^fh-Ji± tu, j^'iV

34 MANDARIN' CRAMMAR PART I.

Illj^ W 1'"- li' ^ 'M- fl '•.. M Vn, % hai. 1ft: f.ai. ^tf ,S
I'r'l lg :ii tai, \% poi, # ,s„i, |ifj m I& £! tui. [,'gkw,.i. :|t|,i„,

S'df III t-.. Ij^^.oho,,, g ki„n, f ft iJ) ,2j ^

fo„,^j>f W":
'If ¥
liaii, 'f^^ pan, [lllf twaii. >l\c liii-ii, ^'^ clian. f|t pan, #^ pieli, Ifi p
^ tien. m rk 5-^ tsion, # )J-1;:
li|i H]i^i^ ip^ slum, fc chwen,
11^ $1 ffi « kien, ^ ri;| jjli Jljl ^^ ^
tian,
ffi cl.au \^] "^
liau, Jui pan, ^H tsau, ^ f^ tan, ft ^ ^ 'IfJ to. |^'i In.. tso,

y MM, It fl iH'^, )|ii slie, "ft siantr, ^t: -j^" ;t)|:chaDg,±shang,

W %i ht
im! ^i.V tano:, ) Jl han-, -7^ }yC Jm taii-.TP Ijf pi'iiX,
li^vaug,

^ tr # ^ ^t # m ^M n hing, tsin,, ^#
1^ slu.u, E3
M ^ » VM JP ;^ ^ W
-1-4- -<^A-
kieu, heu, shen, P^ ^g kin, \^'}l "f ^
tan, yt^ jjHi <Jq fan.

In the distribution among other tone-classes of words in the juh-sheng

z^, many clianges occur in the vowels. It has therefore been thought
better to give details on this subject after the initials and finals have been
discussed.
CHAPTER IV.

Ox TiiK Initials.

Vahu's of the Voiuel symholfi.

I, see s/ng; e, i\\e\Q (final), s?/n; eh, there; a, father; o, go; u, It r?<e; ii,

in; Y, tassel.

1 Division 0/ ivords into initials andjinals. Thesoundsof this language

being all monosyllabic, it is convenient to treat them as the natives them-
selves do, that is to divide tlicni into initials and tinals for separate consider-

ation. The initials are 30 in numbei-, viz. k, k', ng, t, t', n, p, p', m, f, h,

s, sh, j, ts, t's, ch, c'h, 1, r, w, y, i, e, a, o, u, ii.

2 Of these e and a, in many mandarin dialects, take ng before them

unifoi-mly, and should not then count as initials.

3 Words written /, u and it, e. g.

^^ pjij are regarded by Chinese

writers as divisible into parts like other sounds. Perhaps it is in consequence

of this that foreigners have usually prefixed w and y to the two latter. To
the Chinese ear u and wu are one sound, so that w though not necessary may
 tHArTKU 4. IN THE INITIALS. 35

Ik- jtivtixoil without niislcaclinjji;. In tho Pckinfj; pronunciation, I hear the lo

distiuctiy in the wunls )^ wuh, Al'iJ wong, i^j wo ^-^j wu, but the second
of tliose words is also sounded un[^ hy some natives of tliat city.

4 Tn Pekin«ij pronunciation and als(» in the western provinces, ts and ^*

and 6' and //, an- in certain instances undistinj^uishable, hut this does not
aifect the number of initials, because it takes place only before the vowels i

and M, Thus a native of the metropolis cannot distinguish between the fol-

lowinjr words:

1^ iP. ,tsing, ,king....Sr<

fl tsiiS kii' -^- it^ ,t^si, k'i,

W #,• ,i, .hi ffe ^fl ,hu, ,su % ^r ,hing, ,8ing,

Dr. -Morrison long since pointed out this peculiarity of the northern dialects

but without mentioning the coalescing of the consonants. The first of these
northern consonants may be written ts k or di, the latter h or s. or as 3Ir.

Wade projjose hs. It is difficult to say v.'hich orthography best represents

them. There can be little doubt that a distinct ch and a distinct sh will

become ultimately the sound of these initials.

5 Many sjjeakers of mandarin place ng before the initials e, a, o, in all

cases, reducing the number of initial letters to 27. Sometimes a guttural g

takes the place of ng, which led Dr. Morrison to ^\Tite this letter 'g. Thus
there are three modes of })rououncing words such as follow:

121 \ 1|J.j eu, ngeu, gen f^lj |) /[J rh. ngeh, geh.

43 en, ngen, gen_._ Jj4: ^* fl%} ai, ngai, gai.

I T > Vii an, ngau, gau.. .^ l\y\ PH an, ngan, gan.

*'!) -Jxi UA wooro, ngo, go ..ivi;

']'
/y oh, ngoh, goh.

In Peking and its neighbourhood, all three of these pronunciatiims exist

(though the first is more common) and in Nanking in the first and second.
At Si-ngan-fu nrj, and at K'ai:fung-fu 'g are chiefly in use. At C'heno'-tu-fu
ng is employed, as also at Tsi-nan-fu. and Tien fsin. In the syllabic spelling

of the imperial dictionaries, ng is the initial to words belonging to the lower-

tone series, but it does not occur in the upper. Such is also the rule at
Canton, Fuhcheu, Ningpo, and Sucheu. At Amoy g is used with the same
law as to tone. Ng thus appears to be the best orthography.
36 MANDARIN GRAMMAR PART I,

G When h precedes the vowels e, a, u, it receives in C'heng-tu pronuncia-

tion a sound like kr. In this peculiarity, there is a resemblance to the initials

formed "VN^ith r in the languages of the Birman peninsula, which probably have

a common origin with the Chinese, and where kr, tr, hr, etc. are common
at the beginning of words.

7 iV as an initial is in many dialects replaced by I. This happens at

Nanking, and extensively in the western provinces. At C'heng-tu n is re-

tained before i and m, but becomes I before other vowels. In the mandarin

dictionaries this substitution of I for n, and vice versa, is never recognized.

8 >S', is sometimes used for sh, and ts for ch. For example (^ sheng, ^-
shi [JLj shan, P^ slii are often heard seng, si, san, si'. Instances of the

interchange of fs and c7/, are the itiost numerous. Momson has in conse-

quence frequently given both sounds. In many words, the initial sh is in the

province of Kansuh replaced by f. In reference to the initials ts, ch, s, sh,

the Nanking and (more particularly the) Peking dialects are the best guides,

ageeing as they do with the imperial dictionaries.

9 «7 is heard as y in parts of Shan-tung. In some dialects of the man-

darin provinces it is sounded like r. Thus jih, sun, becomes the same in

sound with r'i, son.

10 The Chinese r is jpronounced not Avith the tip of the tongue, but with

the central part of that organ. It has no vibrating ring, so that the latter r

has been avoided by continental writers, who have profeiTcd U as its symbol,

It is not unlike the English r.

11 J,f,ch and sA, do not take ?' after them.* Hence words usually
written by foreigners ching, shing, chin etc. should be spelt differently. The
same vowel is found in the words /V .Jen, )|ii|i .shen, i'K ,kcn, | j .nun,

pH. p.hpn. Through the operation of this law, Avords such as |-| jih, |{^

chih, ^ shilij originally in the short tone, when they become lengthened,
invariably take the forms ji, chi, shi. This is their pronunciation even in

Nanking where the short tone still exists. Hence also k and ts before i,

though pronounced in some dialects nearly like ch, do not become confounded

with words originally possessing that initial. Thus ^>^ king and fjg tsing
 CHAPTER 4. XATIVK SYSTEMS OK INITIALS. 87

when pronounced in a manner hardly distinguishable iiDni ching, are not

mistaktu for^ (by IMoiTison and otliers -WTitten chhuj, but really pro-
nounced) clun'j.

12 A tew wurds taking the initial y, as ying "hard," are in some dialects

heard ngeng, e. g. in the city of C'heng-tu. In the mandarin dictionaries

this word is yhig. Ng is its old initial.

13 Of words having a vowel initial, some of those elsewhere pronounced

ye7i, take a jjielix n as at C'heng-tu. Words in y are pronounced wth j in

the pronnce of Kwei-cheu. In the fonner case it is but a few words as

M: h 5/ii y^"' ^'tc- ^l''^<^ assume the i)refix. In the latter all words in i

and y are heard with the initial j. In this respect, the Kwei-cheu pronun-

ciation resembles the Hak-ka dialact, spoken in many parts of the provinces

Kwang-tung and Kwang-si. At T'ien-tsin and Peking the initial y is also

pronounced j in many words.

14 Morrison prefixes n to ^ yeh, and some other words in y without

sufficient authority. He writes s in the sound of the characters ^, ^,
WC, ^, ^'Hj etc, which are all pronounced with sh in Peking. AVhere
he gives the initials ts and ch as both in use, ch is, according to Peking or-
thoepy, to be preferred.

Native Si/sfe7ns of Initials.

15 Peking Initials. There are several systems of initials for the mandarin
language formed by Chinese authors. In the work called Li-shi-7/in-kicn,
by a native of Peking, many of these are given. The author's own consists

of 33 charact<'rs, viz.

l^'koS fj-tuiS Wvo% ^S ,«""??, fi^i-tsuiS ^.Iwan,

§: ,k'ung, |j,tj| .fan, ^ .p'an, ^|[) ,sien, 2\tvmi', ^ .lieu,

^5,ngeu, WnunS i^^man, .^ 'shui, ifitsien, 3;*;>

.y^u,

M ,king, ti tieh, f'l] pienS ^ .jan, )ft ,t'8ing, |^ 'fen,

i^-,k'i, A. jt'ien, J'l^ a*'''*") X ,chung, fiE -hung.

^ 'niau, \:\^ .mien, ^ ,c*hun, W\ .liiu<n.

* The ch which before i suid u, represents k aud is, a.s in Mr. Wade's orthography, is not hero
takca iQlo accouul.
38 MANDARIN GRAMMAH TART

Of these all which take i after the initial, 13 in number, are supcrfluo^^^

Sh, j, ch, f, cannot take i. Si and hi, with ki and tsi, should be identified,

according to the practice of the author in other parts of his work. In the

tables constructed with the aid of this series of 33 initials, he however regards

them as distinct, no doubt wishing to avoid the confusion that would arise

from spelling many words in k and h, with ts and s. The same motive has
led me in this work to retain the old consonants k, h, in such words as p^
k'i, J^ hii, in conformity with the common usage of French and English

sinologues, instead of adopting c'h or t^s, and s.

AU the vowel initials are placed together under the characters yau and
ngeu. The former includes under it i, ti, y, the latter e, a, u, w, with ng.

This work Li-shi-yin-kien, Mirror of sounds by Li-ju-chen, of the dis-

trict Ta-hing in the city of Peking, was published in 1810, in four volumes.

The order of the initials in his work is that of lines of poetry. For conve-
nience of examination they are here arranged in a natural order.

16 Five tone mandarin initials. Another system extensively known is

that of the dictionary Wu-fang-yuen-yin, by a native of Yau-shan, or what

is now called T'ang-shau, in the southern extremity ofPeh-chi'-li, the metro-

politan ])ro^dnce. It consists of the following characters 20 in nimiber, read

from right to left.

-^ ,kin, ^ 'tsien, ^f cliuh, -f 'ten, ^% pan cr

,pf

;ti .k^iau, §1 t'sioh (,c'hiau),$, ,cqiung, i 'tm, |jg p^au',

tC 'ho, ^ hi' (s), Xi ^^^""^i) ^ 'nmvi, TK muh,

S ,wa, S .yiin, jih, ^ .lui, JlL ,fung.

As in the foregoing table, the vowels are included under two initials. W
embraces e, a, o, u, with ng and w. Y includes i, ii, and y. Art may be

observed in the arrangement of this table. Ng, n, m come under k, t, p, as

from their natural affinity, they should do. F and h, are nearly allied to p

and k. L is allied to the t series, for it frequently interchanges with n, and

in some languages with d. Thus the law of a well-arranged alphabet, which

consists in placing allied letters side by side, is closely adhered to.

This work was published in 1710 after the author's death. His native
 CIIAPTF.R 4. NATIVE SYSTEMS FO INITIALS. 39

place is u little more than 200 miles S. W. of Peking. He docs not mention

the lengthening of the short tone, except in the cuseofa few words. In
Chinese works on sonnd, not being compilations, it is always important to

know where and when the authors lived, for not having alj'habetic syiabols

to wTite with, their testimony is of vahie chietly for their own dialect. The
above 20 characters form the ali)habet according to the order of which the
dictionary is arranged. Tt is in two volumes, and is very extensively used,

but contains only the most common meanings of words.

A new and extended edition of this work with many alterations, in four

volumes, was prepared in 1810. The order of the initials and finals is some-
what different. The place of each word in the old tables of rh}Tnes is pointed

out, and more meanings are given to the characters ; but while it contains

many more words, it is less eonvcmient for reference than the smaller one.

It is called ll^ f f|j ^Ij ^5 ~}j 7C W- The editor olten shows bad
judgment in following old authorities, where they differ from modem usage.

He also counts eight tones instead of five, tlu'ough his desire to reconcile the

old system ^vith the new.

17 A7ioth€r System. Another native writer in a dictionary called j^ /TJ

-3^ 1^ Chung-cheu-t'siuen-yiui, describes the initials by their mode of ut-

terance, instead of selecting characters as symbols for them. He airanges

them in 15 classes as linguals, dentals, gutturals, etc. and places all words
in his dictionaiy in the order of these classes. He gives the Honan pronun-
ciation from the testimony of several previous wnterson the Mandarin langua-
ge, being himself a native of the district Chau-wen, in the city C'hang-shuh,
near Su-cheu. In this work, the native method of spelling called Fan-t'sieh
is used to ^vl•ite the sounds, as employed in the older dictionaries. Two pro-

nunciations are given. One contains the soft initials for words in the tone-

classes V to VIII, and represents the pronunciation in Su-cheu and cities near
it. The other places the aspirates k', t', p', c'h, t's, instead of g, d, b. dj,

dz, in tone V ; and the hard initials, k, t, p, ch, ts, in tones VI T. VIII. in jilace

of the same soft consonants, i, e, it givrs the mandarin or northern pronuncia-

tion called by ]^f^ Q .yuen ,yin. The orderof the finals isessentially Ihatuf the
40 MANDARIN GRAMMAR PARS I.

common tonic dictionaries, formed by scholars of theT'angand Sung djuas ties.

10 Old mandorin initials of \Zth and lAth centuries. Tlie spelling and
arrangement of the workjngt mentioned are taken principally from an earlier

production, ^ JiA HM Chung-yuen-yin-yun by Cheu-teh-t'sing, a

writer of the Yuen or Mongolian dynasty, a. d. 12G4 to 1368. One author

says that he was a native of Kiang-si. This author wrot« down, by help of

the Fan-t'sieh, the mandarin pronunciation, while it was in process of for-

mation. His initials are the hard mutes and sibilants, k, t, p, f, ch, s, ts, the

aspirates, k', t', p', c'h, t*s the soft initials, g, d, b, v, dj, dz, and the
nasals, liquids and semivowels, ng, n, m, w, y, 1, r. Of these the soft initials

are found to their full extent only in the fifth tone-class. In the sixth they

do not occur at all, and in the seventh and eighth only in a minority of cases.

That the soft consonats are embraced as here stated, in the initials of Cheu-
teh-t'sing, may be shewn in the following manner. The character pj is not

placed with ^^ tsi' among the hard initials, nor with y\^ t'si' among the

aspirates. Its initial must then be soft. To express that initial j^Y^iis used.

Thus we learn that ^| and ^^ should be Avritten dzi', .dzi. This ortho-

graphy is confirmed by the inscriptions of century XIII, written with Bjisch-

pa's Mongolian alphabet. In that alphabet there is a symbol for dz, as also

for g, d, b, z, and the characters which they are employed to write, such as,

^vith d,
-71 rb^ ^^
M-kiik U
Wx. >^
^
i
vffl.b,
\- 4f-'
i- fn ffi. g, Jt ^ tl. ^, %^
P-U VM 14 J dz, r^sc. XSr I'd ^^ ^"^^ ^ pronounced at the present day in
Kiang-nan.
It is remarkable that the power of the Mongolian characters as known from
the Tibetan alphabet, is in these monuments, for all the mutes and sibilants,

the reverse of the Chinese sound. Thus k and p represent the Chinese g and
b, and g and d are used to write the Chinese sounds k and t. Is thus accounted

for by the fact that letters in course of change are jironounced with an indis-
tinctness which deceives a foreign ear?
To sh, there is on these monuments no correlate consonant. Thus i. ,

Tt' 15.' ni '

wL^ whi( h might have been expected to be written with zh, or

dj, are all spelt with oh. The last three are now pronounced c'h.
ClIAPTKU O ON THK FINALS. 41

Oil the monumonts, ami in the book hero iimler diBcushiou the initial of

WKids, such as/v juli, y^ '' »» ^^^^ same, j and r not being considered
separate consonants.

Cheu-teh-t'sinj;'s inonuiieiation is apparently more recent than that of the

monuments, for very many wuids written there witli the soft consonants are

found in the book with the corresponding hard letters. Thus -'p dz(j' in

pronounced as 3c tso', %i doh as ^ ,to, ^^ ziang' as f I j siaii<''' frfj

di- as 117 tiS ItJ^ gwei' as ^ kwei', ^p dzui' as ;^" tsui\ jM^f boh as
^;5cd"^- l^iit on the other hand while Jt ^vang and \^ vaiig, ijt^ wu and
^ vu. etc differ in orthogra])]iy according to the spelling of the monuments
they would in the work in question be all spelt with w, wliicli is the more
recent pronunciation. By both these authorities ng in words such as
V^-^

npiu *tiy ^'g^""j is omitted.'*

/

(CHAPTER V.

On the Finals.

1 Finals icifh a sin'jlt' voivd. In mandarin pronunciation the only co«5o-

nants that end a word are the letters n and n<i. The vowel teinninat ions are
numerous, and the introduction of the vowels i, u, and more sparinHy e a
between the initial and tinal gives variety to the sounds. The Jinah fanned
ht/ single vowels are the following:

li <i ,^^.wt''I u -ffjpu' pT'ku

V 5^',chi ilishr en :*^,shen J2^'pen |"]Miu
ih ^ipih JEv'ih ens>^,sheng V p 'leng uh (;)ouh
T:t
ih '^shili a ]f|ij|(].ma '^J
pa iih ^ijkuh #luh
in ,0^.min !{ h'p'in ah 'J!jf(lah 5^*c'hah uii fifiy Inn Ji|fj>hun'
I. I-
ing ^.ming .y|'vjpin an i/pciian'
,

|r_I jchan
-« »-
c ^'Xshc- :iiJche' angi-^-mang unglll,kung ^p.rhung
t'h |ini"'l> pi'ijneli o ,^^^.mo ^h^'ha
eh ^jlfcheh "f'p''^'' oh /^.poh ^h..li

* 866 Mr, Wylics article on the Shanghai momiinpnt, in tlic Asintic TrannaiMions" HonukoiT"
—
1864 56. '
* •
42 MAXPARTX ORAMMAR. PART I.

2 Thojinah aclmifiinf/ dlphthoiufs and tri/ihthongs are the followiii*::

le 711* .SIC j^^ tsie' eu rf" 'shell P k'cu

?;J lieh ai .niai par
ieh

ieu .lieu ,sieu au Dll^inaii' /J ,tau

ia ui J(H ,tui 113 .lui

iah ^<< kiuh hiah uei kwci '- .hwei

\l\[ rJ-. '

iai .UKll IK'U J» 'kw en ^ ,lnven

ien ^- ,kien Ihiy ,tien ueng(?))ji; ,k\veiig ti.'( .hweng

W 1 .

Jst 'kwa
lang ^bl) ,hiang ua i^ liwa'

lau ,]iian UJ .iiiiau uah jy 1 1 wall i^jfjkwah

ioh jy; lioh ^ kiuh uai J /; 'kwai

"O^f
Jnvai

iuh {i:i)J^iJ Iviiili f|t Hull uaii 7(£ ,k\van

iieh
111 ^a! kiueli /\ hiueli uaug rang .hwans
iuc•n 7S^ 'ki men no -S 'kwo 4'^ 'hwo (ho)
^>// .

iiin Jsi ,kitiii :xm .siun uoh t=}

hwoh pXi slnvoli

hi imp; ^ k^iiing

3 Native sijstem ofjinah. The Jinah according to this arrangement 54

innumher, are compressed into 12 by the author of Wu-fang-yucn-yin.
The characters he has chosen to represent them are given in the following
tahle:

Class. Finals included.

1. ion, an, wan, men.

2. en, ill, 1111, iuii, wcii.

3. ]:J^ .lung,.
ung, eng, ing, iuiig.

4. ang, iang, wang.

5. ^ .nieu,. leu, eu.

I^.ngau,. au, lau.

r—
i . ^*'hu,--. u, nil,

8. 0, wo, oh, ioh woh. J

9. !lrl: .she, 0, ie. iuo, eh, oh. ieh. inch.

10. .^lif 'ma. a, ia, wa, ah, iah, wall.

11. .c'hai. ai, iai, wai.

1-2. It ti-,.. i, 1, ei, ui 11, wei, ih,iih, ih.

C'HAPTF.R ,'). ON THE FIKAl.S 43

4 Old Mandarin fniah. Thvjinalfi used in the work Chitng-cheu-f'siueyi-

?/j/«, and a small dictiunarv jJiiLlished in a. d. 1(j'J<>, called "j^T |]!,";^ ^^\\ yC|J,

Vin yiin' ,sii ,tlri, arc borrowi'd from tho earlier work o^ (lieu-toh f-sinij, ilie

first of the IMaiulariii dictionaries.*^ In that older work the finals are taken

from the tonic dictionaries of furnjcr dynasties, adapted to the modern

dialect of northern China. Thev are the followinj:::

1- i-jl J'M^ -^""o 5f^'^i"g^ji»^"l"*^i"j;^ing, i^nS'^si" /111- .Iuukj:, '/J^kl"""?^

•'""?:. »3li liiin^'.
HEi
- J.l. l'^ jl^ii"g) -y^^o' inchidinij; ang, iang, wang.

'^-
^ iLi>' -f"!*''
:^'h
ineludinn^ ^^ .chi n'J" jS'i' -^ ,f^i,
uS? •^'*'»?
^
.ri, and a few from the short tone, as J^'J 't«T (tseh).

4. 'f.(\ ^Ijjjic ,tsi, .-wei, inclnding i, ci, wei, ui, as in the words
|5I ,si, T^P

,chi, ^p ,fei, ^n^ ,chni, ]\^ ,k'wei. and a large number from the short-tone
finals, eh, ih, oh, as ^^^ .shi, "J^ .si, pj kwei, ,^^j 'hei. In the Mongo-

lia!! ii!Scri{)tions already mentioned the characters Ba' |^ Jif are spelt hwe,
kwe, tei, if the vowels, "which are difficult to decipher may be bo read.
.'5. tit \y\ \\, .mu, incliidinu: all wo!-ds in \\, u, and many from the shoi't-

tone finals iuh, uh, as /|i| kii -^^ k'li, ^;f; lu^

G. ^t /N jkiai, lai, includi!ig ai, iai, wai, a!id many words ii'om the

short-tone finals eh, ah, as |i[j mai', %.{' .hwai, p| 'pai. ]n Baschjja's

Mongolian chaiacteis fr| is spelt pai. lie spells yC witl!ifi!ial. ByCheu-

teh-t*sing, it is written dai or tai.

"• iun, wen,

]i 1- JX. jchen, .wen, includi!igen, in, un, tin,

8. y}^ LU lian, ,shan, inchiding an, and part of the finals ien, Wfi'i. as

^^ kien, -i^ .hwan, Jff ,pan, |f}'fij ,kwai!.

9. tW ^^\ .hwo!i, ,hwon (or hwon), i!icliiding many woids whose finals

aie now jJFonouncedan, wan, as ^ .kwan, 75x ?P'in« /il/ 'twan, J-/(;J
hwan',

^y p'an'.

1'^- 7L >\. ,sien, ,t'ien,'incliiding the finals ien, en, iuen, uen, wen, as ^^Hi

.lien, ijiljl .shen-, ^^ .hiuen, )l]\ .yuen, ^^ .c'hwen.

* Another small dictioiiar}* by a native of K'wen-shan near Su-cheu, called ^ /T| tJ*

Ul t T r J>C i'* compiled on the same plan.

44 MANUARl-N JjKAMMAR. PART 1.

11. jj^ ^' .siau, .hau, including the finals iau, au, and many short-tone

\vords in ioh. oh, as i\% 'k'iau, j^ 'tsiui. ^ .hiuu. The ki.st of these words
is 60 spelt in Monfiolian writing, being the same in written form as fX hiaii'.
12. HjK .Ai •^^'J? .kwo, including the finals o, wo, and many words in the

shurt-lono iinals uh, oli, woh, as jfijj cho, \p 'tso, li^fl

'k-wo.

13. %<. iJm' M'^^^ -"^'^ including words in a. ia. w.i. and almost all short-

tone words in ah.

14. ^L :t^ jC'he, ,che, including the finals e, ie, iue, and the corresponding
short-tone finals, as "]
Wj -^^i^N Tu .tsiue.

15. Jy^ pel ,keng, ,t'sing. including words in eng, ing.

16. yd \Y^ -ysu, .Ik'U,

including words in cu, ieu, and many words from

the short-tone tinals uh, as J^ 'shen, ff^ jeu', for shuh, juh.
17. '1*^*
^^ jt'sim, .sirn. including manv words now pronomiced with the

finals m, en, as ,ym, ^^ ,shen.

IS- !mL Jy^ ,kiam, ,hiam, including many words now pronounced with the

finals au, ien, as ^ 'kan, 4^ ,yen, $j^ kien".

10. ]f^ ^if\ .liem, jSiem, including many words now pronounced with the

finals ^^ 't'ien.
an, ien, as pzf chan,

5 Ohl mandarin final m of Cent. XIII. The final m in the last three

classes is known to be the sound intended by the author, from comparison with

the southern dialects, and particularly from monuments already mentioned, in

the old Mongolian writing, where the sounds attached to Chinese characters

in the 13th century, are expressed alphabetically.

6 These classes of finals representing the northern pronunciation in the

time of the author, are headed by the same characters as those employed in

many of the tonic dictionaries, but reduced from thirty to nineteen. Later

writers have added to their number by separating ii from u, and ei from i,

but they have not lieen bold enough to make the other changes in this system

rendered necessary by the lapse of five centuries, e. g. the abandonment of the

final m, and the union of such sounds as [^ > ^pj? kwan and jA^^ jC^^ chi,

under one heading according to the modern pronunciation.

7 Even the author of the Wu-fang-yuen-yin, though he has adopted an

 CIIAI'TI'.H 5. ON JIIK FINALS
^^

entirely new system ui" liauls, and an alphabetical ananj^enK'nt for (iic initials
has sometimes ajtparently relied too much on th.- older work of Cheii-teh-
f sing, as in spelling cheng^ ,sheng ]£, }jl^, and other Avords chin- shin^^-

and in i^eparating 7^M from X.' though thoy are both i>ronounced eliV. IMiese
peeuliarities may however liave been required by the dialect familiar to
the
author, and his work is a most useful and convenient manual dictionary,
being
on account of the alphabetical order of the characters very easy of reference.
There are many errors in it, but it would b.-dirticult to point to a better "uide
to the mandarin sounds, there being no imperial dictionary in wliicli they are

detailed. Some instances in which it does not agree with the present nn lU-

dann sounds are the following. The words -Sffi c'liuen, ^c'hangand some
other words in ch are spelt with sh. JIJ-'J^*,
[Xj'
,*f^. ^. etc, have s for their
initial, instead of t's. ^sk '« sheng instead of sing. The words ^I^and-^
are spelt kiung, kung, whereas they are now both called kimg. The same
remark may be made of other words agreeing with these in sound. Veiy fe w
of these faults are con-ected in the newer edition.

8 Tabic of SyUablcs. The annexed table contains examjdes of all

the
sounds formed by the union of the initials and finals. Words in the short
tone are here given in their short form as they a].])ear in th(> foreign works
and some native dictionaries. Th»> column inh among the finals is merely a
repetition of iih.

I) Number of .souiuis. The syllables contained in the foregoiu" table

amount to 532. In the syllabic dictionary of Morrison there are 411.
Th«^
difference is occasioned princii)ally by his n..t counting asi>irated words, as
distinct from those not aspirated. The number would be much greater when
the final M, and tlur soft initials o, d, b, v, etc. were in
still existence as
under the Mongolian dynasty. There would then \\q at least 700 syllables.
10 Finals ill s nu. The finals in and iNci are kept distinct in northern
mandarin (Poking and Si-ngan), but in the Nanking dialect, and in that of
the western provinces they are confounded. At Nanking ^ t'sin and ^
t'sing are both called t'sing. In Si-c'hwen \^] )\\ thoy are both read t'sin.

In agreement with the pronunciation of Nanking, ng is tin- favourite final

46 MANDARIN* tiUAMMAR PART r

Table of ayllahlcs, made by joininrf the initials and finals.

be fco iO

-t •i^r^
'V

p>i" n«,^

t
T
11

P j.t «5*
111

P'

m
f

h % PS Weft
s

sh

ts

t's

ch

cMi

w
ciiAPTEU ;>. TAHI.K OK SYLLAHLES, 47

•»

'V 1; a> a 7i B

k'

1± IS ^
a ii'i

P m ^ >;;

P' lira 5m
m ^ij: 7k Mil m ts
f

h 1'
M
.-II
ffff s^x^
B mmMmmm ^10 ; i'?i'jij ft
sh m m m
J

ts

ch

c'h

1
MBi¥m n
r

w
y
* In northern mandnrin coalesces with i e.
m W:
X In Wu-fanc-yuon-yiii-k'iai.In the north ,ts'a.

f Also io in the north.

48 31ANi)AKIN UKAMMAK. I'AKT 1.

o o o . ^ Zi S "-^

o r; :; rt C3 rt O O
c: ?=
^
F-
M^
1^
t^
F-
t^
1^
p^
?-
--
?;

k f^KiCvS
k*

P 5J
P'

m
f

h
mmimimm m
s

sh

mm
w
3
mi
ts

t's

ch

c'h

1
^'^-^mm $\i

w ^i.

y ^

* Tsun, ts'iupn, in fhe north.

CHAPTER. 5. ON THU FINALa 49

throughout the rej:^ion east and south of that city as far as Fuhcheu, while
Hunan and Ilupeh like Si-c'hwen prefer N.

In the Nurth the finals x and kg are often lost when, the a'Hx yQ follows
The Syllables jt)o/i. Jan<j, fen, pie7i, ffiuj, yiu, tiny, ti, etc. hct'omv jnir, far,

fer, pier, fur, yir, fir, etc. retaining their orifj^inal tone.

The finals ix, ixg, do not occur after f, ch, sh, j. In southern China
they follow ch, sh and j in many words, hut in all such words, the vowel k

is used in place of i in the provinces where mandarin is spctken.

The final iex has the open sound of a in some northern mandarin, e. g. in

Pa Erl 'Shan-si. Some natives of Peking prefer i:, others a. In the dialects

of Nanking and C'heng-tu representing central and western mandarin it is

IKS. Thus 5^* yiL ^^^ written either <mw, kian, (the a in/an), or tie7i, kien

(the e \nj\n). As in other cases, the vowel i in this final refuses to take the soft

sibilants sh, ch, .t, before it. In C'heng-tu pronunciation the i is sometimes
omitted, as iujyj^ hien, pronouncccl han. Some words with the initial s called

sien by MoiTison, insert u, e. g.^r IlM j''^^" ^^^ pronounced siuon in some
northern dialects and in Si-c*hwen mandarin.

The final iaxg appears to be free from variations. It occurs only after the

consonants k, k', s, ts, t's, n and l.

The final iuxg is used only after k, k* and ii. In many parts of Dnithern

China, this final is heard ioxg (o as in bone).

The finals iuex, lijx, occur after s, h. ts, k, and their aspirates. For the
vowel E, a is often used, as in the case of the final iex.

The finals ex, exg, rhyming with the English words son, sunxj, are found

after all the initials, except that ex does not combine with t, l, or s. The
number of words ranged und^r these finals is greatly increased by tiic transi-

tion of many characters formerly pronounced with ix and ixr,, p. g. F|1 •

\\' ,

/^PC' JR" ,shen, cheng', .c'hen, .c'heng.

Words in wf.x, wexg, are rare and are met with only wnth the initials k,

k', H, e. g. Tii;- [l^^j- }'}'.' kwen, k'wen, hwen. In ii«>rthorn mandarin as at

Peking, the syllables kweng/J^/ hweng \^{' are hoard kung, hung, th<-»ugh

the latter is also heard in colloquial heng. Morrison has marked kweng, and
50 MANDARIN' GRAMMAR PART I.

hwcng as separate syllables, and Premare has kweng, but there is good re-
ason to omit them as is done by the author of Wu-fang-yuen-}^n.
Words in an and ang are found after all the initials. The number is in

creased by the accession of many characters having the initials sh, ch and j;

f. g. ^; UJ* /i»\" These are spelt by Morrison (and in Wu-fang-yuen-yiu).

shen, chen, jen, to rliymc witli the English words ten, pen) but at present

the a m father is the sound given them whether in Nanking Si-c'hwen, or

the north. Thus ^§- shan, _[! shang, are at Nanking, the same in sound,

the final ng in that city, wlien it follows a, being pronounced n. At Teng

cheu however, the vowel is e.

The medial w in the final wan is usually not clearly pronounced after the

initials J, l, s, t, and y. Thus, "jfjf jc^jL, are heard toan, loan, where o takes
the place of u.

Among words in wan and wang are included by Mon-ison, Premare, and
other writers, many with the initials p, m; e. g. ^^j i^-]- pan, man. These

I prefer to spell without the medial w, for though heard in provincial dialects,

natives of the mandarin-speaking cities do not make use of that sound. The
finals WAN and wang coincide in the Nanking dialect, where 7u and [^
are both pronounced kwan. They are kept clearly separate in northern and
western mandarin.

The final ung is usually so spelt by English writers, as .^-kung (uas in

true). Premare uses o, rhyming with go, and that orthography agi-ees witli

the sound as heard from many native speakers of mandarin coming from

various districts. But u represents better the Peking pronunciation. In

some words belonging to this final, the vowel is variable; e. g. in Y}^. "tftf ,

jJ/J, pronounced feng, meng, p'eng, or fung, mung, p'ung, also t'M' l^ung
heng or hweng, f\i[^' ]\ ^„ kung or kweng. The syllable shung is recognized

in Wu-fiing-yuen-yin and exists at Sucheu, but it is pronounced with c'h at

Peking. In Peking feng meng, p'eng, are conmion, but fung p-'ung, mung,

are sometimes heard.

The final UN rhyming with moon, is often heard im as 4' J t'sun or t,sim a
vifhige. The consonats k, ng, p, m, f, h, w, y, never take tliis final. At
 CHAPTER 5. ON THE SHORT -TONE FINALS. 51

Pikinff UN and un are both used. In the mandarin of Nankin'^- and Si-
c'liwen im is pretVrrod. The uutliur c>l"Wii-lan>;-yiit'n-}iii makes hin and lUn
separate syllables. Tlius fjftj Inn, discourse; 1njj hin human relations.

21 Voivel Jinals. The final i refuses the initials nu, f, j, sh and ch. Thus
-V
J y^'often written chi, nhi, should he made to rhyme with "pj, <^y, si,

tsi, according to the orthography of this work, and with sze tsze, according

to Morrison.

Words in i are limited t(^ the initials s, ts, sh, ch and r, with J, in the
short tone, e. g. ^Q 'si,
tl ^^i', ^ 'ri. Some may doubt the propriety

of using the same symbol for the vowel jmrt of the sounds, ^q 'si, !P| 'ri,

but this is what is done in the native mandarin dictionaries, and it seems to
me that they are right.

Words in e take only the initials sh, ch, j, y, and m in one instance T^l
'me, or as it is perhaps more frequently called 'mie. For the ])ronunciation
ofC'heng-tu, the best standard of western mandarin, this final should be
written e, as thv a in case. At Nanking, it is nearer in sound to e, as the a in

"care." In Peking pronunciation, when i does not precede, it ajiproaches

to as in go; e. g. in ^ ,che, to hide. After k, t, s, and ts, tliis final re-

quires the insertion of the vowel i as^^^ 'sie. It occurs without the medial

I only after sn, j, en, a limitation which also marks words in the short tone

in eh; e. g. ^f sheh.

W^»rd9 in ei take only the initials p, m, f, and w; e. g. \f}. .mei, apricot.

Occasionally after p, and f, this final becomes i; e. g.

^p ,fei, not, is some-
times litard (i. When w intervenes, the consonants k, h, also take ei, a.-^ in

iH-ir In'A' l^^^'i'

b^vci. Words with the initialfl N. L, such as |A| nui, pg
lui, are by many mandarin s])eaktTs jjronouncwlnei, lei. In P«king mi, and
lei are more common, but nui, lui, are sometimes heard.
Words in A aftrr k and n, insert the vowel r ; e. g. ^ ,kiii, y hia', or

the vowel u, as in ±X k^^aS PP hwa*, otherwise the letter a refuses to fol-

low those consonants.

The final o, in many parts north of the Yellow River is sounded u, and
is like the first vowel in the diphtiiong of words such as coiv, how. In the
52 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART I.

mandarin dictionaries another final is made by inserting ii before o. Thus

"RJA' ^' ^re pronounced ko, kwo resi)ectivel3', and j;'h jjl^n]? ho, hwo, but
the w after h appears to be now falling into disuse. Morrison omits liwo,

but it is recognized by Premare. And is retained in many words in Peking.

Words in u in some dialects take ii or ft for u after sh, j and ch; e. g. -^

shu, pronounced shii in Hu-peh, and shft at Si-ngan-fu. Premare adopts
without good authority, the orthography shii. At Si-ngan-fii, u after some
consonants is changed to eu, so that 7^ 'tseu has the same sound witliljIfL

'tsu, pronounced 'tseu.

The final ii occurs only after k, n, h, s, ts, and standing alone; e. g.j^)"]^

,ku, ,u. There is no need of the inserted i or initial y added to the spelling

of such words as these in current orthographies.

For remarks on the finals ie, ia, see e, a.

Words in iai take only the initials k, h; e. g. f]^ kiai, but when i is not

inserted, all the consonants except f and J are employed. At C'heng-tu the

^ hiai', pronounced hai.

The sound yai heard in Shan-tung, is ugai at Peking as in J^? %-^j etc.

In Peking the final iai is always heard ie.

Words in iau take all the initials, except sh, j, ch, ng, and f, which in this

as in other cases cannot precede the medial vowel i.

The final eu takes all the initials. It rhymes nearly with the English
word '-prow". The intermediate vowel, e in tew is the e in. "then", as in

^ nieu, an ox.

In the finals ai, au, ui wai, each letter has its full sound. After k, h, p,

M, F, the termination ui does not occur.

12 Short-tone finals. The finals in the short tone all consist of vowels,

which are lengthened in northern and western mandarin.

The final m as commonly written, should be subdivided as in the table

into IH and ih. This is rendered necessary by the fact that i does not take

the soft sibilants, sh ch, j before it. Thus Tg sih, ))ecomes si in Peking,
and is there identical with si, ivest, while in Nanking it remains sih with
the vowel short. Words like ^^ and ^1 *
agree in tone and in vowel sound
CHM'TER .").
ON THK SHUItT-TUNf: IIN'Al.S. 53

with \v^' .shi time, at rckinix, ^^^^ ^^ Nankinjr in tho vowol souml but not
in tone. For (he latter the spellinpj sliili, and i'or the former .shi. is here

adopted.

The iinal eh as in pj- ^J jieh, spelt by French writers pe, and by Mor-
rison pih, varies in sound in the mandarin dialects. In Peking it is predom-
inantly Ki, Ai, E, or o; at Xankinf; kii (the e as u in tun); in Si-c'hwen eh
(the E as in there): and in llonan ki and ai.

The iinal eh preserves the same vowel sound in all the dialects. It only

occurs after the initials sn, j, ch, y, as is true also of tho lon<^ tinal e, its

correlate.

Words in ah become a (as a in fatlicr). in tlie nortliern and wesiern dia-

lects, as yV pa. I iijJif.

Words in on take o, rhyming witii '-no, '

or au as ^^ yoh. pronounced
like -j^ yau' at Peking, and ,yo at C'heng-tu.

Words in uii change their vowel to EU, u and ii in northern mandarin.

When there is no consonant preceding, as in ZlL 'i i^^ the sound jireferred

in all the dialects. At C'heng-tu eu is not used. Thus >'^ called lieu* in

the north, and identical in sound with )\i] lieu', is heard .In at C'heng-tu,

agreeing in sound with ^ij .lu, and %\. .nu, there pronounced .hi.

The final iih is usually written iuh by foreign authors, and both sounds

are given in the preceding table. Almost all the words under this final are

however pronounced ii at Nanking, and in the other dialects. Thus {4^ lii

not linh, and {trj k-'u (t'sii) not kMuh. Yet |iq .c'hii is in Poking sometimes
heard c*hiuh.
In the tinal ieh many speakers of mandarin omit one of the vowels 1 or E.

They are more firmly fixed in the mandarin of the north, than in that of

othi^r parts. Thus ||J,4*; tieh, hntterjln, in Peking tie or t'lc, is in C'heng-tu
called ti agreeing in sound with jjj ti, ajiute] while at Nanking it is ch.

The final iah occurs only after k and 11. It usually fakes the form ia;

e. g. ^jjj .hia.

Words in ion are lengthened to 10 or iau; c. g. |^{J sioh. to aU, is heard

,6iau at Peking, and .sio at C'heng-tu.

54 MANDARIN GRAMMAR PART I.

Words in lUH take ii in })lace of tliat final. The termination iueh often

loses the sound u or that of e, as in !^^ siueli, J]JL hia pronounced sio or

sie. The finals ini and il'EH occur only after k, ii, s, l and y.

The final "won often omits the medial w as in ^p .ho, living. Many
f >
"g"
speakers change theotoei; e. g. in -^^ pronounced liwei, in '^ 'Slum-si
— ti.
and Honan. The place of o is also often taken by e, as in PL)^ hwoh, pro-

nounced in Si-c'lnven .liwe. This and the final Invah (pronounced hwa),
occur onlv after the consonants k, ii, and sii.

Distribution of Short-tone icords.

1 Ji
13
• —U-
In the lengthening of words
J. t-|
in the short tone, as detailed in the work ^
)W^ H hM ^^^^' t^^^' mandarin of century XIII, it appears that words in the
lower juh-sheng or eighth tone, having mute or sibilant initials pass into

p'ing-sheng, and chiefly the lower subdi\dsion of it, viz. the fifth tone-class.

Words in the upper juh-sheng with the same initials pass into the shang-

sheng or second tone-class. Words whose initials are l, m, n, j, y, take the

third or k^ii-sheng. The excei^tioiis to these rules in that work are few, and
it would be interesting to ascertain if they exist in the pronunciation of any
large part of northern China at the present day.
14 In the tones of words lengthened from the juh-sheng in the Peking
dialect, there is an approximation to the same law. By referring to the table,

it will be seen that a clear majority of words in the lower juh-sheng with mute
and sibilant initials, viz, K, t, p, s, f, h, ch, take their place in the lower

p'ing-sheng, while almost all words commencing with l, m, n, k, j, y, are

classed under the third tone or k'ii-sheug. The second tone however, though
it embraces only words conforming with this rule, viz. characters having mute

and sibilant initials belonging to the upper juh-sheng, contains but a minority
of them, the greater number being distributed among the other three tone-

classes, the first, third and fifth. Of these the first tone takes the most.

15 The distribution of the A. >^^br Honan ^ jjl in the Yuen dy-

nasty, thus appears to bo as follows:
CHAPTER 5. ON THE SHORT-TONK FIN.M.S 55

Original tone.
56 MANDARIN URAMMAR. PART 1.

Sukordinate laws in the distribution of short tone loords.

20 i. In Peking pronunciation the words y\\ puh not and i one as-

sume one of three tones according to their position.

1 Before p'ing sheng they take c'hii sheng ^\ ^* pir ,tO; not many.

2 Before shang sheng they take chli sheng .^\ ^Q pir \si", he will not die.

3 Before c'hii sheng they take hia p'iug ^"^ ^P) linxig'', on once moving.

4 When last they assume shang p'ing, as in |

*
' shi ,i, eleven.

ii Upper juh sheng words are found in Peking for the most part in shang
p'ing. The following with a few other words from the lower juh sheng, are

^Iso enunciated colloquially in shang p'ing examples J^^ nie, to take luith the

Jingers ^^\ mau to touch l\W lei, to rein in.

iii. The tone class hia p'ing in Peking embraces not only all lower juh

sheng words with mute and sibilant initials, but a considerable number from

the upper juh sheng. They are chiefly among those written chi, c'hi, chie,

chu. fu, ko. su, shi", te, and tsu.

iv. The second tone class, shangsheng inPeking, attracts to itself afew of the

upper juh-sheug words. They are principally such as are accustomed to stand

alone in colloquial usage e.g. y^ 'chai, narroio Jp^ 'kei, give r]i|J 'chiau

foot JilL 'hiue, hlood 'pai, a hundred J^ '^'^j pagoda.

V. The third tone class, c'hti sheng is in Peking the favourite tone of juh-
sheng words in reading. Not only do words beginning Avith 1, m, n, ng, j,

almost exclusively prefer this tone, but many others form the upper juh-

eheng, used in combination and not found alone also assume this intonation

EXAMPLES JJ^ li', to stand ^K'J ^'-C'S observe, search ]j\\\ dm' a wooden bar-
,

rier p") chi', method, plan i}-ij- t'e, pwposely.

Juh sheng words that have found their way into the upper or lower
p'ing sheng are in poetry by the laws of rhythms forced to abandon their

new intonation. Such words assume the intonation of c'hu sheng for rhythm-
ical purposes. This tone-class thus becomes in the metropolitan province
the representative of the \ostJuh sheng for ]H)etical comjiosition and veritation.
 rnAPTER 5. PF,K INC/ ROUND OF SIIORT-TONE WORDS. 57

21 The following t.ible is extracted from tlie native work Li-sliT-yiii-kien.

The words are there spelt by the method called Fan-t'sieh. Thus under
^^ yo, medicine, the direction given for the pronunciation

''comLine the initial of yin- with

is p|l ^'-j ^
tl" Z^j i- ^'- the final of tiau'. It is the
same in sound with yau', to wish." So also ^ meh, tvhcat is followed by
the words \Ki\ X"^ y] ^' ^, i. e, "it is to be j)ronounced as the two
sounds, men, hwai united, and is hoinophonous with mai', to ntll." The
characters iJ i?:{i I 'Tiiij ix? J^'*^' directed to be pronounced as I'fv fj^,

HIF' T^P- tS' jk'i (c'h), ,shi, .shi, ,chi, .mei, respectively, in spelling and in

tone.

In transferring the sounds thus given to a i)Iace in this work, the process
of Fan-t'sieh has been omitted, and the result only given, viz. the correct
spelling and tone in the Peking dialect of all the short-tone characters con-
tained in the table.

Tahle ov short tone words distributed.

N.B. This Tabic gives the Pekiufj leufjthened sound of short-tone ivords,
ivith the tone marks as there pronounced.

Common
Examples
orthography.
c'hah

chah
c'ha

cha
m^ n fi';

ch«di che
'M -^f^ -1^ S^ -f^ li'fr -ffl Hf(^
chill clu
m '^ ^A m
,^ \\ ivi ^'k i\yk \^
c'hih c'hi
nM M ^M
choh chau
#r;^ ?>j:- 'K- siiij- nij-

» cho

choh
chuh
c'ho

cho
M
n '^ 4!|(

•jtiS
chu
,^ -ii M-^"^. Hi m u -^
58 JI A N DA n IX U l\ A M M A P. PART I.

Common
Examples.
oi-tho<z;ra])liy.

5> fill "M Ml

II
chiieh 111
II

C'llllt'll

c'luih

•tB
fah m .i£ Vs m
'<^ ^i'
f'T,' ll,'-"
"in
full
m -'Jifii -1^ -tt -^ M n -n s m

hei
I'M '*iii '^ %m
lieh

??
ho •1 -l^i) ili^ !£'
hi ah ?ia hia
wm %
n m -m -e ^^%
hieh hie sie
mm mm -pt
liih

hioh
si hi

sio hiiie
mmm m '^^
)'/?

-HF^ 'EI3
siaii (li)
55

hiueh sic (h)

sioe (h)
55 /\ (or sine)

hiiih m (h)
hoh ho
hau
fl'A ,^, n -u -^ m .m n ^ .-h

hwah hwa
Ay:.
liwoli hii J.|^.

hwoh hwoi ho Invo

hAviih

jeh
liu
a .M m m C eIl^
^'
J^-

t-r
juh 14 ^J;=i

jllll jrll
cHArTKll i). PRKIKG SOUND OF SHORT-TONE WOUDS. 59

Common
Examples.
orthotj^raphy.

AWWlH^R'
kt'h ko 4m .^i': M m r6 .SiS .Jis mu
tsie

k^eh k'o

kiali tsia (eh) •^^5 'i'^i ^i ^^i '^^coatofmal7^'^ a symhoJ,

XV [I
A:
k'iah t'siu

kit'h tsio il m Mi M m 4^ 4 m ^ m ji

kill tsi tf

m«M R -Vi M m m R'

kMh t'.si tt 'Z ri- iii^
kioli tsiau IP
tsio, Of fi.fh
k'luh

kiueh
t'sio,

tsitie
ue m- m M'r-

k'iueh t'siiu'

kiiili

k-iuh
tsii

t'sii
4-k Mi h'i
ffl'|lM!l|c,ook..,rill:|..«nn-
M
koli ko, ke

k'oh k'o m m -m y^
kuh kii M )!« f> iV-j 1:)' Iji^oiall r -|-

k'lih k'u

kwali kwa •J.5 ¥, -^ -M

kwoli kwo
k'woh
lali
k'wo
la
m f^i:- lv|!-

K'h \A
lo
>>

^IJ ,k'e, to rw/, engrave k'e' po, to rff/i/ hardly with »h! .k'« *<7Mn and quarters.
60 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. TART I.

Comiuuii l\'kiii<r
Examples,
ortliop,Tap]iy. soiukI.

lieh lie
m:m wm
lih

liol
li

liau
^ ^ M- m m' m If
Ik.

liueh lie
5^'

liiili lu

loh laii 1^' ^;/f ^^

lo
m w
iti
m
/;§' i§^ 3S^
liih lu
It w m m m m m m
lieu

meli mai

iiiioli
J?
1110

miu
r m m m *' if wj m m m-
mill mi «^ i^ ^O' >lL
^t^.fi

moll mo j^^^ also commonly called ,mau

miih mei

jj
mo
53
mu rfs-
iiali na Ift' eft' Ift'
iigeh DgO
ngoh ngo
nieh me ffl- Hi-
iiih iii

nioli nioe

noli no
pah
ji'ah
pa
p'a
•A m« jjf ij{

pell pai

l»'i 4b
CHAPTER 5. PKKINQ SOUND OF SHORT-TONE WORDS. 61

Coiumou
Examples
orthocrrapliy.

jj
po

p'cli p'ai
i\\

pi eh
j>
p'o

pie
nmM If:|- ffl- iE-
•ff-yij-fu!
})'ieh p'ie

pill :^u\ -Ml] -^[^2 iji- rki ^i p*^ os: ^^ Js

'iflU" ?,-' "^I^^ (^vhen hist) >i^' (before ^@^)
jrih

pull l>aii •
lii illi/ -iij,'-

})
po
'*^i# •^^€ 15 -^ I* ## .*t

p'oh p-o

]i'u

po
J)Ull pu

J)
p-Il

p*uh p'u
^
^i4i
sail sa m
.11
M
•--.»-

seh sai ^4b 2K

J)

sliali
shai, se

sha
^i{i XI5.
tN luj
^iii.
aut
/."t
Lj
•
JT-.
,ii^»
^<-
^
5lt'

J'
sia

sheh she 1' I iT.Mj mux tiiii ri'i I") (m:- lL ^>
shih shi I J 'f'r
X. :5

:>^C mm r\ .Yi M^ :k
sliili

shoh
shi

shall
'v'iu\\\ ''^- m m- w ^ ^t-

sliuh slitii

^^ htandins last.

-f^ l>efore±-'F, [^ ^. ±^
•>P before "S* 5)p For Examples v. Usui ching lu Part III.
62 MANDARIN GRAMMAIi. I'AhT i.

Common
Examj)]<js.
orthography,

» M fL .n<Mi mm
.;i$

m ~M- m- m n- w
tihwah

.shwoli
m
sieh }i-^=
•i-\-
!>>:

sih •&-
Js?:- 1 1^ .11 11 li tiV il m
r
s
mm nmm ^iT-

I
sioh to
siueh

siiih •ri
}} fi' iP^
8oh

BUh >S M -^ 4§ .M ai ^' m'

4§^ constellation ,4§^ pass the night

^^^V
»

tah
M' is^ m ^'
t'ah 'i§ m mm
q^ ought Jjivjv

teh, t'eh

tieh
% s
>iitc mmmm i^- i'k
tMeh U 'M n 'hi-
CHAl'TEK .).
(A MANDARIN GKAMMAU. TART 1.

Common
CIIAriKU :>. K.\.\^U•I.K^<. (JS

of Pekinu; ami tin* ii.»rtli j^riR-rally, is the ultcivd lonii jfjuli-slicii^ words.

The following; examplt s are f]jivc'ii to aid in iaiuiliarizing to the eye of the

render. tln> ortlioj^rajiliy of siieli words as actually heard.

^^ ^<j, M^ jl[^ ta-lin- jii "t-.si, (jenvraUij sj,ca/chii/ if isasfoUntcsr^'^ I'j/j

.^\ '^' yair .e'lii pir Iiau, he fakes mcilirinc iritJiout benefit: "XT "l* -^^

,t"si .sill li<'ir, scveutij six; ^''i\i l^il, [^ lii" .ytii 'sai. of n i/reeu colour: ^
"g ^i
'^ ivj '1''^'' tsi mei ,ko titc wheat is not yef cut] -j J J'j( 'ta lie', to

hunt: 'lil htj 4 ,^"^^0. .tail 'ts'i, a place for showin<jflou-cr.s\ ' *
yj, ||/){

Itu itii 'i^ 1^ • li' I'l"' ,tsaii t'a' pu* .te, o single fjrain of rice must not

be trodden upon; y)/, IJjJl Itjr]" T'j^ j

pei' 'tsiau t'sai (t'a') liwai" 'Iiau, it

2vas troffden upon and destroyed : JiJj 7^ cho pen', stupid; (l^ t-.^t'siiie,

.shi, (ircurntehj true : \^\ -^ Vamv cliiau, Just at the time; fortunately

fli llll §f ^M '^-'i^u r^^ .^^-^"'^ ."=1".' ^n'«(/mr/ «''^^'// K ^'K fP fflJ

sie* til .shen .fo, to insult the gods and Buddhas; |]: -i^j^ ,tso yo', to play
music; y^\ ' "
\'l}j\ ,sie ,i ,sie, rest a little:] [- riiy- jii ^2^' ^^'^
"S*^* f"*"'

.fa. fo do wrong mid break the laws; uM 'J''1»

^^'^ '''" " y^«'^(^<'<^ covering

for the knee; /Jjji /Ijl I ):::\ J 'tsiau 'ti sia- ,shi Iiau, tcet nnjier foot;

'\/^ .ehai i', a messenger; ^^ ^J ,kenj,' i', to charge; J^ ^ .fang

,wu ahouse ;
, 3}! i I'J c'hi% ,fung, ^o canonize; pj jj^ .liwan;^li', imperial
calendar ;^^ ±1^ shw \\\ upright; ttj 7J .cMiu l\\ to exert sfrrn>rfh :

yfiX l|'')C '^^^'^ tsei, <o /aV^ thieves; YjL i'jl^ .e'hcii ni', /o ir drownet/ : /J//

fSx shenj;' 'Iiau .c'heu he has conquered his enemies:

J I L .ti', 5H'J J35:

1\ U-I t'.^^nii .to pu' .('hu, cannot Jind it out by thinking: )'lj i W^>i<' hu',
to let iva/er through :'ff}l j^. 'k'wn .tseh, to choose : j (j -j\ ^ Vhau pu'
.chau, cannot find him; ^^ J [|j){ J -^ ^j ^..i,-,- 'Iiau fan* .niei 'yeu. have
you hrefd.fastrd {dined) y,t or not; ^I'K l.j^.nan .te, dij/icult to g<f: -{^ /v^

H|''J 'jv'; -t^i'l •^'J'^n '^^^ .(hen, /f»-r/r/y / /.//,-, rongrr: fl ;-,V; ^\ F1 !">'

,hei pu- .pai,i7 /« neither black nor white: ^[j} j/j^ j | J :2V J .clii .n .( Iiu

chii* Iiau, my nephew is gone oJit; 'j^ '|'LJ

-
j
*
shui .ya t.si, o </»/r/.; 'Jlift

/'m3 ^X 5Wi J la-.(hu hwo juie' 'Wnn^ the candle is gone out : \\ OS
- y 7f^^ J sill ten .f.sa ,sha Iiau. /<e teas stoned to death: Iji^-jfi jjl

Tm] -^lieu ..shi .clie .eheu. mend the carriage nxh :

A^ ^-i .^in ehai. //r
titi MANL>A1'.1.N OKAMM.Vli PAUT 1.

has a 7i arrow heart •,\» 4] J

>'^ 'b I'l ko 'liau lieir ,fHi }'i', after six or

seven days; 'X M^ ']' 'nii .sia 'ta'i, a hlhid icomav, JJ-ji }^i W .tsiiie,

tstag horns ^\ ^}] \l^ \m' .m'm^ .\-)ai, he does not U7idersta7id; J^. ^ )'|*i

'j^fj to lijl jClicn sill" .liwo .lb ,c'hu slii', he is truhi a living Buddha horn

into the ivorld; 7v ^ ta' mai-, luheat; f\. ~T A^ :i:-t 'c*hi .t'sun .pu

tui-, the measurement does not agree; Jjll. IJlC A^ \ II '!^ii'<^ i^o' (mai-) pii'

.hwo, f/ic Z>?oocZ is not active; Q EL IVj W l^J tsi- 'clii .ti 'ku jeu', otic'*

own blood relations; JI^ 7JC ^--ji' -t'eii t'ai* .tu, ^/<o sun is very power-

ful (poisonous); ^W yfc '& ^^ \nv yair' t'ai' .sin .chi. do not he too

anxious; ^K ^y ^^ j j* ,c4iiue 'shau wir, cliien'. ^//c/t r/z-e .so/»e f/r/?i(7S

missing; ^<c jS £( ffi P^^^i' i^'^i'i' 'P''^i sing', Ae oppresses the people;

_
— ^^ _^ "tr li/k jSan -Inven .c'hi p'o', three souls and seven animal prin-
ciples ; ^'^i ]^ ,t'sin ,t'si. relations; jQ "J ,p'ai 'sbeu, to clap the hands;

1^ ^S ^^'^
-V^^ tin-foil: )x "W tM -^5 j'l^ei 'yen .Hang .shi, ///c?/ /^are

no provisions; TjC ^^ ~f^ mir .sai 'tsi, a ^cooden palisade ; ^ h'ilI Plfe

llli pu' jen' ,shi ,t'a, I do not know him; "^ [trj ~J"* c'hang' 'c'hii 'tsi, to

sing songs; ^ t2 .clui,hwa,, chrTjsanthemum ; "]£ -0: |1| &T ^^^^'

tsai' ,shan 'ku ,chiing, he lives in a mountain valley; -pi 7\^ Pj^ ^=f ^:J*

^^ 't'siau .11 shall' .te 'hau .t'ing, the birds sing sweetly -M"^ f±_ ]yLj 'tsui

"li 'k'o. I am thin^fir.^^ It^I .tsic sii', to connect; WA A^ 1^ ^ai' pu' .te,

it is unbearable; ^ -^ ^K ^ ,siang k'o' 'hen ,to, the visitors who come

to burn incense are very numerous; //ij ip'l /V .pie ko' .jen, another man;

}] >7gj
i^^ yne' liang' "haii, the moonlight is beautiful; ^ f£ ^ ^7"

^^ che' 'li pu' .sing .ti, it must not be done hcrc;^^:^ -flE ^ifv l^lH tsin' tsai'

u' 'li, to shut up in prison; 1^ j\^ ^ 1^. .t'ung ,siu .ho i', of one mind
and h€art;'i'il jj^^ ~^ .man ,iiiau k'an'. toxich it andsee;^<, ^ ,tsia ye',

family property; -^ iJ: tsr 'nni', written characters; ^ 'Jht ^t'sinje', <o

«««cA one's-self closely to W k'. "iR fe -^^^^5 ^^^^ ;^^'^"o M^^, '^*<' Aowses
—
;

>j';? o//; ' Ijr. fti a ll'j A. ,i .chwang .ii chu' .ti .jen. men who live

in onovillaae;^ J\l& m'Vi^'\ .fiin shf .fsing, all hinds of things;

IF. li^, fill- ^A ^heng' .chi .wii ,si, upright and unselfish ; ^jt (J J >(j* .shwo

.ti 'hau, he spealcs writ: n/^ ^^ )^ -^ "St )^ -^l^' -t^' -k^wei shV 'hnn
CHAPTF.K r». KXAMTLrS. 67

han', he who bmrti an injury is a hero ;

^-f-* f^f;
^-* }^1 pjiii' ,h(i |)!in' .{jai,

half black ami half white : "}][ \] f'- /\, Ik* ilia- .jtii, to friifhtvn and deceive
peoph \ y^Jv 4^{. xt J 111 -I'inc: 'siiie \ni\v \\\ ire and snoic are on the ground \

~~*
^^ mi ;' -^'^'i .''liwfii. o boat: bIj ^[ tsi' .clio, remember-, 'J/' .^
'l^ 'shall pir .ti', it /.s- indisjiinaabJe ; n>i ^^x /t. ,s)i\vo jm' ting', I cannot
say certainhj \%\\\ 7] ~X^ p^ .in fcir 'veil sioir. A/V share of happiness-

is small; i}^ ^] ^^ J^ .luci 'vcu .chuu lu-, without a home; ^^ ^ ^\

IJ^^ slur nnr pir .rlitii. /Ae calculation is wron>/: ^'|^( -f^^,"
^4v: J§ ,tsi sii

.yin .t'sion, to add constantly to his gains; ij^'j y\\ |^ 1'^ ;?^" 'she pu'
.tu jC'hi ,t'-lnviii. he will not spend even for food, and clothing; ^ ||5 'S^

Jpg .ia .t-t:{ii .til .fii, //(' /.«??•/>•// and h(rj>py;^% tl '
'
/v .tu tsr J .jon,

he, a single '}'^'''f''-p.Mwi\ I'I'I' li^'l" Uj ^\"' '^^'*^' ^^^' *^'^' -^^ ^'^<^'^'c a"(/ pin-

ching; -fj- /^ ri3^ J_l,^^ !^ [ly ki»- c'liu' she' li' 'sie .siiie 'kwan, eve?*y-
tvhere establish schools; -^ ^^ ^<4i
—
^x ko' c'iiii' kwang' kwang', /tc ' ,i

went everywhere amusing hiinself;Jf^^ \yi\\y>\[ y\'\)v,i kiv chen' shi', he

arranged them in order of battle; Jf^* ,\r[! ^T^ t'e' i' .lai, conw intentional-
ly; ^^ ~y 'so 'tsY. string; ropei^H ^^ -^he "pen, to b>se capital; ^K.]^
r//v *^ ,sie ,si ,sie ,si, res/, rcis/ XL l™ xE A'^ ,\noi\
: .t-hii tBai' .sin,

the injury he has suffered is in his thoughts; -^ [-^ ^ j- [J-J [iJX ^^'^^
P^
a'lnv' ,i\ ,tfie'i, the theives that plunder the people; ^\ *\ g^ pir ,chiing

jt'ing wo< pleasing to here; /\. r^^ /(^" jii' k'o' ticn', /iCf/i/frec/^Ae /oc/j7J»<7-

honse; ^^ /^ 'jj,* ^[^ P lien' .jen .i tai' tso' sia'. the six men sat

down together.

24 Thf misiiig tahlo cxhihits in "iio viow. tho principal vnnatinns to

which the .siiort-tnne finals uic .suhjorl in ihc mandarin diahrls. The co-

lumn marknl: '|^ IJj\ contains the soiuuIr givon by Chcu-tch-t^ing.

Final.
68 MASDAUIN OUAM.M Ml. I'AllT I.

Final.
C'HAPTKU 5. FAULTS IN MANKAKIN' DIAT.F.CTS. 69

Final.
70 MAN'OAKIN tlP.AMMAR. FAftT I.

final NO ill ^ k'enp; is duingocl to n. Tlie use of /Q as fin allix to suh-

stantives affects the sound of vowels and pushes out the finals n and n*;;, as in

/\ TLi .jen .n, a rnan, iironounced nearly like .jer. in | ) ^'U .men .n, a
door, which is like .mer, and in Tjv i'JX yCi inu' ]ian .n, ivoodcn hoard,

heard like mu' 'par. Aspirates are incorrectly used in the words 51^ tie pro-

nounced often 'tie i|^ telr pronounced t'e. Further, words in iai, iue are

heard ie.

28 In Nanking n is very commonly pronounced 1, as in Y^ nan, .so?//"//

pronounced Ian. The vowel i in such words as^lj? yj lieh. t'sieh is oft^^n

omitted. Words such as 7^ I'ien ^f- nien are frequently heard t'eu, nen.
The final n becomes ng aftt-r i, and ng hect^mes n after a. Thus j\^ sin,

heart is the same in sound with ^^ shig, a star, and J'Ul ,lian, order, with

/ P >pang, a kmgdom. In this city the mandarin jn-onunciation has not

penetrated deeply among the lower classes. At a i;'w miles distance from

the walls, the soft initials g, d, b, etc. prevail among the country people.
Bad speakers of mandarin are more common among Nanking ukmi, than
among those from Peking and the other mandarin speaking cities, because
the former city is on the boundary between the northern and southern sys-
tems of pronunciation, while the others are In the midst of a population

using the same dialect with slight differences.

29 In the western provinces, the initial n gives place to l' except before

the vowels i, ii. At C'heno:-tu, the capital of the province of Si-c'hwen, g

is heard in words such as ^§ i'. In ^? ^ .c'hang, the initial is sh. The

vowel I is omitted in words such as ^Ji^.hien, complete (heard han),^3:-^"'^i-

shoe (heard hai). Some words in ie. as ;^ ,sie, are heard i, dropping the

last vowel E. Tlie words^^ yiin', yJC 'ynng,J]lL, /\ hiue, ^ shi'. are

called yin', 'yun, .hie, si'. In ^, ^^ kwo, to is omitted.

30 At Tsi-nan-fu the capital of Shan-tung l is often substituted for j,

as in ^' jo, ]^P .ju. Y is also found for j as inf rj jim' called yun. Words
in Y often substitute i, as in/^.lung for .yung.

31 In the north, the variation in the vowel part and the tone of juh-sheng
words gives rise to much inconvenience. From the preceding tables it ap-
riTAP"Tii. (». \\TivK modi: ui uiiiTiNf; S()i-\ns. 71

pciiri?, that many wnnl-^ have two or tlirfo ]troiiiin('iati<nis own in Pekim;
itsrlt". The wtmlf^ lor exam j)le, is then' ch1I('<1 liio liiiie or liiau (s). and
.'I'-'J has til.' tluro sonncls .lei. hi* amMo'. Sonu' words that have •'one far

ironi their oritcinnl t'orni in tlie colloipiial, arc nineh nearer to it when ])ro-

nounced as l)ook words. Thtis |/^J )\ih. Jlrm//

is heard in ettHoquial '\o\v. ])\\t

in readinc^ it is eaiicd jir.

'V2 At T'ien-tsin the port of Pekins:, tliero are some diti'erences in the

initial letters: e. •;. .i for some words in y. and TS and s foi- many words inrn
iind sn.

33 Tlie ])ronunciation in larc^e cities adheres more closely tlian country

diale<ts, to the standard pronunciation. That of Hani^-cheii. for example,

is mticli in advance of neighliourin;; cities in aj)proxiniation to mandarin

sounds. The vowels usually ai;ree accurately with the recognized orthogra-

phy, but the initial consonants still retain among them the soft letters, c;. d,

b, z, etc. e. g. Irjif .jwen, a boat lor .chwen, -^ .dza for .c'ha, tea. So the

country dialect near Tsi-nan-fu in Shan-tung does not confound the initials

K and TS before i and u, nor ii and s before the same letters, as is don<' in

that eity.

CHArTKR VI.

Nativi: M(»i>k of AViutisg SorNns.

Dirtionnrit'ft of local diahctx. Works for teacliing the colloquial pronun-

ciation of particular cities, repre cut the sounds with tlie h^lp of the Fan-

t'sieh, or syllabic s]i«'lling. A series of charact(^rs suited to r'jiresent the

initials, and another the finals of a dialwt, are chosen as a standard of pro-

nunciation. Ry means of them the s«nmds of all other words are expres-

sed. In many ca.ses however, words to represent the Found are choven with-

out regard to any series. Kxamples illust ratine: this method are here given.
72 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART I.

Example. Initial. \
Final. Sound. Authority.

KL^i dz t*i^ iun dziung Chung-yuen-yin-yiiu.

f? i

ling t'sung Chung-clieu-t'siuen-yii.

k'i

Hi, ung .t'sung Wu-fang-yuen-yin.

.k'i >> 7J

f-ch ling chung Fuh-cheu dictionary.

•'•

k ki

ch <^ ong chong Chang-clieu dictionary.f

ki

If t's ung .t'sung Canton dictionary.:!:

Kl- .k'i jj J?

;fiE un t'sung Peking dictionary.

? k,i 35 J5

Syllabic SpeUinf/.

2 Tliis method of syllabic spelling, the Fan-t'sieh JX, yJ from

, fan, to

turn over, and t'sieh, to touch, to rub, was introduced to China by the Hin-
doos in the 5th and 6th centuries. The first dictionary, in which it was

'•'
This dictionary of the dialect of Fuh-clieu is called /v HZI M pj
Pah ,yin hoh ting'.

f This dictionary of the dialect of Chang-cheu j^ yTj in southern Fuh-

kien, is called ~| JLL EI shih "wu ,yin.

X This dictionary of the dialect spoken in the city of Canton, is called

77 y^ J^ ^- 'pf ^ ,Fen yiin' tsuli yau' hoh tsih, or more briefly Feu-

yiin.

§ ^^ l\^ "of i^i^- The pronunciation only is given in the dictionary in-

cluded in this work. The words are arranjjed accordinur to their initials as

in our own alphabetic dictionaries, but in a dillerent order.

ClIAI'TKU G. SYLLAUK SPELLING. 73

3' AA-

Ku-ye-waiifij, J)lll>li^ll(.•d 543. Some specimens of the mode of .spdliiif,' adopted

in tliJit work, with tlie prohahle ]»rominciation of tluit period attached to the

chiiracters, are here ap}»ended.

Example.
74 MANI'AiaS (.UAMMAli I'AUl' I.

than one hnndrcd. His system ^vitll slight variations has. continued in use

to the present time. The finals may he still further diminished one halt" by

not eountinj^ diflbrences iu tone.

5 In consulting these dictionaries, it is necessary to know (1) the tone

and (2) the final, all words having the same intonation being placed together,

so that the most general division of the book is into four parts, one for each

tone. Subordinate to this is the classification according to finals.

G Through the greater part of China, the pronunciation preserved in these

early works is now obsolete, but they are still the standard according to which

literary candidates write poetry for the national examinatiuns. The tradition-
ary soimds of the T'^aug dynasty as here registered, fonii the rule according

to which all Chinese poetry is still composed. The natives consult these

w^orks with facility from knowing l>y the habit of reference where a word is

to be expected.

7 The syllabic spelling learned from the Hindoos was soon followed by

systems of initials and finals, which very much assisted the natives in com-
prehending the analysis of sounds.

The initials were an-anged nearly in the order of the Sanscrit alphabet.

Thus, k Mi kien', k'^ ^ ,k'i, g^R giun', n #$ .ngi, t j;^^

-twan. t^
^
,f'u, d % diang', n ^'It^.ni, ch ^P ,chi,^ c'h fwi c'het, dj M-djing, ni^d^J

.niung, p % ,pong, p' )^ ,]''ong, b 3^ 'biang. m ^W .miung, f ^p ,fi, f

C^lfo, V ^ 'vung, V ^fd .vi, ts f f|,tsiang, t's jR .t'siang, dz iJl .dzung, s

j]^ ,sim, z y f)
.zia, ch {If"? 'eho, e'h >|- ,c'hon, dj i\X 'Jjnng, sh ^ 'shim, j

'-
joibv f;^ 'yang, h 0^ 'hio, u nf;f.',/, jlLhap, 1 ^ loi, ni nyit

We are told (Li-shi-yin-kien, vol. 2, p. 6,) that a priest of the T'ang dy-
nasty, named She-li ^,- A"'} formed this system, but without the six cha-

racters %li, \\'\\, ^^ , )^j, ^'ii, ^&. These were afterwards added, and in
fact some of them are sujiei-fluous. For the first two can be identified with
the initials \Z\ nyit and )Q^ djing, and the last four with the initials^p, ^J,X,

3B? ^'J; ^'V loading p for f In the Sanscrit alphabet there is no f, and in

tlif lifth cf-iitmy words afterwards placed under the initials i\ \\ were pro-
CHAPTER G. SYLLABK' SI'KI.l.INC. 75

nouncecl with p, h. Tlnis yfj full, j')|j fuli^ luul for their ])honetic value

at that time the t!>anscrit syllables jmt, biul, ami were changed for other

eliaraeters hy later traiih^lators of the Budiiist hooks when aiming; to express

the llinduu sounds aeeurately, sla-winy; that the jiower assigncil to these cha-

racters had changed in the interval. Many other words now pronounced f

and V, may he concluded from various sources to Ifave been formerly heard

p, so that f is perhaps of comparatively recent aiipearance among Chinese

sounds.

S The characters selected to represent the finals in tlie dictionary Kwang-

yiui are tlie following:

Fiisttoneelass. Jfi ^® J^I (^'"g- ^^^^'r^^ ^'"gi i^ng,) 5l 'JhJ <1 1j

(•^ 1, ei,) ^ ,1ft: tp (ii, o,_u,) ^{0,)Ui ^^ M ^V] (aJa, 6i, fti,)

g$ ^ (in, im,) 3(, )ik /C ^J| (iu"' ''". ^vun.)§i >/j( t'g (en, on,
w6n,) llljlj^ |i| (an. wan^) /L f|l| (ien,) j^H W # 5c («, '^o, aii, iau,)

^^ yJi Miii (a, wa,) |>i lii jiong, 6ng,) $t l'|- rR_^ang, iang,) ftf

^S ^t i% ffl(u, eu, iuof^ (im,)4lil^ (im,)

(eng, ing, eng,) M
f $ (iem.);^!^ fg (iam.) /L (^^am. M
Fourth tone-class. lH M
(ol- iokoil: (ok,) ff (it,) f|q f'^f) 4^7
^'^^ij

(ut. ut,) li -^ (wet, et,)

t^J tIc (6t,) ^] ftf (at, iat,)
5
^ M^
(iet,) ^1 l-n'H a^ (iak, ak, aik,)fr |S 1];,^ (ik, ek,) |M (ip,)
-P^ ^l (ai..) il (iep,) J'^ 1^ (iap.) :$: (wap.)
l|ll!l
#
In this arrangement, there is an approach to the order of the vowels iu the

San.scrit alphabet. That order is a, a, i, i, u. I'l, e, ai, (5, au. The unaccent-
ed n in a closed syllable corresponds to e as used in the present work. The
vowel a is ])laced near 6 in the Chinese system doubtless because of the close

connexion of those two vowels in Chinese! pronunciation. The order of the

consonants used as finals is also nearly the same as in the Sanscrit alphabet,

viz. ng, n, m, k, t, j).

The finals in the second and third tone-classes ])eing likf those of the first

are not hero transcribed. In the common rhyming dictionaries now used for

versification, the JJl ela.sses hen- found, are reduced to about half that number.
76 MASDAllIN OKAMMAH. I'ART I.

9 In all the national dictionaries, enibiju-in;^ in addition to those already

mentioned, IE ^ -ll (^h(Mi,--tsi-t'un-,^ ^Tsi-hwei, Ift ^ M ^'

P'ei-wen-ytin-tu, /^<f [\'|j ~f^ ^'(-K'ung-lii-tKi-tien, words are spelt according

to the Fan-t'sieh method, with the initials and finals as here described. In

these works, published since the growing up of the mandarin pronunciation,

the traditional sounds of the characters are quoted from earlier books. To
read the old pronunciation correctly the values of all the initials and finals

need to be carefully ascertained. An attempted approximation to them is

given in this chapter. It is derived from many sources, viz. from old tran-

scriptions ol Sanscrit sounds in Chinese, and of Chinese sounds^in Japanese,

Corean, and Cocliin- Chinese; also from the existing state of provincial dia-

lects in China itself.

Phonetic Characters.

10 Among the details connected with the Chinese methods of writing

sounds, there should be some reference to the phonetic characters. About

2,500 of the characters are ideographic. The remainder upwards of 20,000

are formed phonetically. Many of these are of recent invention. There are

about 10,000 characters in the Shwoh-wen, a dictionary of the Han dynasty.

Examination shews that certain laws guided the inventor of these symbols,
and that at this remote period, after all the changes through which the lan-

guage has passed during several thousand years, some of these laws are not
beyond the reach of observation. Phonetic and ideographic characters are

found mixed in the oldest remains of Chinese literature, and tradition ascribes

them to one inventor >g jjv! T'sang-kieh, who lived before the time of Yau
and Shun, in the reign of Hwang-ti, said to be b. c. 2600. But though
there is no traditional evidence of any lengthened time elapsing between the
formation of the two kinds of symbols, we may be allowed to assume it.

11 A few examples will illustrate the phonetic writing, adopted in the

carlv formation of Chinese characters.

 ( IIAI'IKK. (). •lloM-.rir ( IIAUAITF.US. / (

Phonetics Coinpnund.s.

±i ,fiin<: Is •
1
'
I
"K. Ti I .
p«n?r-

fnj slmnj:- :^^- .sliaiin: (/.li), |.-|^ 'shaii';, i^ 'i:lmi)<,', jjnj l-imj;,
'M
W .taiij::,
'i^
ijl .t•all^^

-^ ,ft'n ^
.j^T ''ii-
l.ii- (vi'ii), ^it p'cn
jiX .p-cn (Ik-u),
(l)Hi), //tl ,i>an,
/;(! ,
^
>;|i .pin.

t^|H,ku«n(m) ki-^^niuM .li,.„, || ,k'ian.

_V^^ .Imu'ii ^^ .hicn. V Jf Ilium'.

,c'ha. M^ ,tsi(.,
^ .t'so,
-fl ,tso.
^^
'cli.' .. ilf ,cliu, (iiP ,tu, m siiS -§- 'shu.

'kwo.. ^ ko, ^ -ho, 1^^ '10.

ill ye. .- j{il.c'hi,j-l^ tiS ^tii,t'a,|>lli.fo i, !l!'[:>i-,

^; yili (k) |S^^sih(k),t§tMll[k].

fali(t) |?5xpohrt],}^l.'oh[tJ.
¥ kiah (p) rPivahQ.jJ^ hiah [p].

12 Of characters thus used as phonetics, there are in Gallery's enumera-

tion a tV'W more than a thousand. It appears therefore that after the inven-

tors of the Chinese characters had determined on tin* more tlum 2,0tX)

ideograj»lis wliicli the lan<^uaf;e contains, they approjiriated nearly half of

tliem as symlxds of sound. Tlie sound assigned to them wa.s the name of
the ohject of w hich they were- primarily chosen to be the ideograj)h. Probably
therefore sufficient time intervened for the symbols first formed to bccomo
well known, and suggest at a glance a certain sound. As already remarked

liowever, there is no direct evidence of such an interval of time having existed.

New characters wh«»n formed are always j)honetic.

13 It is found tliat the final consonant^ of the plumetic belongs generally

to all the compounds that it helps to form. Taking the pronunciation of

southern China as a starting point, the tinal whetber Ihj it n^:^, n, m, k, t, or

]t, in almost all cases is the same in compound characters as in their plionetics.

* In the seal characlor "tH -iti'l -fck have the same fonn.
78 MANl».\i;iN CUAMMAK. I'AKT r

This fact belongs to the first tbnnation of Chinese writing, and proves the

existence of the whole of these final consonants at that time.

14 The same circumstance characterizes tlie vowels whether medial or

linal. But it is only partially upen to observation, on account of the numer-

ous changes that have taken place during the la]>se of thousands of years.

Characters which once rhymed together, and tlierefore contain the same

phonetic, have separated frequently, and now find their ]>lace under three,

four or more different rhymes. Tlius among the i)receding examples -^ che

has three values, and "HL ye no fewer than five. These mark clianges in the

lano^uao-e, and it remains to accertain which is the oldest^ and which the

newest form of the vowel, before an approximation can be made to tlie ]»ri-

mitive sound.

1.5 While the medial and final letters of the sound attached to compound

characters ao-ree witli those of their phonetics, the initial ulten differs. When
the initial consonants are not the same, they are usually closely allied. Thus

f and p, k and h, ch and ts, cli and sh are often the initials of words having

the same phonetic. But there is no certain rule in regard to initials. It was

apparently only in the final, that identity of sound was held to be requisite

in forming phonetic characters.

IG The following are exam^des of phonetics with consonant finals.

T t :c:;^7'lIP^ t IE
kk 4- ^h^^^^r^^
m 1 m ag f/ij

^
M a m it 1 M Iwi

m H /i A^ •€ ^c ^t cS ^^ 1-J- IT; iTc ^i 4 H< :i:.

^i^m ^ M * St i$ U M ff:

^ ^ iV M V) &^F^- ^ m-^ i!i

 ciiArTEJ; /. UN THK Alii: OF TIIK MANPAKIN I'UOSrNCIATIoN. 70

6 VC
. ''^i 'lA ^ '}]•- :''.•
Jl !L! >kij '}^ §M ^fr jl? >]l)

^^ ^ ,:^ )#: ig ilji

-h ^ 3^
1. r^J li. di '
I' r)i tA i^- :^ ^ ii M S
17 111 the i)rosent state of our ktiowledi^e, the original value of the vowel

finals in the idionetic characters cannot readily bedeterniined. Vowels chanjxf

much more easily and frequently than consonants do. We can only conject-
ure that as in the case of the words ending in consonants, all characters hav-

ing the same phonetic must have rhymed together.

Modern Alpliabetic Writiii'/.

IS In the native dictionaries of foreign languages, as in ^pg ^ f^

T^sing-wen-kien, the Chinese characters used to express sound represent

single letters instead of syllables. Tluis the symbols p"J a J(^ " I
•

71^ y I*"J a,
stand for aniya, the Manchu word for 7/ear. This is al|ihabetic

sjx'lling. The characters however are so printed as to suit the syllabic nature

P'^'J ^ of Manchu writing. This kind of spelling is callrd "."p^ ^

1_|_/Li ^1 "KH ,San-holi-t'sieh-,yin, or speU'uitj by the voUocatUni of three
characters, from the frequent occurrence of triliteral syllables.

— "^^vl "^'"^'"^ ^'^'' Mongolian word K'uitMui, cold, in thf work \}^

\^ tfli W\ ^ ]£ ,
«^ f^l'^lt with two triliteral .syllables. It

VM <t) will be observed that the character which re])resents n in

the lirst example, contiiins in its sound the vowel i, the

same that belongs to the next .symbol ^7^. So in all other

cases.

It does not appear that this mode of spelling has ever been used to repre-
sent the variations in sound of Chinese diahrts.

ciiArrin: \ii.

On tuk Age of tuk Mandaiux 1'koni;stiati()n.

1 Clieu-teh-t'sing J\ l*i» ipj •'' ''" ^ii*'" tlyuiujty (c»^'nlury XHI)

80 M.\\I>.\K1N liKAMMAi:. I'AKT I,

Is mentioned as the first writer who, Ity noticing tlie separation of the

old first tone class into two, was led to speak of five tones/-' The first des-

cription of tlie distribution i»f the short tone-class among the other four is also

attributed to him.-j- He was a native of >C Kau-ngan.

frtj Several cities

liave borne ihat naiiu'. It is uncertain which is meant. From the- dictionary

compiled by tliis autlior. Ohung-yuen-yin-yiin, a name wliich jioints to Ho-

nan(^r ij>^ ^^'^ ^^i^- phice of his residence, the mandarin pronunciation as

spoken in liis province 600 years ago, can be known with great accuracy. He
retains the final vi of the old tables, and of the southern dialects in the jirescnt

day. Thus ^L^ ,sim, ]% .lim, f^J .nam, are distinguished from ^,/f .sin,

P^ .lin, HH .nan. There is no trace of the finals k, t, p. in the short-tune,

the words that formerly had them, being tliere pronounced with vowel finals

oi" long quantities.

2 Words with the initials, g, d, b, v, dj, dz, z, zh, and a weak a.sj)irate,

in the old tables, (i. e. words in the lower tone with the initials, k, t, p, ch,

ts, &c. aspirated or not, in the southera dialects,) keep that form in this

dictionar}-, always in the fifth tone, and frequently in the others. The con-
sonants k, t, p, ch, ts, are also very commonly the initials of these words in

the third and fourth tones. Thus 3Ej yS, ping' agree accm-ately with t|A|

ping', in all respects, according to this author, though they differ in central

and southern China. Ting'^ formerly pronounced with d is Amtten ding'

or ting'. In modern mandarin, the asj)irated form is uniformly found in

the fifth tone-class, and omitted in the others [second, third and fourth].

3 The singular law of distribution of words in the juh-sheng or short

tone among the others has already been mentioned. Words with the initials,

k, t, p, f. ch, ts, s, sh, take the second tone; those having, according to the

old tables, g, d, b, v, dj, dz, z, zh, take the fifth; and the rest embracing

words in 1, m, n, r, y, j [ni], find their place in the third tone.

4 A few circumstantial difterences in the soiuid of many words in an, i,

and some other finals as now pronounced, also then existed, for which see the

chapter on finals. Variat ions in the initials arc very few, see above.
* Li-xhi-yin-kien. vol. 1, page 8.

t Preface to Chnncr-i'heu-t'siucn-yxin.
 cnAPTKu 7. ON Tin: A(;n of tiif, mandauis rnovi n'CIAtion'. 81

5 This analysis, wliich tlic w.nk of Clu'ii-tch-fsiiig eijal»k*s u.s tn make

of the j)iuiiunciatii»n of his time, shews that the nuiiuhuin iliahcf -was then

in course of t'onnation. The existence of the oUl soft initials and ot' tii-- final

m, important features of the oKK'r dialect, and used as has been seen at the
court of the i\[ongol emperors, forliid the suppositinn that the mandarin
dialect was then fully formed. l*art of the periud which the Miii;^^ dvnastv
occu])ied, a. d. 1368 to 1G44 must be included therefore in the time during
which we conclude that the consolidation of this dialect was comj)leted. In
the ilictionary Wu-faug-yuen-yin written at the end of that dynasty, the dis-

tinction of in and n as finals is entirely lost, as it is also in K'ano--hi's second

set of tabulated finals, -^' \\\,% 'teng yini', published a few years later.

G The manner in which the /v /^ juh-sheng is represented in these two

authorities reiiuircs some notice. Words with this tone are given with lono-

vowels, but instead of being read as long-tone words, they are still counted
as being in the short-tone. E. g. in Wu-fang-yuen-yin^, [iy; IJ|(, etc. at

Nanking read meh, are placed under the rhyme ai, according to the usa^-e of

the ni)rthtrn provinces where these words are frequently read mai. Words
sudi as ^, ::^', ^,and many others have assigned to them two or three

pronunciations. Hioh, job, toh, are regarded as their correct spelling; but

they are also written hieu, hiau; jeu, jau; teu, tau. Words such as ^rj k-idi,

~h- uh, j|t liih, TlflLf^uh, ji^'v uli, y\ uh, are written in this one mode
exclusively.

7 In K'ang-his tables, words such as 3^J k'eh, |^ teh.

4b V^^h Ml
heh, arr written not only in that mode, hut k'ei, tei, poi, hei, yet without
being dis{tlaced from the short tone. The characters ||-, ]^i, ^^^, arc writ-

ten tsoh, oh, loh,; twiu, an, lau; and tseu, eu, Im. Tin characters ^. iJ/JI?

^jS, ^^' ^, art' written yoh, kioh, yob, lioh. hioh; also van, kian. van,

liau, hiau, and yiu, kieu, yen, lieu, hitu. Tlu- characters ji^jUl. are

written yuh, kMuh. or nh, kMih. The characters J^' i^*'0,Jire given as

ko, k'oh, poh, or keh, k'eh, peh. Thecharactefh ^jX* I I' |-] . are written

c'hih, shih, jih; and -^ is shwai.

S All these words are retained in the short tone, while they lake the long-
62 MAXDAUIN .illAMMAR. I'AKT f.

theued pionunoiation of the northern provinces. The coini^ilers of these tables

were unwilling to recognize the northern dialect as the standard of sound,

but they wished to introduce as much of it as they could do, without alter-

ing the tone-system sanctioned by the old dictionaries.

i> Tlie emperor Plung-wu who founded the Ming d}Tiasty, and reigned
from A.D. 13G8 to 1398, had the sounds of the language re-arranged, and pub-
lished under the title ^|5v lt\ .ill tjM .Hung-'wu-cheng'-yiin-. He resided at
Nanking, and the existence of the short tone in the tables contained in this

work need not therefore surprise us. In that city it still exists, though with-
out the tliree final consonants k, t, p, which are preserved in these tables.

The hia-p'ing or fifth tone is wanting, and the soft initials are found through

all the four tone-classes. The only difference from the older dictionaries is

in the vowels, which approximate to their state in modern mandarin. Tn

regard to consonants initial or final, there is no variation. The pronunciation
therefore in the court at Nanking in the fourteenth century cannot be regarded

as the same dialect with modem mandarin.

10 The TsT-hwei -^ ^c, published in southern Kiang-nan early in the

seventeenth century, contains new tables of sounds, but says nothing on the

mandarin dialect. Amone^ the old final consonants, the onlv one that it

shows to have been at all disturbed is t. That letter is omitted after the

vowel i; thus "0 is pronounced t'sih, not t'sit. This work also aids in ex-
"

plaining some difficulties in the Mongolian inscription. Thus ^^, ~|

?

written in that inscription djung, dji. in mandarin are jironounced t'suug

shi. They are spelled as in the inscription by the compiler of the Tsi-hwei,

and were correlate to ch, not to ts and sh. So also -^now pronounced shV,
was formerly as the /P4 yp^ 'Kwang-yu* states read dji, and so it is written

in the inscription alluded to. The opposite process has taken place in many
words, t" beinff prefixed to s and sh in the fifth tone; e. g. jj^' rb ' ^^^' read
pfr: -",1:3
in the ^^ pj^ ziang, zhang, as correlate to s, sh, but in mandarin they are
t'siang, c'hang.

1 1 These circumstances taken together, point out a period extending from

about A. D. 1000 to 1500, as that which \*'itnes8ed the formation of the mo-

dem mandarin prnannriati<''n.

 CHAI'TKU / ON Tin; A'lK Of TUK MANPAlMN I'KON'USTIATION. 83

12 It'tlie loss of the true souiulol'k, and li, hcture thf vowels i, ii, bo

considereil an CBSoutial chrtiacteristic of the maiulariii dialeet, tlie time of its

formation must be extended to the eighteenth century. For in the sjielbiu'of

Manchu sounds with Chinese characters in works tlien compiled, svUables

such as ki, kii, are not read with a sibilant inliial, but with the hard sound k.

Ann>n;^ writers on mandarin oidy those of the ])rosent century, so far as I luive

seen, mention this change in the value of k and li. Perhajjs however, a lean-

ing to autiiority may have so far influenced the transcribers of Illanchu sounds,

and writers native and foreign on the kwan-hwa, as to lead them not to dejjart

from the i)ronunciation as settled by previous authors.

13 The kwan-hwa appears destined to extend more widely through the

country. The flnal m now reaches no farther north than the Yan<^-tsi-

kiang. A triangle whose vertex is the Po-yang lake in Kiang-si, and having

one of its base angles in Kwang-si, and the other midway up the coast of

Fnh-kien embraces probably the whole region where it is used. The final k
still preserved in parts of Kiang-nan is pronounced with an indistinctness,
which seems to indicate its approaching disappearance. The same is true of

the initials b, g, d, v, dz, and z, in that region. They are often heard near-

ly like the corresponding hard letters k, t, p, ts, s, &c. towards which, they
are tending.

14 Among the words spelt with m final by Cheu-teh-t'sing, several are

omitted having the initials, p, p^ f. For example [\^ 'pMenjl^ p'ifn^/\j
.fi\n,
^ fan',3L ^'^'iSiLi ^'^"''PIPI 'p'i°j »J^ ^P^^lt by this author with n,

are in the oUler dictionaries pronounced with m. This shews that words in
f and p, were the first to throw off the final m, as they have also done in the

southern Fuh-kien and Canton dialeets. A reference toGoddard'sTie-chiu

Vocabulary will .'•hew that the Tie-chiu dialeet is in this one respect older

than either, for it retains m after f, as in q]^^ fan spelt hwam', though not
after p', pp e. g. ix'ing written pMii. In Medhurst's Corean V'ocabulajy
these words are spelt with m, shewing that the j)rimunciation of that work

must be earlier than the 13rh centurv.

84 MANDAHIN CillAMMAK FART I.

CHAPTER VIII.

On the Parent stem of the 3Iandauin and other modern dialects.

1 Old langucuje. As Latin which was once spoken over all western Europe,

became the mother of several modern languages, so the dialects of modem

China may be supposed to have giown out of an older colloquial language

spreading over the whole countiy. Differences of dialects were noticed indeed

as early as the Han dynasty, and a work of that time still extant, yj ^
,fang .yen records many examples of such variations. But it speaks of words

only, saying nothing on sounds. There is no information in the common

books on sounds of any local differences in pronunciation, till after the T'ang
dynasty. They must have existed to some extent, but they are probably be-
yond the reach of inquiry. In the absence of such information, there is room
for the hypothesis that in the first centuries of the Christian era. a common
dialect was spoken throughout China A\'ith trifling local differences.

2 Old system of sounds. It was a system of monosyllables, not existing

in its complete form in any dialect, but capable of restoration by selecting

frao-ments from each. Its alphabetic elements were briefly, such as,

1. Initials.

Hard mutes and sibilants, k, t, p, ch, f, ts, s, sh, h.

Asph-ated do. ._.k', t', p', ch', ts^

Soft mutes and sibilants, _ _-. g, d, b, dj, v, dz, z, j, h.

Nasals and Unguals, ng, n, m, ni, 1.

Vowels and semivowels, , i, e, a, o, u, w, y.

2. Finals.

Nasals and mutes, ng, n, m, k, t, p.

Vowels, i, e, a, o, u.

3. Medials.

Various vowels and diphthongs.

4. Tones.

Four in number, viz. p'ing, shang, k'ii, juh.

This is also the system of the Indo-Chinese languages, which are of com-
mon origin with the Chinese; except that the number of their tones difters,

there being six in Cochin-Chinese, and throe in Siamese.

CnAPTER 8. ON THE PAREXT STEM OF THE MODERN mALECTS. 85

3 A comparison of tliis ancient pronunciation with several nioilern dia-

lects \vi\\ now be made, so far as seems necessary to exj)lain tlicir origin, and
to sliew what portions of tliem belonf:^ to the old language of the country,

and what are of local growth.

(a.) Northern provificcs. Here the greatest changes have taken ])lace,

eight initial and one final consonant having been exchanged for others, three

finals lost, one tone exchanged for others, and a new tone formed. Tliat the

systcnn just detailed prevailed here can be shewn uidisputiibly from the cir-

cumstance, that it was at Lo-yang in Ilo-nan, and C'liang-ngan in 'Shan-si,

that the court resided, when the Buddhist books were translated. It is th(.'ir

dialects that would form the standard from which the Jai)anese transcriptions
and many of the dictionaries containing the old Chinese pronunciation were
successively made. That the Japanese transcriptions, wliich furnisii tiie

most distinct proof of the existence of the finals, k, t, j), in a multitude of

Chinese words, were taken from the northern and not any southern dialect,

is certain from the fact that the second of them is called the Go-won ^)g ^
from the Tartar dynasty of that name wliicli nded in northern China, a. d.

387 to 557, and had its capital at Lo-yang.

The alterations made by successive Buddhist translatoi-s, in the transcrip-

tion of Sanscrit sounds from a. d. 70 to a. d. 650 are an accurate index to

the changes then slowly proceeding in the language of north China.

(b.) K'uing-nan and Cheh-hianrj. Along the southern bank of the Yang-
tsi-kiang and a little to the north of it, the old initials are all preserved, as

as also through Cheh-kiang to Fuh-kien. Among the finals m is exchanged

for n; t, p are lost, and also k exce])t in some country districts. Tlui tones

are four upper and four lower, and they often difi\'r in infiexion as well as

elevation, so that they may Ije counted as being from four to eight in numlxr.
The hard consonants and aspirates take the upper scries, the soft consonants

and nasals the l<jwer. The vowels are common to lK)th scries. Probal»ly in

the time of the old system of four tones, the same distributions of initial con-

sonants into an upjwr and lower series prevailed, for it is dilfieult to see how
othenvise words such ius VX. i ,wang, .wang could Ixi distinguished. Both
Si'i MASDAf'.IN l.KAMMAR. TART I

taking the first tone, the difiference must have bjv'n marked by a change in

tlio pitch of tlie voice, as nov/ in Kiang-nan and Cheli-kiang.

Some wonis have two forms, one used collo luially, aa I on? appropriated

to reading. The former is the older pronunciation, and the latter more near

to mandarin.

The cities of Su-cheu, Haug-cheu, Niiigpo and Wen-cheu with the sur-

rounding country may be considered as having one dialect, sp jken probably

b}' thirty millions of people.

Local dictionaries for these dialects are not in use. Th3 old dictionaries,

radical and tonic, answer every purpose, because the tones and initials sub-

stantially agree. I have met with only one local dictionary belonging pro-

perly to this system, compiled at Ning-kwoh-fu south west of Nanking. It

is called Q jg^ _|£l pH]. It has four tones with two series of initials. In
the lower series, j, dz and z are much confounded, h disappears before w, n of-

ten precedes i, and w is often v. The finals n, ng, coincide before i, while m,

k, t, }), are all wanting.

The city of Hwei-cheu has a dialect of its own. The soft initial consonants
are exchanged for hard and aspirated ones. The finals n and ng, are in many
words entirely omitted in the colloquial form of speech,"' though retained in
reading. The other consonant finals none of them occur. For peculiarities

in tones in this dialect, see the chapter on tones.

(c.) Kiatuj-si. At Fu-cheu-fu in the eastern part of this province, the

soft initials have all been replaced by aspirates. Of the six final consonants

only k is wanting. The tones are seven, and are irregular in pitch.

At Nan-k'an<jr-fu on the east of the Po-vanjc lake, the old initials are

retaftied, and of the finals only k and t are wanting. The tones are fom-, in

two series of a regular elevation. At the provincial capital Nan-c'hang, the

hard and asj)irate initials are used in the lower series of tones irregularly.
(d.) Hu.-nan. In many parts of this province, the soft initials still lin-

ger,t but ill the city of C'hang-sha, the spoken dialect has the five tones of

* Thus l^'Fr*'/! '

I*, -ire identical in .sound with .51;/|si, and^^cj i'J)«ith^^- t'si.

t 1 noticed them in conversing with natives of the following places. —Ngan-hwa^C lu i"
 LHAPTKU J<. ON" Tin: I'AIvKN'T STEM OF TIIH MODKIIN DIALECTS. S?

mandarin, and the aspirated and other initials distributed in the same manner,
(e.) Candm. The llaklc.i dialect J^ '^<. u\ \ «poken in many parts of

Kwang-tnni; and Kwang-.si, is that used by dewcendant.^ ol'emijijants from

Kia-ying-cheu, who in the reign of K-ang-hi left tlieir homes, proceeded

westward, and to.jk up their abode in many country districts, where thay
now form about one third of the ])opulation. The soft initialt" arc in tliis

dialect displaced by aspirates, or which is the .same thing, all words iu the

lower tones that can take an as})irato do so. Y is replaced by zh [j]. Of

the tinals k is displaced by t. The tones are six, the second and third being

the same with the sixth and seventh. The Hakka dialect differa veiy little

from that of Kia-ying-eheu itself In the dialect of Canton or Pen-ti $> J Ji

dialect, the soft initials are displaced by hard or aspirated consonants irreg-

ularly. The six final consonants are all in use. The tones are eight and
are regular in elevation; i. e. they correspond as actually enunciated, so far as

their highness or lownesa is concerned, with the names they bear. There is a

circumstance in which the tones of words in this dialect agree better with the

ancient system than with that which now prevails. Many words with nmte

and sibilant initials, e. g. ^r^ fu, tjl chung are pronounc^id in the lower shang-

hheng, being eleswhere in k'u-shcn<j. These form part of a large class of

characters, which formerly belonged to the second tone-chi«sa8 they are marked
in the dictionaries, and had soft initials v, j, etc. They afterwards passed
into tlie third tone-class, where they are now found in all mandarin and in

many provincial dialects.

In the island of Ifai-uan, there is a distinct aj)proach to the form that

Chinese words assiime in the lanjruasjre of Annam. Manv of the hani conso-

nants are softened, instead of the reverse process taking place as in other parts

of China. Thus vfftW i^ di', both ti' in mandarin, are both pronounced

di' in Hai-nan. B and p are both used for many words, whose initials are w
and fin mandarin; e. g. ^ ban, ^ p*u.

C'hang-sha-fii, T aing-t'siuen O'J^C '" Hf^ntr* Ji«"u-fu; Yunc-cheu fu 7jv»/l|/l'J" noar the

boundary nf Kwans;-si, YiiPn-ling-hieiW /LrX *M» in Slipn-choii near the Si-c'hwen boundary,

and i 'L / '1 Vnpn-chfu near the Kwri-cheu boundani

S8 MANDAIMN OUAMMAn. PART I.

The (lifiloct of 0'h.in-c1iou-i"u [Tle-chhc or Chin-chiu], a department bor-

derijig on Fuli-kien, very nmcli resembles the pronunciation of tlie southern

part of that province, in its vowels and consonants, but the tones differ. There

are eight tone-classes including three subdivisions of the ^ Jj^ k'ii sheng.

The oltl finals ni, k, t, p, are all in use, but in the colloquial ng, n, m, are
freq\iently nasalized, and k, t, p, often omitted.

The peculiarities among the initials, appear to be in ftict vestiges of an old

national pronunciation. Words in h commence with k, e* g.-^T* kiaw^, v/L,

k^wang' i'f kwa», Ifkwai, j'f kut, || kui», PRI k'o, ]$. kau', ^|
,kau, 5^5 kio. Words inch commence with t, as 't' 5Si jfKi' p4^' -^5
ip§
3u? J^Up u ^, ^^^
.
many others. Words in f commence with p,

4a^' l/j' 'illi? ^' ^' III' fl^' ^ 5

'^11^^ others. Words in j sometimes

commence vriih n, |^j t|i]' i^. Words in w are pronounced with m, ^,

If. 4if: 1i'' PpI. Words in y are begun with j, #, Ht. sfe ^§. t:^'

/t- B is found for w, in tIC) {Qt, 3?' 1$* 1^' t' X- ^S'^^ f*^^"^^^ 1^^^-

forey, wand i, in J|L' 0' ^ff' JS' ^' hP' jlL' Itc? ^^"^^ ^"'^ny others.

Ch and c'h, are found for s and sh, ~p chap, ^ ,c'heng, |^ 'c'heng, ^))i

chek,, il c^hek, f^^cheng, B chi', § chi., ffT c^ii', gj£ c'hi', If

cMiin ,^£*, _h, J^, ^, t#' -^^ lilt' 1-i^' yk^ ^'tc. In the examples here

given the colloquial is preferred to the reading sound as being the older,

N<r raised above the line denotes that it is nasalized as final n in French.

N and m are also often pronounced in the same manner, but in the reading

sound ng, n, m, are always restored. When the nuite finals k, t, p, are

dropped in the colloquial, they are also restored in the reading pronunciation.
[f.] Fuh-kicn. For the dialect of C'hang-chcu which may be considered

as representing the southern part of the province, almost the same descrip-

tion as that just given of the Tie-chin dialect would serve. There are the

same initials and finals differing only in particular cases; e. g. Tke, low, ^
nin ^ g'fj niong, IjIa "u" ? \7V P^'*^-
^^^ ^'^^^^ dialects the initials ts and t's,

sh and f, give place uniformlv to ch, c'h, s and hw, except where ch occurs
i'oY sh, andp for f The sounds bat for }p\ , iiinl ji or ju for -^,seem to con-

tain vestiges of the early soft initials b and dz, which were formerly assigned
CHArTEU S. ON TlIF, PARENT STKM ON THE MODEUN DIALECTS. 89

to those characters. For the old initial nj;, whitli is usually preservetl in the

Tio-chiu dialect, g is substituted in southern Fnli-kien. A few words in k

final are pronounced t in oiljixjuial usage, e. g. yjlat read liek, also so heard

in the Tie-eliiu collo(iuial. The characters. fiEj' |^- are also examples of

this ant)inaly, which occurs as a uniform law in the I l;ikka dialect. In w.oids

ending with m, p, the Tie-chin follows the old system more closely than the

southern Fuh-kien; e, g. / (j- J|__' hwam are reatl hwan. in the last men-
tioned dialect, while^(v;hwa]) is also read hwat. Both the.se dialects agree in

refusing to admit m and p, when the initial is j), hut oidy the Fuh-kien re-

jects it after liw.

The peculiar initials found in the.se dialects, are

k fur h p for f iii, h for \v j fory

t for cli ch for s ng for i, y, w nfor j
The reason for supposing them to belong in fact to the old national j)ro-

nunciatiou are briefly, that in Kiang-nau some instances, though few, occiu*

of the same initials; e.g. yj} bang, ^j-X p'u, J^^" .gwan,|ri| men*', tli.it in

'Shan-si v occurs for w, that at T'ien-tsin j occurs for y, and that generally
anti(|uated colloquialisms where they occur, tend to support this view. Fur-
ther, native critics have detected many of these initials in studying old books
as is shown farther on, and the Buddhists have at intervals changed their
spelling for Sanscrit words, when alterations in sounds required it e. g. IP
heng, changed to y^ k'ing ^;J|| k'ia for Ganga, these characters being at

that time doubtless read Gang-ga. So also j>']! .(••Inii has the value din, in

the name Godinia. Further, the early transcriptions of Chinese sounds by

foreigners also help to confirm this hypothesis.

The dialect of Fuh-cheu in the north of the same jjrovince, ditVer.s much
from those that precede. The finals n, m, are replaced by ng, and t, p, are

omitted. The tones are seven a.s at Chang-cheu. ^lany of the colloquial
initials are like those just descrilMjd; e. g. kiang. teing*.
f^ JJ jI'I'^o-:^
Ts, t's, sh and f, also givt> place to ch,c'h, sand f, T is heard in some words
as if it were d. The initial j has its place supplied byyorn. Ng at the

beginning of words, i.s found often where it i'" wanting in mandarin.

!><> MANDARIN GRAMMAR. TART I.

(g.) Wfstcrii provinces. In Kwang-si, the Hakka dialect is much spoken

in tlio eastern parts, but a mandarin like that of Si'-c'hwen prevails in some
portions of the province. Tlius the fourth and fifth tones coalesce; e. g
I^J .ho is the same in sound with p . Also the final ng, coalesces with n;

thus "^ -p'ing "^^'t^i

%A -P'^^-

In C'heng-tU; tlie ])rovincial cajiital of 8i-,c'liwen, the consonant g is re-

tained before the v^wel i, in some words where ng formerly stood, as ^§ gi^

This old initial is well preserved in many words in the dialects of Fuh-cheu
and Su-cheu, where / (' is called ngwei and nga, and /\ ngoh and ngoh.
In the province of Kwei-cheu, it is common to begin all words in y with a

soft j, as in the Hakka dialect.

4 The information gained on the old lan<xua2re from the sources alreadv

referred to, divides itself into two parts.

Old changes. The changes of p and k, to f and h, (with their correlates b

and g, to V and h), seem to belong to an older stage of the language. So also
m to w. Following the guidance of the Buddliist translations, these earlier

initial letters were not found in the general language, after the seventh cen-
tury of .ur era. (

Jlecent changes. The changes of g, d, b, v, z, j, to k. t, p, f, s, sh, with

and Avithout aspirates, belong to a more recent period. With them should
also be jdaced the loss of ng from words now beginning with i, w, y as y |N

/} . The loss of the short-tone finals belongs to the same period. The
change of the final m to u, did not occur till the I4tli century as has been seen.
The coincidence of some Anamese sounds with those of Fuh-kien, as in the

omission of the sibilant in many words in ch,* seems to indicate a widely

spread pronunciation of this kind at an early i)eriod. The same remark may
be made respecting the old form of the initial m as found in southern Fuh-

* For example '|^ .tiona.

-^^ .te, ^P ti', '|:^ ^tuan, in Fuh-kien, for c'ba, chung, chi,

c'lnveii, in niaiulariii. In Anamese, 1^ tnivcn, rtJ bang, IJljC * anli, ^^JQi t^'»- So also t pre-

cedes words such as /j\^

-J- /:^ >^
sli in cluii, J^ chiah, i"^ c'liini, in Fuh-kcin, and takes the place of

sh or precedes it in words such as Jp*Y ^'^^^) 1^?L <^hiu, in Anamese

CHAPTER 8. ON THE PARENT STEM OF THE MODERN DIALECTS'. 91

kien, and eastern Kwang-tun«r, viz. b.f whicli also occurs in the Japanese
transcriptions of early Chinese sounds.

/> Chaiujes in vowels. This view of the mother lan<,'uage from which man-
darin and the Dthcr modern diak'cts have s})rung, would be incomplete with-
out a reference to the former condition of the vowel sounds. The principal
variations ai-e jijiven in the following table, where each character rej)resents
many other tens of woi'ds which have gone through the same change.

Examples.
92 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART I.

6 Native authorities. The vestiges of the older pronunciation of the

lan<;uage that exist in Biuklhist and Chinese native books, and in modern
dialects have not been unnoticed by native A recent writer^' remarks,
critics.

that from Buddliist books it appears that formerly Ja liad the same in-
f'l,

itial as ^- p'u; i. e. they were both bu, being used to represent the same

Sanscrit sound. He also shews from other sources, thatylx, 1a> M^t'iow
called fuh and fu were piimarily pronounced with the initial b. which after-

words became v and then f. He also observes that ^ was formerly men,
and illustrates his remark by the Kiang-nan colloquial pronunciation of |JJX

viz. men. He then proceeds to shew that many words in ch formerly com-
menced with t. Thus, by means of old dictionaries and the interchange of
characters, he identifies [g] chih withi|^-teh,^j chuli with ^ tuh.f p ,c]iu

with Brtu, i@, chui with Xyl ,tui.:|: The Fuh-kien and Tie-chiu pronun-
ciation agrees remarkably with this author's investigations, the words in
question being there read [M-tit, 4^'tiek, fJ^ ,ti,^ ,tui.

7 The rhymes of the Shi-king, Tau-teh-king and Yih-king, and subse-

quent books of poetry give the means of investigating the old language to the

11th century b. c. Among other writers on this subject, a recent editor of

the Shwoh-wen p^ 3c?"'^nied ^ 3l ^ Twan-yuh-t'sai, states that ''it

appears on examination that in the Chen, T'sin and Han dynasties (b.c. 1100
to A. D. 250), there were but three tone-classes, the third or ^ Jf^, being

not yet formed. Under the "Wei and Tsin families, a.d. 200 to 400, many

is yC HnT in the work called \ ^ ^J 5c ^f^ ^' Shih kiachai yang sin

luh. ThLs writer, a native of Kia-ting near Su-cheu, lived at the close of the last century.

to the same author

+ So also |/]»j ,
'^^J', ]/]}, ^f^, were pronounced acrording bu', ,bu, but,

and ban. The values he gives to some other characters, arc yp put, "jj Jbut, ;^/X.puj)r ,p'u,x7

pung, ±3 pang, '^mut,^IJ bat,|±E pei.^Q p'ei,'tl|)(mci, 4|IVmo, iSiA.l'""?. l^ P'cn, /^

?*k
bong, 4*>^inu,
^^ Xti- ^^ T^
'^pat, }W pu, T>i" bu, lllVniu,
i<t
.>V p'ang. ^ ^^
t Other values he obtains are P,* ,dien, Hx J't> -^ <ik, T'K dang, Jjli t'au, JlJ'tian. -,5^

loan, J5^ ti.

P,"J ti". lui'ia, ^/C^am. In Fuh-kien, these words are ^.?^ tin or tan, ^± tit,

tok, long,t'iu, chiu, cliwan, chi, t i, .ti, lim. Of these, there occurs in Morrane's Cochin-Chinese

diciion.ir> ^|J '-'"^ 1 /Ldam.

 ("HAI'TKR S. OX TIIK r.MlF.NT STKM OF TlIK MODERN* DIALKCTS, 93

words in the '2nd unci 4tli toni'-classes, united to loiin the 3rd, whicii then

jnukes its first appeuranec. At tlie same time, many words in tlio p'inf-slieni'

l)a.sscd into the other tliree ehisses, and the li»ur tone-eiasKes were thus com-
pleted." He adds, ''Formerly words were arranged in two great grouj)s. The
first contained the modern p'ing-sheng and shang-sheng; the second the

modern k-ii-shcng and juh-sheng. The tone-class called shang-sheng came

into existence at the time when the ^hi-king fi^' l^x ^vas written. That
called -^s" J^ k-ii-sheng, was formed under the W(>i and Tsin dynasties."
S Phonetic anomalies explained. These conclusions the author arrives
at by fonning tables of the rhyming words in the works already mentioned.

^Supposing his views to be correct, light is thus thrown ujjon somedilKculties

connected with the jdionetics. In several instances words in the third and
fourth tone-classes have a common phonetic. E. g."^ kau is tlic phonetic
of the characters, t Of kuh, 'An ^^"li-riy 1^"1>5 ^'^^-
% this author's researches

it a}ipears that it rhymes with short-tone words in k, four times in the 8hi-

king, and once in the Yih-king. Of the words which take 3^ clu and \^
hai, for their ]>honetics, e. g.^iH t^li'i's IJw ^'i'^l*? three-fourths aiv in the short

tone. Both these words are repeatedly found rhyming with short-lone words
in the Shi-king with a final t.* In other cases, the phonetic has remained
in the short-tone, while some characters that contain it have jttiased over to
the third tone-class; e.g.pjY" ^^ui, is in the Shi-king pronounef-d in the short

tone, thus agi-eeiug with its phonetic ^-i tsuh.

1) Double pronunciation explained. These views will ai.s > ]»- found use-
ful in rxplaining many double j)ronunciations of th(! .same characters met
with in books. Thus^U I'*'*
"'' 1"''^ '• ' •
I -J I'^'% & toh or tir.f ^ luh or

feu', 1p tsoh (^r t.s.)'( ||\)( is the same word written ditfeniu I \
),;*,vi; oh or
•'i'.
IK •'^'^''' •*• ^^"'' ^^^J y^^^ """ ' ' -^^ *^'"^^ ^^' ^^^'S ^''^' exMiuplesof words
that have pas.seil from t he short tone to t he third. In such cases, the jjrini-
'"
• Othrr wohIb placrd in thci»hort toDC by thi-s Btilhor, nrc y\.' .'''\''
\ /jv.'
>|X' T'J"
['

M<^ X." J L' w«l»» final t. »"J ^^'ll' fi'"' ^ WL' /N- ^^d'. The chnroctcn. pM-^I^Ul:.
much used as phonetics for wonls in ihc chott icm- in >'-> ilius .tliown
i .iri
hy Chc Shi-kinir iolu\c

birn ihrni-tclvt* fomurl> so proaounciil.

94 MANriAmN liRAMMAn. PART I

itive sense is retainetl in tlio short tone, while the tleriveJ sense Ijekmgs to

the ctlicr. The same is true ol" words in tlie first and second, transferred to
the tliird tones; e. g. 3("J[* hau', fo /ore, from ^jh 'him. (/oo</, "j^ shi-, a

messenger, from 'shi, to send; 4K. i', to dress, from ,i,cIotJies;p'^ iV, to ad-
dress, from 'ii, words; ^J ting', to nail, from ^ting, o nail. So also |i|jj

„u to rain, ^ kau', to anoint.

In the majority of cases, the new meaning of a word is expressed Ly the

third tone-class, which would naturally result from that class having been in

a state of formation, when the new sem5e was given, or Avhen the necessity of

a distinctive tone for it hegan to be felt. So in the mandarin of the western

provinces, when the short-tone words were changing theii- tone, they fell into

that which was newly formed, viz. hia' .p'ing, in preference to one of the

old ones.

That the third tone is not exclusively used for the new meaning of words

may perhaps also be shewn by examples. Thus J^ 'c'lm, tod well, to man-
age a case, and ^^ c'hu', ajjiace; ^ .c'heng, to Jill, and sheng', flouri-
shing; ^ 'she, to throw aicay, and she', a cottage. Which is the earlier

meanino- in such words is however uncertain. The noim and the verb have in

each case classical authority, but it is customary among the natives to apply

the distinctive tonal mark to the verb sense only, implying that the other

meaning is regarded as the i)riniitive one.

10 It may be observed of these earlier changes in the language, that they

were partial, while those of more recent date are exliaustive. Thus it appears
to have been only part of the words having the initials k. t, p, and m, that
assumed h, ch, f and w, instead of those letters. So it was only part of the
words in. the second and fourth tones, that united to from a third tone. But
in the modern changes all the soft initials, and hard finals have been lost

together, Avhile all the short-tone words have ])assed together to the other

tones.

1 Secular formation of tone-classes. The general result of tlicse re-

searches into the early form of the language, is that there were at first only

two tones, .]>"ing "~j"andJuh/\.. or perhaps three .p'ing, shangjland Juh.

 CUAl'TEU b. ON TilK I'AUENT STEM OF THE MOKKItN DIALECTS. [)!)

If tlie foimer, it is tlio same tiling as saying that tlwiv weiv at first no tones
at all, lor tin.' long tone Liubiactul words ending in ng, n, ni, and tlu; vowels
while the short tone approjiriated the finaLs, k, t, p. The ditierence of tone,

then resolves itself into a dilferenee in vowels and consonants. Accordin" to

this view a new tone is fonued once in 1000 or 1500 years. The second or
shang' jsheng, dates from b. c 1000. The third or -^^ /£:f k'ii' ,sheng,
from A. 1). 250. The hfth or y ^ hia' .ji-ing, from a. d. 1300.

12 Priiuljjks of restoration of old sounds. The foregoing investigation

has been carried farther back, than was needed to shew the characteristics of

the dialect that inmiediately jjreceded mandarin. The pronunciation con-

tained ill the national dictionaries, and expressed there by means of the
Fan-t'sieh, is that of the jieriod embraced between the fifth and the eleventh

centuries. It is from this that nuindariu and the other dialects sprang. A
description has been given of it in this (•hai)ter, supplying the means of re-
storing it from the modern pronunciation. At least the })rinciples of such a
restoration can be stated in something like the following manner. Join the
first and fifth tone-classes, changing the hard and aspirated initials of the

latter into the coiTesponding soft consonants; e. g. t' to d, and s to z,. Re-
store the lengthened juh-sheng words to their short form, and affix to them
the final consonants k, t, p, using as authorities the dictionaries and dialects.

Change the hard initials of a certain part of the words in the tliiid and fourth
classes to the corresponding .soft initials; e. g. t to d, and ch to j, relpng for

aid as before on the dictionaries and dialects. Transfer a part of the words

having soft initials from the third to tlie second class, following the guidance

of the dictionaries. Change final n in many words to m, and alter the vowels

according to the table of vowel changes given in page 85.

These processes having Ix'en performed, and the old sounds of Chinese clm-

ractei-s recovered, the imperial dictionaries can be consulted with advantage

in regiml to pronunciation. The editions published in the »Sung dynasty and

and subsequently, of the cla.ssical and other old l)ooks, all contain the .sound

of imconnuon words written in this manner; e. g. the school editions of the

Four Ix^oks with Chu-hi's commentary, the new critical editions of tho de-i
96 ilANDAIllN GrwVMMAH I'ART II.

tionaries fjj
j /j^JiT-va, Jiiid fjji '3^ Shwoh-won and otlier.s. Hlnco tliat time

tlic dictionaries-^ ^ Tsi-hwci. IE ^ .-lOj Chcng'-tsi--.t'un<,^ Jic f}ri

^^ K'aiipj-lii-tsi tii'n. i'ljil ^^ j"j^( Jff P'ei-wen-yun-fu and otliers,

have simply adopted the s])elling of an earlier period, and are therefore of no

authority for contemporary ])roniinciation.

PAKT ir.

THJ'J PA UTS OF SPEECH.

CHJI'T/:/,' I.

Introdl'i'tukv.

1 In the preceding chapters it has been shewn, that the mandarin pro-

nunciation is spread over the north and west of China. It has a better title

than anv other to be called the national pronunciation, embracing as it does

a1)0ut two-thirds of the whole country. The term mandarin is eomet'imeii

used in the sense oij)uhlk% as ajjuhlic liujliway, is called |^ [tju-kwau lu',

a legal /ooi measure ^ /\^ ,kwan c'hih. So kwan-hwa is the standard

form of the language, that used in the metropolitan cities, and recognized

publicly as the correct mode of speech.

2 In now entering on the department of etymology, opportunity will be

afforded of shewing that the use of words in various pro^^nces, harmonizes

with the statement that mandarin is the popular dialect over the greater part

of China. The jironouns usually serve well as one of the characteristics of

a dialect. Now the usual mandarin pronouns ^X '^^'^S kJ^ id, |tli ,t'a, 7,

thou, he; ^ die', /J y 'na, this^ thai, with the other common particles, pre-

vail in the popular language in the same parts of China, where the mandarin

pronunciation is found. It a})pears also, that where that pronunciation does

not exist, the pronouns and other particles differ from those of mandarin.

An exception occurs in the case (^f Hang-cheu. where the mandarin particles

are used, but the jnonunciation not so.

CHAI'TEK I. NATIVK I.ITKUATUUK I\ THE MAXDAIUS MIALECT. Ii7

3 A list of the primlpul partick's with thi;irconipounJ8 will hire be given,

us tbmiiiig a criterion of the lurtiidiirin dialect, whether in books or in tlie

speech of inilividiuils.

^/ liM of Minifinitn I'n li irlt-.s.

:^'wo, 1 ;^X, Irl wu .men, ?w;f/|^ |j | Hi .ni.-u, yv ; ttil ||

|. fa .men'
^/"7/;iLi Ii'«i
^^^' t^^'j <''"*; iti y^ che- li, /<t"/r;^ f'/jc t-he' yang ',</<««;

is I^A^ fe <^1>'" *J»^ Ci»c)yang*, Mj/s; /j|i J^-'na 'li, whcre^ na' 'li, //<ert';

> f ^ -na yang-, which kiud^ mi' yang', that kind; t3 LL tsi* 'ki, aeff;

S If ]^ shih 'mo, ('mo) .shen 'mo, ('mo) whof/ \^, J&j 'tsen 'mo,

('mo) /<o </-.'' ^P .tn, (///; -^ ko\\, each; ^ ,H\e, a littk <>/'; fVj tWu si >/n

o/j)0S8eiisife;^\j |pj .lio .tung, <6'///< ; [n] liiaiig'. /o^rrnvAv; U:tsai-, rt<;3^IJ

tau- (motion), to; ||i W.^ung ,si, « thiuj 'i^ Jjl^ i]i'- fj'J >Uv 't'i, shi 7

.t'sing, rt;i M/^rtiV, Mf«7; Jjii;;! kih (kei), j/m'; pjc P*'i'; auxiliary verb or
f(

the passive; ^^ .na. JL^ ']ia. ?]'.]' ,t.siang, ^^ ^r;A't', instrumental auxil lanes.

J liau, fii'ju of the past; \iXt shwoh, to .say; y]\ puh, nut: } },/ |:J
.niei

'yen, Mor /v 7W^;n'[^ .ui. ^^ 'ni<». itifiTrogativi^ ])nrti<'le8.

Native Literature in the Mandarin Dialed.

4 In l)(M)ks the ])urest Mandarin is lijund in words such as the ^ ,1^;^

Mi ti''l IM- Wv >^l»eng' li' 'kwang hiim' chih 'kiai, hnperiaf homilies onthe
dutieti of life plain!1/ paraphrased; and )\U^ v)^-
^'* llung-l.u-mung. Dream
of the lied Chamber , u novel of the present dynasty. The>e rw.> wuiks are
in Peking mandarin. So also is a more recent novel, called fjp ^-^ ^^ |^
'P-in ,hwa ']iau kien*.

5 The work /tC f/fl W- Siiui-hu-chwen. History of liohhers, has the

pronouns used in Shan-tung. It was written in the 12th century, and its

style though thoroughly coJlofiuial is somewhat antiquatoi.

6 The mandarin found in other novels is of a more general ciiaractvr. 8uch
ig the style of Ilau-k'i'U-chwrn 'If ^ i~f- The Fortunate union: Yiih-
98 MANDAKIN (.IIAMMAK. PART II.

l<iau-li?E ^0} Ji^' The two CoiL-^lm; Si-yoii-ki "j5j -^ fiC- Narrative of

Trnveh la tf«' West ; Yoli-shwoli ^' p^ The story of Yoh-fei, etc.

7 SoniP "works classed among romances are written in a style midway l)e-

tween that <»f conversation and that of the books ; e. g. ". (^ i^. ,San-

kwoli-chi'. History of th<' Three binr/doms. The wide interval between the

copiousness ol" the conversational medium, and the terseness found in books,

readilv admits intermediate grades in stvl<'. Hence some phrases peculiar to

the novels have come into existence, as pilj n3i bwa' shwoh, the story says,

to continue the narrative.

S The dialogue in dramatic j^roductions, as in those of the Yuen dynas-

tv is in the common conversational style.* So also much of the writings of

Chu-fu-tsi, the ]ihilosopher and critic of the 11th century.

9 In the later plays, the Su-cheu dialect is frequently introduced in con-

junction with mandarin. See for examples the collection J[5^X ;^Cliueh-
peh-k'ieu, Bool: of Dramas.
10 Moral discourses for poi)ular use are often prepared in a colloquial
form. Besides the paraphrase to the Sacred edict noticed above, there is the

^<, )^ fi|ljf iiji5 Kia-t'ing-kiang-hwa, Moral lectures for fainihj iise, with

various commentaries on works sucli as |g5^ Jj^ ^^ Kan-yiug-p'ien, Book

of rewards and 2-)U7ilshments ; -^ |WjIJ ^3; Kin-kang-king, a Buddhist work.

JSuhdivlslons in Style.

11 If mandarin be compared with the book style ^T jX. '^^^^ .wen, the

language of the classics, histories, and books of criticism, and philosophy,

some particles and most of the nouns, adjectives, and verbs, will be found

the same in each. .Many particles however ditfer, and a large number of words

Src 7C /v FH Tai Ptl Vuon Jon peh .chung k'lih (c'liii), nlitcd by ?/^ -^ J^
Tsang-tsin-shnh. The pronunciation given in this work in syllabic spelling is that ofChcu-teh-t'sing,

corresponding closely with the spelling contained in his dictionary Chung-yuen-yin-yiin already dcs-

rrihed.
 CHAPTER. 1 NATIVK I.lTEUATrilK ON TllK MANDARIN IHALECT. 99

liave gone out of use. Tlie Ku-weu is terse and expressive, iiiiiiiii<»- to ''ive

the greatest {[uantity of iiu'aniiii^ in the fewest possible words. Tii<.* kwan-
hwa is copious and full of compound terms and rejK'titions. These however
carefully confirm to the national standard of good taste 3c J^T. •^^'^''» 'h)

which rules the kwan-hwa as well as the Ku-wcn. The kwan-hwa bein<>-

addressed only to the ear, while the Ku-wen speaks to tin* eye, it iK'camc

more copious througli the repetition of ideas that was necessary to convey
the meaning.
12 These two styles are the national growth of the language, hut that of

the literary essays jX ^ .Wen ,chang is forced and artificial, and is regard-
ed as an inferior accom})lishment by native scholars who can write in the

Ku-wen. Autlioi-s of eminence on general subjects almost always prefer the

ancient style.

13 In the Kwan-hwa itself some subdivisions may also be traced. There

are localisms in the dialect of Peking or the King-hwa, ^K op Metroiwli-
tan dialect, and in other dialects hearing the name of kwan-hwa. Thus the
word jtjt ngan, /, is peculiar to Shan-tung, and the term Hf^ (p| tsa men,
we, used there and in the province of Peking (Chih-li), is not heard in west-

em mandarin.

14 There is also a distinction existing in all th<.' provinces Iwtween the

dialect of scholars, and that of the common people. This is occasioned bv

the frequent occurrence of book phrases in the speech of literarv men, Thcs.
receive the name of 3c udi wen hwa', the litcrnrt/ dialect. This kind oi

speech it is neces.sary to ho. familiar with, but the discussion of it belon'^s

more to the grammar of the pi j3C Ku .wen, than to that of the true kwan-
hwa [^ ^1 lin ,ehen ,kwan hwa', and it will therefore 1>o found but spar-
ingly illustrated in this work. A certain magistrate of a district was d<'grad»(l
])y his superior in otH(M', l)<>cause be constantly used phra.ses such as /,\\ |nj

.jan .ri, however, andjn /^i tan' .shi', i>t/t, in common conversation. His
fondness for bookish expressions was considered to indicate, that he was in-

competent for public duties.

PX) MANI>.MIIN GRAMMAi:. I'AKT II.

cuArrKn ii

On Words.

1 Old icords. Many of the words used in the modern spoken dialect are

old. such as are used in the ancient book.s.

.jen, man. Jili Inh. deer. 3i^ "ih. to disobey.

y^ 'shui, ivater. \\\ ,shan, liilh. v/jC ,ping, ice

.'€.

X
— J-
'ho, /re. t$
|-r-f
'liai, sea. %
^
pf^
fu', v/c/<.

^gi< .lung, f^mgroM. p'J .t-ien, /rV^r/. i |^ 'tsieu, ^t'/we.

5$ .lai, fowe. 13E '^vang, f/o.

^ 'lau, oW.

/•Ij yung', nse. Jt cheng', r/f///f. )p^ '\mm,fidL

fj^^ heh', (hei) ft^ac^*. 'fl -li'"?:- ^^^ ^^o- /rJ y^mg'? ^o ««e.

2 Some compounds of two words each found in books are also employed.

TliL-y are examples of the principle of combination, by which two words are

linked together in common usage, and come to have a single meaning.

y^ ^^ .jau heu', then aftenuards. 3b. ^\ t'li^i -jcn. host.

/U 5tL jsien ,sheng, teacher. /"L -^-^ ,hiung ti', brother.

^^ )flQ tsi' si', fo sacrifice. ,4^ ^^ .p'eng 'yaw. frknd.

Pc ^* ^sfiiig shr'./j(?iern/. ^ i^- fu' 'mw. parents.

In many such cases, the sense is one and indivisil)le, and the characters(in
the colloquial language) inseparable.

3 The same jthenomenon meets us in the history of words that has been

found to exist in the sounds that express them. Time changes their mean-
ing as it does their sound. Thus, many old words are retained in compounds,

but have lost their original signitication. "^^^ \-\ 'k'eu, mouth, has been

replaced in colloquial usage by W^ tsui, but it is still employed extensively

in coni]viund tenns and in derived senses. Thusi'/v! M k'wai^'k'eu, a ra-

j)id talker: ]\ \~l .men k'eu. door: H ^C ItJ f^ k'ou k'i' 'liang

yang', his spvceh is different ; \-\ yj' k'eu Avai% beyond China proper;
fr/fq !~' r^^^'^" k'eu, ritsfo7n hnuf>c : |-l I'll Tj yih 'k'eu ,kwan .t'sai,
CHAI'TE/J 2. (IN wouns, 101

« coffin. ^P ^' 11^ ycu 'k'eu .t'sai tili, he can talk well; PS P f,^
5^" .sui 'k'eu shwoh \\\\a', talking at random.

4 So also Q mull (mu'), the original word for c/y^'/has'given placo to|it:

'y*-'*^ jtsingor 'yen alone, as in |JiV ||1< liiali 'yen. bJ-M/ieyc^. It isliow-
lift
E. g.
ever employed in conibinution with other words in derived senses. ^\^

^ ehang' ninh, a money account.

=^1
~1^ mnhhhv, at presetit. ^ ^ niuh luh, ?a6/f (/ cow<c«^v.

j^ I
-j .t'i muh, a theme. UA \ ] -t'eu nuih, a chief.

V\ A^ muh ,hwa, indistinct vision. H ;fiL muh .hung, injiamed eyes.

The primitive word for '-head" U 'slieu, has been replaeed byi^ .t'eu,

hut is retained witli various words in combination.

^}\ J 4 tseh 'slieu, robber chief.

^ ii 'sheu wei', chief seat.

T^ f i .e'hwen "sheu. captain of a buut.

^ Y^ hwiiv 'alwn, chitf of a society.

y -^4- /v 'slieu shi" jen. chief person in charye.

5 Some old Avords are used in new senses alone, and not simply in combi-

nation, the old signification being retained in books; e. g. lUi ,t*a, lormeiiy

meant other, but now signifies he, so also 'liau, originally a verb to des-
J

troy, is now used ay a particle expressive of past time, but occasionally also

in its earlier sense. Most of the uumeratives or numeral particles are words

which onco had a dear sense. This in several instances was lost, when they

came to \xi used merely as aii.xiliary words.

C) Xeio words, ^lany new words have been introduced, e. g-'JiH l<i"Ji) '^'i'

n|('^ c'hih, to eat;^^ to <ear; ^'to, a numerativeap])lied to flowers

foot; ,8i,

and clouds, as yih 'to ,hwa, ajlower; it is also apjx'nded to X'\ ,

to form a

compound substantive 'rf 'to the ear: '(\^ .niang, mother: ifij ,tan,
/o car-

ry with a yoke over one. shoulder; JM ~^, .tan 'tsi, n bamboo yoke used

by ])0)ier8.

7 On the subject of changes in words much has l)een done to aid inves-

tigation by the native lexicogra])hers. Thf Work called Jj Q" .hing .yen,

On dialects, compiled by Vang-hiung. under the Han dynasty in the first

1U2 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART II.

ceutury, treats on the differences in regard to words, that tlien existed in the

various ]:)rovincesi.Qf, China. It says, for instance, that the word c'hwen, a

hoat or Junk, wa^ then used in K wan-si (Shan-si), wliile the okl book term

TJ cheiJ, was >Mployi<(l in Kwan-tung (Chih-li). In Kiang-nan )^l:j ~f'

,chu 'tsi, was then the word {or pig, as in modern Chinese, but the okl word
^C 'chi was still in use in Shan-si. A71 arrotu ,in Shan-si and Chih-li was

thencalledyC shi, which is the word used in books. Tsien ^^j the modern

term was then used in Shen-si. The same authority says, that 4^ )'/i1"sheh

tsi', ^0 c?'0.9s «/(?n-?/, had then given place to ^ i 15 kwo' tu', the modern
phrase.

S By helps of this sort, the history of words may be traced back, and
it can thus be shewn that the terms used in the ancient books constituted
the colloquial phraseology of the time. This might in itself be regarded as
i:>robable, but on the authority of books like that now referred to, it may be
proved by shewing that a large number of words at present obsolete, formerly

belonged to the popular phraseology. It is not so easy to determine, whether

the language of that early date was as terse when spoken, as when it was
committed to ^vl•iting. With the pronunciation now in use, it is difficult to

conceive, how the book style could ever have constituted a medium for con-

versation. An extension of single words into compounds by means of syno-

njTus, antithesis, &c. such as is found in the modern spoken dialect, appears

necessary to bring the book style into a form fitted for viva voce intercom-

munication of ideas. If however, the great changes in the sounds that have

taken place are duly considered, there is ground for supposing that a much
closer resemblance formerly existed between the spoken and written language

than at present, and this notonly in the use of the same words, but in brevity
and in the mode of constructing sentences.

In deciding this question it should be remembered that the earliest Chinese

compositions, for example the oldest parts of the Shu-king and Yih-king,

are in a poetical form. Native scholars from their accurate knowledge of the

rhymes of the old language, are all conscious of this. Poetry indicates the

existence of literary art, so that the pure colloquial dialect would be subjected
to various changes before beino; written down.
CIIAPTER 2. ON WORDS. lO.'J

9 Arrangement. Tlir analysis of s»'ntoncos unfolds tlio arranf^onient of

the words whether single or conihined. It is marked by great nicety in dis-

tinctions and attention to euphony. The words may be observed to fall into

groups of two, three, or four words in close juxtaposition. Thesi* groups,

connectctl with each other by particles, form complete sentences. The exami-
nation of the groups refen-ed to is in great part the i)rovince of etymology.

Their union by the help of particles into sentences, it is tlu- office of syntax

to expound. Take the following sentence:?!: ^j ^ Ml 111 ll J n< ^

^ tlii /ii ^ 1^< W\ IT"' y'"ig' ^i^^''^^i P^'^i si"S' -"i^'" *^^i j'^*^"" 'pc"' P"^*

kwo' shi' ,i shih liang' kien', the chief thing in the support of the j)copIe, is

simpli/ {that they should have) food and clothing. Here yang-hwoh is a

verb compounded of two others to nourish and to live, together meaning to

keep alive. Peh sing men, is a noun, consisting of peh, o«e hundred, sing,

fnnihj name, and men, the common plural particle. Peh sing, means all the

families, the people. Tih is the sign of the genitive or possessive case. K«'n

pen is a noun, consisting of two words both meaning root. Puh kwo', 7iot

passing, is here an adverb only, qualifying the verb ^^ shi', u. ,1 shihliang'

kien', food and clothing, those two things, may be considered as a substan-

tive group, in which food and clothing constitute the compound noun, and
these two, with the word "things" understood, are added to shew that the

sense is complete, and for the sake of the rhytlmius.

10 There are here several instances of the mode in which comjiound verbs,

nouns, and adverbs, are formed. They originate either in the juxtaposition

of synonyms, or in that of two or more words from various jmrts of speech,

which los(.' their independent character in that of the compound they assist

to fonn.

1 This peculiarity bidongs much l.'ss to the book language than to the
collo(iuial. Both styles are given in the colloquial etlition of the Sacred edict

of the emperor K'ang-lii. The preceding sentence is as there found in the

lx)ok language "^ K" <1 ^, ^E M ^ f^ y'"'^'' .min ,chi 'pen, tsai,

,ii ,i shih. The meaning is tho sam««, but it is expressed nuich more briefly.

One word instead of two, is used for fn nourish and also for?*oo/. Min. poo-
I'M MAM'AillN (illAM.MAi;. PART II.

ph\ is a lH)c>k wdrd. Chi", the book particle for the possessive case, isrcj)laced

iu colloquical by Hv ^i^^- '^^^ii ii, are prepositions meaning in. In this in-
stance, tsai is a verb, consists in, while ti repeats the sense »t, and forms with

tsai one coinj)ound word.

12 Thus it appears that the same principle belongs to both styles, but
much more extensively to the spoken dialect. Words placed together with-

out connecting particles, blend into a compound belonging to their own or

another part of speech, and are then treated as single words. In the term
l)eh-sing, people, literally hundred names, the two words, while they main-
tain their relation to each other as adjective and substantive, constitute in

the general syntax of the sentence a single noun. Tlieir individual sense and
mutual relation are not indeed destroved, but in common use are entirelv

ibrgotten.

13 Such being the mode of constructing sentences, the departments of ety-

mology and syntax will be found often to interfere with each other. Thus
one word may govern another, and yet the two may form together a group,

which should be treated of under the parts of speech. In J J ^ 0^ ta .ii

tih, a fisherman, .\\,Jish, is the regimen to 'ta, to catch, yet the three words
together may be properly treated as a substantive. In (ix Jt rj> If | W
j\^ 'kai cheng' 'ni .men tih ,sin, set your hearts rvjht, the adjective Jccheng',
correct, is closely combined with the verb 'kai, to change, and they need to
be considered together as a verb group, having the same power of governing

a substantive that belongs to any simple verb. In this case they govern j{^
,sin, heart. Wlien however, these words are considered by themselves, they
are seen to iiave a relation to each other, such as is properly discussed under

that part of grammar called syntax. Cheng' qualifies the action expressed

by the word
D-U -y
kai. Such phrases as ^ J\\ ^ 'mai puh .lai, I cannot buy;
M zi-u
A^ f^ '"lai pull 'k'i (c'hi), / cannot afford to buy, can be viewed as
compound verbs, or as moods of verbs, or they may be analyzed, and shewn
to be under the control of the laws of syntax like longer and more complex
sentences.
 CHAPTER 3. DIVISION OF WORDS INTO I'AUTS OF SPEKCII. 105

CHAPTER III

Division' ok wohds into Parts of Speech.

1 Si(jnijicant ivorils and jxiiiiclcs. If a common sentence be cxamiiu'd

it is usually found to contain words ut' two kinds, viz. some tliat liavca sense

of their own independent of tlieir use in any particular sentence, and others
tliat are emi)loyed only forgiammatieal purpo.ses, to express relations between

words, to connect sentences and clauses, and to com])lete the sentence, so that

it may be clear in meaning and elegant in form. /\^ Wyil J |'|p ^^ j]^
^ -^ J jt'ien 'wan 'liau ,tu shi' shui' kiau' k'ii' (c'hir) 'liau, it is htc,
thct/ are all gone to bed. In this sentence tu and liau mean nothing when

viewed apart from the context. They are em^jloyed as subordinate words or

particles, under the control of certain grauMuatical laws. We thus obtain

the first and most obvious subdivision of words, and it is that commonly used
by the Chinese. They call significant Words, |pV" -^ shih isV, full charac-

ters, while the auxiliary words or those which are non-signitiuint, they term

^1 "^ ,hii (,su) tsY', emjittj characters, particles.

2 Livinrj and dead words. Words may also be viewed as expressive of

actions (verbs) and things (nouns). Tli<>se two kinds of Avords are CJilledyQ"

-jf^ hwoh tsi', living characters, and yQ -^ 'si tsi, dead charact('rs. Tlie

importance of this distinction in Chinese school instniction, arises jjrincipally

from the v<»ry frequent interchange of the verb and the noun. The phrases
m 7U. ~^ ' "3 ,tang 'si tsi' yung', it is used us a noun; ^ Ji'f ^ /rj
jtang hwoh tsi* yung', it is used as a verb, and similar expressions are in

constant reijuisition in the explanation of the book language.

3 The importance of considering Chinese words in this simple manner is

apparent, when the character of many of them is kept in view. They may
be used as noun, adjective, or verb. To place such a word as ^- hiau', in

any one of these three parts of speech would U- iuconveiiient, for it belongs

equally to all. In the phrase t^^^ -f- \\\] -^3^ ,rhunghiau' tsi6hiSy/r/«V/7y,
Jilial piety, temperance and uprighinesSj it is a substantive; in ^- "j ^
3^ hiau' 'tsi' hiau' 'nu. Jilinl 6ons and daughters, it is an adjective; in ^-
[(K; MAN'DAlilN GKAMMAU. TAUT II.

^\- -^'"^^' f"' '"^^5 ^^ reverence jjarents, it is a verb. It can

^i^ ^i. ^'"o'

only bt' properly classed under a wider (.livision of words, such as that made
words and particles.
use of by the Chine.se, consisting of significant

4 Some othei examples will be now given, of words which require to be

classed in succession under the same three parts of speech; 'Jp sin' in ^
t^V !i}il' iti lii'i^i' ^i' ,chung sin', flkd lyietij, hrothcrln love, JiMUy and
truth/nl; ll=] ,siang sin', to
trustworthiness; 'jfj W( sin' shih, Jionest, jfrf

believe; to trust to. 1^}^ ,chung in^ Si ^'R H tsin' ,chung pan' kwoh,

to be grcdeful to the state and he jicrfect injidelity; ^Jj. ^B. .cliung .c'hen, a

faithful subject;]^. ^ $R P ,clinng .kiiin pan' kwoh, ^o6eya/7A/W ^jj^Ac

prince and grateful to the kingdom. '^\U ^1 'lipai', in ^ fi | [17 )|ilj

^ W\ ^8 '^" -^^^^^ *^^^ 'lipai' 'liang_>ang', our luorshrp is different; jfllj

5^ H 'li pai' iih, icorship-dan: 5ini 8H ^-pk'oh .t'eu

^llli pai', to "li boio

fo the ground and icorship.

^*
^ hai' ni ^^
^^ !^ bar c-hu', injury; -I^
JZ
-111
.^TlJ

^ t'ai' li' hai', very severe; ^ tl t^'^' l^ai'^tsi', i'o /??/«re ones-self;

^-' .p'ing in ^_^ -P'i^S jiig''^"^ tranquillity; yf. ^ ^^ pub ,kuug

n'ino- ?io^ m.sf ;

n^ ^V l^ -P'ing ,t'ien hia', to give peace to the empire.

^ wu' as^^^ |ij\ pei' wu', ^er^g-jt/^^ij^^ ^ wu' .fang, a sleeping room : \i%

{E ?]'P|1H
^^'^^^ tsai' 'na 'H, tvhere shall I sleep? ^ k-ii (c'hii) in
^ |fFJ

..
..• hiang' (s), the place to ivhich he is gone; ^^ k'ii' .nien, last year;

'£^ ijli j k'ir kwo' 'liau, 7 Aave gone there. It is the position of such

words in the group and the sentence to which they belong, that determines
to what part of speech they should be referred.

Some examples will shew that there is the same difficulty in deciding
f)

to what part of speech, many of the particles should be assigned. Thus fjlj

t'sien before, is an adverb, adjective or preposition, according to its })lace in

tbe o-voup of which it forms apart, qjt HU -t'sung .t'sien, before; H'J I I

.t'sien .men, f Ac /ro^^c^oor; IJt^ll l^lj ,hiung .t'sicn, before my breast, or be-

fore me. So also -^ .lien, is a verb, adverb or preposition. _h "W M^l

^ sbang' kii' .lien hia' kii', the upper sentence is connected with the lower;

•31
\t Jien .mang, immediately; j^i fi M 3t ^ f P fM. M7
 • 'IIAPTEU 4. ON THE liUBSTANTlVE^S. J(»7

fu' jt'sin .lien .11 'tsi ,tii ,sluui sliuli 'liaii. the father with his son lucrc toge-

ther burnt to death.

6 From these examples it jij)iH'ar.s, tliat tlie Cliiufso do ii-.t wifliout reason

content themselves with a twofold division of words, into those that are signi-

ficant anil those that are particles

7 Another thing taught by these examples is that words must be present

to the student's view in groups, before their true character can be understood.

The natives study the characters one by one, and if they consider them in

their grammatical connection witli tach other, it is only in the study of the

book language. The collociuial medium of comnnmication, they do not make

a subject of iniiuiry. By the foreigner however, it deserves to be carefully

examined, if only for its pliilological interest, shewing as it does, how an ex-
tensive system of grouping, entirely compensates for the absence of termina-

tions and prefixes to words. By the laws of combination, the part of speech

to which a word belongs is at once seen, the cases of nouns and the moods
and tenses of verbs are clearly expressed, and various kinds of derivatives are
fonued among all the principal parts of speech. The accidence of western

languages can do no more than this.

<'if.\rri':n iv.

On the »Slbstantivk,

1. Substantives consist either of one word or more. In view of this they

may be termed simple or comp»nmd. Simple substantives are such as -^

X'ha, fea;^^ ^\\w^\, flower ;\]\^ .ni, earth, 7nud;$^ ,t;liu»g, a belt, a clock;
^>i\ chi, paper. Compounds are composed of two or more words, ;isA.j/j^i^

'niau ,t*8iang, a fowling piece. The numlx'r of simple substantives is mueii

diminished by the fr(Xiuent use of the sutfix ~j 'tsi, as an individualizing

]»article and especially of yQ .ri which is appended at disi;retion to almost

all substantives in the northern provinces and sounded like err or a single II.
lOS MANDAUIN r.U AMMAR. PART II.

Formation of Compounds.

2. Compound substantives are formed according to certain laws of com-

bination regulating tbc arrangement of the constituent words. The word

denoting species tkecedes that which marks genus. Thus|3l| /^J jun'yueh,

intercalary month; Jh. /J cheng' \\\q\\, first month; T^ ?^ 'mu ,t'sin,

the maternal relative, mother) ^^r ^Ii ,hiang ,t'siu, village relativesX^ },%

.yang ho', foreign goods; p) f [^ peh (pai) .yin, silver; TJC ^K 'shui .yin,

mercury; ^ J% ,liiang ,c\m, fragrant beads; ^ j[^ ,sin shi', a matter

of anxiety ;j[^ \]f/j ,sin .c'hang, the heart; ^ J^ ^ tsah ho' p'u', shop

for miscellaneous articles ; lEl ^^ shi' wu', things of the loorld; ^g ^^

/V jtang ,kia .jen, the chief in a family; ^W
)J,lf
^^^^ (l*?i) -P'^ng kuh,

a rib; ~nf
~j" jkung ,shi
^§ 'mu ,chu, a soiv; /J^ 7^ .p'i k'i' (c'h), disposition; ^ {j\\\

'tsi, a male lion.

3. The WHOLE PRECEDES ITS PART a GENITIVE itS NOMINATIVE, and SUb

stance any accident or attribute.* ^C jX;^^i^ '^^^j house furmture;^<

5
kia .t'ing, family hall; ^^ ,lda .tan^y, fainily hall where ancestors are

10 orshipped, and hence ancestral tablets; 3iP t'R kioh (chiau) ,ken, //('<7:/)i;|i

.t'eu, toes; Jj ^Kj.

kioh 'ti, sole)^ gl kioh
of the foot; )j|P 'clii

.tau .tsien point of a knife; /J JQ j^ ,tau 'pa

.ri, A-^Z/c handle; /J .ri,

yj 7Q tau jen' ecZj/e of a knife; §^

, .ri,choli .wei, curtain round a '1'2|1

table;^^ \b\ clioh mien', surface of a table; ^ i% ,chu, earring. 'ri

4. Matter precedes form, as in the following examples. 'pK //? ^hang'

.fang, {curtain honst) a tc7it;ji\'4 :^ 'iiau tai', the head, ('nau tsi", brain,

tai, a hag).§\vi\ ^ .t'ung p'en, a copper basin Ql ifj^ 't'u tun', a/i earthcrn

nvmnd; |}ij "iPi;,* .c'hieu tai', silk sash; X} T'N shih .k'iau, a stone bridge;

^ 1^- shih mo', a grind-stone; ^^ |j^- shih kiai' ]H'i', « monumental

boundary 1^ stone; 5}|-f t'ieh 'so, an iron lock; J^iix /V t'ieh c'hih, an
iron mcastire;^^^ $^ "j' t'ieh chen' 'tsi", an iron anvil; fj'/^ wtH t'sikwan',
rt hardware saucepan; i\'^ ifj{ .t'si .p'ing, a hardioarc bottle;

5. Kepeated words. Words are sometimes repeated to form compounds,

* First, (he principal thins is mentioned, and tUcn that which belongs to it, or is said of it?
 CHAPTER 4. FORMATION OF COMFOUKPS. 109

especially relative nouns, as in Xjj* yjjf ,ko ,ko, elder brother; y\^ "aC* 'ai'
i'Q.\\ aged hulif, W^ '\\k hxqV inoV, younger sister; '^|| ^|1[ 'tsie 'tsie, a
yoking lady; '{Ij '{I J 'niii 'nui, a married lady.

G Somediminutivcsiilso take the roj)oatoil form, as Em iiW y>l» '^i^'^i

'tien, a very little; >|»i|< ^IX* yQ y'li jSi ,si .ri, a very /i7//c.

7 Other sultstantives when rei)eated often nndergo a niodifieation in the

meaning;, thus/^ jtMcn, a day, hecomes ,t'ien ,t'ien, daily; and yj yjJA
J\ .nan .nan 'nil 'nil, means ?/?(» (tnd women in grent pi/whrr. nv aU the

men and taomen.

8 Rhythm us, antithesis, or some similar cause regulates the formation

of many compound substantives and plnases composed of correlate words.

Ill'] )|iiilh«)-fnh, misery and hapj^inessjvi^ Tfit •^^''' k'i' (c'hi'), the loecdher;

3at t'Kc yi" .t'sien, silver and copjwr money :^<, ^i\*.k\i\ ,hiang, home :\n\
'iX^siiiiv^' yidi (or i'), artijieers and servants ;'^^\ j'jif.siangkwei', c/<cjsYsrt»r/

boxes; y\^ J^ )[il|I

J'1|; ,t'i('n ti' .shen fuh (.fo), heaven, earth, sjnrits and
Buddhas; £|5: 1^ "^^V^ (j/L, pih meh 'cliV yen', pen^cil, ink, paper, and ink-

stone.

When uklatjvi: nouxs are j)Iaced together, those tliat express sni)er-

iority usually stand tirst, as in "tjl J^ 'mu 'nii, mother and daughter; Tpj
"j /J^ /Vk. jkiiin 'tsi 'siau .jen, the good man or the man of honour, and
the bad man or the man of no pi'inciple; ~\^ ~j^ '(|,y^'lau 't.^i .niang, /<////</•

and mother; /L T^ JCV tI^K ;l''ii"o t^' j^"^' mei', ehh r "i-it younger bro-

thers and sisters;

10 Verbs and adjectives help to fonn many compound suh>tantivt's. Thus

H'. ,Hheng, to bear, raw, a verb and adjective, becomes part of several nouns,

a« n~f ^^ e'liidi' ,8heng, domestic animals; 7l OlL j^i*^" v'*^"'"o> teacher;

\yii )[} shi- yung', the use to which a thing is applied; ?t^ Au^ .lai i', the

object of coming ; ^^ fHif kien^ Bh'ih, mode of viewing ; a juilgmmf : 7 J j 7J

'ta pan*, costume; j^'f/j \7\i ,kwan hi', Me coiwcf^'jzcwr** ; \\^ -^hj-,hieu ,shu,«

C€T tijicate of divorce ; ^{^ pp suh 'u, a proverb :

JH\ /\\L .miau .hung, ver-

million 'j^ ; tiL li^'i^' sh'i', the coining life ;

..'.j |'i| ma kwa*, a jacket
Ill) MANr>Ai;iN" (;r..\:\iM.\r.. pakt ii.

fllj Hi P^^
l^wa', a square 2)icce of embroidery on a mandaruis roles. \fi]

''
I - .I'liD'j; .nlcii. (I friniil of {he same year.

11 j\liuiy compoiiiuls ;iic borrowed as llicy are froiu tlie book style, for ex-

ample many titles, the Tauist names of different parts of the human body, the
24 solar terms, and very many others. Tiie principle of arrangement in such

terms belongs to the grammar of the book language •••./C ^ ,t'ien .t'ing, {hea-

ven's h<iV) the forehead; W\ yfe ''^j 'liang t'ai- .yang, (two suns) the tem-

ples; ^§^ yj .c'luiu .fen, vernal equinox; M, d^ hia' i:]\V, summer soJsfier;

§^_ jp Aiwaw^liQn^, the empress; ll|llj ^ 'shang 'wn, w2?VZ(/«// : I' ^

hia' wu afternoon.

12 Abstract nouxs. The words ^t; f\xh and j^ c'hu', placed after adjec-

tives and verbs form abstract nouns. ^^ "f^c IS & che' yang' tso' fah,

this is the ivay of doing it; iy. ^' /^ uiuli (.mei) "hau elm' there is no

heneft in it; Yx ^j ~^ i§ -Hi^'i \vou k'ii' (c'liu') c'liu', there is no jjhce

to go to ; H^» JM^ T'llC -^ -ij^ '^^^'^1 '^^^^ yang' 'tseu fah, luhieh way shoidd
I go'^ The Avord ^7^ fa v/hen thus used is pronounced fii' in Peking, while

in the sense of law it is heard 'fa. In Shan-tung the sound is the same for

both meanings. _
\\\ Words which individualize nouns there are some auxiliary words j/^
'^~' which are emi)loyed and
.t'eu Icead. /Q .ri, son, 'tsi, son, to define in-

dividualize substantives. They are i)laced as suffixes after substantives of

one or two words. Exam])les of the use of .t'eu will now be given. )\'\ u^
.mei .t-eu, the forehead ;$}}{[ UM -Hen .t'eu, a sicl'le
;J^i'' Um ^^'^^^
-^'^'^b ^

hone :
^J fj£i ^ '"la ,lung .t'eu, horse reins :
t7{^ uM 'elien .t'eu, a pU-

loio ; Jjil i^J ,c'li<u .tj('U, a drawer ;'A^ 8^! I'^h .t'eu, wood: J") UM
'ma .t'eu, a Jetty; i\^ UM .c'lieng .t'eu, acuity wall; cf UM s^ieh .tvu,^//c

tongue; jih .t'eu, <//r s?o? ;

>lV §^ , sin .t'eu, Mc /<mrf; |-l x-f^
l?ll

'k'eu .I'l'U, f//c month.

X4 ^R .vij r/ jso??, as a suffix to nouns is more loosely attached than the

Here 1 would ])lacp proper names, and those ot M Bazin's Srdclass, or words composed of a num-

l.cr and a noun o. <T

<; l__||
| ^^ si' tkiiii^s that
'pan, the four (hini^s I) arc valublc to a scliolar viz. pih nieh 'chi

Ycn'. pcnril etc \'s\ {v}. si' 'hai, the four seas, the icorld
 (!HAPTKK 4. FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS. I | \

otliei-s to its woril. ^l /L ^'^'"'' ('t'siaii) .n, a bird; 'Pi'l ^^ ficli .ri, «w
invUation card) \'>} y\^ wiili .n, a thliKj; Pt'f j^^ liwa, .n, words \
'f:if^Q*

^^ ,slu'nj; ,yiii .11, sound ,\'^ )j >2t ti' ,fan<,' .11, aj^hirv, W j,'^ .fan
.ri, a peach ; ^ /l^ .ining .n, r/ name; \ ^L* J'" '"^ " ">'"< : i^J
"^

^ ,suu 'nil .11, [iraud-daiujhter.

Tho words
in the north J/Q .ri" is very much used,

as also at llang-chcu. to whicli it can bo afKxcd are determined

hy tlie custom of the dialect. Thus ^ >Q 't'siau .ri', a bird, in Peking is

'ir -^'^^^ '*'*'> *^t C'heng-tu-tu. This enclitic may often be used or
n--
omitted at j>leasiu-e.

l.)_~h 't-^»j i« "'-^^^^l '" W ~4 .^^i-'iiig 'tsi, (f clicsf ; .7:1(1^ -j -

.shong 'tsi, ropr
^
;

-f- ,shen 'tsi, ///c Ao^/// ; j£ -J^ 'elm 'tsi, Mf- master; \\X "f* chwang'
'tsi, a« indictment; S\ "Jr 'nii 'tsi', a woman; %±: -j^ chih 'tsi', a nephew;

iv "t^ *'*^"' '**^"''

" ^'^"'' i wL ']" i'" 1^'it'" (ts) 'tsi, a jade-stone rimj;

^ ^- J 'hui .i)-o 'tsY, »?// wife, an old woman ;^^^ ^^ ,hwa .yu(>n

'tsi, a flower garden ; /y /l:i^ ~jr 'siau 'ho '{v:\, a young man ; ])];\. -f-
.]v\ 'tsi, a flag; ^' ^ ,shn 'tsi, a letter ;^'^ ^ ,t'i 'tsi, a ladder; f f

)M "^ chuh .Ian 'tsi, a bamboo basket.

16 Agents. Various classes of agents are described by appropriated words.

y^ ,fu i.s used, e. g. in ...;) y^ 'ma ,fu, (/ groom; 'Jjlg yv kiivu' 'i\i, a chair-
bearer; 7yi y^ 'slini ,fu, « «'a^/--/>ear<'>- ; .^ yC ,c'he ,fu, a carriage-
driver.

17 "j 'sheu, hand, is used in ^jV^: 'J* ngdi .sbeu, a bad man; /(ijij
-j^j}]

J
"
.tsing si' 'sheu, a neat and clever toorkman; 7\\, j^'shui 'sheu, sailors'

t.'js ^ .pen' 'sheu, a stupid artiflcer; -^7 i'V\''n\'\i\\c\\, a clever art ifirer;

^^~\ ,t'siang 'sheu, the buyer of another's essays to jyass well at an ejc-

amination.

IS [Ql tsiang*, artiflcer, is used in % \h\ muh tsiang*, a carpenter;

J){j

^ [>£ .ni 'wa tsiang', a bricklayer;

and carver
Injlfc "^l]
\}ji ,tiau

ycu
k'eh tsiang', (ff:

,t80, in the north )«« engraver ; )\\\ ) fi\ [H'. t'sih tsiang', o<7-

}nan and painter.

11) IV- tsoh, to do, is used in 'f:[il 1
V' >^i' tsoh, « /j/yy; /(y; (|: ii,,ih
112 MANOAUIN CKAMMAJI. PART II.

tsoli, a carpenter: -^H IF f-lj"il» t«oh, et stone-mason; /^ \y- '\va tsoh, a

tiler; ifc. ^X 1 F .ni 'shui tsoh, a bricklayer;
20 —L ,knng, worJc, a tvo?'hnan, is used in examples such as ^'\' Hl
.chen ,kunp^, a tailor; "gii^ —^ h^va' ,kiing, a ixdnter.
21 lil{j \]y sill fii', rt teacher, lielps to form many terms, as ^';x'Tij; [iljj

'j^ .t'sai i'ung ,shi fir, a ^raYor; § J'Jj: fjlfj jl'- 'lu .i)an ,shi fu', a buil-

der; ^Ij g| ftlj # t'i' .t'eu ,slii fu', «Z;a/-^v(v; Mj" ^ fjllj ^^| .c'liu 'tsi

,shi fuS a cook; f^ [£ []|]7 j^ t'ieli tsian.i,^' ,slii fir, a blacksmith; J^

^/r fillj "fi*^
-ni ^ku ,shif fuS aww^; JJ |llli ill]] \% 'ta sheng ,shi fu', a
rope-viakcr; ^^ U|}J [j|]] j^ •.k'iuen kioh ,slii fu', a jnujilist.
22 /^ liu', house, is used in 'AX y ^ ^i"'^^^' ^^"S « *'«^^ boiler, Jtu ^
ticir liu, a tenant farmer ; ^^ J^ p'u' liu', a shop keeper.

23 /V .jen, a man, is used in g^I ^^ /V 'mai mai' .jen, a trader;::^

/V k'eh .jen, a guest; traveller; JJ ^jfe /V 'ta.c'hai .jen, a fuel gatherer;

3l± #^ /v ,ch\vang ^kia .jen, a villager; f|l i[JJ /\w chung- ti' .jen, a
tiller of the soil; if J ^ ,\ 'ta "niau .jen, a shooter of birds; i^)( ^ /V
tso' ,k\van .jen, «?>?rt?if/arw;'|7 ^' /v .liing ,i .jen, a medical man; \x$i

•^ /v tuh ,shu .jen, « scholar.

24_ i^ .t'eu, //eac/, is foiMid in %}^ ^^ fm' .t'eu, coo^• ma monastcrij;

^ i^ 'lau .t'eu, a jailor; '|j]| 'JJ|; v^| .mo .mo .t'eu, a baker; ^J j^
Ini' .t'eu, a?i e?iem?/; ,ya .t'eu, a/ew?ff/e .sfjrawf.
f 3.H
25 ^C ,kia(ts),/«?«z7?/, is employed in 'j^' ^<. .liing ,kia, the acting

2>cifty;:f^^<. t'eu' ,kia, (6 tvr?/ intelligent man; ^ ^ ,tang ,kia, ///c

principal in an establishment; Sffl ^^ p'u' ,kia, shop-keeper; ^ © ^C

'nini mai' ,kia, a trader: |^ -^C ,tung ,kia, master; ^fe ^C .yuen ,kia,

uj^rivate enemy; ^J ^ ^C ,c]uvang .nung ,kia, a villager; ^J 3i ^

.t's.ti chu ,kia, a rich man; J^^ ^H ^<. .k'iung han' ,kia, a jjoorman;

''fe ^^ -I'""' tsicn' ,kia,rt ;>oor man; ^ ^\ ^<,fn'k\\W ,kia, a rich 7nan
(or family); ^ip ^^ ^C .lin ,slien ,kia, « neighbour.
2(j The use of an active verl) Avith its object, followed by p^ tih, for

agents is very common. Thus JJ ^ t0 'ta .ii tih, ajisherman; J^ IJi

fiv J^'«i'^ jC'he tih, « carriage driver; Bp{ %{' Hv tuh ,shu tih, a student;
 CHArTF.R 4. FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS. 113

1 J 3;it (H "t«i li^''» till, a hunter; il ^ \] J t.i .k-ium lih, a inif/iUst;

"t f yt II J t'lian*,'' lii' till, a player ; |x M [I Jkiaii' ,8hu tili, a^pffcAer;

schoolmaster; \i\% \^ [f-;/ tso' ,kwun till, « wwnt/«/-/«; g 2i'i\\ } ,taii{;

j&\uii t'lh, a mandarin's servant ; jli /i!l. flV c'huli pin' till, one toho ia

perfo7'm hi ij funeral ceremonies ; ±^. ^ fjj 't'sii ,t'sin till, a hridcgroom;

ll- il' U^ swan' kwa' till, a diviner; M' fiC J^ H;/ I'i^'J" lii-' fali tih,

a performer ofjmjtjUng tricks; g ^X^- [| J ,taii^ ,piiig tih, a soldier; ^

DiV llj -^ili '\vu tih, o«c' 2cho practises military accompli8h7ne7ifs ; ^ -^
rjr LI V , tang ,shii jjan' tih, « writer in a (jovernmcnt office;^] Ux /Q
nJ 'ta 'kii.n tih, a drummer; p|J "^^ [J:;/ yiu' ,.shu tih, a printer \\\^ f)%

yL M^ I'^ii jt-'aii .11 till, a dealer in small articles; It^ 3v, "W" THp'-ui
.win ,shu tih,rtj/oyeryim</<^ runiicr who carries despatches',^^ \\ \ tj J'tseu
vim^ i\\\, a letter-carrier', J^ l\>j
||J i'anr:;' 'nia tih, r/ horse-keeper, fruiii

fang', <o /c< gro (om^ to grass); JjX -}- Pv fii"g' yjin-; tih, a goat-keeper.

27 Many atljectives combine with ;^ pei' and -;;44 hii', cAz-s.?, to form
nouns: as ^Ij J^^^ .t'sieii j>ei*', ancestors; P% J^ wan' jK'i', yw«/o/-s;__L.

^i' sliang' pei', seniors; ^} iff 'lau pei', ancestors; aged perso7is; p^
^^ 'chang i)ei*, elders; j^; ^;I4 ngoh lui', bad perso7is; |ii: 9|^_ 'fei lui',

bad persons; |rJ -;;-^ .t'ung lui', o/'</ie 6a?«e c?««6'. These expressions cor-
respond to our usage of the article the with adjectives, forming a noun in the

j)lural; as in the virtuous, the aged.

Generic jcords. Many words when they enter into citini>onM(V< l)ass from
a special to a general sense. Some examples will be given. The words J^
.c'liang, a j>jcce o/" [//•o?Oi(/, and i^ .tNu, head, lira used after nouns and

verbs to fonn compounds, in the sense of a phice devoted to any sjiecial pur-

pose; thus nl.j i^ 'ma .c'haiig, a place for horses; 01 Mj ^^M *^''i' miau'

.t'eu, at the temple; J'JL J^ ,hwang .c'hang, co77i7iion grouiid; )v; I'^j fah

.c'hang, place for exccutioti;?\< J^ muli .c'hang, a timber yard; £Si I^

.yen .c'hang, ^^a<.' for 7nanufaciuri7ig salt; ^^ [i^'kiai .t*eu, in the streets;

flnJ ]}^\ k'iau (cMi) .t'eu, at the bi'idge; place 7ienr a bridge; ^f X^ 'k'au

.c'hang, place for holding exam illations; lj'-\i J^ chan' .c'hang, battlefield;

m iiJ -^^t-'i t^'liiuig. hniti/ig ground.

114 MANDARIN fiUAMMArt. TART II.

The words |—I 'k'eu, month, and | .imn, door, are used in conipomids

for any opening or entrance, us in /Jf/tJ I,

"nan .men, , f ho forehead,, or
, __ en-
.

trance to the bra hi; ^t M j^^^^ 'k'eu, the heart; "jp] f I

ya .men, marf

istrate's qfiice;^^ \ \
kiau' .men, mode of instruction; a religion; (Jj |—

,shan 'k'eu, « mountain pass; \ \

|-l .men 'k'eu, entrance; Lltl h' lu^

'k'eu, a thoroughfare:^^ H ,c'hwang 'k'eu, (in the north]®, j^ ,c'hw-ang

Im') a 7vindoio[ ^JC T^ |—' ki'i^^' .c'liang 'k'eu, entrance to the revieto

ground; ^gS ll'lr M -^^^^ t'ung 'k^eii, entrance to a lane.

In some of these examples, the generic words may be observed to be mere-

ly, euphonious suffixes. This occurs when the specific term is complete in

itself, as in the case given of sin, heart.

Substances in the fomi of leaf take after them the word VP poh ; of small
-»
-j^ t - -4-4-'
I I

fragments, i^ ,cha and /^ sieli: of dust, 7}^ moh, end; of shavings, -^^

,hwa,/oz(;er6'; as in ^ :J'"|^
, kin poh, gold-leaf; %f^ yVI f^ih poh, tin-foil;

^i ^6 '^'^'i
V^^i ^' 'i'^^d frame (in the north 'wei lien ,tsi reed blind) ; J^
^ B^ fan' ,cha, /r«^?»ewf'S o/cAarcoa/;'p J^ ^(ll
j" shih .t'eu ,cha 'tsi

small pieces of stone ;AfYi ^^Vxi^ \Ro\\, sawdust; %'il TJC fieh moh, iron
flings ;^^ 4^ P^^^'
,hwa, shavings :7\\. '\\^ mub ,hwa, 2foot? shavings.

29 Numeratives in compounds. Many of the numeratives admit of be-

ing placed after the nouns to which they belong. For example ||jj( \>}L fiin'

lib. rice crumbs; u^ J^'ma, p'ih, horses; fjy([ ^^ 'wan'chan, china bowls;

iii Itfc t'ieh .t-iau, an iron fiaryTp /t pu' Y^'ih, pieces of cloth; (^ J^
shih k'wai', pieces of stone ; ]Hx A^ 1"'
'V^^^ pl^V boohs; /jj 7P lib '])en,

an almanac;}^ JL '^^'^'i
(0 P^j " ^^"^'' /J tL. -tau pa, knives; /jj \u\
.fiang .kion. ?-oow6;^^ n" ^^uh kien', things; J^i !|},t:|!J ^c'he 'Hang', carria-

U^^i Tx ^^ Tl^^ /c ^^'"o

'^"^ twan' Y>'-\\\,
pieces of silk and satin; ' '
T^
n^ ~ti )-f yih yang' tih .mau p'ien', hair of the same colour; ^ J/"

tItu ^. ,to 'shall .c'hwen chili, hoiv many boats? /j (/ ||>{c hh (lei) .t'iau,

rib bones;

30 Words ex})ressive oi direction andja^rtcehel]) to fonu many compound

nouns. Those chiefly used are the following: |fl] mion',/«ce; >7 ,fang,

square; a region-/^ 'sheu, head;^^ ,pien, s/f/c; j^ .t^eu, head. These

CHAPTER 4. DIKFEKENT KINDS OF NOrNS. II

combine with tlu' wunU ^\ ,tiin<j:, cast; ^] ,si, wcsf;]^(:\ .imn, fionth; 4u
ju-li (l>ei), north; /£^ 'tsu, hft; -^ 'veil, ritjltt; H'J .t-.sini, t>e/orc;i^ lieu',

behind; _j, shang*, above; \ liia', bifoiv;^^ 'li, wllhln; /y wav, without.

E. g. /|' [III ^^•'ti' luieu', Mf outside. .Fang however is loss used than the

otheis, and many V)f the |)ossible combinations of the.ve words are not em-

ployed. (See tlie cliaj)ter on adverbs.) .luyQ is added ireiiuently to any of

tliese compounds, as j^ j/JI /u '*^"'o
•^'^'•^
-^'b ^''^ ^'^*^ *"^<^-

IJiO'crent kinds of Nouns.

31 Material nouns are the names of substances, as ^^ yoh{\dW),me-

t7/c/«(';?l\ 't-hi, /)r;y)er; ifli t'ieh, iron; |/:J
juli (jeu), y/r.sA. They refer to

the material of which individual objects are composed. Sueli olyects are

compounded of matter and ibrni, and the names wliich they receive are ai)-

l)ellative nouns. The suffixes "X* tsi,^ .t'eu, 7Q .rV, found commonly
witli ap])ellatives, are also sometimes used with material nouns, asin)^* -j'
,sha 'tsi, sand; 7\\. \}Ji
muh .t'eu, ivood; ^ -f- ,kin (ch) 'tsi", (/old.

32 AiTELLATivT: NOUNS are the names of single objects com])letein tliem-

selves. Thuslll{:il 5"2i i";iii' .Yi,ahaf: ]^ .ho, « river; —^ ^-l^ /fC yih
,k'o shu" muh, a /rte ;i*|nj ,kau, a tvooden or baxiboo pole;/ } -^ ,tau tsi"

a knife. Tlie names of indivi<'.ual objects, organisms, genera, and species

are all ajipellative nouns,

33 Some words are material and ai»pellative. Thus we may speak of

^ /r <) J ~U P'^"' 7^^^
'11 -uiau, ha/fa eattj i>f feathers; or of flvj

^'j "t .vih .ken 'ii .man, a feather.

34 Hklativk NOUNS are those that express relations, iis T* .wan<r ,/

llil shang* 'pei', a «?//j«'»-jW : Ifi] |

j- .t'ung pan', vontpaniou;^
Jl .hwang sliang', emperor; ^ 'hy. tir inn. father and mother; ^^
hioh ,8heng, a pupil.

35 The names of trades and professions are also embraced in this class of
nouns, as ^^ ^- pI; "»''»' ,f*l»" t»li, <' reader of books. Relative nouns
ditVer from those callnl appellative, in having theideaof personalitvattaclj'd
to them.
llfj MAXDAIUN fiKAMMAR. PART II.

36 Abstract nouxs arc of two kinds. Some concern the funii, situation

and various ([ualities of material objects, as in |^ \b\ .nan mu'n',thc south

side; |,p 7^ 'tien .ri, a very little, from 'tien, a point; "/y 5^ wai' .t'eu,

the outside)'^ fp] Ic'ii' (c'li) liiang' (s), the direction in lohich he is gone,

from k'ii', to go, and liiang', to face an object, or to go toiuards; j\^ t\\
.hing clnvang', appearance.

37 PJnjsical qualifies are often expressed by adjectives, as in 7!^ ^' IJ!^

'ki ,to ,k'ing (light) cliung' {Jieavy) how much iveight ? 4^ g- ,shen

.Ian, a deep blue. The adjective ^ ,k''iiig, empty, on becoming a substan-

tive changes its tone, as in y] -£^ 'pE Jj^ 'yen k'ung tsai' dai, ivhen you
have time come again.
38 Some abstract nouns are the names of mental qualities, and the im-
material objects of thought, i^rj. ;^'(- ,ngen 'tien,/rtyowr ; ^"jh j^'hauc'hu^,
goodness ; ^^ uX •7^'^^^ k^^S « <^«^'«e ; Tfe 1x .k'iuen (.t's) .jen, authority

and office ; ^ i^ ^au' "li, doctrine ; ???0(7e 0/ action

' ; ^ ,^, 'chu i', ?(v7/;

^ ,
im
gt li? reason; /|_
>f—
^
jtr?!
.jen ngai', Zoye ;
/^X^
yj
I

//IJ
III
,fen jneh,

difference ; ^^ ^^ wu' i', accomplishments.

39 Many abstract nouns are formed from substantives having a pliysical

sense and retaining it in common use. j{^* )|1'^ ,liiang ,fung, (,feng) country

customs ; ^ j\^ .liang ,sin, conscience ; t& t'FJ .k'iuen ping', authority

yL 7lil •^^'•^'^1 k'iS «^^ ^^'^ ^/ ^^tcrary polish ; 3<. Jil'.L

-wen ,fung, a learned

o//-; i^> /R\, chi' k'i', a man's disposition; -fip .[^ tuli ,sin, a bad heart;

l%i 7Tsl M^^n l^'J'j j^opular notions; pjx ^^ ,fung suli, custoriis; 7^ 7,H
,kwei ,kii, proprirty^ ?E.shen k'i', a likeness ; fJie sonl;^ gl 'k'i .t'eu,

the beginning; |n Mf ^''^^"^^ k"^'' ^''^- ^**<^^5

j'm >% '^^^'^^^ '^^''-'^j ^^^^ ^'"^^^ ?©
Iti 'tsung kieli, the end; ?|c j^ moh 'Avei, e7id; ^ j[^ ,chung ,sin, the

centre; ?K J ^»"1' (mie') 1iau, t'«r/; \!^ ^Tf(,

men' k'i', sadness; ^^
i' k'i', integrity ; ^ JUli ,wei ,fung, a dignifed air ; |g ^^{^ .lingk'i', cle-

verness ; \iji ;^(, ngau' k'i', a jyroiid air ^±, ; ^Ivl .k'wang k'iS/oo^7m?-c?mess ;

/>M ^»l -^'^^^ k'iS disposition to take offence.

40 In the preceding expressions, many material words are used with ab-
stract meanings. E. g. )i|L ,fung, wind; "lyj ping', handle: tRI k'i' (c'h),
 CIIAI'TEU 4. niFt'KUKXT KINDS OF N()L:N"S. 117

vapour ;7^M\t''u instrument /or draw infj circles ; %\j ,lvii, iuHtrumtutJ'or
(frawimj a square ; /^ ^^^''> '"''; >L^ ,»i", /<c«;7.

41 On the otlur hiiiul nuiiiy wmils of an abstract kind an- often iisul in

a limited specific sense, hy tlie application of words of nnmbcr and auxiliary

particles; e. g. \{ii ] ItJ ^11 tso' 'liaii lian,-; Mmv^Jie /lus done two ifai/'s
work; where kung, work, means a- dnij's work. jFen 77 in divide, is the
name of one nieraher in a division of eijual parts, as ~| yj shiii ,fen, ten

])arts. ,K'ung^^ enipft/ space, in "j^i l^|^j 'j^ .li.-u Hang k'ung-, (in the

north 'liang k'o k"o-er', leave two spaces. The primary iilea in such words is

alistract, and the concrete sense grew out of it. When the abstract word is

a verb in such cases, the tone often changes in the concrete, see /|'^-.mo, 5»i|{

chnng', etc. in i)age 20, and k'ung- above.

42 Derivatives. Nouns which are the names of qualities, actions, and a-

gents are usually comi)ounded of an adjective or vcrl) arid a particle. Such
words mav be called for distinction's sake, derivative nouns.

43 Names of qualities are formed by affixing the word l^ c*hu', to ad-

jectives, or combining two adjectives o])posite in meaning; e. g. ;j^» ^^ ngoh

c'hu', badness, from ngoh, bad; %^ J^' twan&hu', faults, from 'twan, short:

l-J 7^ 3^ TX M. 'yeu 'ki ,to .k'ing chung', what is its weiijhtf

Sometimes an adjective stiinds alone os a substantive; e. g.^>f],shen, deep,

i" W tt M f^!l! ^ i!'^ y^i ''ifii tsai' ch<-' 'li ,to -sliau ,shen, what is the

depth of the sea at this placed

44 Actions are expressed by aflixing )y; fah and m* c'hu' to verbs. , E.

g. ^iji chung', to cidtivate, in /J |> f^Jc f'lj( Vi\ f\ i{i\ na' yang'chung' fah
j»uh tui\ that mode of cultivation is unsuitable; ^ 'H,
— " j'^ -J\'- J 7;
veu' shi* yih
'
yang" lung* fah, that is a different way
*
<>/ acliin/ ; j\^; 1'^- ?j^*
'"'-4-
. ^'^L -/- ' j- 1 f>
^v; 'tsen yang' 'tseu fah, which irmj should I ijnf^ Z, -\] '/.| I J'lnu .mei yeu

c\\Q.\\^ c^\\\\^, there is no stamliny room; ^\:,\y^ I 'A -I.- fj 11 /'<i ts.i]-

.shi hou* shang' 'yeu inai c'hu*, in season it can be bought, (not used in the

north).

45 Veubs as nouns. JManv other words are alsoappendinl to verbs to Ibrm

compound substantives. ^ 1|'J
?>•:•'• ''-ing, love, from ngai*. to Inrr, and
118 MAN'DAPJN GRAMMAR. TART II.

.i'iiin<^,fecUn(j; Jp }]^t ,clmii {to call f<>) .]»'ai, « sifjn-hoard\^Y^ |31,c'lieu

{to drmu) liiali, a box with draioers; fj^ Ijlij liu' ,hinng, o i^roUctor for the

breast; breastplate; f /[c 4 fan' 'tsi, « spy, from J;^ fan', /o invest i/jate ;

5^ Ibfc f;ih .tnau, « spring of a loatch, ivon\Y'ii\\,fogiveout;j)utinmot!on ;

Pg 7\^ c'liaug' 'i^en, a song bool', from c'liang', to sing. The reason why
the verb precedes in these cases, is that it makes the f()llo^ving \vonl s])ecifie

and species precedes genus, or else that the following word is the object which

it governs.

4G One, two or more verbs when alone are often construed as substantives

e. g. 'mai mai', to buy and sell, in \i'.Ji /y ^-^i ^ tso' 'siau 'mai mai', he

carries on a small trade; ^li^ /^ kwo' i^h'ih,

</
fault, {ii<Mii kwu- to jjass,

skill to lose): -^"J ^f .hing .wei, actions; ^-f^ l\[^ Fl^ 3^'' .l)'iau 'tu c'hih

,c'hwen, licentiousness, gaming, food and dress. This is the order of the

words in Kiang-nan. In the north, the collocation is somewhat different,

c'liih hoh .p'iau 'tu, where P^^J hoh, drinking, takes the place oi' di'ess.

47 Agents are often described by means of verbs, as in the case ol' J p

tsoh, used in some names of artisans; e. g. jt :^ j^ iih c'hi' tsoh, a
jeioeller.

48 Transitive verbs with a noun after them, followed by 0^ tih are em-
ployed to designate agents, as in f/jf- -^ H vpi^n' sh'r' tih, a manager. Such

examples are both compound, inasmuch as the verb and its object retain

their meaning, and derivative since tih is nothing more than a termination.
49 The verb also becomes a substantive, when it stands as the subject of

a proposition; i. e. when it is in the infinitive mood, e. g. p^ ^' ^^{ ^ ^1

tub ,shu ,su yau' ,eliwen, reading inquires the whole attention. For further
discussion on words in the other parts of speech being used as nouns, see

the syntax.

Sex and Gender.

.00 Skx. Tlie distinction of male and female is expressed by the adjectives

.www, male J^ 'w\\, female, prefixed to/\..jen, or any other substantive

CIIAPTKK. 4. SEX AND GKNUEK. I Hi

meaning man ^ ZL. .nan ,\i\m^, loorhntn; J\ JiJ\\\i,\i\m\f,wor1civ(j-

men . 'Nil, wln'U used for ft daxujhtn', as in ^3: A cliili 'nil, a niece; ]/]\

_5\ ,sun 'nil, a (jrand-ditmjhhr^ retains one of its meanings in the Ix.ok lan-

guage, Imt when not forming j)art of a compuund, it always in collocjiiial

means /(L'i«rt/<^.
51 Gender Forwinged animals, tlie words llL|t ,t'si,/('mf<A ,^ .hiimg,

m(de^ are employed. Animals tliat walk are divided into if-<^ 'p'in./ewtrt/e

1 X '»•'"> '>n(ifi\ The words ^^ ,l<'ing, mrde, Ti}^ mn, female, aroused for
all animals. The words 'J% .i'lin, female, f^Tl'* tjsimg', male, ar'> applied to
swine only. The words '^J^^^k'n', fejnale, and^fe shan', male, are ai>plied
to horses only.

The words ,k\mg, 'mu, are tliose most commonly used in convei-sation.

'Ej: Ij.y mu .ki, a hen; ^ tJ-IJ ,kung, ,ki, a cock; ^ 3l<-l^"»?^ •^'^"n^ «

100 If; ^ 5=Jt^ 'mu .hiung, n she bear; ^ ]\'i ,kung ,chu, a hoar; l^'- yi
mu 'keu, hitch; 'Dj- {\'l\ j_E inii .liu .li, a she-fox.

Nui/iher

52 PLURAL SUFFIX. The plural of men is expresseed by j| |

.men, as in

^ MU ll h'l'i ye .men, f/entlemen; mandarins;y\^ /Z ]| rai" t'ai' .men,

af/ed ladies; /^ ^/ || ' .liiung ti' .men, hrothers; .t.si meu

.men, sisters; ~/C QL \\ \
,«ien jsheng .men, teachers;'\j^ .'p 1
.t'u ti'

.men, jmjtils.

53 When numerals or other words containing within them a plural sense

are emj)loyed, the plural sutlix may l)e omitted as in J^ 1 if. 7L 311 3^«^"

wei' ,sien ,sheng, three teachers.

54 For substantives not being persons, there is no proper plural particle.

The ].lui-al is expressed by numerals and adjective pronouns, fJ Ml IpU

I J ]
i^ ^: ^)|; |:|[] ^^ Hlj! yen liang ko' ,shan .yang tsai' na' li

'yang ,sheng 'li, there arc two r/oats there kept alive from charity.

55 The adjective pronouns used as plural particles are prefixed or aflixed.

The ;>/Y/j:e« are ^ ehung', man;/: y^ ||/j| ki ko*, several: fJT ^ hu
120 MANDAUIN (IKAMMAi:. I'AIiT 11

,to, ^^ ,t<) ,to, Jlf '^ liaii ,to, many. Tims, ^^'f< /^ iill^ W J

cluing- .jell "kiang .In ) "liaii, tli'ij all jjroposc peace) ^|< /V "^ >[j J

^lli cluing- .jeu Invei' kieir 'liaii ,t'a, tlccy have all met him: ^ y\^ '||nl

J
JK ^;-|1 /V 'yen 'ki ko' fei' lui' .jeo, ^At^re are some had men; 3(^ ^ ^^
i!i^
"'12
J 'liaiijto ,])ing .t'au 'tseu '\vA\\,very many soldiers ran away; il^

# MUM IJ%/ (ft) ii ^M7 ki u till 'ki ko' pel' (cliiau)

till jpiiig shah "liau, (he rent ivcrc kill by the enemy.

56 The adjective pronouns, containing in them the sense of all, used as

jjl aval affixes are |:'jP,tu.'|.-.| Jciai, -^ .t'siuen, all. Thus,^ Q*|i
/£ ^Lj
/V clie' ,tu sin' fan' Jen, these men are all criminals; jj\* ^ /^ ^ ^-
gJC -^^ 3^J ^^3, ,sie .jen ,kiai 'ii wo puU tui', that kind of man does not

agree icith me ;llf 7^ I^ ^ /£ S f l^^ ^JS !i£ ^'siau' ,kwang 'king

.t'siuen shi' ,sie ko' ,k''iang tau', to Judge from appearances they are all

something like robbers;^

— * ^C "^ _il J ^ J yil^ .^•'1' -t'siuen shang'

'liau tang' 'liau, the family have all been deceived; ^'^ ]^p ^^ ^^ .t'sien

,1u .na .lai, bring the money here;/^. 'JK A^ ^^ -jt^n .t'siuen puhyau', no
men ivant it; /V fi| TH va< -j^'^^ j^i'^i
P'''*'*
'^^'*^3 '''^''^ all fear me.

57 Jiejjetition oi' nouns, or of their numeratives, indicates that they are

intheplwrul number. ^<. ^C /v ^K J j^'i^^ j^ia .jen .lai 'liau, f'/'C men
are all come: )\u flJlJ M J
-c'hwen .clnven ,k'ai 'liau, or \\s{ Jiu) ko' ko'

.e'hwen ,k'ai 'liau, or_^ ;^ chih cliih .c'hwen ,k'ai 'liau, tlie boats have

oil hft.

58 The plural is known by the use of numbers taken in an indefinite

sense, as \' |jj
^j /JC , t'sien ,shan wan' '^liui, eery many hills and ri-

vers; "^^ J|i ^ m!;} .t'sien .kiiui wan' 'ma, many armies and horses; JOL

iij'j I- I iii^ '^^'"i -J'li •^''' I'Jii; the fve lakes and four seas; ZS, ^ >'> PtU
,sau ,kuiig luh (lieu') yucu', the {three) palaces and {six) o(h'ccs of the em-
jicror; Q [^ peh ,kwau, ^/<e ;?i«)if/ari';i.s'; f_-| TO -J 'I" 59^ l"i' ^^^^^ .p'ien

,cheu, a hundred kinds of happiness together came. In such examples the

plural is formed acconling to the principles of the book language, for collo-

<]uial usage usually requires a numerative between the number and its noun.
r»Hl such sentences are so numerous in connnon conversation, that it becomes
cHArTP:i; 4. cask. 121

necessary to notice tlioin, wliilo exunijililyiu^ tlie modes of forniin;^ the

plunil.

51) Aiiioni;" other (i(fjrctivc jn'onnUHf^. wliich iire ii.sr(f with nuuiis ;is ])n'-

fixes or aftixcs, and j>art]y serve as jtlurai parfichu, are -f^' l<oli, every; i\\'\

,chu, all; y(}} lieh, rantfvd in order; ^l\ kii% </Il; 7^ /( ta* .tan, ~h
^,^ ta' kai', all, etc. fit'l p- /L iil ,fl»" wei' ,sien ,sheng, ///ow teachers,

or (jentlemeiil ^IJ IV. '|^ /L lit'h \\\*i' ti' ,hiiing, brothers! ^ J\ \-\\i

/S :Ui 'T^ ^^*^^^ -J^'" '^^^ ^^"" '^'^'^ y'^^g'j "^^ »'^<'^* ^>'<^ so; yC /L / V fil-

ial ^\ 'JpC ta' .fan .j-^n kii' ,kiai pnli fuh, evenj one refused submissiou

Si i% 5i H^ A -i; "^ ^ Ei.)E §1; ri'j.O.-k'wei'.n ,il, .,i,.„ ,H'k,u'

shi' 'kwei clui' till, the men of this place are mostly deceitful.

50 Other 2^1 ural suffixes. Tlu; word^ 'teng, ili: pci*, used as plural
particles, in the style of official documents, and in senii-collo([uial novels, arc

also heard in conversation; as in ^L J^ /V ^' .kiini .min .jcn 'teng, the

army., the people, and men (jenerally; /y jfC •^'ii'i I'ci', inferiors.

Case.

GO Possessive rAUXiCLEs. Therehitiuu of onesnhstantivc to another (pos-

sessive case) is expressed hy Uj tih, as in [Ir ^^^ \'

[| J J\^ j^]^y< j^iai^

shang- tih .jen, men of the world; j[j^ )^ [J J \i[

|ij^ '\^^ mci t^an- tih

kia' .t'sien kwei', the price of coal and charcoal is hi</h;~f: V|'f fij ^Jl
/^^, .Invang ti' tih i' ,ki, the emperor s opinion. This particle also fre(|uent-

ly stands iM'tween an adjective and its noun, as M W} l\l, |^J hau tih

,tiiu^ , si, good thin ffs; ^^ IlJ/Vtsii- hwci' tih .ji n, the assembled
jH'rsons; |[ii | j IJJ/V ts.r ,k\van tih .jcn, ojiee-beariny persons. ,Chi

<^ the p088cssiv(^ l)article used in ])ooks, is frequently eniph.yid in thewcn-

li style of conversation often used hy the educated.

Gl The possessive particle is often omitted, as in [[r -/,- |' /vv shi'

kiai' shang' .jen, ;«t>M of the toorld; ./|' p| A. wai" kwoh .jen, foreigners;
'I' HA chung' kwoh .jen, a Chinese; ^\ ^A fei lui' .jen, men of
Ixid character; /A: ^ VlS ,chwang kia hwoh, agricultural ivorl-; ZT. pr
^ $1 ,kung tsiang"shon i-. the .skill of hnvdirraffsmen: Yi\\ ffl\ \
122 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART II.

.t'sien .c'lmii .jen, men nf fj/e former dynafity; -^ tHl /V Ik'U' slu' .jun,

men of the after a^/ey^ IIL /v 1^" ^'li' -j*-'"? ^''^'^ of antiquity.

Ci'2 The word ^o (dative) after words meaning ''to say," is expressed In-

several particlos as yj^.ii, M tui-.|n]liiang', ^ t'iS |:1| 'ii, ^-p .ho. if^
liwan'» ^f j"
f^: ^-^ -^"^ H'[> #f fM '^^'^ ^\"*' '''• till Jing' .lang .yen
'kiang, /say ^0 yowr 60?i; |/f» |p|] jX, /j>L pi 6/f in nF '"' liiang' Ar
jt'siu kau' su' kau' su', tell your father;'^ lllj jQ /V ri'feOT fip '^vo 'ii

che' .jen sliwoh 'hau liwa', I spol-e to the man kindly; ^Jc ^M illi U''J ^v
^ H^Aj'^^'O -^if* jt''«i till ling' ti' sliwoli, I said to his hrothcr.

63 The dative <f f/ivin;/ usually takes no case particle; the verbs to give

'fJ^ kih or kei, ^^ '\\, j9i^ sung', topresent, j^i "she, to give in alms, etc.

govern Loth the thing given, and the i)erson to whom it is given, without a
preposition. ^Xi 'I'fii WW uQ. ^W 'wokei,ko,ko che%tung,si, /j/iVe
my brother this thing. The jjerson usually stands immediately after the verb,

as in this example, but not always so, thus flj^ J!^* M})L P^keh (kei)'nifan'

c'hih, give you rice to cat, and ^'^ f|j){ |<p "^ kei fan- "ni c'hih, are both

used. X rR W SR nn IB S^ fl^I '"^li^^ig "li'^uj; ^o' ,kwan .feu 'p'in

'ting tai', lie presented two mandarins loitli the hall of highest rank] j^
6^ ^"Ei "J*
— '
IZE ^t i^ sung' ,t'a tih .ri 'tsi yihp'ih 'hau'ma, Ae ryaye
"^{{^

his son a good horse; p,^ j <p '^H; [:Jk ^-^ ji'j'J t'si' ,ni ,shwang 'yen ,h\va
.liu^, I present yon tivo peacock's fecdiicr.s ; }^ /J*
' '
r^C ^ H i"' ni

yih yang' ,tung ,si, / will give you something ; pK /JP iMI /V '
|pj /J
hien' na' ko' .jen yih ku- yueh, / limited thcd man to o)ie month.

C4 The words -^ 'ii, Jpnii 'kei are often used as dative case particles, af-

ter verbs of bestowing, and giving alms. j21r >v- /J r ^Hi" / ^ '

^^ f (1
sung' 'ii na' fu' .jen yih 'to ,hwa, he gave that woman a flower; pp^ |:I^- y,'^

A. is kiang 'u chung' .jen ,t'ing, / tell it for all to hear; ^.^j^- ^Jc n]
t'sV 'n 'wo yun<^^, he gives it me to use; xB^ ?W J^ /^ 51* ^"ng' 'kei

'k'iung .jen ,e'hwen, I gave it to poor men to put on.

65 Acctcscdive the object follows its verb without a particle, or precedes it

Tin- uonl .'iiran' ismmh used in Chih-li. In Pckins ^I< ,kon isals4j common.
ClIAI'TKK 4. CASE. i2o

with pa' to tahc flji JL in )';< ) — Jill A'^^ !'•'' 'tsi<-n ,i»-cli "liuu .yih

ti' he threw the whic over the whole floor.

GG The words ,-f^ ,u, 7}»IJ .ho, J)|J liwair, fuj Iiian--', ^l^ ,K('n arc used

in tilt' s(^nse <)/'(tr/y-o;/i (r^AAtY/yc) with verbs oftiskinj::, advisin;^,-, etc \\\\ |,f|

r |li| hian^' koli hia' wi'ir, / ask of yon, sir'^ ^fe ^^H '^C BL /K —
'

^]£ ^]f- wo .lio ,sien ,sheni^ .k'ieu yih .nan shi', / ask/rom you, one thimj
hardtofjrant; ^Ji* ^ Im] fj\ \\\^ p^J wo km' (c'hii) w.-ii' ,ii tsieii' nuy'
(nei), / will go and ask my wife.

C7 The words |^- 'li, |'^ 'kei, ^t'i^ are used in tlie sense of/b;'((/«f /ye),

as ill iflj. ^Xi uV] 1ul ^^ 'i '\\" 't'sinn- .t'a .hii, uivite him here/or me; iX
"II!! ^^ W ^h -^ i^W^&T i:^l 'wo ,i.a slian' .ye 'u 'hiiit'ai'

.ye snug* I am
'liaii c'liii' '11, escortiny this mavdarin's son for the old gen-

tleman hisfither:^\i IfJ — TL ^ M (J |j \]i.

ill W '^^••' 'kei na'

r'i' /
wei- .sieu ^shenir 'niai .tnnu; ,si, «7i/ buying things for those two genth
men; |^ ^^:iii M^^
f|i^ /(VK 'Icoi olio' ko' 'kwa fxi' pan' ,sang
shi', /or /^/s widow I am s^iperintending the burial.

68 Along loith i.s expressed hy th^ words |pj .t'ung |'^ ,ken ^fl liwan'

and ^M ho or hai, for which 'p lioh is often writt^Mi, these characters In'ing

coincident in .^onnd in the nortliem provinces, j/ji |iij -(i_i JiL /£ :!£ iHl

Jf^ 'ni .t'ung che' wei' .sicn .slicng tsin' .kiivj:. you will with this gentleman
enter the capital : f^ ^ /h >f^ ^ S —
'ni .ho 'siau ti' k-'ii' yili

fang', go you with me one time; ^Sc ^U 'iH oL '&.

'

'
^S 'wo .ho
.p'eng 'yen kwang' yih kwang' k'ii', I am going a loalk with friends to amuse
ourselves; \/\l ^42 ^ IS] f T ^ 'ni 'tseu 'wo .t'nng 'ni k'ti', if you go I
go with you;^ \^ j}\i
ft'"! \ vil j'l ^ 'we. .t'nng na* ko' .jeu

vih tan' .ri k'ti', / went with the man.

There are several phra><es, stich as
— ^ yih tan', ^ yih .t'si,
"~*

^'> y'i yj'i 'J>o •''• '

i% i'i y''' '^'''''' •'^ IrH f'i .\
'l' t'nng .ri,

which are placed after tiie noun, wiien the case particle with governs it, in

the sen.se of <of/eMe>'. The nnnicral yih, one, f<nind in all these phrases,

qualities without a numeral particle, the following noun. This is according

to the .-syntax of the book language, in accordance also with whidi theadjec-
124 MANPAItlN GUAMMAi:. PART II.

tives .t'si and .t'ung, are constniecl as sul)stantivi-s. The i)article /Q .vi is

added or not at pleasure.

(J9 Anotlier eonnecting i)artiele is .lien, toji^cthcr with, jiroperly a verb to

conned, j^ # M T^ ^^ ^ ('1i^ ^ j" 1'^' '"^'^ -lien "tsi 'nu ,tu wo'

'sT 'li-iu the parents tor/ether icith the ch'ddreii icere fitarvcd to death.

70 Motion to « pZacc is expressed hy the Avords ±\] tan', 3B. chi', of wliich

the former is the connnoner word; the hitter bcl(.ngs rather to the literaiy

colloquial style, l^ij yj'l^ IM ^ ^^^^' '^^^ '^^ ^^''^^

^'^
^^'J>^'^
i^^«^^ "''^ ^Z'^"

goincj'^ J!) M t'M tau' chc' 'li, to this place : ^l) %Z "j^jfl
tan' ,kia

tau"t'si
'li, to

my house; ^ij ^1' Ilitau- wai' .t'eu,/of/^(>OHf.s-/rfe;i:ij itti "J'lll ti',

to this place ;^ M ^1^' j^[| 'tseu chr 'na 'li, ?t7i«-e «rt; you (joinr/^^

^ ^ 2]!^^ pen' chi' jih 'pen, /te has run aicay to Japan.

The sense of /or, ms^eacZ o/,/or the saJce of, is given hy the words ll^tai',

/or: ^^ t'i',/or; ^f wei', for the sake of; \\i^^tav t'i', instead of;
SH ^C 'j'Vi 'Sv t'l'kwoh,kiataiMau,/or///st'02w?r?/ he lore suffer ing;
W^ y^ S/ "?^^ ^'"^ '^^^ loritefor hisfcdher;\\
*'^^' -j^'^^ '^^^'^ ^^'^'^

pfcr /v^ H"^'. .-=(:-^ tai' 'k'u .jon 'pin pan', inform him hy petition f>r these

poor persons; ^ /V M) WH ^'^' j^"'^ ?"^^'^'^ .nan./c^/- men's sake to do ivhat

is di(jicult; ^J /V (H Wk wei" .jeii ,tsau .nan,_/b/- the sake of men he met

calamities; % ))lj A )% & Ic 15 11' ^^'^'i'

T^'^^^ -J^" -"i^'i ^^I'l' "i^o

yau' 'kin, so far as others are concerned it is not important.

71 The case particles at and in {locative case), are expressed occasionally

l)v § jtang, hut oftencr hy ^j^ tsai\ at, to be at a lAace, before its noun

and by stvveral suffixes, ft Hl^ffl I.T. ^^i^'' '^^ '^' clni', m ivhat place do

you live? '^ V^)' 4 Jl ~t 1^ t^^i' i'^ '^•'^"i sl'iiiig' t^f>' hia-', 6'*^ down on
the chair- -^ '^C -^ 11". ^<- tsai' ,kia puh tsai' ,kia, is he at home or
'//o^'' {\-
— '
i2!i: 7U Iti i
^' *'''^'' y''' ?l'''''i -^^ chan' choh, he stood on one

SiVc ItE '"^^ ^ic X» kJ' ^'^•i'" j^^i''' l^i'i.i?' fii' 'iii^'' '"' /'f>?'"' 6'/'^ honours her

parents; ^ H£ ,tang 'wan, r// j^A////; |^^ ^H J'ill 1' pii' tsai' ti- hia',

he bowed to the ground; ^ m^ P 13: t«!^i' ,hiaiig Ida' chu', //e lives in

the country.

72 The words ^|^|]|li, ^;^svV/^: PMiuii' (nei'), /M»t;": X :<-l»ung, middle;

CIIArTEU 4. C'A8E. 125

_L1 shani;', «7>on'; \ h'm', behw, follow substanfivrs in the souse of m

or at. ^M W. i^'fi ^t vf l^i^i '•' -^'^ 'J"!'! ^'an', m <Ae //omw all look.s

ivtll; fe I'J- |11| i^J A. .I'U 'li iMU'u' 'yiMi.jcn, ///o-e arc men in the up-
per ?-oow; \\\\ \ \ \'±, \] /V T|'j .ya .iiieii 'li 'yen .Jen .f sin^r, ;„ //,,. 7/,f7;,.

«/«/•//? office there is an influence operatinrj on his behalf; ^(^j^ ll'Ir fr '^
-^N -llil <l"i t'luii; 'li 'tseii pull ,t'uiig, yon cannot go by that lane; ^\- fj'j
fp ^ q:j|( nX ^l»"i' .t'.sirif]; ,cliiin«; 'yen .ynen kii', Mere is a cause for it in

the thin'j itself; ^\ tijli 'f /^ nJ M ;1^'"J:?

t-'li^'Jig joining jen (mon) yen
,

(siuoko) 'kwting, in the metropolis the population is widely spread; ^/J '
p
/K. ML -c'lif^u jchnng ta" hvan", in the palace there is great confusion ;]^\^

h V /jl .cMmen shang' .liang, it is cool in tile boat; j[^ i V^[ Tfxjjsin hia'

.fan 'nan, he is grieved in his mind.

73 The words fit .t'snng, Jj 'ta, § tsi', Htlyen, tsi' .t'snng, express

the sense ot'frojn or by (ablative). .Yen, is used more to signify by than

from, and is less common than the others. 'Ta is i>ui<'lv coll.wjuial. Tsi^

is scarcely used except in comhination Mith .t'snng. f)(; 7JI) \'±^ ^'^.t^sun-'-

'na 'li .\a.i, from lohat place are you corned ^}\^ ['4 i^'' ^tv.t'sung,si .yang
.lai, I a)ii comefi'oni the western ocean; -f J j]'\* ('|j- ^^ ta Ha li 'tscu,

xchiclt way are you walking? J J ^n, ]•'[-

7J£ 'ta die' 'li 'tseu, / am going
this way; y^ [-] \ij: Itj 7^ ,t'a .yen 'hai In' 'tsen, he went bif sea; ^j^
±-
| j

6^ ^ g ijt ini m ^n 4^ IS Vi 'ii ^j'-w,„ih,i„,. „,

.t'sung shang' yih .hwei tau' .ju .kin (ch) 'tsnng.mei 'y.u hun. )ny sichwss

from the former time till now is still the same.

74 Instead of prepositions, verhs are used for the tn-sfruuHnlal case. They
are such as qp .na, to bring; JLijP'^ ni -tsiang, to take; )r} ynng', to use.

They represent our \vord loith, or they connect the agent with the instrument.

^ nt T^,5n IJ W* j"-i kwen* 'tsi .lai 'ta i)'o', breo/: if open with a

^ ^
club; |ij I L '^L llli "'i .t'siang .lai ,chah 'si ,t'a, he pierced him
ilcad witk a sjK-ar; JLi 3^ J. I I'^JL If ^7 ,pJi chili kioh (chiau) hvan' t'ih,

toith one foot he kicked indiscriminately; jfi. J'I||( '}} J{il I] J mh .lien .p'i

shah till, he struck him dead toith a reaping hook; j[_^ h\\\\i ji -j- ij^-
.f;, J-j>

,pa .ma .sheng 'f-ji ,shwen 'luui. tic if with a Imnpai cord; n] i.|t X.!/ J
-^ yuiiL;-' pill "sio 'liau tsi\ he wrote with « ^lejjciVjTlT
'

— ^U Jj TI'X ^li
jjji .t.siiing vili .|);i .tan sliah si .t'a, liekiUcd himioith a sicord. Pa is most
freijuently followed l)y the object of the action, while na and tsiang mark the
iiistrunient. Pa sometimes jireccdes the instrument as in the examples.

The hook ])article 'i is also often used in literary collor[uial, as in }y^ yy}j

1>j /v'i kien' ,shanp; .jen. he wounded men with a sword.

7~) ( )ur word l>i/ when used to mark the relation of the suhject to the ac-

tor, or to the instrument of the action, is rei)resented hy \'^ pel" and M-j-

ehiau' or actions gimerally and JJ3{ .yai, when striking and imnishing are

si)oken of. The latter is ])ur('ly collo({uial, and is common in Chih-li and
Shan-tung. Jl f >C 11^7 T y^ii (ngai) 'liau fu' tih 'ta 'liau, by his
father he ivas herden; J/j: J ^' f||{j \]~^ ^ .yai "liau 'lau ,shi tih tseh

(chai), he was punished hy his teacher; J/£ J y^I "oX w"^

^^ "jLj ^^
.yai 'liau ta' ,ko tih yih ,])a 'chang,/^(; icas sJajiped hij his elder brother: p^
^L /v 3^ :^ J 5> J ptn' .c'hai .jen 'so .na 'liau k'ii' 'liau. hy man-
darin messengers he loas bound ivith chains and removed; p^ J /J ||^

y^^ ^5 /^ pei' 'liau ,tau ,shang 'hau ,sie c'hu', F'-J- J] y etc, chiau'

.tau ,tsi, etc he was woimded with a knife in several places; f^ ^{^ Jjjr

"t mV itii' ^W W"] i'^'i" I'^ii -yt-' kiau' tih nion' ,shu tih, he was required
by the mandarin to learn to read. In Peking P^- eliiau' is the favorite col-

loquial i)artich> i'or the instrument.

7G The vocative case is sometimes expressed hy pi) ii. after the name or

title of the person addressed. But usually no sign of the vocative is in use.

%ff? /v I^^J fir .jen ,a, woman! ^ /V r'J lau .jen ,a, aged man I The
character |iJ|j when reail is ,nga or ,ngo, hut as a vocative sufKx it is heard
a. The guttural initial is a recent additicm, as th(> change fn)m a to o is

also new.

77 The ahlative particle of, when it exj)resses the material of which a

tiling is made, is represented hytl^ tih, as^^Ji H^ ^^ /fC Ii|i [Vj {[L
4^ t'ieh till ye 'yen nuih .t*eu tih 'ye 'yen, there are some of iron and also

some <f wvud;

made if brass
||lij
\}!)i [^^ |j^j ^ fj^ .t'ung tso' tih kich shili tih, those

a rr .strong.
CHAl'TKK. .3. UN TIIK AIXILIAKY SLlkSTANTIVES. 127

78 The cftso piiiticlt's of suhstantivos arc not j)ivj»o.sitiun.s alone. Many

of tlieni aiv vorbs. 8uch are tiie words oxi>rossin^ tlu; relation of the suhjeet

to the instrument, na, etc. and to the a«2;ent, pei', etc. The locative preposi-

tion tsai'' jiartakes of tlic nature of a sul)stantive verb, conihini-d \vitli the

sen.se ut or //t/r, as y\\ \\' ^<, puh tsai' ,lcia, hv is not <it /lome; y]\ fi:

])uh tsai", he is not here. The dative ease particles fff} kih, etc. are also

verbs. So also many of the woids for towards^ to a place, and front a place

The causative auxiliary verbs l'-|- kiau' andj^tlshr, have as nuich right to

be noticed in treating on the cases of nouns as the instrumental and j)as8ive

auxiliaries, but the reader will be more likely to look for them among the

where thev will accordinglv be found.

CHAPTEIi V.

On the ArxiLiAUY Slustantives or Numeral Particles.

1 Words such as pair, set, suit, in a j)(iii' of shoes, a set of china, a suit
of clothes, are called numeratives by De Sacy. Like the \yords yard, pound,
bushel, they are substantives descriptive of the number and quantity of other
substantives. They constitute a secondary class of nouns, and are concerned

with the ([uantity (^f things somewhat as adjectives are with their qualities.

This class of nouns is veiy much extended m the Chinese colloquial language,
where not only collectives with weights and measiires exist, but also certain
words aj)propriated to a]ipellative nouns; e.
^~^ -y^ yih ,chang
g. 'jf^ ^i^
choh 'tsT, a table /-Q, IM.^ ''' ^^'^i -"j (tfsh. There are about forty such

words, and of these arbitrary u.sage determines which shall be employed with

any nuun. Ko* |pi| the numerative for man, may in northern mandarin hi

used with any ajipellative or relative noun in place of the proper numerative,

Rome writers call these words numerjii particles, others cliLssitiers, others

simply munerals.
'2 NumlMM-s, demonstrative pronouns and adjectives precede the numera-

tive. yj p jji^ ^ na' chih .yang, that goat; -^u |H ^ che' ko' .yang,

this (joat; Zl w\ -\ .«i" ko- jen, three men; ^ l|i'i|

}/\^ xheng ko' ,ri,

a whole one; J^L |P'| /Lj ,tan ko* ,ri, a sinijle one.
128 MANDAi:iN GUAMJIAU. rAllT II.

3 Coninionly in mandarin a numeral must intervene lK?tween a number

and its noun, but this rule is not universal for men, thus it is proper to say
— ^^ '
yih ,t'sien ^ping, 1,000 soldiers; — J^ ^ - ^tP Hi ri" wan'

,to jliiang 'pmg, 20,000 or more miJitiamen; — - JH /V rr ,san .jen, two

or three men.

4 .T'sien ^^ copper cash, is also sometimes used without its numeral

Ipl ko', as in :ii 13 I ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^"^ .t'sien, or ,san si' shih ko' .t'sien,

thirtij or forty cash {a liennij or three half-pence).

5 In this chapter, the following are the kinds of words which will be

treated of {!.) Nuraerals of appellative nouns, e. f:^.

jy kien', J^ chih.

They have no meaning of their own, when used with these nouns. Their

office is merely distinctive, and they may therefore be called distinctive nu-

meral particles. (2.) Numerals apj^licd to material nouns. We constantly

need to speak of the various kinds of matter in quantities definite and indefi-
nite. The indefinite words are such as a piece of, a heap) of, a faggot of.

The definite words employ are weights and measures. Thus we require a

new name significant numerals, divided into definite and indefinite. (3.)

Collectives are the names of the groups into which appellative nouns are formed
Q „ ^ .k'iun (c'h), a flock; 1^ x'hwen, a chain; ^J tui', a pair. (4.)

Words expressive of kind or manner, arc applied to appellative nouns in tlie

same manner as collectives, .ri T^c 1ra J£ jSan yang' tso' fah, three tvays

of doing it. From their signification these words might receive some such

name as modal nouns. (5.) Numeral particles applied to verbs. The number
of times that the action of a verb is repeated, is expressed by words such

as T hia', ^ t'si', e. g. ^\ii V i^,\Vm\\ 'liauyihhia' ,chung

the clock hfts struck one. These words take the place of numeral adverbs ;3(M

y^ ^jv ^p — |ti| ju ,kin .lai ti' ri' .liwei, I amnoiu conic for the second

time.

Distinctive Numeral Particles.

f) Wlu've ill Englisli we use tlic indefinite article, the Chinese say '
' yih.
 CIIAPTF.U 5. DISTIN'CTIVE NUMERAL rAIlTICLES. 120

om; followed by a imnu'ml; 'Itc X^\ j^i

— (I/ij [^ /il"£^ 'wo k'an'

kion' yih ko' 'lau "liii c'luli .yaiig, / saw a ti<jcr vatinj a <juat. Whero wo
spoak ol" this (»r tliat tii;i'r, two or three tigers, tlie Chinese use not only a

])ronoun or nnniher, hut also a numeral particle following it. A list of the

numeral particles api)lietl to appellative nouns will Ini now given.

j§^ 'ehaji, a smaU cup; numeral of lami)s, tea-cups, china trays, win,.

cu])8, tea-])(>ts, etc.

~~*
^ %\\ yih 'dian ,teng, a lamp; y^ ^ (or |[/i|)

^>- \wl ki chan or ko- .c'ha 'wan, several tea-cups ; ^ 3u jLI cho'chan
.p'an, this plate.

'jj
^"
jchang, to sfrefcJi ; numeral of tables, chairs, stools, lips, bows ( ^
,kung)? silk nets Cl-'lJ ^{g kiuen' .lo),* T|7 f^[n\' ,ki, cottoji looms; ^*- !jjf

,shu .c'hu, bool'cases.

~f". »^-^^ - :rr-.
—J
^^ .c'heng, okl word for carria(/e', numeral of sedan chairs, ji^ ]^pj 3^^
TM ~Jr ^* sung' 'liang .c'heng kiau' 'tsi k'ir, he acco npanied the two se-

dan chairs.

.^^ chih, standing numeral of fowls, sheep,

alone', tigers, horses, boats,

chests, .shoes, eyes, hands, feet etc. ^~" ^^ ^-j yili chili .ki, a fowl; ppj

J^ |3£ 'liang chih .hiai, two shoes; ^ ]v] j2. |ij(j Uu"liangcluh.c'hwen,
encjaijc two boats; ^ ~| t^^ JiJ/ X-;'^ '}ii"{? ^^I'di 'ki chih .ngo, he keeps ten

and more geese.

1'/ ,clri, branch; numeral of pencils, flowers, fife.<, bninclus. ^^ j'^

^^ .na yih ,chi pih .lai, bring a pencil; pR \']i :k ^\ ^'i,-f liang

,chi ta' shu' ,chi 'tsi, two great tree branches.

'j'jl] chub or cheu', axle; numeral of pictures, and maps on rollers.

tHI L'i yil' <-'^^nh. hwa', a picture.

^X chu', cow; nunier for the feminine of cattle. il It is seldi^n u.se<l.

^^ c'hu*, place; numeral of houses and places,

(/ jjy i^ j{ii /j na'

c'hu' ti' jfang, that place; \,X — p/ji ^j "j^ mai- yih clnr .fang 'tsi, ^jiy

a house.

^y^ ,chu, root of a tree; an old numeral for trees. Used iuVjC )fj\' J^.

»Shui liu chwen.

T^ .chwang, a pointed club: « />tY( ; nuuf.:ai of things, matters, doctrines

]3() MANDARIN GUAMMAK. rAUT IF.

CM iM t'^"' 'lO- W i-li yili ,cliwiui.-'li, a^(A)c//-/«c; ^'ff ^

ti'j yili ,clnvang shi' .t'sing, a matter; y\^ TQ^ ?).'/[
[x^] 'ki ,clnvang ,siii

.wen, several matters of news.

±J •^'
JJ jfiiug, to seid; niuueral of letters and packets '

^fj- yik

,tung jsliii siir, a letter; ^olj jfrf '

±J 'sie sin' yili ,fung, to write one

letter.

ui jl^'if^i^oj ^^'^ chest; used in some Looks as the numeral of sheep.

j'"P ,kan, a pole; numeral of fuwling-pieces, forks, Lalances, etc.

' —
T'l* I is yili M^^ ,t'siang, a gun; Y^ t'T ^^ Jx' S)? "^^^"^o M^^ jSan 'ku

jC'ha, two tliree-pronried forks.

-^;^ kia', a snj^port; used of eagles, vines, cannons, bells, clocks, machines.

' ^
-^^ j\^% y\\\\vi\\'- y\v\<^, an eagle ;hawk; '
tIc '^'lil
y'h kia' p'au', a,

cannon; Y^ ~^ o^ 3^M liiii^g kia' tso' ,chung, two time-pieces.

,ken, roo^; used of i)oles, fowling pieces, masts, clubs, chopsticks,

roof timbers. — ' t'M tT "?* yih ,ken ,kan 'tsi, a pole;
—
'

' fk j^ t"|'

yili ,ken .wei ,kan, a mast; '

^'l^^ Tib ~T^ yih ,kenkwen' "tsi, « 6'^f/^"; c^?<^.

f—I 'k'eu, month; used of cofTms, bells, men, knives, ancliin's, water vessels.
—PX yih 'k'eu .jen, one man; ffi ^^ P TJ ^ M^ d'<^
yih 'k'eu

^i|l yih 'k'eu ,chung, a hell.

"YY kien', to divide; name of the divisions of a ^ or bullock when cut

u]>, hence the form of the character. Numeral of things, clothes. -}Q. jy
4>^ -^ (:hv' kim'i .iihang, this article of clotJiing; '
|y )y ]^^yili

kien' han' ,shan, a jyerspiration jachet;y^ \\' fl^" Tyj 'ki kien' shi' .t'sing,

several things.

7^^ kiuen', ^o ro?? ^(jj; « chapter of a hoolc; used with fjlj- t'so -y
IpjJ ko', also written jgj and -^1^, used of men, cash, loaves, bears, tigers,

lions, watches, dials, etc.

"

— j|i''| /^ yih ko' .jen, one man; j^^J

1|i'i|
i!%-

'liani;- ko' .t'sien, two cash.

aS, 'k'o, a small head: numeral of pearls and grain. '

;|cl( S^ JAyih
k'o .chen ,chu, a pearl.
^'^ 'k'o, rank; order; examination; numeral of trees. T;ft T'Sjyihk'o,

shu'. (I tree.
 CHA1'TKU5. DISTINCTIVE NUMKKAL lAUTKTKS. |.51

'Li' kwjiii, pv^s miim-nil ofiunicils, fifos. — ','•/• ,'|; vih

'
kwaii tih, a
J,, ^/i ^4- yli., ., .
, ,
AK- AY<-
fj^\ 1 I* ):l:i J^^vaii ,si!Ui, aJhoji.uld\ 'Lj* ^- vih •Icuuii pili, a
jyencil.

f-Ji 'k'waii, onh-r; a hKirk: muncriil of mattMis ^]\i ^ 2\\. fpj „.^i

'k-wan sh? .t'sing, ^/<«M>/«^/ry;f!$

^T ?|^ ^^ .iMaii tscir 'Jiuu .slm-

'k-Avan, /i<^ riprvsenUd to the imjuror several viattem.

J'4 k'wai*, n ]>iece of; nniiieial of dollars, luirks, stoiu's, «;ar(l('iis. jiioini-

lucntal buarils. X% \^'-

^\^ yili k-\vei* .yang .t'sieii, a di>Uur\ y,^ i'/j^

£4 'ki li'wi'i' 'I'ieii, severof monumentaJ hoards; ^ _n i|} |f i

(^|^ 1/
5j[J .hwang sliang' t-si^ kci tili lih pieri, a« \q>ri<jht momunentalhoard <jiveu
by the emperor
Piling, neck; to lead; a collar] nuineral of mats, jackets, blinds. pjj

M ~P yj^^ 'l"!? sill 'tsY, f< I'nd: '

"^ ^ ^ [:^ vih 'ling 't'saou ,shau

'tsi, a straw Jacket; Yv\ VB. M^ iS '^''^ng 'ling 'wei poh, /jyo reed frames.
or^i* /i^ .woi .lion, reed ciniains.

r'l .nu-n, (Ah>;-; numeral of cannon.PM :(§; J|f ^ij £ "f-* |"| A' 'I'd/

'Hang ,pien ']nu lieh 'wii shih .men ta' ])''au', on both sides ai'c placed 50 larye

fjnns; \ \ ''[({i i^c" %f Zll lU §+2 .vih .men ji'au' clnvang tell ,sau

tan' yoh (yair), <>nc (jini require three pccids of jmu'der.

^'% .\nv\j a stem; numeral of fruits, q "

f >( 'hiiii^' yili .mei, a

2>lum;

[III mien', ybcr; numeral of (bums, gongs, flags, mirrors.

— '
[nj t''^

vih mien' .lo, a t/ouc/; ~] [III jl'|"j i'\£ sliih mien' .t'ung king', ten brass

mirrors; ySl [HI U/ ki mien' ku, several drums; — []i| [_| ///f- yih

mien' ]>eh .k'i (.c'hi), a white fag.

jL» V^^ '^ /<oW; « handful; numeral of knives, spoons, chairs. ^^H f [_j

7i "T* t'u'' 'i)a ,tau 'tsi, Mm a-;///;-; ^l1 5'i 7J >''» 'V'^ 't«'^''> '<^"i» "

pair of scissors;
—
— .
iL, f J J n' pa sholi 'tsi', two spoons; /JlML*
I Ml .
>" '•*
I'll -4^ ^T
']" na' shwali ttiat hair brush; 1"^ .t'iau
/l|jlj 'j)a 't.si, -xij, -fL* "S 'rlr*'"''

'cheu, this straw brush.

- -tI -
-i V-'-* ii>-
/j^ 'pen, ro(»/; nuni'ial of books, account booLs. 3^ /J^ "H*' clie' pin

,shu. this book: 7\^ i>K X'^' V^^ cliang*. nn account book.
132 MANDARIN OUAMMAR. PART II.

]7C p'ih, to pvlr : numeral of horses, unilcs, asses, camels. i]y — |/L

Wij na' yili i)'ih 'ma, ivhk-h horse'/ — - [/k ISti'; 4 ^'^'
p'il' -1^ "t^i, two
mulcfi.

T'f J P'^^SS '' h(ni(Uc] mimeral of knives, liatcliets, etc.

IiIj p'u', to f^priad

out) numeral of beds. ?? 1?^ ^ "t^ 7^ Ijjj ^C
k'eli ii' v^'ii ^liil' l^i
P''^'
.cMiwaiigj, m ^/te m?t there are more than ten bedsteads;

^i YA ^^ R""] ^'ifi /'')L ,l<i'^

'li Pii1» jto 'Hang p'u' k'angV ?« ^Ac house

there arc two or more heated couches.

T^ pu', a sfrp; numeral of situations, ijri. iy [jj J 111 clie' i)U'' .t'ien

1i-, siich ci position as this.

p\ 'so ("sho), ivhich) as in )y\ ^ 'so tsai', the place at wliich he is;

a jilacc ; numeral of houses and places. )y\ j^ "J" yih 'so .fang 'tsi, a
house.
Bh .t'eu, head; used of animals. '
i^ -| ' yili .t'eu .nieu, a hidloch;
.
IJ-3 SIr ^ rr 2)eh (pai) .t'eu 'ma, two hundred horses; ^ y^ §3
^ mai- 'ki .t'eu .yang, to sell several sheep.

tl^.t'iau, sprout; branch; contains the idea of length, and is tlie numer-

al of dogs, dragons, fish, foxes, carpets, coverlids, rainl)ows, snakes, threads

doctrines, etc.— f^
— ^H) yili -t'iau 'ken, a dog; ^ f^ f^ clie' .t'iau

])ei', this coverlid; ' JJtK 'iil. yili-t'iau-- chiang', o ra?'»&o?(7; Jp '

1|^ Jffijia' yih .t'iau 'li, thcd doctrine; '

fe I'/JCyih .t'iau sien'. a thread.

]Jj 'ting, sujnnut; numeral of hats, sedan cliair.s, unbrellas. §jj

'
TJ^

S^ ^ tai' yih 'ting ,chan man', he wears a felt hat: ffi ]|} ^^i ^'h'ang
'ting kiau' 'tsi, two sedan chaii's.

^ 'to, nnincral of flowers, l)utterflies.Jl?(l '

-^^{^ ^^tseh (,chai) yih 'to

.Inva, i)Jncl- a flower.

' '
— r"~ t III -
f -
f J-
Jlfij
t\vau', ordcrhj; numeral of things, affairs, ffl JfAj fl- TH "'i^'ig

1v.-an' sill* .t'sing, two matters.

^'tso', a seat; numeralof houses, tempk'S, liills. graves, Avells, clocks.

Wi Th |i| yih tso' ,kau ,shan, a high hill;^ ^: M die' tso' miau', this

temple ;i^^ IH R^ fl? '

W( ^^i^'^^ tsa u' 'liang tso' .fen, to make two graves.

* i»J. icad .'/'"; '"I1<>i[uial cAian^'.

 CnAI'TER 5. SIGNIFICANT NUMERATIVES. l.'Jo

p- jtsun, honourable; numeral of connon, idols. " ' -^( yvj /.'fj^
yih

jtsun til' p'au', a large connon.

J(4 ,tii, a low wall; nuineral of walls, italisades. "

x\'\ yC iiu/yili ,tu

ta' .t'siang, a great wall; Yv] Jl^ f'/X Ih 'litmj; ,tii pan .t'siang /^yo lyoo-

den palisades.

X. wen, numeral of copper cash. ^ J;^ yih .wen .t^sien, a cash ;

yj Ms, HN I@I '^^'^ -^^'^'^ P"^^ -t'^j -^ '^^ '^^^^ desire the tenth part of a cash ;

f^ W. 1^ /X. 3'^ l'"^i <-li"ili pail' -wen .t'sien, /i is not worth half a cash.

J^ 'wt-i, fail; numeral of fish. In the north it is prone, unceJ colloquially

i, in j^ -JL, ,pa, tail, but .wei

'i in other cases. JJ J^^ "^ 'ta yih

'wei .ii, catch a fish.

"JiL wei', numeral of scholars/ mandarins, and connon. JH. \]L /\, 'h]^

'wu wei' ta' p'au',/i'c' large guns; zi. \^ /C /\. ,!^an wei' ta' .jen, fh'ce

high 7nandari7is.

[Jive yen, eye; numeral of wells, and muskets.

7 There are many local difierences in the use of thenumeral ]»;irticles. The
following are some instances of the nimierals employed with certain substan-

tives in Si-c'hwen, difterently from the usage of north China ; 'j|\^ I'^
yih chang' 'tsui, a mouth; '
||!|: ^f- yih .t'iau .yang, a sheep.

Significant Nuvieratives.

8 Words that express the quantities and measures of material nouns wilJ

now ho illustratetl, and first those that are indefinite. These words retain
their meaning, and conseepiently almost always admit of translation, which
is not the case with the numeral particles that have Imvu aln atjy discus.sed.

'jn ,t-hang, a sheet r/ paper. l['l Wl 'jR ?m'j IjH U{ ilA )m -f Van
'liang jchang ,kau .li 'chi tso' shan' 'tsi, he took two sheets of Corean j)aper

to make fans.
^ ,c'he, a carriage-load of anything. ZS^ iji ?\\. ^f^ ,san ,c'he muh
.c'hai, three wagon-loads offirewood.

iff cheh, to fold; a fold o/ paper, etc. jlj Ht \l^i A \\\ ]}\ ^
134 MANDAnix r:R.\MMAr.. part ii.

yung' 'clii tso^ pah clic'li clieli 'tsi, onahc loith paper a memorandum hook of
ei(jhf folds.

pif chen', a (just of wind.

""
^W / ^ HrO Y^^^ chen' ta' 'ii, a great storm

of rain; plj "

pip- /s, '3iL kwah yih chen' ta' ,fung (feng), a (jreat fjale

of loind hkw.
/'^ choh, tabic. i"^^- %X yih clioh fan', a table of rice.

4'x chu', a stick of incense. -fx 'F^ pli chu' ,hiang.

"

iP- .c'hung, afresh', ideas of repetition; .s-fo/*?/ of ])ago(las and houses.

TT 7C 'kieu .c'hung ,t'ien, nine heavens; '

^1 4X :^ vih .c'himg
pp.
—
'

"S' ;{-^* i I*"

,i .shang, one thickness of dress ; JZl ^^ il'M T^ j^'^^^i .c'hung ,chung .leu

a bell toiuer of three stories.

J~f jfang, square; a square piece of. ) ^^ \^ «hih ,faug shih

.t'eu, ten squares of smooth stone.

l|'§ fuh, a fold q/" paper, cloth. fjJjg ~j *
fuh 'tsi is also used. i|)^ 'ptq

TtV^ ^1^ ^'s^^' f^^h '^h* -^^'j Jnw^r ajyiece of p)ap>er.

^t ,feng, <o seal; a sealed packet of. 3: J ^K "Jt yih ,feng .yin

'tsi, a sealed parcel of silver; ' '

±3 '^jfj ^ "j yih ,teng .fang 'kwo

'tsi, a sealed catty or more of sugar-preserved fruits.

J^ hiang', a heap of silver, etc. ' '
J§ MK ~4 yili hiang' .yin 'tsi,

a heap of silver, ^ ~Jr yih hwei' 'tsi, a small port io7i of time.

Pl 'k'eu, mouth; a mouthful.

—P ' '/]C {ll ^1^ ^T 4yih 'k'eu

'shui 'ye yen' jnih hia' k'ii'. he could not sivalloio even a mouthful of water;

^ti P tS ^ti. ^^^"^ j^'h'i" 'k't^u ^au' .ri 'ye ,mei ,k'ung, he had not

time to eat a mouthful of rice.

^] kioh, horn; used in some books for n drinking-horn of wine.

|tij ,kien, apartment of a liousc ' '

{^ ^ yih ,kien .fang, an apart-
ment in a house; |tJ HI !w| t'/!<- 'liang ,san ,kien .leu, two or three rooms
upstairs.

'Tt/ kii', sentence. "1^ pp yih kii' ,hwa, a sentence or two.

14 k'wai', a piece 0/ land, clutli, stone, tlesh, etc. — J/& ~l', vihk'wai'

't'n, a piece of earth.

^1?I k'wen, <o <ie«j); a 6w;i^?^e 0/ wood, string, etc. ||i| pR ^^\ ^^
GHAPTKn 5. SIGNIFICANT NUMKUATIEES. J 35

'k'wuu 'liiing 'k'wcn .c'hai, tie np twofiujtjotH of wood :i\\\ [^ 'i\\\ lllj "f*
'k'wen si' 'kSven .sluMi;i; 'tsi, hifdr/our IhiUs o/struuj; ^>yj; "^ -^f^ JJlI.

vih ,leu tsi U'i hiuc'li, u at ream of purjih' hhnnl.

\)i. lih, o grain of corn, etc. ""

*
\± ^V <^ yili lili 'siaii iiicli (iiuii'),

a (jraiii (f wheat.

[yjCi
.lieu, (I line or stream o/*tlaj;s, v.iiul, wjitcr, dust, smok*-.

\ 1
1 lull', a traet or stream of clouds, smoke, kind, water.

J Li V^y ''^ hold; a handful (f.

' '
-[[_, ^C yih '|»;i'nii, a handful of rice.

^Q ,l>iui, to fold; a bundle of 7^ ''[J^ ']-iii 'ki ^\y.\n .i'an'^jHeveralpack-

a'jt s of fiu(iar.

^Ui .p'iau, a cocoa-nut scoop. ^i||,V 7\\, yili .it'iau 'sliui, a scoop of
water.
A-Zr
Wj
.

,\^'i^'n, (t
. .

piece of wiituv^; divisioii of a

. ..... i\iiico\Uii(.\
:^,-'^,
yr^
^'^.
J,.,^' ^
'ki i)'ieu' .wen ,cliang, several pieces of literary composition.

/-f p'ien', a piece of. fi -^^x >^^ yj'i p'ion' .yiin 't'sai, apiece of

cloud; /-f
"pj"
^^ yih p'icu' ,t'sing 't'sau, apiece offresh (jfvass;^'' /l
^-yih i)'ien' siueh, a piece of snow.

}iL p'ili, ftmnerly [/u p'ih, a piece of cloth 4()feet inlen</th. Sometimes
it is used in an indetinite sense. '
/ll T|J yih p-ili pu', a piece of cotton

cloth.

)x\l sill, a mot; a feast] a dinner party.' j^ i^ yih sihk'eh, r/y)«/7//

of guests; J}]\' ]^ yih sih 'tsieu, a wine feast.

Jili] shan', a fan; to fan; a fold of a doi.r. \yI }^\}\ \ | liangshan' .nun,
folding doors ; ^^ /^j^j | |
,sliw;ing .slum' .men, a pair offolding doors.

"J 'sheu, A««(/; j" .{j^ 'hheu ,Hin, as much as can be carried i»n the
palm of the hand as in ^^ J|H yih 'sheu hiuch, a hand covered with
hlood. So of earth, etc.

jy .fai, tu carry (of two persons) a Io;id. j'^l '(j; 4^ yih .t'ai ,kia
,chwang, a load of marriage gifts; ^f y^ f^} jf ^j] liuu ki .t'ai shih
hoh, several trays and boxes of eatables.
rf/ tai', a tract of loud water, stnu'ts clouds ytc.
136 MAXDAIIIN ORAMMAIl. PART 11.

I tan', to carrii n
~~"
load (of one person). '
J3/ ^ }''» ^''^"' 'f^^iui, a

load of water: l)^ iM yih tan' ,k'wang, « load of basket t>.

/] jtuii, hnYe; a joint o/" pork of several catties weiglit cut in a parti-

cular manner, i^ j/J» W\ J] \H «ung' "ni 'liang ,tau juh, I present you
with two pieces of 2)orl'. (Used in Shan-tung).

^ tau', /^«f7i; used for a stream f/ light; as in '

-'iH 7u yili tau'

,k\vang, « stream of liyht. _

^^ .t'eu, /icaf?; an ewe? or 2)iece of string, etc. '
i^ 'TlHi ~J^ yih ,t'eu
.sheng 'tsi, one j)iccc of string; j^'^] fill :^SJ- "j^ Jiang .t'eu ,ying 'tsi, tiuo

pieces of fringe.

'j% ,t'iau, to carry a load (of one person). '

J')|: ~f' ^ j\ yih,t'iau

'tsi .c'hai 'lio, a load offirewood. _

f^ .t'iau, a length of anything. ftfc 5 §S yi^^ -^'iau shih .t'eu,

a long piece of stone; ^Jv:^ ^^ si' -t'iau kiai' sliih, four boundary
stones, ^^ y^ f{|c A^ ^K ^^6' '^^ .t'iau muli .t'eu, ^/iese several pieces of

wood; Y\'\ f^ JlC B ^Bl 1^^"S -t'iau ,tung ,si ti', two pieces of land ly-

ing ("st and ivest.

fh tiau', to hang; hence a chain of co\)]}Gy cash. XT\ ^^ Y^^^ ti^^^'

.t'sien, a chain of 1.000 cash. In Chih li* 500 cash are called 1,000. 100-

are 50, and so on, so that a chain of 1,000 copper cash, consists of 'Hang

tiau', or 'Hang tiau ,ching .t'sien. This usage does not extend south of the

Yellow River.

'Pp t'ieh, a 2iicce of jjaper; a card. 'Pp *iflf ^^ yih t'ieh ,kau yoh

{\im'),a2neceofplaister;f^^\^^^ 'Hang t'ieh .kin poh (pan'),

two pieces of gold-leaf.

*q 'tien, to mark; dot; a little of. 'Tsi is also appended. *(5 "^JC

yih 'tien 'shui, a little tvater: j^j 3!A' RjJ S|^ 'Hang 'tien 'ii'tien, two drops

of rain
* in Pekinc a new currency has been laicly introduced. One lian consists of 50 large cash called
*^ _1^ 4;^
when exchanged between
ten-cash pieces or tang shih t'sicn pa I WSo One of these yields

three and four of the common cash. About six tian' arc exchanged for one Mexican dollor or be

l\\ein nine and tin lor a tacl ol silver.

CHArTKK 5. SIGNIFICANT NLMKKATIVKS. l.'j?

Jic *^S a }iUv *»f tilings in piles.

f "^[^ ,t*o, a 6a//, nmdo l)v winding. 'Tsi is also aj)ia'nilf(l. 'T'[i ~i"*

l;j: yih .t-o 'tsi sicu', a ball n/tli,ra<l; Y\i 'f\^ H3 t|J 'iiang .t'u i..-h pir,

ttvo bundles of ichitc cloth.

i^ll tun', a meal of rice; a bcutuKj, scoldintj (with ] \ t;i)- *^ ' i{j,|l

^"f j J sli.'ir yih tiiir 'luiu 'ta, receive a yood bfifi/t'/; JH H}.!,! JJIX .sau

tun- fans '^"w '«<''^^« o/r/ce; ^/Ji / — itlU ^t 'IK "J^ xg'ii 'I'^i" yili

tun' 'hau .jtien 'tM, receive a (jood ichiftpintj.

l\i. ,tui, a heap (>/' earth, etc. y\ ifK j^T ^b ''''i" j^'^' !'''•' ••"Iiiii, .'^''.t'"

heaps of chopped wood.

|-^'-| .fwan, atufthintj round, fjl *
[^^1 ^[^ X -Cheng yih .twan „sin

'ho, collected a mass of internal heat (as tVyni running fast); y^ |W] Tr):

"ki .t'wan sien', several balls of string.

^^ ,t'san, a meal. [J J< JH -^ jihshih >an .t'san,f'rf< three meals a

dai/: n£] 1^^] ^^ ^{){ (.••lull 'liang ,t'san fan-, he ate two meals of rice.

J^ .t-seng, a stonj: a fold of cloth /[^ I^J i"^ 'kieu .t^seng .leu, a buil-

diny of nine stories; y^ ^^Ij^^ '^]\ hau 'ki .t-seng 'chi, sevrraf thick-

nesses of paper.

\l\J t/\ch. a Joint. |yJ UP ^''\\iuv^ tsieh ,H\\n, ttvo sentences of a book;

U I'n 'I'R' t"sih tsieh jpien, seven joints of a whip.

/'[^ .Willi, a pill, as in /•{_, ^^ .wan ynh. )nedicine in the form (f pills;
'
^L ^h^' yii' -^^'i'li y<^>i» (yiiii')j «i^''^-

n/j: wei-, ^o*^e, kinds of medicine, food, etc. ^ 7^ '^ 1^ IJJ. '^^ 'yen
'ki wei' .liang yoh, there are several kinds of (jood )nedicine.

9 Names of weights, meas-ures of time, and length, and capacitij of vessels,

with divisions of lx)oks, are all luscd like numeral ijarticlrs. The fidlowing

is ft list of those in common use.

^^ chan, « small cup. i/lichau-, (in Kiang-nan) 90 li; (in north China)

a stage varying from GO to l."5<) li.

'jf^ jchaing, /ea/* o/ a iooA;, of paper, of
gold leaf ^ ,chang, «<'c<j'o;i o/ a ftooA".
^t] <^'»"»o% ^^\/*^''^ J'!'' c'hau*,

K^yOth part of a ,sheng or pint, ^y c'heng*, 10 cnities' or pounds' weight.

JK c'hih, a foot ^ 14 ,'aEng. inches fur cloth; 12 English inches for land and
138 MANDARIN Or.AMMAR. PART II.

c;u])entcrs wuik. ^^ .c'liu. a wanlj'obe; hoolccasc. ^Jl ~y jcliung 'tsi, a

(^^'P.' 73 j'fcn, a candareen, or tenth 2>ciTt of a mace; one cent; tenth of an

incli; a minute. *^^ .liau, a small measm-e of length; tenth of a ,fen. y hia^,

a strol-e of the dock; and hour.Yr^ ~^ liiah 'tsi, a small box. (^J/Oiieh, l"^

~Jr 'liwei ts'i, 'hwei ,ri (hwiir) aii instant. v[g.hu, atea-jjof, or wine-pot. i^vi^

huh, lOfh part of a hau }i]'\' huh, a measure offive 'teu. (i jih, day. [I'iJ!:

,kang, a large water vessel. ^^' M^''^^o^ " watch; 5th part of a night ^\
k-eh, quarter of an hour. JX ,hiu, a ccdty or li lb English. pj|"k'ing, 100
oneu of land, /^kioh, a drinking-horn, 4th of any thing; tenth of a dollar
(in the south). >i£^ kiiicn', chapter of a hook, n koh, tenth of a sheng in

northern usage hoh, a handful. ^ j^ung, a triangular hoio five feet in

length; used in measuring laiKh-rl/ku', ftsew^eMce.pjfgkAvan', a^j/fc/u'r; a pot.

1^ k'wang'tsi, a basket; 'fj^ kwei'^, an almira; wardrobe. 3^i|:jkwoh, a frif-

ing pan. g^^ .Ian, a basket, j^ 'leu, a hamper, ^ti 'li -3- of an English mile,

^'li tV of a fen, yi^ of an inchfl^liang, a fael, li oz. yV lb.l5^'iiieu,('mu)

6000 S'|uare feet or 240 square. ,kung. J^^'miau, a second,^^ .nien, a year.
^.p'an, a plate or tray :;mi^.l)'en, a dish; &fm?^.•^^peng', a7i earthern pitch-

er. InLjpei, ?t7/??c-cwjj.^fLv.]/iau, a cocoa-nut scoop. ^\.'\}^'nvi^, a bottle; a vase.

)Xi p'ih. 40 /t'<'^ of cloth. ~Jjf\\u'-, two feet and a half; used in measuring land.
T^t shah, an instant (southern) nJR) shang, aforenoon or afternoon.\\^ ,shau

a bucket. ^^ 'sheu, apiece of \)0(itry. JY ,sheng, a j^i^d measure of rice li

catties in the north ttt shV, a generation. P^ .shi, an hour (two English
hours). ::^p ,siang, a chest, /f^.si, 100/7/ o/'r/ .haw. ^^^m' a year. \\
, tai',

« genercdion. :^<. tai', « ^;«r/.

J^ or \2 ^'^^S ^ pecul; 133i IGO or 100 cat-
ties as shYh y") .Htone. jiifl.t'an, a pitcher, j^ t'luv^^iioohunnofchai'actcrs.

^^ 'teu, 10 sheng, a measure.]]:^ -f^ tieh 'tsi, a pkde.^^\S ^^C 'tienchung,

an hour. JA^ ,t'ien, a day. ^|]tsirh, a sentence, or small division of a book;
a solar term, 24th of a year. 3?^ .t'sien, a mace; 10 jnirt of an ounce or

tael {'W'^w^); apiece of coined money, jfetsoh, 100/A of a sheng ox p)int.

~^y t'sun', an inch, 10th

of a Chinese foot. 'i''^ 't'ung, a cask. ^ ung' or

* A iiiiilil. is (lividod iiilo yili 'keng ,t-ien, li' ,keng ,t'ien &c. It is counled from night fall
 cnAT'TKl:. .0. COLLECTIVES. 130

wcng*, large ivater vessel, ilyjl 'wan, a small Ixisin. ^^yrli, a leaf of nhooli.

/J yueli, a month.
10 Of these words ll-J^' .sill, |i jih and /] yuch, often take ko' before
them. .C'heu ,'j^ follows .shi" wla-n ko' precedes. 'Tsi "Jr follows |^| jih

in the same case. Time in the abstract is usually expressed collo(iuially by

HI 7C ,kung ,fu, e. «?. ^ 7^ ^ /i 'himj^ ,t'ien ,kung ,fii, tico days'

time. .Shi heu' H^" |f/^ is also used both abstractly for time, and for a cer-

tain time, as in 7jP li^d H-J- V/^mx' ko' .shi lieu', at that time.

11 Ko- Iju] is the common numeral juiiiielefor all these words, when they
are used as full substantives: e. g. tln| m|^ yih ko' 'wan, a rire basin.
The words Tgi kwei' and ^J^ .c'hu, also take ^|^ ,chang, and -f^ 't'un<;

and :^y ,siang also take j^^ chih. For the five-feet measure of length, the
words pu', jkung are used together with ||Li| k(j'. 'K'eu (-lis a numeral for

jkang and ung', lartjc water vessels.

Collectives.

12 The following words are collectives, i. e. they speak of objects in groiii)s.

Such objects are all api)ellative nouns.

fX ,clii or ,chi^'tsi, n hranch. '

t'/ -]£ /(_, yih ,clii ,hwa .ri, « irawcA
offlowers; "j^ .Zl f )^ ^ /^ il-l
'^"^^ '^'^" ;^^^' ?^' >'" '3">i, heeame di-
vided into three fajnili/ branchcs;^^
,ping,/ro»i what place
/H :)j|^ I'll: ll^J f^* "^ ^ die^
shT' 'na 'li tih yih ,clii 'tsi is this division of troops

come'f
I

Ii'j'i c'hwen', a cA«/«. ^rWj'' /C a'\i: 'Hang c'hwen' W .Vsm\, (wo

chains of cash of KMM) each; JH »
)
« il^i ,san c'hwen' ,cliu, three c/catnsof

pearls ; ,^. ^ i i
'^^t ">•»' 'ki c'hwen' ,king, he read several chains' length

„ prayers;
of ^ „ -
, m
. .,
»'
'•
.Ci> i 'R '\\M^% c'hwen* nien ,chu, two cJiaim of pray-

ing heads; |
\ j
i
^cA Xyi shih c'hwen' sliu' ,chu, ten chains of nnrabc ring

heads

(.1!IJ
fu-, </ pair; a set. \[\ |l1!J %.\ ^ 'Hang fu' tui' 'tsi, two pairs of
140 MAN DA IMS' GllAMMAH. TAUT II.

antithetical senfeiircs] JH {[3IJ i^ "J* ,sun i\v cliui" 'ts'ijthrcejwirso/eaj

Q'inr/s:
— ' \iy] ^I||li "J yili fu' .sheng 'tsi, a pair of liorters' ropes.
//zi
\^ .hang, a rank, ^7^
i'l^l
'BJ 'Hang .liang liing' slur, two rows of

plum trees: \L\ "fl 'j

I'^lC
^^' -liang 'yin men' , four j^aralkl threads.

.liu, a quiver of arrows.

i^
g^
.,
'hwo, to combine; a coinpamj of men. - WA * kic„<

vili 'hwo .jen .lai, lie saw a jyarf// of men come.

J|t .c'lii, banner, j/f^ ^ ^J-|J

— J|i 'ni shr 'na yili' .c'lii, to which

banner do you belong?

^ .kiiin (ch), an army. |T^ J^ ::^ £^ "ling ,ping ,san 'kiiin, he led

three armies of soldiers.

^i.c'h'iiin, a flock. sL ^ gw '^'^^ .c'lriiui ,{:\i\\,fiveherdsofsioine;(^'^

)^ -^ W^ ^S 6^ .moug 'liu pull till .c'h'iiin .lang, a ti(jer though fierce

will not attack a flock of wolves.

^ kwan', to join. ^ ^4 ;3^ J^C ^ ^| wan' kw^n' .kin ,chu 'pau

jtt'i", ^r?< thousand chains of gold, pearls and 2)recious stones.

/Jx 'ku, the thigh bone; shares in trade; divisions of an army;

' '

jj^
^ ]^ i-kn' tsi ,i'eng, breeze oUuind. j^ )Jx Mi JE 'Hang 'ku tseh
(tsei) 'fui, tivo divisions of rebels: ^:i /J^ ^1 ^
,san 'ku "mai niai*^, three

partners in trade; iL jjX. f^ t'lil

'^^'^^ ^^^^ -^i^f^ .sheng, a piece of cordage

with flve strings.

J^ kiih, a set of two or three animals used in j)loughing.

J^- .p-ai, a raft; from to place together. '

']}\ 7[C
^^ yih .'j^ai iiiuh

.1-eu, (I. raft of timber; ^\- J/p ^ J ^-- pah .p-ai chuh ,kan, eight rafts of
bamboo: ']" /V '
'
l}\ •'^hili .jen yih .p'ai, fen men on each raff.

ia! ,pan, a set of men; a rank of soldiers.

/l p'ien', a splinter. ' '

/^ J}j ~y yih p'ien' .fang 'tsi, a collection

of build inns.
#4
^
"^
•
^ ^ ftff: ttj:
n?l
,shwang, a pair. 3£: $3: "7^ yih ,sliwang .liiai tsi, a pair of

.shoes; Zl tt fe j" j'^^^" jshwang wah 'tsi, three pairs of stockings; |k

^* '
SS: i'^ J 1^''^^ '^^'^ yj^i jshwang k'wai' 'tsi, give me a p)air of
t/iopsticks.
 ClIAPTER 5. COLLECTIVES. 141

/J ,tiiu', knife; pared of 100 or more sheets of M 7^ 77 W

pai)er.

'ni;ii 'ki ,tau' 'clii, binj several parcels of jjapcr ;

Q — /J ^jfy^
'

4i\
yili pell jcluuig yili ,ttui' ch'i, 100 sheets make oiw parcel of paper.

^^ t'aii', a cover in (J. "^^ ^;. 4< ::^yih t'au' ,i .shang, asuitof ciothcs;

1—1 iv f'J ''1 flrs'i'' t'au' till yWi \)U^ jiilni, a book ill foi(r covers (ouch

containing several stitched volumes)

^IJ 'tsi, a mixture of various medicines; a dose.

T^ tsiih, kindred. "

'
!^ flv /V yih tsnh tih .^-n, men of one family.

'j^fz
t'suh, a troop of liorses, etc.
— '
^^ /V ^ yih tsuh .jcn 'ma, a
troop of men and horses. Used in 7jC )fpT Iv^*

\i^ till', a i^arty offive or more soldiers. PH P^ ;i>X ^3^ zfe Miang
tiii*^ shah .c'heng yih c'hu', the two paHies fi^tyht at one jjlace.

j^J tui', opposite) to suit; a pair. ' '

^J /y ^ji^ yih tui' 'siau ,ki, a
"^^
pair of small fowls ; jjy \f\ ))\}\ \ \ y\\ fj% ^Jna' 'Hang sluur .men

l)iili .c'heng yih tiii', those two doors do not make a pair.
Ill wn, a company offive men.
13 Several words signifying, kind of, division of, etc. aroused with appel-

lative or generic nouns, without being specially ap])ropriated to certain words.

i>K P'"') division; streams of icater. \ 5C yJ: j^X /\, yih p'ai' 'fei

Ini' .jen, a kind of bad persons;j]'Y )|[( p\\ )

ffna yih jj'ai* ,fung suh,

Hi at kind of custom.

^|{( 'chung, a seed; soH of. ^^J. ^»ij[ /\. -f^^ che' 'chung .jen lui', this

soH of men; 'JIM'!!- ^ I-H 'na 'chung ,tung , si, Ma< sor< f/^Amj/.

VHf lui', (lei*) ^"'«f^; »o'*^- );i', y^ yih lui' .jen, men of one kind;
^^ -;;li cjt fj'j Hang lui' shi' .t'sing, thinus of two kinds.

T'-)}c yj^ng', A-/?/r/; model. Hj. y)^ /\ ^]]-\ che* yang' .jen p'in. this kind
of man; ]M f^ I'Vj f/}: 'Hang yang' .mu yang-', two kinds of models; iQ,

TtIc pT 1':^ -jf- rhe' yang' 'ku kwtii' shi', this kind of strange ofair.
Jiu. ^pJ^"' rcjwoyc; separate class. i_t ^ilxC /^ elm* ,p}in .jen, this kind

of man; ^ jifx /L 5^ ^l^^^'

)P^" ,kwang'king, this kind of appearance
Jpl hiaiig', sort of, part of, i}: ^ Hi S 'ni«'i hiang' ,8heng i', every
14-2 MANDARIN CIRAMMAR. PART 11.

Ic'iinl of trade; :tfi ^M "^^ •1'1 ^'^^'' y^^^ Hiang' shV" .t'sing, this kind of

thiit(j.

If ,kan, stem, ^tli 111 ifl^ ^ ^^ t'"T A,t'a .men ,tu (,teu) s\iV yili

jkan .jcn, they are all that one sort of men.

These words may be described as tlie mimes of classes, into wliich appella-

tive nouns may be divided. They are also most of them applicable to ma-
terial nouns. They are applied to nouns in classes, while the numeral particles

are employed with individuals. They might be called modal nouns. Tlieir

syntax is the same as that of the numeral particles, and they are therefore

placed with them here, but they are also sometimes used as full substantives;

||h| 1'^c y'b ko' yang', one Jcmd.

Numeral Particles to Verbs.

14 Tliere are several imperfect substantives used to express the number

of times, that the action of a verb has taken place, j^ fang', time; -^jfan,

to turn over;y^ t'si', order; :(g. ,tsau, to meet with; iflfl i>ii:n', compktelif;

*^ ~Jr hwei' tsi', a meeting; \U\ .hwei, return; y hia', to go down; p

hoh. combine.

tfe B 1^ "^ rIT l^l' ffi ^— '^v(. 'ijdng kau' su' 'ni 'liang t'siS I have
already told 7J0U twice; ~^ J
'

'
^^ k'ii' 'liau yih Vsing^ , I have gone
once; ihu i^ /K i^d' r!) t'si' ,fan .lai .ho i', what are you come for this

time? ^ — ^ M £4 tfe i¥ i% T che' yih fang' 'mai raai' 'wo

tsoh ,sliang 'liau, tJiis time of trading I have been disappointed, j \ '
P
fE 't'^ y^^^' .hwei lieh', go out once to hunt.

:(}|tl ]iien', to go completely round, is used where the action is exliaustivc:

e. g. \M iE W H^ W Wl xM .t'siau kwo' na' 'pen ,shu 'liang pien', /

have looked through that book tivice.

]\ '^ ~i^ ^ 'ta yih liwei' 'tsi .ii, ccdch one net offsh.

r Ilia', is used for the strokes of a clock for blows, T T HT 'ta

'liau ,san liia', it has struck three times; |j 'jffik Zl P 'ta ,t'a ,san

shili Ilia', or 'ta ,t'a ,san shih, give him thirty blows.

il»3 jtsau, is used of revolutions, as of oxen grinding, the sun revolving.

 CHAl'TKU (!. ON ADJECTIVES. 143

etc. i-Li J /Xl :u_L ({[.I'ljuh 'liau 'ki ,tsau jclieng, he has gone out several
times to Jig/if; |:| liji — 7sL 'P'!^
— .Ui j'li J'eii yili ,t'ien 'diwcn yih
jtsau, the sun in one day goes round once; i|i|ji
J
' —^ " 'chwvii 'liau vili

,tsau, he has gone round once.

p lioli, is found in somo books for theniirabor of blows in single combats

but it is not now in common use.

14 There arc some other substantives used to express the extent to which

the action of a verb is continued. They are such as J^i.c'han"- a vlace'^

jsheng, a sound; 9C J
'
i>j k'uh liau vih .c'hang, fell into a fit of
weeping: -/[^ J
'
it>j ping' 'liau yih .c'hang, Zie /<a* ^«rf a ^ime o/s/cA:-
n^-^-s:
[^]j| J ' i^ nan' 'liau yih .c'hang, he made a disturbance; ^
J
'
W siau' 'liau yih ,sheng, he laughed a little.^\ ~T — 4'fkiau'
'liau yih ,sheng, he uttered a call: ^ —^ J k'uh 'liau yih ,sheng, he
tcept a little.

15 These words are also often placed in juxtaposition with the verbs or

abstract nouns to uhich they refer; ig. i^/j (yjjj che' .c'hang nau', this piece

of disturbance; yf\* t)^ fl* "'"i' .c'hang shi', that piece of disturbance :\iA-

^IJJj kiau' ,sheng ,t'a, call to him.

16 Almost any verb may become a numeral au.xiliary to itself by repetition

with an inter^-ening yih one as ^ ^^ ^ tso' yih tso', sit a little;^j\^

hieh yih hieh, rest a little.

17 The strokes of a pencil in wiitting follow numbers without an in-

tervening particle; e. g. ]'^{ yih .hung (heng), oi ^ij yih hwah, a

a horizontal stroke; '
'
JUJjf yih p'ih, o down stroke from right to left.

CIlAI'Tim VI.

Os Adjectives.

1 ArposiTioN. The names of qualities naturally airange themselves in

>qV tAi*
L-»\f!iti fcoK l'r*Hii«]
k'wau *...*^>% HI -.
opposite pairs; c. ^. ^-- . tseh [chai], iriWf, /jnnoM'';
.. - ,
j^iL f
jk'ing chungS light, heavy; \\!} Wx ,kau ,ti, high, low; Ij'A Hl'jwnnyingS
»r|: 0\.*
soft, hard; rpj
> till

V)'.} .-t'sing choh, clear muddy; ^} ^

Z^'.*
.k'iung fu', 2)oor,
144 MAXDAIMN GUAMMAK. PART 11,

-
ill M -XX

^
, - I

rlclr. 1^ jlifi sliili, vmptii^fnU: JHl 11^ kwoi' tsien'. honoumhie, Jium-

hlc,^^ ^ ,liwa su', ornamented, plain; Y^ ^ .lump; [licnpj] shn', /<oj'/-

zontaJ, vpriffhf: ,^5- 31 l*^'"'

P^'^^ l>P''^^^]j
^^'''^^*
^^"'";5t,>^ "liau 'tai,

f/ood, had;^'''i\i '^ ,hi niiliS few, crowded; p'jl ^t,/f.c'heii ,siii, stale, fresh:

^ "jS}!* 'k'li .t'icn, &/«cr, siueet]/J [gi| ,fi"ig -vuen, square, round: ^^
shall- ngoh, virtuous, nncl-cd; '\K I'li k'wai' tun', sharp, hhmt; v^^ |;S

lian<? ieh, eohl, hot; W 3^ -c'lii sul^ •''•^o?(; 5'?i/cZ.-; 7^ n* ^1 )-^]L t'ai'

D'iii'r .li hvan', peaceftdt disorderly; © "M $4 fe fu' kwei' .p-'iu tsien',

ric7i and honourable, poor and humble; '\%\ Y) J ^'i p^ 'Ian to' .k'in 'kin,

lazy, dilifjent.

2 Adjectives similar in meaning are placed side by side in pjroups of two

and -§ i^ 'slieng- 'kien, sparing and economical J^ (ij^ 't'ingying',

f(nir. :

and hard:
«j>;-?:(///^ ^
^^ ,slie 'c'lii, extravagant: Ip^ |}|l ,k'ing .liien,
negligent and leisurely: Tx. iS jkeng cliili, resolved and straightforward:

)^ 'i^. 't'sien poll, not profound ^(fg ,t'sing ,sieu, fresh and beauti-
: ^
ful Xh j/# tan' poll, thin:
: ^
%^y 'k'iau miaii', c?ei7e)- «72C]? ingenious;

/^> § .ii 'lu, ignorant and stupid; ^^_ |q| ,kien kii', />•???.

3 Compounds. Substantives go into combination ey/^/t adjectives, so as

to form compound words. When the substantive stands first, it qualifies the

folluwing adjective. ^K v^^,piiig .liang, 2c?/coW; ^ JH -l^* '>^f^, («('^?t'o?7ir)

confused: loithout order; ^ Q siueh peh, snow white; fi^ i% ,fung

k'wai', keen as a hiife-edge; ^ jM. pili chih, straight (as a iuall).

In many compound adjectives, a substantive follows an adjective that quali-

fies it. ~k IJM fa' 'tan (liver), brave; ^^ Sjkung (just) tau' (doctrine),
iust- /h ?J^ 'siau (small) k'i' (yvii^(.'\), parsimonious ; J^X, ]%, ,wei ,fung

(iippearance expression), dignijicd; TpM ^% .ho k'i' (expression), j:>eacea%

disi)Osed.

4 Verbs with the potential particles Pj 'k'o and V^ "hau, or with an

Pj
adjective preceding or following, form com]>ound adjectives. T^,| "\=f ^fc

'k'o .lien teh 'hen, very lamentable; >(t ^ 'hau siau', laughable; fj.j "^
c'huh .k'i (.c'hi). wonderful, rare (c'huh, to come out to view). ^^ ^ .lau

k-,iu' (/r. >v.sY. ov),frm, secure; n^|t filS! ,k'ien jang', (to yield to), humble.
CHAl'TEU 0. ON' ADJECTIVES. 145

5 KKrETiTiox. Many three-word j^roups arc fonneil by rejx'ating tlie

second word of a compouml adjective. V |j i|'j ^I'J 'lens: ,t'sinf^ A'mv;^, re-

fired ^^A^.M^-. .\y<n'yi\'yii,havln<j a literary j>ulis/t; ]i]\ \\ J-J .t'i'ii

,kau ,Un,s-wtit ; (ijl fM'^ yin-' j.an^^' {n staff) pang', hard; -^^ ^)i

h.-h (,h(-i) tuiii;' tUM<,'', />/ar/.-;

^
^^p
'tsi y\\\% ,yi»J^% afncpiirjjle; )^^- i'llij^fjlij

TT. IE. P'i^K' eluMig' clieng', even; \^V \y^{ \\,{ 'nwan ,lni ,hu, ivarm ; %U
1^' ?;4' J^i^^' ^1''^' *^^»'^^ secj/jv; IM I^ ^ I'^^'il' jl»» .'1""? comphtc; V^
j^ ,t-.«^lncr 'c-lm -c-hu, distinct; iji^ ^'^/J
,kan ,sau ,sau, drjr, jJjL
4il' ,'):'l!

jUj ^fj Iwair ,lmiig Juing, disorderly.

G Fouu WOKU (JROUPS. Phrases of four adjectives similar in ni'iinliig, ur

of three adjectives with a negative j)article are filso in use. TLi Ji It". ^^
jkwang .niing cheng' ta', ilhistrious, upriyld and great : *Jo -J ^^ ^
jt'sung .mingjui' chr, inteUiycnt and ivise;~A\ jl L M ^i^^eheng' chih .wu

,si,correct, upriyht, and impartial >h: ; ^f* ^ $3:^'^^'^"^' -^''"^^ P»il> •^^'"oj

rash, hoast/id, and incorrect.

7 Double repetition. Double adjectives are often extended by repetition

into four-wonl sentences, "jif ']^ fJ '!'£ 'kii 'ku kwai' kwai\ strange;
1" 1' m'/ rfj p'i'io l>'i"n .cluing .c'hang, cowrno;?; ^- ^' \n'\ \u\

'wei 'wei k'uh (c'h) k'uh, secret setise of bring injured: /y /y niT inT
.t-u .fii. s^yy^u/;
'siau "siau k'i' k'v, narrow-spirited;^'lj\ f/llj j[^ i^^.hu .hu
^^ 7RI ^'i ,sheng ,sheng kv ki-, angry: j^ fi fit ;tS-^"lianS
.Chang 'yuen 'yuen, distant, i^^ ,'j'
7L 7^ *^'"o' *^'"-' ••^^^•"'- -J^^^ii'^S

(clear and smooth) enii)ty.

8 Adjectives and verbs convehtiule. ^lany words are used indithrently

as verbs or adjectives. I'^kwiu^, to wonder at; strange: -p^- WA b' -hwan,

to he fond of; glad; ,tNur, to covet; covetous; ffi hi .cdii. to Wil-

%% -|TI"

der at; wonderful: j^j {\\\\ to correspond to; op[K>site to. jilting: {\\ ^J
'] u,
hwoh tung', to move; moveahle;V^ Vi, to die; dead; as in ^l^ '
si .ni.

a dead bullock.
9 Appended particle. Tih Ij^a rhythmical particle is ].lac(Hl afirr adjunc-

tives. When they stand alone, it liaa n predimfirr for<«', and wluiu they are
followrd by a substantive it is a connect ice.^^\] *\^ II Jb' hai' tih, dnug, rous;
14G MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART II.

H ~^J fl^ Si' ,fan.£r tlh, square; fl fj^ ,t'su tih, }ar(je\ coarse; ^^
[J-;/ T'^C T" •t's'^ 'cheug tih yang' 'tsi, mi a?t orderly manner. When tih

follows material Ruhstantives they become adjectives; e. g. tl!^ Mv '<-"li"i ^i^^?

of paper; -^[^ 0^ ,kin tih, golden.

Comparison of adjectives.

Comjxirative.

10 The comparative degree of adjectives is formed — (1) hy adverbs signify-

ing mo7'e; (2) by verbs expressing increase and diminution, contraction and

expansion, etc. [3] by placing after the adj'ective certain words meaning a
little; [4] by using the verb 'pi, to compare. [5] When it is obivoiis that

there is a comparison, a statement in the positive degi'ee is understood in the

comi)arative, thus ^Q. |M /v ^(T clie' ko' .jen, 'hau, this man is good is

taken to mean this man is the better of the tioo, if two men are present.
11 Adjectives are placed in the comparative degree by prefixing adverbs

meaning more, ^ ;keng, ^ yen'; again, ^ yeu',-^ tsai'; and ^ .hwau

[colloquially .hai) still. The verb/jffj ,chia, to add, is used after ,keng, yeu'

and tsai-; -^ yau', to desire, to need, after tsai' and .hwan. The verliJLi

'pi, to compare, is expressed or understood before jX. yen*, as often before

the others. ^'j> '^-f ^^ .^g- ^J 'ni hau' hioh ,keng .yung i', if you are

fond of learning it will he easier; ^ IJW oj' H!/ ;keng ,cliia .k'i [c'hi]

miau', still more ivondcrful; ;£ ^ ^ UJ /v,keng .liang shan' tDi .jen,

a more virtuous man; ^^ //D^ PK^ jkeng ,chia 'wei 'hien, more danger-
ous; -tO- ll»''l ^^ a/D 3("J' ^'^it'' ko' .jen yen' ,chia 'hau, this man is still

better; JMJ |j]-.| TP "jF T X^ PI^j

-Iw ,k'ai 'Hau 'k'eu 'tsi hia"u
yen' ,to, luhen the river had overflowed the rain fell more abundantly; \^'

kf vvj \% 'W J ^«'^i' 'l^'^^i tih mull [.mei] 'yeu 'liau, there is no better;

J^ T^' li- ^'i^ ti^ -"lei 'yeu tsai' si' teli, there is no finer; 4^ ^^
-Hr^ r J tsai' ,to ,chwrtng puh hia' 'liau, more cannot be stowed away;

S 'W ^? U^ liwan 'yeu 'hau tih, there is still better; i%- |& M. W
i'jC yau .c'hwen .hwau yau' k'wai', 1 want you to scull still faster; ^ J^
 CIlArXEU G. COMrAUI^JON OF ADJECTIVKS. J 47

ill FI'J )L J,< ^ mi kill- 'pi .t'sien yen' kwei' the itricc of rice is much
hiijher than he/ore.

12 For thu double comparativo, as in "the more, the better;" fj^ yueli,
to 2)ass over J or yneh fall are used; and occasionally ^fnf^ J^ yih(i) iiih, and
Ei^ii', more. ;|[ji \}\\ ;|S "|l( yueli .lii.'n yueh 'Ian, the more time hehus,
the more lazij he h> comes : /{^ ^ /!|k /? T yueh , to yneh '\vAn, the more
it is the letter; ^ 'f^ ;j^' 7/ pij yueh 'yen yueh ,fang pien', tJtcmore

you have, the easier it is to live; /(S ^ i\]X ^ yurh .lai yueh ,to, the

more come, the more there will he; ,^, f |'j yj 1(1^, :\\\\^ ?i,^i'' jtsing luing

u' .c'hun .sub, the j^^^cr, the more comphte:^^ jfj l^, ,f^ u'sin' u' tub,

the more conjidlmj you are, the more firmly you loill be convinced; /v ^*
T^ W ^ i^» 0^'° "* .c'heu ti' ii' chai', the more crowded min are, the

no)rower the land they occupy; ^B M nP/ %' ® ?l ^3) 13 yueh full

tuh jshu yueh ftth .ming peh, the more you read, the more you loill

understand.

Yueh fab and yib fab, arc also sometimes used, where the comparison is

simple ^ A &J ^
.
iifc sban' .ji^n yib fah ,to, good men greio more
numerous: ^ ^ fi M ^f
f/J» BiV J '»i yau' sih 'wu yib fab 'hau

'liau, if you wish to ^iracticc the military art, it will be better; ,^> ^* ,^
bik I M M ^ iii*^^' jSbu yueh fah 'tung teb ,to, those who read binder

stand more.
The particle ,7\ ,u, used in books for com])aring, is ixlao sometimas heard
in conversation, as in [Jj 'jC MX TV i'v ^C ,shan 'shui yingSu.ho 'shui,

spring water is hartUr than river water.

13 The comparative is also expressed by verbs C(.>ntaining the idea of in-

crease and diminution, -j^ //iJ 77 1^1 ,to ,chia ,feuliang', make the weight

gi-cater; i}^ '^ \\^ J^ Wj 'M M '^-lii'-u '^^liau 'ni ,sin tih .nan kwo',

make your pain of mind less; if^^ 'j'*,'-

IjIJ \]\\ 'cbi,!, ,k'ing (ch) .hing fah,
^ make his punishment less; ijt J :^ 'l-jVl (^rTiu) /r J 'si liau yau,

shuh
—
'
(or c'heu) 'siau 'liau, when washed
,k'wan yib
it will shrink; /y \^
^ ^ [j[:|

Sp 'siau .bo yau' ,k'ai 'tien, the stream needs to be make

wider: ^ i?p;
— lA" ,to ,t'ieu yib 'tien, (uld a little more :
^
j'^l f:^
148 MANDARIN GRAMMAH. I'ART 11,

{^X /r ^ ^'^*^^ ^^ '^'^''^^ ^^'^' '^^^ ^^^^^"j "^'^ "^"'*^ 2/*^^ ^'^'^^ ^^'^ number of

catties iv'dl he complete.

14 The comparative is also tormoJ by appendhuj certain words meaning*

'-a little;' to adj.'ctives. JEH ^ ^ft 'twan ^ieji, shorter; ^7^ H|5j
^
,fien k-i' ,tsing ,sic, the lueather is finer V^ ^' '
Ip yL> ^'^^^ ^'au*

^'—
;

yih 'tien a little better loolcin'j; "7^ kwt'i' yih 'tien 'tsT, a
.ri, '
i^P
little dearer; -jg ^Pj Ij'^ |p elie' ko' tsien' 'tien, this is cheaper; ^U 7C
— '
1p TQ tso' ta' yili 'tien .ri', make it a little larger; /\. ^ J,P 7Q
ta' Hang' 'tien .ri, a little more generous ;-^ ^?/^
'
*P /(j yaii' sung

yih 'tien .ri, let it a he little looser ; j/ii "^ ^-p tso' .c'hang yih 'tien,

make it a little longer.

15 The comparative is also expressed hij means of J[j 'pi, and sometimes

$^ chiau', verbs signifying to compare. When sentences are formed with

the help of this word, the adjective in the predicate is in the comparative

degree, whether the adverbs of comparing are prefixed to it or not. ^Y] fl v

I^L 3^^ M-;/ J^ .t'ung till '})i sill tih kwei', those made of brass are dearer
than those of tin: ^ /\^ JL P T A. ?^. ,kiii ,t"ien 'pi tsoh ,t'ieu jeh,

to-day is hotter than yesterdai/: 'j{ti Xij ^% 5("j' ;t-a 'pi 'w.) 'iiau, he is tet-

ter than I; llji JL 1^ £^ K jt'a 'i)i 'ni ,keng 'lau shili, he is a

more honest man than you; tJc JS] JlJl| J fit /IS t{& ^ ^ JlP flli

'wo .t'ung ,t'a kiau' liang' 'k'i .lai 'tsung puh sheng- ,t'a, if I am compar-
ed ivith htm, I cannot surjmsshim-^^ f^ ^U fjlj" H j-j [j^J f^ Sljche'

ko' 'niau ihiiui' .t'sien sliau' till 'liau ,t'ing, this bird sings better than before

^ i"t 1lli KM "^^'0

'I'i .t'a kiau' 'han, / am better than he.

16 The act of comi>ariug is often understand and a sentence ^)067Yi ye in form

interpreted as comparative, as in -(g, j)^ "j^

'
/V che' k'wai' .c'hang

y\\\&\i\[\, this p)iece is one foot longer: j]\) i|vi| [1] lilj i^ 'na ko' ,shan

'tan ,kau, that hill is higher.

17 As in the case particles of nouns, so in the degrees of comparison of

adjectives, verbs are extensively employed. This will be further exemplifieil

in discussing the modes of forming the superlative.

CHAI'TEK 6. THE SUPEULATIVK. 140

The Sitjicrlatlve.

IS The suporliitivc is formed — (1) by adctrhhd pi'i'fxes nu-aiiiiii:; viryy

exceedmyli/,too, too inuvh; (2) by using the urdiual niDubtr ^/ li' yih,

Jirst, or the phrase ~| yj shili Sen, rid ire, before the adjective; (3) (>t/ the

verb ^ /(•/', witli a word meaning extremity, or .severity, following the ad-

jective. (4) by odaerhicd svjixes (5) an adjective in the comjjarative (luali-

lied by much is translated in the positive ivith to '^nany" following.

19 The adverbial prefixes made use of are the following: —

J^ ting, summit, hence ehief, as the latter word from cijjut. -^^r I "I

4]>^ ^ 1?! 1^ che' ko' .c'ha yeh 'ting kuu', this tea is the best: \\j\ Ty
H^ y] M 't»'J5 t'l' till lil' l''"JgS ^'«'Z/ (/'-'-'((i stremjth : ^JP f|/'l A Hi
[jli Vl^ 11 J '"^ ko' .jen 'ting .ncng 'kan tih, that man is exceedinyly able.

^^k\\\, (.chi) end; point of arrival or cessation ; is used as a superlative

article both before and after its adjective %fe ~Ai

— * P'j-' ''ftj
kih ta' yih

tso' miau', a very large temple: fe J^ -'J^ ||-J ciJJ i[l: kih .shen ngau'

tih tau' 'li, very profound doctrines: J^ ® J H^ ,gj' i!".*

taMiih 'liau

tih ,ngcu 'tien, very great favour.

]^ tsui*, exceedingly. '^ .^1) ^ [| J ^jS _h ***"'' 1'' ^'<''' *>'' .hwang

8liang', a very imperious and exacting emperor: ^[j^ 3sT -1^ ilii ^sui' 'hau

pub kwo', vei-y good, without a rival; ,^. ii'V ]f3C yC jiip*'*i ^i'" <^'i'" ^'^S

his favonr is very great.

4rc 'hen, severe, an adjective in j^(j ^t< Jiinng 'hen, vivknf: as an ad-

verb very, it precedes its word or follows it with \^ 1. h: jk' rT ('J'' 11 j

'hen .k'i miau' tih, very strange and wonderful ; ^^ ]l\c /C tsui' hen ta',

///a crime is very great; -Jk ^/|: II J ^l- h.ii ,shen tih t.-ing, a very deep
well.

"Tv^ ta*, j//'t«< is used in negative sentences e. g. y^\ y\. I'/j

p'lh ta^

,kau, not very high.

t^ kwai', to wonder at; strange; lieiice as an adverb strangely; very.

'^. uli n^i 11 J / ^ kv.ai' 't'i nnen* tih .jen, a very respectable man: A ±^

fx W P^k»^iii' jk'ing 'shengtih, very 7«Mr/! lighter ;]'X ,hwang, ro»/w«cr/,

is u>ed with \^ a"* an iutensitive suffix, as \u ^l^i" tch .hwang, v^ry tired.
150 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART II,

^%T li'^n- f/ood. hero usod in flic sense very, as in English a fjooJ many.
M% "fCon^J^ ^ i25)^)'l<an,tojVh'tsi(or'hauVhi,t'ien)
.mei .Uii, he has not come for several days; >(:f y^ )jH x"liauta' 'tan 'tsi

very great couraye.

^ 'lau, old, 7vl ^'^' U^'cai used witli the sense very as in Mj ^ J^
'ma 'lau ,kau, the horse is very hiyUyX, i-^j ta' ,kau, very high.
.Man a particle very, for which there bein<r no character, ^M'.inan is used.
A southern Avords ^^' "^ 0^ /V man' .c'hang tih .jen, a very toll man;
W~hW}M^. m^^n' ta' tih ko'- .ii, a very large Jish.

y\, t'ai', very; too. Of these meanings the latter is more common. AT
'/g Q-Jfe
t4- yfc iWj che' ko'
jnl t'ai''t'sientih.t'iau .U, a very shaUoiv river;

.leu t'ai' ,kau, this

^ f^
upper story is too high.

3B chi'S to arrive at; the highest point ; hence highest; most. This and
the two following words are less colloquial than the preceding.
§5 ^. §
3£ /Pt-hi"' .jen ngai- tih .liwang lieu', a very benevolent queen; /^ $
r^ 3:1 y^ ,t len 'pen chi' ,kau chi' ta', heaven is originally most high
and. majestic.

very
"&
little.
s^t^nS "^'ery.
^M "ff /J"* Hh liaug' shen' 'siau, his strength is

fp tsiueh, ^0 cw^ o^; strange; hence as an adverb, strangely.

|2 H^^
tsiueh miau' tsiueh miau', exceedingly good;
|p
^I'J''
I2 $2 ^'!^ Gl^ i!6
lU. tsiueh ,kan tsing' tih k'wei' yiih, a very clear piece
of jade-stone.
20 The sense too, is mixed up with the su})erlative particles in the case of
JK far, which means both too and very. The difference between very and
most, Ls but feintly seen in the use of these particles. The words meaning
wosf are '\% g. §. g^. |g The rest usually signify very. The words
dEi chi', -g- shen', and and
|(^ tsiueh are less colloquial than tlie others,
they are therefore placed last.

\vy
y^/^^"'"^ ^ '
^^' y^^^' the first, is also used as a superlative

^K R'll ti' yih ,kien .nan, the most calamitous.

I >7/ tiJiih ,fen, ten parts; as a superlative, ear^/'ewie^y; ten ^tarts in ten.
In exi)ressing proportion ~\' "9}
and comparison, parts of ten are used.
CHAPTKK G, THE SUPEULATIVE. J
.-,
1

Jlj fflj shih ,iou .liu<^ li', extremely clever; | — ^y" \ f J' ,slr,h ri'

,ten Jen .t'sui, yov/ heautljul in countenance.

22 The verb j^ tch, ^j obtain, willi certain words nuaniiig e.rfremity,

severity, tijlit, etc. places adjectives in the snj)erlative; as in the fnll,»win<T

centences i'onned with jk ,hen 1'^^ hwan^ and 'j^ kili (chi). '/i^\] '^ j|f

^[\^ li' hai' toh 'hen, very severe and violent; fj]|i J^ 3tc t'sni' teli 'lu-n,

very brittle; Wj "& ^^ .k'iung 'k^u tch kill, extremely poor; ^^

1^ fe slieng' .niing teh kih, very ivise. jj '}
"i^ I'lf^ ^^i' teh ,liwang, very

tired.

t'J ^ ^i'^M^, severe; dreadful; dangerous; jiroperly an adjective, is

used as an adverb to qualify adjectives in the sense very: as in -^ i'{j| '[^

tImJ -^ liai' p-a' tih li' hai*, uery much afraid; ^/^ 'f^ ^'IJ ^ .t'eng tch

li' hai', very painful.

^^x kin. close; tight; is used m the same manner. ^;^};^ ^ j^ ^-* wen
jtang teh 'kin, very secure, (kin is a southern word).

The verb -j^ kwo', to pass, with the negative, is also employed, ^'f' yy\

^j^ 'hau.\m\ik\yo', exceedingly good; ^^ ^J ^\ -jlpy .ning i' puh kwo',

very easy.

The word '^ tsui' usually precedes; as in JJv "gf ^\ ||ii] tsui' 'kMi puh
kwo', extremely wretched; J^ 'h' 'T* iS- ^''"'' j^^i""© T^^i kwo*, very fra-

grant.

The word (j"^ till is sometimes used instead t»l" ^%JF teh, as in the following

examples. \}i '^ [J^J jl< k^vai- loh tih 'hen, very ,jlnd :
"JV^ ^ ^^^ Jlv:

,kau til' tih 'hen, yer// ///'/// tind great ; ^^ .^ly H J V^ <yen .cheu tih kill,

very much grieved; yj;'\ W] ]if ^^ ,8in ,8ien tih kiJi, very fresh; \3\ \] J
^"'ij
1^ ,hiniig till li* hai*, tTryy?e;vr. In some ex am])les tih and kin change
places, thus we may hear \>;^, ^ ^^^ [j;J ,wen ,tiuig 'kin tih, ver y secuve;

'kin also occurs last, Jf}\ |t)j| U J ^^ jeli nan' tih 'kin, very bustling.

23 Some of the superlative adverbs follow the adjective which they quali-

fy. They are kih, 'kin, and shah. The latter is never a prefix and is ex-

clusively colloquial. "^ ^\^'\^'nV\\^, very wretched \^^ tSE .t'eng kih,

very painful; ^L ^S 1^^'^"' kih, very confused; Ij^ '^f.j>

chuug' 'kin, very
152 MANDAKIN" OUAMMAi:. PAKT 11.

hcavii] 'A-lt ^^<» 7Q .11:111 'kill .ri, vcnj hard; ) Y\ ^^ liwali 'kin, very slqj-

pt:ry; fe '\'jt ^]v% "c'liano; k'wai' shall, vev)/ (/ladi^, '\'K fjj^ .liaiii: k-\vai'

shall, very cool: H,^ Ii'i ^?: iiwaii hwoh shah, very warm;^.ji jgf ^f^^ ^^
jwaTi hwoh "kill .ri, very elasfic.

24 The sense foo is expressed by y^ t-'ai', ,1^^ feli, tny. kw.r', aud ^jl^ j"

kwo' ,ti. T'eh, a i)urely colloquial word is nut uncommon; as in 7j\, ]1\t

P^ Al\i »^ ^^^i^ii lit!^! tili t't-'h kill, the water floivs too fast; ^Xi ^^ ^
/f\ ^ij t'cli kwci" 'mai ])uh 'k'i ('c"hi), it is too dear, I cannot afford to

hny it; TJC ijK mV y>"v :t!2. ^^^J^ii 'chang tih t'ai' kwo', the loater rises too

high, or very high: -^ l/S kwo' jeh, too hot; f^ ff^ :i^ fcj( sing- .t'sing

kwo' ngau', his disposition is too proiid; f ^1 ) 1;^ -tl^y r^ ^t'au 'tsieu kwo'

,to, he is too fond of luine ;M*^&^ M -^ % t^eli (tsei) Tei kwo'

.to shah pull ,wan, the rebels ore too numerous to he all Icilkd; 3^ W^ :i!^

]' kwo' ,u ,kau, he is very This should mean he has

i^j 'chang till tall.

"Town too tall; but as Ix't'ore observed, too and very are but slightly ditferent

in Chinese grammar. ^ Ifi fl^ ^Vi "^W^ ,hwang ti' tih shah fall

kwo' cluing', the emperoi^'s use of ca.pital punishments is too severe; ^pC h^
61/ ^ )£ ^ ix l^i'^^i'' jshu tih ,kwei 'kii t'ai- ,k-iug, the method of teach-
in'/ is too lax: Jl JJ yj^ y^ .wang fah t'ai' .yen, the law is too severe;

^ /^ ~'Z ^5^ l^f'li ,kwei t'ai' ,sung, his ride of teaching is too lax; Ij
|

,/C y^ JW jl^'^'i ^i'^ t''^^" sheng', his liver is too much inflamed

Further remarks on the Degrees of Comparison.

25 When the comparative is intensitied in Englisli by the additiim of the

words much, or much more the adjective ^ ,to, more, is ajjpended either

alone, as in northern mandarin or with the connective vcrlj'f^ teh, as occurs

in the south; i^ffj ^ ,kau ,to, much higher; /JC ) § 1^ :^ 'shui 't'sien

tell ,to, the water is much shalloicer. These expressions arenearlv the same
in meaning as -jft i^ kwo' ,kau. -}I^ )^- kwo' 't'sien, passing common
height and shalloioness ; /v J'Q ^'J ^ |^ ^^--jcupi .t'sien ,to teli ,to, men
ore much more numerous ihun Ixforc. Tih^J is also used for |^ teh acir-
CHAin'EU G. NUMBEUS. 1.53

cunistnnce which seems to shew that both words are merely connectives, and

that the comparative power is in tlio position of tlu; (lualityiiit^ word. Tiiis

remark applies also to the various forms of the superlative coiitaiiiiii<<- fjh

anJ teh.

2() Tliere are some negative forms wiiich may Ix' noticed licrc In ^^
^C '''I! M l>uh ta' 'li 'hau, it is not very good: — |{;|'| ^ ^J" yj), tien

puh 'hau, it is not at all good tliere is a change in the extent of the com])arison

or of the intensity asserted; otherwise the negative is used with the words

already given, without change, as in ^^ >( J M^'A P^li 'hau, stif/ worse.

For further illustration of these and similar forms, see the chapter on adverbs.

27 The threefold division of the degrees of comjiarison is inconvenient for

the Chinese language. There are in fact at least six degrees exjiressed readil v

and with distinctness by adverbs and other words, as in the case of "^
.c'hang, long; ;^ ^ .c'hang ,sie, a little longer;^ f^ ,keng .c'han'-,

longer -^^^ ^ .c'hang ,to or .c'hang teh ,to, much longer; ^K ;^ 'hen
.c'hang, very long; Ifj ^ 'ting .c'hang, tlic longest. These varieties in the

nitxle of ([ualifying adjectives, by adverbs etc. might be greatly increased by ad-

ding 1pj pel', double, with its multiples, as in^ ^^ tp?to ,san pei', three

times as much; and /J ,fen the words for decimal parts, as in -^ ,21 yJ
,to ,san ,fen, three tenths greater.

Number.' •.V.

28 Chinese numbers when written have the same syntax with adjectives,
and therefore may be regarded aa such. They precede the substantiv<' they

qualify w-itliout and intervening word; e. g. JlL ^x H -^ ^^"' l^>''» >t'i

(i>ai) kwo, the Jive kinds of grain, and the hundred kinds of fruits: ZL [H.

7L T -r ,»"» •li^^'^i l^i'"" (^'^0 'til w'^n, he has come back several times. Phra.ses

such as these though collo<iuiid are constructed according to the principles of

the written langujige.

29 In phrases fonued in accordance with tlie true colloquial grammar.

)nnuerativ(>s are introduced K'tween the numlx-r and its noun; e. g. JH fpj
154 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART II.

xl /v jSan ko' ,c'hai .jeii, three messengers. Words of number appear

therefore to be related to the numeral particles or numeratives, as adjectives

are to substantives. It is worthy of notice, that common adjectives are

not placed before the distinctive numeral particles, but before the substan-

tive itself ; e. g. ^ y^ |il yih chih ta' .c'liwen, a large boat. Thus
the syntax of words of miiubor differs in colloquial from tliat of adjectives.

Numerals Eunuing hand. Other syndiuls.

yih (i), one,

1 I
rv, tivo,
II II
,san, three,

si', foiir,
6
'u,Jive,

luh, six,

t'sih, seven,
TT
A pah, eigh t,

'kieu, nine,

shih, ten,
^
'
shih yih, eleven, _

— ' shih ri', tivelve, _ .

ri' sh'ih, twenty,..

,san shih, thirty,

peh, humored,

^ ,t'sien, thousand,

wan', ten thousand, . .

 CHAITKUC!. NUMBERS. I.^Jj

trade ami divisions of an army, are expressed by AS

'Jx ^^h ^^^BL 7y JH
IJX jsheng i' ,fen ,san 'ku, three shcn-es in trade.

31 Ordinal nunilx'i-s are often tlie same as cardinal niimbcrs, as in HI F]

"I /v IV yueli sliih pah, the 18th of the second month ; II]"- |'| z.\ ~\

tsoli jih ,san sliih, yesterday was the '30th.

32 The word p^ ti', jiroperly meaning order, is used as a prefix for or-

dinal numbers, as in ^^ "U /p^^ ti* t'sih 'pen, the 7th volume; i. e. in t>rd( r

the senventh volume. Tlie original use of this word is still ]tres('n<'<l in a
j)hrase both literary and colloquial, -yvl ^r t'si' ti', oriler.

33 In naming the days of the month, the word '^ ,c*hu, Jirst, or bet/in-

ning, is })refixed to the first decade, thus ^JJ "I ,c'hu shih, the tenth. ¥ov
the second and third decades the cardinal numlxn's are used alone, thus ~|

j::! shih ,san, the I3th.

34 Of the months, the first is called ic yTj cheng' jiiuh, and the 12th'Jl|(

/^J lah yueh,

35 The cycles of ten and twelve are used to denote years. They are '|^

kiah, ^^yih. i^ 'ping. ~X ,ting, ^jc'wu, B 'ki, ^ ,keng, $ ,sin,

3ljt'n, ;7^ ,kwei; and ~J^ 'tsi, jj^'c'heu, ^ .yin, })\i 'mau, /p^ .c'hen,

Q si', ^ 'wu, 7N woi', ^ ,Hhen, ^ FX siuli (sii),

,yiu, ^ ,hai.

The year 1855 was ^ *j|J yih 'mau, 1856 p^ /K "pinj; .c'hen. The pre-

sent cycle of 60 ye<ars will be completed in 1873^^ ^ ,kwei ,liai.

36 To the latter series are attached the names of animals; viz. \]}];\, 'shu,

the rat. 2. ^ .nien, eoiv. 3. J^ 'hu, tiffer. 4. ^^ t'u', hare. 5. ^g,

.luug, druyon. 0. j[\^ .aho, snake. 7. m.j'ma, //o/-.s,'. S. ^^.yang, .s7<rryx

9. ^1?- .hvu, monkey. 10. ^-!j ,ki,/u/6V. 11. j^ keu, (%. 12. l|*t

,chu, pi(j. The years counted according to the duoth'uary cycle, are said to

belong to these animals n'si)ectiv«»ly. Thus it is said of ])ersons born in 1856,

that they helontj to the dragon f^ /jx Hll shuh ,u .lung.

37 The use of numlx-rs as adverlw may 1k» observed in the following in-

stances of distributives, and in tlu- examples given in the preceding chapter

corresponding to numeral adverb.s. Distributives are formed by repeating

numl)ers with numeral ])articles following them; e. g. ^|ril

"— '
jpi)
^
156 MANDARIN GRAMMAC. PAKT II.

}t} ^ > ill k<>' yili ko' 'tseu c'liuli .lai, one hy one theij came out; f]^] ^p)

y\i IP 1^ ^ ^ii Miiing ko' 'Vnm^ ko' sung' liwei' 'tseu, two and tioo

they icaJhed in the procession; »4 »

' i j » Uj ViV 'J^k J yili c'hwen'

vih e-li\v(.'ii- till ,1u hwai- Tkiu, the chains are all broken one hy one; '
J^p
i\^^$-%,^ yil» P'-ii yi^^- -r'-^i ^''^ ;C'heng kwo' k'u', the floats
^\\
one by one ivere pushed by.

38 The use of iiunil)er.s us adjectives is exemplified in the formation of

many i)hrase,s containing- the ideas of indefinit(^ness, completeness, variety,

separation and union. ^lany verhs and adjectives are treated as abstract

nouns, and preceded by numbers which give them these ideas.

39 Indefiniteness and universality are expressed by large whole numb(»rs

such as
"g", ^, S, peh (pai), ,t'sien, wan^ 100, 1000, 10000; as in ^
HH j^ ^^* jt'sien .nan wan' .i, many difficulties and suspicions; ^ 15"

I f'A ^^"in' 'k^i ,t'sien ,t'sieu, ten thousands p>ast ages and a thousand au-
tu)n7is;a 1n Q VM V^^^ (V^^) ^ V^^^ -^^^b he submitted to him and obcT/ed
him in all respects; Q -^ ^ peh shi' ,t'ung, all his affairs succeeded;

u1 -^
^'^i ru r*^^^ y^^^o'
7^^'^'*'^ 't'sau, all kinds ofjlowers and grasses;^

(n ) H fe W^ H ^van' (,t'8ien) peh (ai) yang-' ,tung ,si, all kinds of

things; ~\ -^ ^ i»?f ,t'sieh ,kiun wan' 'ma, thousands of soldiers and

myriads of horses. %

40 Small numbers are used in many phrases to indicate change and diver-

sity. y\\ ^^ "b "v -^^ /jArpuh yau' t'sih 'sheu pah kioh, do not put out

your hands and feet (to stiike or trespass); xT TO ^^ ^^ t'sih k'iih pah
,wan, '»aany windings; JH ^[^ .^» j^^'i j^i'i •'' ^S ^'^^ ^i«s different ob-

jects in view.

41 Small numbers sometimes from the nature of the case imply universa-

lity, as in 13 f S 'S!- W i^' 'lifii ^cln nui' (net), luithin the four seas;

through the whole ivorld; \L\ Jj -O ^ sT' ,fang ,chi .min, the people of

the four cardinal 2>oints, of the whole world.

42 Entireness, continuity, sameness and union, are expressed by

— ' yih,

one; BC yih ye', the whole night; ' '

7^ 3:!J P% yih ,t'ien tau' 'wan,

oil day fill evening: H^ -^ RlJ yib In' .e'han .t'sieii. he proceeda
s un-
 CHAl'TEll 7. ON THE mONOLXS, 157

hitterupkdhj on the way: [R] ^^ yih chih 'tseu, icalk utmight on;

Itn ^1 '3K yih hi- .p'ing ,Mf;aQ, prosptrity through the luhok journey ; ''^-
*

J /k /i ^ yili kSvjii- .rY 'tseu, walk together; — ' J^ ^ ^y, yih sia

,chueu nien', with his whole viind bent on it .[^ ,§* yih ^siii yili

— ^ o^ "T ?R
;

i', the same mind; ' y»h .Hen tuh liia' .hii, read it down
connectedly; ' '
'^$^ \^^ 7(2 yih k'i' uien' ,wun, he read it connectedly till

he had done;' 3£ uil yih ,s1r*ij<j; yih shi', hin whole life.

42 Separateness and diversity are indicated l)y JyJ hanf,', two: PyJ f^
'liang yang- (kind), (///ft7r«^; pf] y liauo; hia-, «/>«/•?:: f|^ '£|£ j^J ^^
'pai tsai' 'liang &\\\\, place them, apart; T^\ii YH i?H yQ"©*^^' t«^'' 'l\An^

.t'eu .fi, jnit them separate: Yv\ \)^ tlj /\. 'liang yaug' tih.jeu, he is a dif-
ferent man /^ Yn Til Hv 'yen 'liang ciiung' tih, they arc of two kind^s.

43 In the view thus obtained of the extended iist^ of these words, they may

be observed to lose their definiteueas as numbers, and to develoi^i a new pow-

er l>y which they express various ideas usually belonging to adjeetived proper,
lo pronuuns nr to adverbs.

44 Yih is and adjective for e.vaiiipie, in '^J \ in .V6ic, the whole. When
sameness id expressed by yih yang'-, or yih ko' yang* 'tsi, n uiim«'i-al and a
substantive together coiTespond to a pronoun, idem, the same : JtJ Jj(iu 'liang

c'hu' is equivalent sometimes to the adjective different, and at other thaes to

the adverb apart.

45 In such phrases as ' '

^ yih .lion, together.
'
—^ yih .t^si, toge-

ther, Inl "3^ yih .t'ung k'ir (c'hu'), go together, the numeral with the

word that follows it corresjiond to the adverb together. Yih has also an ad-
verbial siguitication in /^ yili ting', certainly ; 3:!)
)'^^^
^'^"S '^^

moment that he arrived.

CFIAPTFU VI

Ox THK Pr.OXOUN.

1 The i»ronouns vary mncli in the south eastern provinces, and eveai in

some part*} of the region wliere mandarin is spoken. Tlw nimilxjr of priuii-
158 MANDARIN GUAMMAi;. PART II.

five pronouns is diminished by the extensi\Te nse of adjectives in a possessive

sense, and of adjectives and verbs for the adjective pronouns.

Personal Pronoims.

2 Tlie words used for i\iQ first personal pronoun are^^'wo (colloq.)or 'no-o

[read], P^ ,tsa* or Hg-.tsan [in Shantung and Cliihli .tsan in Peking .tsan,

and .t«a], 4%'ngi^^ ("sed in Shantung and Chihli). The phu-al is formed
by adding in^^en; t^fe ffl IS ^ S" 01 it^ 'wo ,men .hwei .lai tsai'

.t'siau 'ni, ive loill come hack and see you again; 1^ /ylj ,\^ ^'.'^
^ m
pieh ,sin .fan 'wo, do not annoy me [my mind); ^fe l^n \% i'5 "T wo
kih ['chi or 'kei] t'a' .yin 'tsi, I gave him money; "(tfi \f\ 'jtC X ^T
[njt'a' ,men yen' ,tan koh 'liau yili .liwei, they again ivaited for a time;

P@ ifl ^S % Mi ill ^ t'i ^^ :t£ ,tra ,men .mei 'yen kien^ kwo'

che' .yang ,kwei ,ku, we have not seen this sort of custom; j|li |j J ^ P^
_^ t'a' ,men t'i' ,tsa 'mai, they loill buy it for me. In Peking it is common
to use 'wo .men, 'ni .men, t'a' .men, when the singular is meant, as tsan and

tsa which properly mean, lue are used often in the singular for 7, me of the

two sounds 'ngo and 'wo for ^xl I 'wo is new. The initial ng is assigned to

it in the old spelling. It is nga at Hwei-cheu, and ngwa or gwa in Fuh-kien.

3 'Ni '\^\ you the second p)ersonal pronoun \B i\iQ ^ome Si?, ^ 'ri, for-

merly pronounced 'ni. When the reading sound changed, the old pronun-

ciation was retained in colloquial use. The abridged form 7dFof the charac-

ter ^ was appropriated to the colloquial pronoun, and ^retained for the
reading sound. In Peking ^^ w\ '"in na' [also written 1>p |f^] 'ni ,na']

is used respectfully for ijou. Prcmare says iJJ'jen is used. The dictionary

tT. yy 7C H gives 'nin, and this is conoborated by the pronounciation

of native speakers.

* Occasionally in the second tone, 'tsa.

t Usually heard in the first tone because it is without accent and therefore in Peking prefers

Ihat intonation.
 CHAPTKU 7. PERSONAL IMiONOI'S'. [gj

4 F<^r the thirdptrson tlic old word |[l) ,tji' of/itr is tin- oiuuion man-
darin word ivad fa or t'a the old book wurdtJ lor the tldrd ])ertsoii \r A and
1^ .c'hi, arc much usod in the sonth eastern dialects, At Canton^ -.kiii jg

employed. In the higher colloijuinl umndnrin diahrt .k'i [e'^hi] in euuimon

^ Jt 1^
as in K^ >t2 TJ 'yen .c'hi Mwu^r j.ih >u .chi si', what
has /L
life must also die; jJV //I 'tJ lim .c'hi 'ho 'yen ali that he han;

S* R ^ RE "l^'wnir .c'hi puh .nenrr, //e«r Zes< Ae cannot

5 Tiiere are several other sufhxes for the jjlural occaHionallv miwle upe of.

They ^ ^ § are .c'hai, 'teng, .t'san. These words are nsed in letters,

and in olKcial proclamations, hut are not heard in conversation.

G The personal pronouns form like substantives, a possessire case with

H^ till, n^nderiui:; possessive pronouns unnewssary; ^y. \\ ll-J n's, -f-

iL rJ' H;/ ^'J /t '^^" "If" ^'^' '!"*" '^'^i 'pi '"• tih ,t'siii,- \-liu, our vo-
lume is mare clearly printed than youra; 'frj f)\j ^J^* f] J
— ' j-^ ,|l/'.

'fang full 'wo tih yih yang' .mu yang', it is like mine; [i|t
I] J ^j ^^
'ngan tih 'raa puh k'wai*, my horse is not swi/f. For tih the hook jiarticle

^, ,clu is sometimes used, hut only in the higher or .wen li j3^ ijg collo-
quail; e. g. ^ >^ h^ ^f fiP ^E il^ ft*'^vo .chY shwoh lian tsih tsai'

tuh jshu, what I say I /ike is a scholar's life; ^^p ^j^ r -^ ^xl f^ -^
'^*'
1ul ,fei 'wo jchi" shi' 'wo puh yau' 'kwan ,t'a, it is not my affair ayid 1

do not wish to interfere with him.

7 The case paiiicles em])l(»yed with substantives, are used in the same
manner with pronouns, as in ^ jfli llil IJ'J ,taug ,t'a mien' .t'sien, />//orr

his face; ^\ -fj; Mil fjC Z^ P»di yau'hiang* 'wo k'uh, rifo )wt come weep-
imj to me; |/J> ^l' JHi u^i 71 'ni .ho ,t'a shwoh .ming, fell him plainly.

8 When the propositions signifying to nudfrtnit are applied to the persotjal

pronouns, some word is appended to denote place. ^J^ f/(; f{li IJ |>
f^ jf^
'wo .t'sung .t'a na' 'li .lai, 7 am come from him.

lir/fexice Pronouns.

9 The reflexive proiu)un i^ p| r|^ t.>r ki, ('clki) or |f | :^<. tsi' ,kia, or
1(39 MANDAUIN GRAMMAR. TART II.

g -i^ |(}i t«i' ko' ,rX or sometimes 5^ j^ |£ 'clii ko' ri. Thus g g^
i{J' T 4^ S: tsi' 'ki t'so' 'liau 'chu i', you yourself were lorong in your

o»w?'o??;^ ;^ ^ @ ^<. flv che' shi* 'wo tsi' ,kia till,

he himself has suffered loss;

this is my oion;
Pi 2-k P|^ ] 1^ ^•'*'' '^^ '^*^^* '^^^^ ,k'\vei,

lill Q ^ -t J Jta jt'* *si' 7^^ shang' 'liau tang', he hiniseJf has been

deceived. Tsi'' ,kia seems to be older tlian tsi"-' 'ki. It is common in old

mandarin books such as Shui-hu-c'liwen, and the works of Chu-fn-tsI, but

tsi" ki is now more used.

10 In fixed })hi-ases, the syntax of which is that of the books, tsi' and 'ki

are used alone, as in Q i^j ^ Ha tsi' ,shang ,shen 't'i, he wounded his

oivn body ; J^ /v T^'J Cla suu .jen 11' 'ki, injuring others to hcnejii one'6-self.

11 In the reflexive mood of verbs in southern mandarin p| tsi' is used a-

lone, and is placed before and after tlie verb. Yet 'ki and ,kia are frequent-

ly appended to tsi' in such cases ; f^ l\K tsi' ,c'hi tsi', ^e cheats him-

self] tl ^^ H tsi- 'hwn^if^i'', he deceives him self; ^ pV Q tsi' .k'wa

tsi', boasting of one's-sclf.

12 The reflexive pronoun takes after it the possessive particle tih, and the

other case particles, like nouns and other pronoims, but the pei-sonal pronouns
are usuaUy prefixed: 0i^ ^ \^^ g 2u i^tsohjih .ho 'ni tsi' "ki

shwoh, yesterday I said it to you yourself.

13 The personal i)ronouns wlien followed by WJ tih, represent our posses-

sive pronouns. Tih is however merely connective and rhythim'cal, for it is

often omitted. ^5» M^J M -'L^ T^ iS '"i til^ -^i'lng jSin puh hwai', you
will not lose a good cooisciencc; itli jij 5L /C ,t'a tih chang' ,fu, his fa-

ther-in-law; ^ $"^^ W. -^Jf^ '^^'0 jt'si ,kia (ch) li' 'yeu ping', my
loife is ill: ^^ ^^ J '^^'O f'u' 'mu .nien "lau 'lieu, my parents
are old.

Demonstrative Pronouns.

14 The comm(»n demonstratives are ^ che', th is and jjy na', that. When
apidied to appellative nouns, they are usually followed by numeratives; ig.

^^J ? ^ W^ '4X J
che' ko' jih 't«i puh .neug keu' 'liau, it cannot
 CHAriER 6. IN-TERROOATIVK PRON'OONS. \(]l
t

be (lone to-day; ?f|> fPl A 1\ n/ll tf'j JM na' ko' Jon puh 'kian^ .t'si'n-
'li. that man does not attend to reason and propriety : ^^ jj/ij ||j [^ |I' -

Eh 'M clie' ko' ,tunp: .si kiaii' .slicn ,mo, n-hat {stJn's-fhinr/ cnflcd? ^J
|j'
i'fij

IB i!i m:v- .twan tair 'li, f/,af ilortrhir : -£f 1% }^ ~)/ (•]„>' k'wai' ti'

jftiHi;, this place.

1.0 The personal jn-nnouns are often used in ajii)Osition with the Jenion-
stratives, as in |l!l :iTi 1p^ A. t'a che' ko' .jen, this man, and tlius become
themselves demonstrative^.

16 The particle jpl ko' is inserted after the'denionsfrativcs li.-fon' any ob-
jects, whether they have a special numeral nr not; j]H ||h| 'j\^ I^l/ilj
[]~J die'
ko' 'shui .hien tih, this water is salt; 1y\> |lnj ^^ IJtj niv ko' .c'hai .c'hwen,

that wood boat. Che' and na' are sometimes used without an intervening

particle; iQ. f ^!J fj> |i-i| chu* .c;hiau ,ciiieu ku-, this bridge is tirm.

17 The demonstrative pronouns are understood to be in the pliual when

they are followed by ,sie; :Xtt ^i ^ ^'l^tj' jsit? -y^Uo) these sheep; jj'j/ ^
J^' ~j" na' jsio ,fang 'tsi, those houses.

^
^
18 These demonstratives are used iu fonuini; adverbs of
che' 'li, here: 1]f
SK 1^
^ na' 'li,
^^^*^
there; :tn, J)^^
l-dl r-^
>Q
})laoe: e

che' k'wai'.ri.Aerc, c^c.

c -t^
'^ '

19 The book words ^-^ ]x\^ pi fsi, th(tf, this, are used t«»gether in the
seuBeon/iis and that, as in \-\^l PJ [lic ilti Iti] '^ bang kwoh pi tVi

jSiang jcheug, the two countries this and that contended toijether :
^^ jjr ;V^

^^ shwoh 't'si tan' 'pi, he spoke of this and that: ^ j[^ ^ f^* dii' 't'si

chr ,pi, ^) this jtlae*'- and that. T'si', is also used \\\^\^ J {[J, t'si' ti', here;

and in ^* fJ jjtl i 1: '"hi 'veu t'si 'li, how can this be?

20 The t)M form of ill clie', was ^ 'ehe; K'ang-hi quoting th(^ ij^} [JVl

says "^ [j^i

'clie ko* in all cases may stand for Jjj^ ]p\ 'fsVk'.'. ^/,,>. In-

stead of it ^H cho- is now conunnnly written."

21 Tho iuteiTogative pronouns are numerous. They arc ^% .shui, whof

162 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. TART II.

'
'mo,'

li* fM -^hih 'mo,n§| shaS ?t?7iai? Also ^^.'tsi'U in tlie adverb ^, )J ^^

'tsen 'mo yanj^', Ao?<'/' .Slini is a substautive pronoun, while the rest, talco a

noun after them. ISlmialsooccasionally takes a noun to followit; [njj \ \ Q^

^ hIh 'c'hiau .men tih slii* .shui, toko knocks at the door'^ g"^ V^ .shui

.lai, icho comes'^ %^ A .slnii .jen, ichat man? Jf f\^- \fi ^ %^ ^-J
na' .p'ai .leu shi* .shui tih, whose is that monumiintal arch? jjy 'na,tvhich'!f

is sometimes followed by jjoj ko', which is really a numeral particle. It is

read 'no, but in colloquial usage it retains its old vowel a. So ^E .na, the

verb to bring, in extensive colloquial use, has also through that circumstance

kept the old vowel, y*} .ho, an old word for 7ohat, is used occasionally, but

it is not purely colloquial. Persons who affect a 3J ^St •^^'^'^i 'li; (literary)

style sometimes employ ho. It is also found in some common phrases; ^^

^4^ >^ "Y^j .wu nai' ,chi .ho, there was nothing ivhich could be done.

22 Of "^ j^ .shen 'mo, ivhat? the old sound was jlm' 'ma, hence j^
jira' is used in some old books. The old sound of \\ .shih was je]i. Pre-

mare gives examples of shen' without 'mo, as in Jf\ ff-X -Xs- ilil ^^ B^
m\\\ 'kan tan' ,t'a shen' tih, / do not dare to say anything to him ;
'
j "[/p

^
fejr 0^ ^- ,kan 'ni shen' tih sh'i', what docs it matter to you? It is more
common to use mo. The omission has tlie air of a literary affectation.

The word )§ 'mo, is sometimes to be regarded as by itself constituting a

T)t'onoun lohat? for it is so used in parts of the metropolitan province and of

Shantung, where it is called 'ma. In other cases it appeara to mean modCy

or is us(!d only for rhy tlunical pur})OBes, as in ;i3. ^ ^f^ che' ,mo yang' or
chc' ,mo ,sho', in this way; i^l' il^ '^^'^^ 5^^o or 'tsen ,mo .chu ^ how?
iJV j^ T^ iia' ,mo yang', in that mode; :lg, j^ che' ,mo, in this way:

i^^ f^ 'f'llC
tsen ,ino yalrigS in tuhut way? The word )j j men is sometimes

used for K'mo in the Chihli mandarin, rj //on >.i -:>i*> t ';• -!

* In Peking shen' 'nio, or shen ,ma (with words changins their tone) ami shih ,ma. Shen

says Rang hi's dictionary formerly pronounced jin' or jin, both in the lower series. When ? be-

came sh and tlip word took its place among the mandarin tone classes II and III it changed again

in PekiTig by a new tone law from II to the hia p'ing, see Part T. chap 5, in paragraph 2.?.
CHAPTKU. ."J. RELATIVE rilONOrS'S. JF,'^

23 Tlio comparison of ^ 'tsiii [old sound 'tsim] with oho^ and na'. In

expressions such uk thi' prooedinpj swnis to require tliat it shonld bo called u

pronoun. In native dictionaries it is explained |"J ,ho, what^ It answers
to quo in quomodo Ziojc, when f-^ yant;' wor/r, iollowHit. In Kian»-nan na

yyy \& used tor 2? '*•''*'"• ^^ is spelt 'tseng by rrenuire, and itj bo pro-

nounood in smne jmrts. But 'ts^cn is mon> correct. Sofne 6t1ier WorfJrt in feti aVo

also variable m sound; c g. ^J k'eng or k'en, ^ ,sh»'n or senj^ (old sound

shin)).

24 'Ki 7J<^ several, how 7r) aiuj? one oftheindetinitepron<»un8, is also used

intenogatively, as in y^ ^^^ 'chi .shi. at tvhat time? 7^ '|p| 'ki ko' ^

,t'ien, kow mnny dans'? 7^ i*i^ TjC j/J^ 'chi ken mnli' .t'en, how innn>//o(/ft

of nrtOfH
25 The phrase ^' jy , to 'shau, compounded of two adjectives 7Wrt»y,/r?r,

also asks the question how manyf When in an indicative sentence the de-
rived use of these vrowls is readfly undorstooJ, as in |x n3c ^^ J^ r\\\\\\

shwuh ,to 'shau, he has not said if they are many or few, \. e.hotamany. The
interrogative use may have grown out of this.

The common inter rofjatiue inthenovt\\ for "how?" is^'to in the tone/tt'a

jo't'njr, as in 1^ ^ .to ,kau, bow high? The tone renders it uncertain

wliether ^^ is the ])roper character for this word. Shang p*ing is the tone

U8<xi when 'shau ^^ is added, ae in ^' ^^^ /^ ,to shan .jen, how many
men?

Relative J*ronou7is.

2f) The inb^rrogative jironouna I)eGOini' relativn in the answers to the ques^

tinns which they a.ik. as in the following cases. y^ ^ yfji ,t'a shV .shui,

who is he? %f /E liU^ P"^' huui teh shi .shui, I do not know idkd
-f^ Mtc
htik; "{^ ^
'^ [-I-J 3^ 1} .t^u'.tung ,si tih ?hr 'mk6%w%ich is
»'

f|/«|

the one thai stole; )3^ 7^ ^

/H 01^' IN mnh (m.i), rhi t«u' shf 'na ko',
I donotknato whichitis : :tij \\)\ {]\ I | )S ^ che* ko' .I1 .shih ,mo
.ming, what is the name rf this fish: ^y f\ 1I4 l!k r^ ^ kiau' puh
c'huh .sben ,mo .ming, / cannot trll what is its nrrme] -^ ^^ ll,| 3^5c^^'^°
1G4 MANDAKIK GUAMMAR. TAKT II.

"
,1110 kill' .t'bien, 2vhat is its price if -^\ ^jH ptr j^^ ^^ jiuli cliili .sheii ,1110

.t'sien, it costs nothhuj', i^v ^'"^ n'r WAi 't'*^^*" y**"?;' 'ki<ii (cliie) .shwoh, m
?/;/ia« loay is if to be cxplaimd; gxi -^^ 5n ® t^C M- fJX. ^^i^voh puli .lai

'tsen yang' kiai[chie] sliwoli, I cannot say in what ivay it is to he explained -y^
0^ ml ^^ '<^^^ -^^^ 5^'^^ ,hwa, ?<j/ie72. rfoes itjioicer'i /f\ T^P ;;^ ^^ /-J

f If: :tiit 7H ^^ H^ piili jChi slii' ,8aii yuch 'li .Invan slii' 'chi .shi, / do not
Itnoxo if it is in the third month or when it is; Jjy
'
4;^ /V f'|£ u^ p]

^ Ip is ^ V "fi yi^ '^10 jt'" 'li -t'^'ii 'yen 'clii ko' tsiir hidi till, m
that company of men hmv many bachelors of arts are there? 7N 7^ i?R

^ ^^ 1N M ^ 6^ ^vei' ,chi ,t'sing 'c'liii 'yen 'chi ko' tsiir liioh

till, 1 do not know exactly how tnany bachelors of arts there are; 'pj ^'
J^ $IfO /^ "pE 'yen ,to 'shall cliiaii' ,fii tsai', how many chair-hearers are

there at hand? ^IX ^^ [p) ^ ^^ nnih 'yen wen' ,to 'shaii, I have not

asked hozv many there are? ^ J jf^ ^|h1 /v .lai 'liaii 'chi ko' .jeii, how
7nany persons have come: ^\ T^r* -^ ^^ ilBl jnih ,chi 'yen 'chi ko', I do
not know what number.
27 Where we use a relative pronoun agre(?ing with the nominative of a
verb to express an actor, it is only necessary to use a verb with its object

follon^ed by till. Tih represents the particle ^che' of the book style. The
latter word though found in some of the south eastern dialects, tis in that of

Chaug-cheu in Fuli-kien, does not occur in tlie conversation of the north

except in quotations.

28 It will be seen in the ensuing examples, that tih is also found in the

absence oi )y\'^o,(\n Shantung sho) the word Avhich regularlv introduces a re-

lative clause. Tlius in f/j: W] || 1^ Q^ JJ ^ '^j'

itg'ni ,kang.t'sai
shwoh tih fall 'ts'i 'yeu t'sii', the method which you Just proposed is good,

P^ tih is the only jiarticle to mark the relative clause. This is in fact an
extension of its possessive force, as the modern representation of ihe genitive
particle -^ ,chi. The relative clause in a Chinese sentence has a fixed posi-

tion, whicii allows of being dropped without rendering the sentence

/y( 'so

indistinct. 8uch a clause is in fact a })rolonged compound noun in the pos-

sessive case, including a verb with its object. TST A fife M %' ^ /K
 CHArTKK. J. liKLATIVK PRUXOUNB. 165

P4t OO 'ff 'k^i •]<-» shwoli .wt>i slmir 'chti ,t'ien kian«];* ,che peh .siang,

Me ancients said, that on those who acted well heavtn would send down
many hlessinqs. In inaTidiirin this <niot.uti(>n would b;, pT /V^ j'j^ hZj ^'
pX
'till ,f'ien
1?)(^
van*
ri} fill

t'sT- 'kei ,t'a ,to ,to till

PP lYj iii
t'lili
U
'k'i.
'i-i

Tli<'
Jon ,Hlnvoh .wei sluur
sentonce ^\^} ^ Gi
^ .wii null .c'litii 'clic, woiild 1)0 in mandarin Jx ^ "1^ fW lT 11^
mull *vni ]»u!i tso' ,kwau till, Mere t:;ere 7io7ie who did not take o(fice. The
ohl 5xi <L T?<' y^ '^^''^ ,chi .liwai .i, my thouijhts, would hi- in colloquial

^Xi II J S .S»
'^^'^ ^'•^ jS'"^' 'siang.

"^ i§
29 Further examples are such as fl^ ^\ ^ |]|] ^ j| 'yeu .t'gien

tih pull 'k't'ii .k'ai ,siau, those who have money are unwilling to spend it ^^[^
W i^ Bj /v #<- c'hih .fang .t'sien tih .jen ,kia(chia), ^7i0.9e/)er5on.9 who
live on house property; ^ jT^ JQ 0^ 'yen ti' 't'u tih, those who have
?a«f/;p|ij ^ \]i] UJ ^^ tlllkiang hioh wen' tih yau' siau" ,f'a, Mo.sfi

who have learning will laugh at him: ^ l]j /}£ -^ ^^ /V lai tih sh'r

.shen ,mo .jen, who is he that has come'/

30 The book particle }y\ 'so often introduces a relative clau.se after the

subject of a proposition, ^fe ^)\ ^^ ^^ ^' J^ ^^^ (fj 'wo 'so

t.sau* tih .fang 'tsi shi' ,kien ku' tih, the house which I have huilt is strong;

"fill Bi % Vi] Av ipJ ,t'a '80 .wei tih shi' X'^nv^Jhat which hehas done.
31 In all such sentences 'po may be omitted, as in y^ J^* 0-J x
A^ tPJ -'^ jtVsie tih .wen ,chang puh ,t.sing ,kung, the essays which h
has written are not good compositions.

32 'So }y\ is also used in some common exprcssions in combination with

other words; e. g. ^ }y\ ,kuug 'so, a public 2)lace; Jy\ 01 sho t«ai', a
place] )y\ )J/» so 'i, thtrrfore. A .wen 'U phrase often used, is j^; tf: y^]

^ clur tsai- ho '80, where do you live? Another is \^ ^ fj" fTj fffJ

/£ ^- ^ 5^** '^^
-^""o *i'^ »*" ^^^^'
i^'^ '% "^^ ^"* Mictions are Just and be-

nevolent. Other ithra.s< s ri'ailily understood in conversation, are such as ^f

//I -^^ tt ^^'W 's*^ P"^* tsai', fhrre is no place in which he is not; 4!i^ //I

yf\ ^j .\vu so pull .Wfi. f/iryf /.•.

nothing he d<" ^ vf '^'>.
166 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART II.

Distributive Pronouns.

33 The words ^^ koh, -t^ chnli, ^ 'mei, every, eacJi, are used as dis-

tributive pronouns. ^ yv ^ ^ 3l .Q' kok .jen 'yen koh 'chu i', each
man has his oion opinion; ^ -^ [^ f^J p| 0^ ^i5 koh kwoli 'veukoh
kwoh till liwa', each kinydom has its oivn lanyuogc ;
-fj' -^ :^ f ^' koli

'yeu koh j&x\^^, every man has his ^iecuUarities;^ /V 'g* Q ClLkoh .jen

'kwan tsi' 'ki, each man attends to himself; iK J^ -^ ^ /l)^ >(^ chuli

.t'iau shi' puh shun' .sin. each of these things failed to please him; TfP Q"|'

E 0V 9- ^ elp] ^ 3^ _t na'jkien.c'hentihshi-'chuhyihjfiau

tseu' .hwang shang', that traitorous mandarin's affair was reported in every
particular' to the emperor ;^ g ^ Hi jlj tK] AL 'mei ,t'ian .tanj

jk'ai tsai' 'chi shang', each particular ought to he icritten out on paper : ^
*~^
.^t v^ chuh yih pien' ming, let each matter he clearly exp>lained
;

^ i^
tu
j-^ .^
I I
r-j.
'
^ ,
'mei .niep c'h.uh .men yih t'si^ every year
.0 ^ 'i
I go
"f
,
out once-
'

W^ T^ 1+ ^T ^U" 'mei yang' .t'sun 'hau ,sin, in every thing keep a good
conscience; ^ :i^ -\2 7\^ mei ,feng t'sih ,t'ien, every seven days. Koh,
also has the meaning all. Chuh. means each in succession. Tliis word is

common in Kiang nan. In ch'ih li it is not used colloquially except in the

3c on -"^^^ j^^^ ^^ literary style of conversation, "Mei, repeated denotes

always.

34 The numerals when repeated take a distributive sense, as in f^ f^

^ J^ .t'iau .t'iau 'yeu 'li, each statement is reasonable ; ^^ J|g m^
.t'seng .t'seng 'pai ,k'ai, they were placed in heaps one above another.

Indefinite Pronouns.

35 'Men means some person or thing. In negative sentences, and those

having an inten-ogative particle, shen' ,mo and .shih ,mo, are used in the

sense of any person, or thing. -^ \ IL ^^ 5l mei wei' ,i ,8heng, a cer-

tain physician; ~^ ^ ^ T'§ TR'yc" mei .chwang shi' .t'sing, there is

.some matter: T5 M* )S dfc .^ "Tmuh .shon ,mo .k'ung .fang 'tsi", there
CnAPTKU 7. INnKFISlTK PROSOrSS, l(!7

t« wo empty house; ^
5K W/b y^'^»
-§1- [i^;
\\\ ^^^^ j"^o si"' •^"i •"'• ^"t-^"

rt/<y /t'//er c'07«r/^ ^\ lu f^i TSt ]^ pull c'huh 'c'lian .slum ,ino, it dwa
not produce an ifihiuti] y\\ ^' \\' ^^ pnli ,q^\\\\ .6\vi\\ ,\i\Q, there U no ijreut

miatuke; ^ "Ck" Jfe "^ ^'i^:/ ^''Ll "I'^i pI^*'" .i»o t''hVh h<>h .ni, have yofl^

hought anythimj to eat? ,J^! ^j^l f/ix "^ )i^ 'sianp^ .shcn ,mo tso* .shcn

,Tno, if he fJiinks of anytJdng he does it.

3f) Several and the ])lural of some, are translated by ^§'ki, -^ ^§ ]^

# ^ fi U^ fe' "it ffi: ^ 'y^'^i '^lii ko' shell' 8hu' .c'han- tih 'lau

Vsdon 1)01^ .\a\, sevei-al aged 2^(^'ffons came; '^ y^ \y^ ^ i'^ 7^ ^
jjy m 'yen 'ki ,k'o 'Ian shn' nmh tsai" na' 'li, tlicrc arc sonic old ti-ec&

there.

37 Anytbinj; \a also expressed by ^^ ,Hie, or ±p yih 'tien a h'ttJe.

This jtarticle has already occurred as fonuinf]^ a })lnral to tho demonstratives

che' and na'. and in the comparison of adjectives, as expressing a weak sup-
eriority. ^^ ^T i'.Z ^ ji^i Ifljj .sh<'nf]f i' .mei .sie jeh nau', trade is not

brisk; ^ ^v P^ )-^ ]:} 'yen ,8ie D'hlili mnh 'yen, is th^ere amjthing to
eM or not^ J±[ xE i^ Jl "W ^ ft xu k«fv' l^ai' tsiangr shanp^^'yeu

,9ie hxra' .ri, ore Me vmU hatiy some pictures; §/[]

Jpy ^ -J* ,tan koh
,sie jih 'tsT, looited a few dmjs.

38 This use of tlie word .sie is also found exemplified in the phrase ^f"

^ 'hau ,sie, wawy, when in agreement ^\^th the subject of a proposition.

The same words are translated n liffJ,' heffer. wh^n tlior form the predi«ito
of some noun, at? in ^ p "^"f "^ TQ .kin jih 'liau ,sie .ri, to-doi/ lam
better. ,Sie also follows ^ ,to, as in [^l 1^ ^^^ j''2t
mai teh
])uh ,to .sie ,r'i, I hove not bov<jht ranch.

39 A verij Jitth\ is expressed

— ^ 5^
by " '

^ yih .sie or yih ,sio .ri, or yih'

'tien ,rl as in |j'^ ^'^ {{i Y'!t ^ yih .sie .ri .tsniit: 'yinp >
mnh 'yen, there is vot tJtn least trove nf it; ^ ^ j^li 111 ^* (5^
/T^ tJX '}'<*" y'^ j^'*" •'^* J^**'^
'^'^ ^'*'
-'"'"o i^'liwang', there is a little appear-
ance of vulgarity in him.

40 jSie also follows verbs in tho sense smnr. a little, with or without

one of the interrnr^ative relatives. \^ J^ \^ ^ fji'il \%^ f^ .t'a ,t'ing

168 MANDAIUN GllAMMAn. PAIIT II.

kion' ,Hie k(/ ,fiinf]^ (^"Sii?^) 'f^'i^'^gj hc^ heard 80inc tittle rumour ofif;]^ ^^
S #1 :& "il "6: M t'l! .t/(i Tartar* .si^ko* MmA\ ila\' .Ur^^'Vuhrkept
some gohl-fsh in a Ixtsin; jfe tl^ S tf S ^^i^'J ^9! ^^ ^ l5^ ^j^

f^ ,t'a tso' ,sie eheii^ ,mo .hu 'li .hu .tMi tih shi' .t'siiigj lie did admc foolish
thing.

Adjective Pronouns.

41 Thc3 most cnminoii adjective pronouns used in the sense of all. are •0p

jtu,-:^ .t'siuen, "^ ,kiai (chie). They form tlie plural of substantives as

already explained. The substantive to which they belong forms the subject,

while they themselves introduce the predicate, /v Ur W^l 1^ .jen ,tu

'hiau (s) teh, men all hiotc it; 5fe £S ^l '^ *

vLl^'wo 'siang ,kiai shV'

yih jsin, / thi7ik they are all of one mind,; ^<. ^ pK T5 yih .kia (ch)

.t'siuen pei' hai', the whole family s^iffereA;^ \\\ WP ^ t0 "({ji ^vo

.men ,tu puh p'a' ,t'a, wc do not fear them.

42 Words less often used in conversation, are ^% ku\ j\^ .fan, J:^ ^
kii' ,kiai, andi^|[ kai', aU.
J^ TA 11; :^ ~~^
ll ,t'ien hia' .jen kii^

shi' yih Mi, all men arc one as to their moral principles; /\ yC tp^ T^P
y^ ^ f^'^ ^; ^^ .jen ta' kai' chi 'yen shan pau' ngoh pau^, men all

knoiv that there is retribution for virtue and vice.

43 There are several words meaning all, which are used in addressing per-

sons, and before their noun or a numeral; such arepg,chu, ^ koh,ixljlieh,

^1^ chung*. Lieh, maaxis aro-anged in order. p^1i£ .elm wei', r/erdle^

on en '
^ Ir /L chung' ti' ,hiung (s), brothers.'

44 The whole number, in all, are expressed by >To luflg 'tsung, :pk;;

IS kung' 'tsimg, l/d # |^ P]

'tiling kung^,
Jj-J^

't'ung .tHmg, ~ ^f^ yih

kaiS — |§ yih 'tsung, — ^
tft yih 'tung, "
yih kung', y] yih

t'sieh,
—^ yih .t'si. The pronouns ^P.-tu,^ .t'siucii, ar^sometimes

used after these forms; — IS ^ M fe til^' y^^ '^siujg ,tu shi^, che'

yang'. the whole of them arc so, but they are also often used themselves as

indrtiuite pruUuuUH. ^^'j -r_; ^v; ^

CHAI'TKIl 7. ADJKCTIVK PUOXOUNfi. 169

4a Tlie sense iv/ioevcr, iclmti vci\ is t'xprtjssed by }\^ .fan, nil : y\. /[j
ta" .tJin, in gene ml ; zK. \'W tii* kai', y\, fiv tu" ,tu,xC ^ U" slnvai',/C

jii, t'*^" 'f'- 'ill meiiniii^ »yjo« ///c ichoh^ iti. f/ejicraf. yvC ^1a /v 'L^ K,^
SJl 0- a/; -g ^ >< M CL ta- ,ti ,j.n ,sin ,clu 'm liau' .kun-'.miu-

lu' kwci- .ri 'i, (jenerally Hpcakiny men's minds are fond of Uterary reputa-
tion, riches and honour, nnd these alone; y^. J\j V 3c ^ ^^ |?N J-il ta*

.fan niuh 'yen chc .t'lau li, among nmnhind (jenerally this doctrine does not

exist; A A ^ § 1% ^^ Ic ri^ ilS ".^/ ^'"' J''" >^'^"^' til' y'""-?

UKiir ,su yair .twaii .fang, all men in their behaviour shi>)/IJ J, i' ri>ryerf. The
phrases .fau, ta' .fiui, aud tiv kai' are colloquial. The otliers more properly

belong to the book style, but are soinetinics heard in conversation.

4b' The verbal })hras('s.^ j]\j ])uli ,ku (,(lni), not restraining, not limit-

'"!7;Hr> fJWP'ihluu', JtvV/<oH^ considering •}(*)^ Ix-^"' l''*'''S *^'"ri{| -^"-^^'li iS

as you please, according to your convenience, are used in the sense whatever,

in conjunction with an interrogative jjronnun tnllowing. The interrogative

pronoun then becomes relative: ^^ -jlj/ ^, p^ \)\\\\ ,ku slii' ..shui, whoever
it may he :\i'it^
|5{J ^^ 0^ 1
1

-J- W^ sui pien' sIump ,mo shr heu', at what-

ever time ;y{\ f^lnj r'J /^ y^j -^l- i^nhUm- Mi) .jail .ho sW, whatever ina7i

or matter it he ; y^\ f PJ ^^ J^ prdi ,kn ,to 'shau, hoivrvcr many there be;

Viii SWS itii yJ •'^'" i'.shen,mo ti" ,tang, at whatever y*loc€.

47 Other, another are exjires.scd by //IJ ineli. with or witliout a substjin-

tivo. When the noun is not used ko' or tih is found instead; ^ }\] -(iJ.

/v ^ ^'t //'J H:/ p"h yiujg' che' .j.n yau, kiau' pieh tih, do not use
that nwu but call another; ^ /j\] /^ y.-u pieh .jen, there areothers: /y\]

it ^ ^Ll rich wei' ,sien ,sheng, other teachers: );l] |'$"

H^^^ ^^
pieh yang* tih ,fei 'uiau, another kind of birds; ^ )}!) ||l'J I'j'j- lift yen
pieh ko' 'kiai slnvoh, thexe w another explanation.
48 Another moile of giving the sam*' sense, is by th<^ uw^ of -/y ling* and

^ yen', followed by the subslauiive verb, -/y /E

" —
~~^
]p -aU ill: ling'

shr yih ko* tau* 'Ji, that tJf another matt- r .^^ /l£ ' ||i'| /\.yeu' shi'yih

ko' .jen, that is another man; y-j ip'l {"I ~j' l^j- 7t"^ling' yih ko* jih
170 MANDAKIN' lillAMMAR. PAKT II.

'tsl tsa'r .Ini, the equivalent to L/ j-i -f^- ^ Icui jiii t.sar .iai. nn anothrr

(lai/ J will come o</fiiii,

40 ,Tuu. fiinf/lc. aii«l tub. olone. arc used in an ailjeotivc and proiioininal
"j^ tuii ko' .^ jau
sense, as in Q^ ||VJl "tsi. iJrI ko-, a person (dour: ^<g
g— '
yV tall tsi- yili Jen, owr- hij hit>i.st(/': ]'$ Ijf. fjS] -j- j}^ •],] .tan

ko' tsi' .lai, r/rc 7/oM ('o?»p rt/<i»e/'^ilj ||i''J ^^ )-[•. xE [J-| Jl tnli ko- 'tsi

clur tsai- ,shau sliang-, he lives alone on a hill. Yih ko' 'tsi
— ' '|[ul ~J^,

n person, (iloii-e, without fmniJ If, irithoni cnnii»tnioit-'i. In Kianu-nan ~|*

.kfvn is used for i|»i| ko-.

~)() ,Tan, i^aloue, andj /|]^ ,ku, Hinyle. an' used in .'^oinc jilnases, as in

^ :^ /V ;tan ..shen yih .jen. a man alone; fjj\ ^Jf

'
'

/V .ku ,sl icn

yih .jen. a man alone; j/J\ iili ip- -^ .-kii ;kii jt-sui .tun, solitary.

Suhstitute-s for l^ronoiais.

51 The adjeetives u.->(h1 in jdaee of jiroimnus are numerous. For the jxn--

fxonal pronouns / and thou, there ai-c in use phrases such as ^ 7C "lau .fn.

/r ^ '-"iiiw ti'. 7; ^ /L '1:'" -Inunu^ 7C "n/ ^-i' ,k<\- 15/ ciT ?l^f> -ko.

yC ./% 1f^' .hiung, /"Li 'S* .hiung ,t-ai, 4^ /L j''" -l^i'^^o (^'«'^'cro/e>«#i/-o-

///c/-), '^^ /L -lii'^i^ (wise) .hiung, ^Aow.

52 As demonstratives should be noticed, /j-^ 1"'»,. ori[iiiuil, helonijing to

this place; '^ .kin (cb). the present. Ten. means f7//.9, usually in refi-renee

to place, and .kin this, in regard to time. /\^ tjlJ. /V "inii ti- ,jon, n^itine

of this plaee; 7l^ p| ni-l 'l>^ii kweh InxTi', Mn lamfit-afje of this count r// :7p^

WJ J J J ^i 1"'^ .c-lia\i 'ta ])an-. thecnstumeof the present dynasty, y^ /£

4^ 'l?t M* ,t'a hIii* jk'U .kwan 'fu. //f. w f//^ maijistrote nf this place: ^
y\^ ,kin ,t-ien, this day: ^^ "4* -'^''^ .ni»'n. //'/'^^ y<v/.r.

5.'5 For thu reflexive pronoun self, ri?r;/, oirn. is mneli used,
>Jj^ .t-siii.
jy*</

^ili J
'
.t-sin 'sb.n. irith ,ny otcn h<ntd: aH |k ^M -t'^i" v^'H ^''H'"

ehien', ?r/VA my otan eyes I saw If: ,^'Ji |-l I'// l^'lij .t'sin 'k-eu ,fen fu', ht

couiwfinded leifh his oirn li/>Si

«HAPTKP. 7. srnsTiTrTF.R rriR rnoxorNs. 171

.">4 For the IiitiiTo'^Htiw hoir /iKi/tt/f c^ J/ ,tj» "sliau. iininij, fiw. ftir

usctl ill ciiuiljiiintiiiu. .'I'o is iisrd ulsn in ki .t'>. ]anc mniitjf

,'),') Fit tln' jutssfssive /«//, tho aidjritivcs nscJ un(k*i»r(.fiatiiiij. Tlu-v uj"«

ll\<; tsii'ii". chfajK i>oor\ ^^ .Imii, coA/; |'|LJX ]»i% sjtui/t, vu/f/ur: /y sijiu,

snm/f: iji fsmi, roarsc. \)j^ y^-\- tsii.-u- ^;i^J;^^ iiiji juxw futnilij iiavie; ^^
''^ tsi"ii- .ininj;, ^\2 ^ tsicir tsr, m^ nnnir] |')(jx f;(J; pi' sinjr^ rrnifumilg

n:uiir : I'i'-jx i=t I'i* .niiuu-, inij iirojwi' imm, \ |>|(.jj{

^ pi- c-lm'. \{^i TjJi pi- t^^

I'Hl^ ^Ll^ i;'"

.)>ianir. )ity tutficc jjlacv: ^^ j§ .hiin shf, ^- ^<. .luin .kia,

:jl.*i
I j .liiiii incii, ///// JunifK': ^; }]\] .liau .kinij (tlioni). //«y ti/yr; /|^ --yj

'siau .ming, ;//// fuiiuf. /y ^^ siau .ri, mif son ; /J^ yv^ 'siaii 'k"iiien

(tinni// floy), iiLii Kvh : /J^ J7|J 'siau .smi, my t/rouifson: /j^ 'jj^ siau .t*n

{ifoiw little sclinhir). /:-4- ~:i^ 't"sau tsi*. ;//// ikiihv, -^ ^p| "f sun .luiii"',

///// «</»»<•: I1'(2 r^j tsirrr iiiii- (nei'j. >/^?/ wife.

The words "^ slu-, rotfiu/c; and -^^C .k\:i,/</)in/)/. are also used t'nr //<y,

'"" •
r^f M-^
•'^^"'* ^^'" '".'/ !/"ffnfjer hrofhcr: ^ ^j- shf tliih, mfj nephew;

?i /ii'^
''^"' i"'i'. "'^ >/<>nn'j( r atJ<fer: '^7 fi^ she" ,t*sin, 7//y nldtions; "^
H- shi'- .slicng. /;/// sisfrr'.s .so/,; ^- j;|[ .she- .f'\i. 7»// srhohir\ ^C jX. 'l^''''

i'\i\ nil/ j'o tin r; ^Z /l_^ M\a .Wwiwj:, rtif/ clt/er broflter ; :^C ^1| .kia ".vau,

uiy'eJder hi'othry's wi/e : ^C '([1 .km 'tsir, tut/ ehlcr sister; '^C :jj)f .kia

sliuh, ii>y fiifln r'.s vUh r tnother.

5') For tlio scfoud posscssivo tliy, ll*>uv, several words cjtprcssivcol'nspeet

arc fiiiplnycd. Tiiey urc J,'?C kwei". 4j^ ,tsuii. hoiiounihle) ^j .kaii, /"''/A;

-^ lii>^'*j .'/""<', Jm/initrot; '£ laii. (VJ: yC ta". y/Vf?^; J^.^J Jf.J"
ku.i" tu

(politer), your house; li vi '^^^'i' 't'\, y<>itr body ; 'p\^ J^ kwci- (

-lur,

^K Tffl k^vci- ti-, //oM/- iKtfive pfavr; ^ ^^- k>\"t'i'^ sin^'-, what is yourfa mi-
hj nnmef ],'( /X kw.i* ,k( ii;; {waieh), your mje ; p|] kwei* kwnh. //"" r
eountry; 4"- !(;|-. .tsun sin;;-, your J'n mily u(i)iie: Xy- }/\. .tsuu .kiii;,', //<,

-^'^
"j/« ;
-%p .tsim tsi'. V'M/r )i<i,iir\ p,/j '^ [
.li.uj sin>;', your fmuHy nnme;
*J?J ml= •'^'^i f*l«eir. yoiry f/'/i . j^ij -^1 -kail .iuIm«x. your uoin<;''^T Jjl liii;^'

rheiig-, yuur iri/'e; ^f Xf- V\U'4' .tsiin, your /other; ^ Uplirii;- .lan^'. your
son; ^ 7[\ lirii;- .t-jui;,', yttur mother: ^y ^V !»"?:' .kurii;. your son; -^
jX liui;' nil. fh 5^^* liii-- iiir,ii-. yoiir (lau,jht,r :
^ ^'^
^V li"g* 'sl^-ni
172 MANDARIN GUAMMAR. TART II.

jchiiiii, your son (addressed to ])ergons styled 'lau .ye) ; ^y ij^ tj^. lino-

.p'o .j/o, your f/randniothor :~\. -^ ta* .imw^, your name; /C 5yC ^'i' l»-u',

your literary name. So also "Q* 't'ai, A/V/A, honoured, is u.sed in p:|* -^
jt'ai .niiiij;-, y/02*r name ; i^i* yl^ jt"'ai hau', your literary name.

"Pan ^ valuable, is used in conjunction with some nouns, as in _^ 'fT^

'pan .hang, your shojy; ^ j]j' 'pan ,elieu, your boat: ^| i/j/^ 'pan liau',

the name of your shop.

57 Shang' _Ll upper, and \ hia', hiver, are used ie several conipuuuds

as possessive and personal pronouns, as in Jf^ _Xl tu shang', your house;

^ r fihe' \\va', my cottaye (house); ^^ P koh hiii-', i/o^t {under your

2)avilion);'^ I ,t'iii \na', you {under your elevation); /^ ] tsuli hia"',

you {under your feet).

CHAPTER VIII.

Ox THE Verb.
1 Verbs arc simple or compound. The former are single words, such as

fp 'piau, to mount on rollers; ^Ijk'^eh, to engrave; -^ ,t'un, to sxvalloxu;

/'Ih shun', to submit. The verbs in the following phrases are examples of

simple verbs; ^^ P^ ^^ _L 'ki .slii tung- ,kung, ^vhen do you begin to

IJFl
fn ^
>feL >^lf*
^: jk'ai hioh .t'ang, to open a school; (in the north,
-^^
-^
^ ,slm .fang).

Formation of Compounds.

Co-ordinates.

2 Verbs alike or co-ordinate in meaning are placed together in au order

determined by custom. ^\^ §\^ hwa' ,siau, to ivasfe money; ;5S wW yi"g'

.c*heu, to return favors; to entertain friends:

tung' tsing', to rise; remain; move

® ^ Sv pff"
'<^'lii .<'hu

and rest; i. e. actions generally :n]\i jy^^

tiau' hwaii', to exchange;-^- rm biau' shun', to be Jilial and compliant;

 CUAl'TEl: S. 1-OKMATlON OF CUJirOL'NDS. CO-OUDIN ATKS. 173

^j .kwiui k'HU", to luuk at varcfully ; :t{jj, ^^Qf .siiiu .yau, /o bt self-

composcd;'^ ^ .v.-ei nih (i), to dlsohcj:'^ jjj. ,{1^ ttli ,yt'U ,.sr 'k'un^r

kii-, /o grrjcfe, ponder, and/car; ^^ ^' pj/j; J|'j ^jji; ,kwan k'air .t'siiiu

jt'sai shi', to look at, gaze upon, conjecture cbouf and make trial of: ^v^L )1jir ili

,yeu, to loundcr <diout at leisure; p|$ jlj ii'J* flfffl 'kiaiijL,' sili 't'jiii Inn', to

study, practise and discuss; ^/; lyfei ,t'hi p'ieir, /o deceive; i^ J^ .lino-

juli, to treat contemptuously.

3 In some comlnnations the order is variable, as iu '('[\^ j^Vjf hen' yiieii'

or yuen' hen', to dislike, hate.

4 Some words have a tendency to stand frst or last, as ^\ ,k'i (,ciii) to

deceive, iu .|^\ |Ji^<j ,c-lii .man, ^o deceive and conceal from; |[\ ^ jc'hi

i\v, to cheat and injure: ^\ "J^ ,c'hi 'Ining, to cheat.

5 "When a verb is tlie object of another transitive verb, the latter jjrc-

cedes: n J ,m 't*au yen'^, to provoke dislike; 'rf] ^ t({^' p'a' ,sieu 'c'hi,

to fear doimj ivhat is slinriuful; ^f ^y\ tseu' ,siau, to report the govern-
ment expenditure; \{^ ^X 'li"r^ kiau', to receive instruction.

To this headint; may also be referred many ex])ressions containing J J 'ta

to beat, to practise, as ^J ]% ta chang', tojight ; JJ -^- 'tnswan', to me-

ditate; to plan; T4 ^£ 'ta tieli, fo raise in laijers ; j] J>^ "ta t'an', to in-

vestigate; JT fei iiP. (tT ll'ti) "f'l k-oh shuiS <o */rc^; ivhilc sitting; (in

the north 'ta 'tur) jj j[_j '*:^ 'ta ,pa shi', to live by one's wits. That 'ta

governs the latter word in all these cases, andisnotco-ordinate with it, seems
probable becanse it froverns kieh, a knot, in j] Jflp 'ta kieh, (o tie. For
we hear J J |tJ IP'l 'T'bi
';> "lian-j: kn- kieh, fir fid) knots. It is also used

in a transitiv(> manner, in ^\ "^f f J J;|'-

^iil }'"'' liwci' 'ta swair .j>*an,

he cannot use the counting board; j 4 ^j' ^ 'ta ,shu .slun, to stretch one's

body, for shen shen yjiu 'jffi |ip 'Jx siraighfrn the body. Hire also may b<'

placed phrases formed by ^J 'k'o, may, and another verb, as HJ |[^ 'k',,

l>' a.', formidable; where as will Ix^ .sh«'wn PJ 'k'o, Iwcomes a mood particle.

6 Verbs placed toj^etln r, two or thn-*' in nnmb<»r, may l)o all oxjiressive

of motions, or of actions withont motion, or of both these combined. Jflien

motion is an clement in each verb, the order in which they stand is that of
174 M.\NI>AUIN (;R.\MMAn. PART II.

prioi'ity in time. ^ _t 5k 'tseu sliang' .lai. tJiOj ivaJlvd up : [f \j ^

kwei' pai', to hied and how, Ji^jr ^l-lj pai 'tau, to shah'e cind overturn: ttj^

-^ 'p'aii Iv'ii', ffo {running) ; %^ ^j^ 'tscu .lai, {iccdldny) conte ; ^. ^^' .nu
k'iii*, take mvcnj.

7 When tljp verbs do not contain tlie idea of'tinio, tlicy ufL.-n stand in the

relation of species aitd genus, the fonner as in the case of snbstantives standing

first HSj .^fj t'cng 'sie, io ivrite out a fair copy ;jy ^,uj .c'han 'sie, to copy;

pJl i^ hu' shng', ^0 escort for protection; f]^- -j^ ,kiai (,clne') sung', to

esco?-^ as a criminal; -J'l .-j^ yah snng'. fo escort as a prisoner ; f^ ^

])ai'' wang'. ^o visit on ceremony; ^ ^rfitian^ Avang^ a visit to cc^nsoJe mour-
7iers; '\^\ ^. "yaug wang*^, ^o look tip to and expect; ^^J ^C'chi" kiau', fo

instruct by giving directions; glli ^JC hi tin' kiau', to give instruction ; a|£

^ ,sheng 'yang, ^o hear, p)^^od.ucc; iJV -S l^^i"g" yang'j ^o give presents to

and sup2)ort;J\^ ^ .p'ei yang', to attend to and bring up; ^ ^^vj ting'

tso',^0 w«/i-c to order; T/JC iSx 'pn-u tso', to maJce goods by contract, (south-

ern phmse).

8 When one of two or three verbs in a compoiuid expresses action or the

action beginning, and another time or tlie action conchuled, tlie Latter stands

layt. )$ l^nl jt'i^'n 'pn, to add and make complete; ^f J^ ^^ shah shang'

.lai, they came onjighting; |pg §^ 't'sing tso', jilease sit doivn ;
^\i^ ^ 't'sing

'k'i, please to rise; |q l-U 'tien hwa', too'eform by instruction; jt/C ^U ticdi

'si, he has fallen doicn and killed himself ; ^ ^^ k'u' kwo', I have gone

there. To these examples may be added conii)onnds formed Avith ^jp Inng-',

as ^ j\^% lung' (neng) shah,

to kill; ^ ^}^IJ lung' "tan, to overturn;

ISi lung' liwai', to meddle loith and injure; %%^ ^i ,shau ,tsiau, to cook a

thing till it is burnt.

9 An intimation of an action precedes the action, 5x1 ^ Vv/L '^ oD

ngt. ('w(.) yau' slnvoh kii' hwa', I am going to say something; y\\ ^ i\X

PftI pnh van' shwoh liwa', do nut speak.

 C'llATTKU S, AIXII.IAUV WOKD.S. i7r>

Anx'tUanj iror(fs.

(r roups, of two.

iU Auxiliary wor.ls aresiiclias losing tiuiir own ind.'jK'ndcnt character and

orovprninfT powor, arc applied to limit other words in thtM'r action or significa-

tion. When two verhs stand together, one being the itrincipal word (and
nsnally transitive), imd the other auxiliary (and intransitive), the former

precedes. IvXjaniples of «?<x<7/rtr?'es which limit the. verb to a aimjh act of

perception will be first given.

'f^ teh, to (Jit, t.r BJ till are j-.ined to a few simple verbs, as
\Mt 1^'liimu
(s) tehj^o hiow] he aware of; pjQ ^^ Ki' teh, fn rcmemher: ^ ^ jtMllg
teh, to hear of; t3? fj^ 'tung tih, I understand.
^ kien', (chien') to pa-ceive, often expresses instantaneous meeting, and
separate acts of perception, as in iffi, ^ ir kien-', ^* meet', ^ Mx -^ven

kienS to hear of; iJjf >2i P't^^^g- kien', <o 7>ie€< ?f;<V7/.

^ choh is ojuployed more extensively than the preceding words, bein"-

use<l in expressing single actions generally, jis in gQ Ski' choh, <o remem-
Im-: TJ ^ 'ta chnh, to atrike; i^^ ^ 'siang choh, to think of\ Wt ^
t'ih choh, ^> AvVA-; l-Jtlt ^ sliui* ulioh, <o go to sleep; Jj^ ^ chan' choli,
to stand.

^ teh, is also occasionally employed to exjjress the limited possibility of

an action, as in [^ llp'shi teh, it maybe done; f/ij! ^ im' teh, it viay be
done. The bt^t test for judging if a verb following another is co-ordinate or
auxiliary-, is to observe if it will bear the insertion before it of t<'h, ^^ ..r pnh
-^\. If not it should Ihj considered as co-ordinate. Thus \% ^ 'f^ 'shi

l)uh teh, it omjht lutt to be done. This test fails in a very few cjisis, as in that of

*-'7C 1^ '1>"»^^ ^*'^j which admits no interniediatt> word.

1 1 Some auxiiinries yivc direction to the action of the verb. The verbs
employed for this purpose, are such as Jlshang*', <o </o uj),]^ kwo*, fo j[>av?»;

r shang', to pass; above; on; snpcribr; j!j( J^ .pan shang', <o remoffi up-

wards if Yl] Jl 'pu shang', to 7ncnd; to compbf,-. fiJJ Jlto' shang', tojnle

^'P ; :f^ pai shang', to put on in order; ftij; _Xl .fuug shang', to sew on;
176 3IAN1)ARIN (SRAMMAI:. PART II.

I hia", hcloiv; to go hclow: inferior: \]L \ ,1a liia', to dmio dovm; \r\

\ .lieu hia', to leave hchind; J^ I"* 'she hia', to throw away; oT P

'hii hia', iwomised; ^- \ .f'sun hia', to leave in a place.

:(^ kwo', to pass hy ; past; ^ ^^ 'tseu kwo', to ivalk hj; J|ij :jlW .yau

kwo', to scuU jmst; ^J|^ ^Ig. ,f'-i kwo^, to fy past.

^iH, t.siu', to enter ^^X 3^ shah tsin', tojicjht one's way iii:
"x ;TMi-;^l''-^''^

tsiii', to receive inside.

\\\ c'huh, to go oiit;^^ {Xj .na c'huh, to bring out; XrL U4 .lieuchuh,

tojloio out;^j;^ Uj .t'au c'huh, to run away from.

Ip^*- 'chwen, to turn; to turn round; jiBJ f t'^ .hwei 'chwen, to turn hack;

IjItJ 'Pt^ ^'"^^ 'chwen, to turn over; ^}L '1^ ,1a 'cliwen, to pull round;

^|l] .t'sien, before; front; an adverb or adjective is used in the same man-

ner as the preceding verbs. So also "^ heu', after; behind; e. g. i/[> li'Q

HO ^X« It^ i^ ''^i 'p'au .t'sien 'wo 'p'au heu', you tualk before and I will
lualh behind; rt^ -f^ t'ui' heu', io go back; 7^ HlJ'tseu.t''sien,^oacf^7a?^ce.

These two words however are less common than JL. shang' and \ hia', not

being used as verbs when standing alono in the colloquial; whereas Hand
P have a full verbal power, as in _J^ ^\K ^' J shang' ,king k'ti' 'iiau,

he is gone to the capital;

12 Some auxiliaries describe the beginning, cessation and completion of an

action. The beginning is expressed by f^ 'k'i, to rise; begin, which corres-

ponds sometimes to our adverb up) after verbs, as in i/p /<Cj chan' 'k'i, to

stand up; ifSx ^ tso' 'k'i, to begin doing -^^W 7t£l jP^^ ^^'i' '^ begin re-

moving.

The cessation of an action is indicated by \^ .t'ing, Jc |± 'cln chu'

1f- 1i t'ing chu'f i paS to stop; cease: IE "^ if H f ,kung ,iu

.t'ing chu' 'Iiau, the work is stopped; ^%, ]^^ ,c'hui ]»a-. to finish bloiving;

\hi wl2 ^so' paS to finish doing, not more commonly y\ Jffx inih tso' cease

doing.

Of the words that denote the co???^^/e^/o?< of actions, .Avan and shah are

colloquial, while tain' and pih are .somewhat bookish.

ClIArTER 8. AUXILFAKV WORDS. 177

7J2 -^^fi"' to end; to finish ; comphte ; ^Pp y^ liiiii;' .wan, to have done

acting] pjQ: ^(2, 'Kian^ .wan, to finish speakimj.

^^ shall, ^> cud; oriji;inally tliis word i.s tlic same Avith 7|\^ sliali. to kill;

hence ^o ^^w^/; as hnX ffu j^'*^'" '^^^^'^^^' ^" ''"^^j I

^u r'in,? sliali, to pacify
compJdely (southcin word).

^i j)ili, to end; separate; uX* h— f^hwoli \)\\\, to finish speakin(j;^^^i±\^

,t'an pih, to finish harping.

Mff tsinS <o A7-i*«y fo a7i end; finish; (coinniDii in tlic north ),)j||j ^^ inieli

tsin', to finish the destruction of; i\X i'^. ,slicu tsin', to finish gathering in.

f$i .c'lieng, to complete; HI ^ ^ftji Jj)l ,kung ,tu tso' .c'heng, his work
is completed.

JlJ tair, ^0 ayrivf:. at; to; as an auxiliary verb and intraii.sitive to arrive ; j^
±)j .-^un^' tan-', arrival of prresents, or of an escort; ^.m ±0 ,liii tiiu', to ar-
rive; TT^ 5:0 -^'^i tau", to come to.

13 Other auxiliary word.s give the idea of collection and separation. J^

'lung, a southern word gives the idea of collection, as in ^^ J^ 'tseu 'lun"^
to come together; J\ 7^ ping' 'l'i»o> ^'^ ^'"/wy v'^i^j union.

(^ ,k'ai, <o o;jc;i, expresses separation, as in yj f^.] Mx ,k-ai, <o sfjja-

fl'*^; 6)6 l?f"-|

shwoh jk'ai, to converse on a matter and agree to have done
yiin ,k-ai, to divide eipially; ^^ |;(-| 'tseu ,k-ai, to icalk away
'] ,chiun .yiin ,k'ai, divide equally.
\\.JL
In some dialects 13X san^ is used as an auxiliary of separation or dispor-
sion; in mandarin however, it is only used as a co-ordinate, as in ^ \\i i\^
J^- fall san' .yin .fsien, ^o y/ye OM^wowcy; [ajI mJ^.H san-, to leave and
separate.

14 Words expressive oi restraining, resisting, and destruction form another

class of auxiliaries, j 3: ^''"S 'o dwell at, adds to the verh thi- idea oifixcdness or

restraint: ff|> J J 'pang chu', to tie i/;):$p( |3: 'f^«i chu', to lock up; ]^\
jit .Ian chu', to resist; imjjcde ; 'lj* ];£ kwanchu', to govern and restrain
k li k'au' chu', to rely upon.

i-'l'. tiau', common in Nanking mandarin, as an auxilian*' to verbs of a-

17^ MAXDAUIN (iUAMMAl;. PART U.

Landonim'ut and destruction , is seldom used in iKntheni niuidarin. J[li f .'|'.

^t'ui tiau', to push aivmj ] jfi V-^^ 'sUo tijur', to thioio (Lwaij.

-^ Ic^ii', to (jo; auxiliary to verbs of drivinjj;. resistance, etc. is common

in the north: ^ -^ ,tieu \v\v, to thruiv aicai/; ^ "^ k'i" Ir'ir', to throw

dicay, ^% ^ ,t'ui k'ir. to push cava//.

^(^ 'si, die ; as in JT f^ 'ta 'si, to hiU.

J^X sl»ali, to llll;
^f- ^Jl^ng'
shah, to l-ilL lf| Invai', to destroy: ^ l'^ lunu;' hwai', to spoil', injnrc.

\^ mieh, to destroy; PJC tS ^J't^ X

11^1 ,^-'Ji"i I'li^^' na>k<V'ho, ?>/o?r oj^^

f7i(j« light ;^ M sih mieh, fo destroy.

The foregoing; three words completing the action of the preceding verh,

might he placed among co-ordinate compounds, hut they all admit of the in-

sertion of teh and puh the positive and negative particles, and therefore may

be properly classed as here among the auxiliaries of destruction.

15 Words expressive of excess and superiority form another class. They

consist of ^^ kwo', -^q 'si, and such as descrihe victory and defeat. ^
kwo', to jiciss; to, exceed; p*^ UM '^ t©, -"'^n -t'eu fahkwo', thchrcadhas

risen too much (of bread-making) ; 7fi ) 5{i r® 'shui "cluing kAvo', the water

has risen too hi(jh;y^ \>^ pj5 -^^ t'ai' .yang shai' kwo', it has Icon sunned

too much. Kwo' qualifies verbs here just as it (jualities adjectives, as in ^/L

^^ shuh kwo', too ripe. It points out that there is excess in the acticm or

quality of the noun constituting the subject of the proposition. Tlje verb

must be intransitive. Thus a neuter verb and an adjective, in the predicate

of a proposition, are the same thing in Chinese grammar.

^\^ 'si, to die, is used figuratively to express the violent effects of actions.

P^ j^U <^'hang* 'si, to sing a person to death; :^{, y(^ ^{1^ k'i- 'si,t-a, to he.

violent/ 1/ angry with him.

-^ '
M^^ -^f . . IT j^ ,

H^. ,ying, to conquer ; PXl ^t|| 'tu ,ying, to win a game; -J J ^^ ta .ymg,

to iviu a hdttle.

Ir. :shu, to he defeated; i||'l \\^\ 'tu ,shu, to lose a (jamc; if*li Ijiij;: chan-

jshu, to lose a hattle.

^i"
fjj^ sheng', to conquer; %% ly'^ shah slu^jg', to gain <> hdffle :

,cheng sheng', to prerad in a disjmte.

cHAi'TKu S. Aixii.iAnY wonns. 179

1() The dcnSH'cne^ft of an action is ex|»ros8CHl by ^^ tiujj:;', to fix; \\Sl, /\z-

shwuli ting*', to say dt'v'uhdlij\\\^ TL '" '"';-,'? /<^' advisi' iqton and dicidc;

^Ty^iL^t- -'il-T'iJi

...
«^ rest.
ting*, fo
'-A ^'^
;>/«(•<•

^i3( sluihj /o kUI) Jinn: fixed : |i>£ ^j^ slnvoli sliiili, speak decidedly.

t'E '^': die; fixed; 4'- tj'J fift !?b •'>•

ft?» ^l'»' ,t'.sing 'kijing "si, or shall

tfte thiny has been discussed and determined (ui. It shoiilcl hv. obsi.Tved tliiit

tUo law ofunaiigement is the same, wlujtlieraiiiuuguiixiliariusurco-oidiuatw,

.

that ^suhstau^'. })iecod<'S and uccideut follows, and tliat the action which occurs

last is last in onler.

17 Siibsta7Uives aie sometimes cinithined icifh re/*/'*' in groU]i.s t>t" two or

three words, as —L ,kung, wurk; in fj)l^

~L. .t'lieng Jvung, to eomj)lete,\*^

'^JjL e-liih fan*, to {e<d rice) dine, or breakfast; ^^f ^j .k'i 'mn,, t<> ride (a

horse) ;\3]^
•Pa -di*
-^ tnh ,shu, to study {books); ^
*^* *^'*
-f^'am Wi\ to to rite (char ac-

tiii'fi). The projKT fbrcoofthe .suh.stautivc is lo.st in thene exinvK-sions, at

Iciist in trauslatiun.

To such exami>les may he added .some formed with^ 'yon and 3i|f .wu,

or Ix "I'lii- 'i*^
rj 'ffi yQ 'y^' ^•''i''' •>% ^'^ "" .'/"t>«^;i x S ^^"^' ^'^'^'j '^

M «y^ j/oo(/.

18 ^h\n\ adjectives follow fcW^s to limit the extent of their action, just

as is done by the auxiliary verbs ah'eady exempliti"d. y^ / v "td llKl'ci'

.jen k'an' ]»'o', he was looked ronteniptuously on by others :'^^ "XL tseu kin'

(ch), to loalk )mir; ^J J^V.v hur. to beat to tatters ;^% ,n shw>h .ming,
'

to speak plainly', ti}! ,-{>£ tung t'eu", to understand tJiorowfhly: ) *J

/b y \}\'\ i'^i .li'» yih ting' yau' ,k"ai .kIipu. the river must be dcc/M-ncd;

^ *^- lung- .p'ing, to pndo smooth :

j^T iVY' 'tusuiS/'> ^/'t^'/f
by heaiiny;

sic iK* shwoh 't'o, to apeak ilecidedly upon; ^Ht IE 'l^'^'

cheng'. to place

properly: ? ^ 5.^ wah M'\\\\\:^,to ftcoop hollov: y(/(I ^i <l<«'i fhung', /o

rt(/f/ weiyht: }\] 7^ y""K' ,kwang. to use up com)tlefely.

One adjective ^J" hau is usi^i after any verb, in tUo seusp of oomi>letiou,

as ^ijjf *^ j" M't; '.sir hau .ni, Aarc youfnisfwd writiny UK

19 Some adjectives ujso iirici-dc v.-rlx t.. deeid'' the modr of their action.
ISO SIANDAUIN GRAMMAR. TART II.

^'M v^ 3>^ ti li^in^" k-'aii' slin' k'an', to look at horizontalhf ami per])cn-

diculai'Iij ; jr. ^yj clion«jj' 'sio, to write chare cf era in fall: /y ^ij's'xiwiWv^

to write small characters.

Groups of three and four.

20 Miiny three-word groups arcforuied by thj conjunction of an auxiliary

i^^ EH
of two characters with the principal verb. Thus 7Q '^^ "^^'^^ pi^? tofinish,

i^^ 1S 7Ci ^ tso' .wan pih, to finish doing; xQ, W(i -^ *sau' .c'heng

jkung, to finish hnilding',^% i*^ g shwoh t-ing' ,tang, to spcal: decisively.

21 Some adjectives of two characters coiwbmQA with verbs, asg^ ^ Q

'kiaiig .ming peh, to explain clearly ;'\^ yQ -^ tso' ,wan .t'siuen, to make
complete; nX* Z^ ra hYiv^oIi'Vo ^tixng, to speah decisively; ^^ ^f^ y^
swan' jt'sing 'c'hu, to calculate accurately; ifSx Tfq ^ tso' k'iah jtang, ^>

do it well; ±fi .75^ § pih (pei) 't'o ,t^ing, to finish safely: n^ ij" ful
shwoh 'tsi si', to speak distinctly; 7J J^ ^J ,fen ,kiiin .viui. to divide

equally.

22 The words yfi -Lai, co7?ir, and ^' k'u', j/o, are added at pleasure to

the auxiliaries of direction and motion to indicate the direction of the action.

^ tU 5l5 ,fei c'huh .lai, tofy out; ^^ ^,kimtm\''k'\\',to drive in;

^W' TK hwei 'chwen .lai, to come hack; *:j' |E1| tK 'clnven .liwei .lai,

to turn hack;

.LAI tIC. is added to auxiliaries expressive oiheginning, collection and se-

paration: p|jj p'jl 4it /N ,k'ien Jang' 'k'i.lai, fo yield politely to; J^j j^
^ .yang 'k'i .lai, to sp)read out; ^® jfe tsf>' 'J"'i -l^i^ '<> ««^ down-}^Z
*hI 5R ^'^^i^ 'l"°o -^^h io collect together; 0X bfl "^ «'^»' jk'ai .lai, to

separate.

23 ,TSiANG ^^ ahout to, is inserted often between the verb and the suffix

^^ 'k'i.lai;asin J.|!i tI^ fe 5|5 chan' ,tsiang 'k'i .lai. to stand up;

^M ^ y /Qi ^T^ k'an' ,tsiang 'k'i .lai, he began looking. This usage is not
purely colloquial in the north <>r in Kiang-nau; it is found however in man-
darin novel*.
 CHAl'TKK 8. AFF lUMATlVK AND NEl.;ATIVK GUOUI'S. ly |

24 lliilcxiva adion is expressed iu southeni luaiuluriii Lv idiiciu"- PI tsi'

««•//', bofoiv jurI aftor the vtrb, as in "lU t3 *^'^'' J''^''

^'^'S '^ 'V«''t'o;u'V

self. (Ill nortlicrii nKUidfiriu tliu word ^^ jihon is udiU'd.)

'Ki C_i >-•'•(/', is soiiu'timi's used in plarc of tho second tsi' in four- word
jilirascs, as p| j^/ X^_^ \\\i tsi' jslmiii; ki mini;'', /u r/yjo-t; o»e'.9 ownii/'r;

tl 3M EL Jltt'^i* 'sua ki.t-sni, ^0 /oAdowt'soJt;?* wo/iiy; g fl< {^ jj!^

tsi* heu' 'ki kwo', <o ftc grieved at one's own faults.
Sonictinics tlie second ^ ts'i* is omitted entirely in li>nr-vord idiruseseuii-

structcd iu a literary manner, as in j'^ y}}\\ fj ,^IJ pah kien' tsi* 'wen, f<>

take a sword and md off^ one's head ; ]j, ifljjli

[^-J %j^ '\ ..slung tisr yih, to

stranyle ones-self with a cord.

Affirmative and Najativc Groups.

2^ (Jroups sueli as u)L -4^ yi sli\V(»li pull .niing, you doiud say efearli/ ;

7l2 1^ M4 tseu teh c'liuh, jjou can walk out, we may regard as being o;t-

(jinalhj jiropos^itions loith a subject, copula, andpredicate complete. As they

are now used, however, this is scarcely poi-ceptible. and it ])ecomes more con-

yenient^to consider them as verb groups or compound verbs.

2G Analysis of these r/rnups. The j)rincipal verb (the subject) stands

first, and is followed by \^ teh or -^ ])uh, for the atlirmativo and negative
respeetively (copula). The last word a verb or adjective (predicate), limits

in some way the action of the i)rineij)al verb. Tims in f]j ^\ ^q \\\l ,(hjiu

pull .cliau ,t*a, / cannot fnd him,, chau expressing the success of thiv action
jchau, to seek, is put in the negative by means of pub, not. When the ob-

ject ,t*a, him, stands last, as in the example, the words jueeeding form ma-
nifestly a compound verb. If as often happens ,t"a is placed second in the
sentence, tho original character of the verb group as an independent proposi-

tion becomes evident.

27 The nature of the predicate in these groups furnishes a law for their
classification. It is pretlicatod of tlie agent by means of tho wonl ^^ lai.
182 MAN'DAiUN chammar. part II.

tliat tlie action is ] )0ssible for him (absohite or natural possibiUfij) or tlie con-

traiy. )^ |^ ^f^ 'sie tch .lai, he can write characters; Wg /f\ -^f^ 'si

pull .lai, he cannot write; ^^^ y\\ yfc nicn' piili .lai, he cannot read ; \\Xj

^\ ^|sl sliwoli pull .lai, he cannot speak; ^* y\\ -^ k'an' })uli .lai, 7 cati-

not cure; "^ y(\ ^ hwei' i)uli .lai, / cannot do if; \^l% ^\ J^ 'han' puli

.lai, I cannot call out. The auxiliaries jjj -^ c'liuh .lai. and _L. ^|v shang'

.lai, are used in the same sense. j(7p ^\\ Jl ^T^ nien' i»uh sliang' .lai, he

cannot read ;
^* y\\ tu ^|v k'an' puh c'huh .lai, I cannot see it.

28 It is predicated of the agent, that he is in a conditit^n to perform the

action or the contrary (limited or moral jmssibiliti/). The word /C^ 'k'i,

to rise, gives this sense. Jp yj\ J^ .t'ai puh 'k'i, we cannot carry it; -^

-^ ^Ei yau' imh'k'i, I cannot vcntwe to ask it ; P,p yy\ /^ .p'ei puh 'k'i,

I am not in circumstances to replace it.

29 The natural or moral possibility of the action, is also indicated hy -^
k'u', as in;t^ 'T^ "£" ^^^^'*^'
P^^^ ^'"S ^^ (^) cannot pass hy ; pX] ^ 3J
shwoh puh k'i'i', it cannot he said ;
j''
/f\ -^ hia' puh k'ii', hard to en-

dure, or it cannot he done.

30 The success of the action, or the contrary, is indicated by ^^ choh,

ttl c'huh, ^ kien', J 'liau. Verbs of 5^nZ:m<7 and seeking take choh
(chau); those oi thinking ^m\ perception take choh, c'huh and kien'. J||j| \^
^^ p'eng' tell choh, he can he 7net ivith ;
^" y\\ ^j k'an' puh kien', I do
not see it; '^ y\\ t^j ^I'^^'t'i' p^di kien', / did not meet with him; ^^ 'f^

/ sheu' puh 'liau, he failed to receive ;

^* /f\ pt} k'an' puhc'huh, I do
not see it; P'|- y\\ {JU chiau' jjuIi c'huh, I do not knoio ivhat to call it; ^
yj\ ] mai' in\\i 'Wan, ]ie cannot sell them. This however may be explain-

ed as "he cannot finish selling them."

31 It is jm'dicated oi the action, that it is right or wrong to doit, by 1^

teh and ^\ "jif puli teh, as in ^^ "\=f k'li' (c'hir) puh tch, you ought
not to go; ^^ ^\ "t^ jt'ing puh teh, he ought not to hear it.

32 The direction of motion of the action is expressed by the words \±\

c'huh, out ; J(g. tsin', in hia', dmcn ;

"^ k'ii', dotun ; aicay; _Xl f^hang',

up; upon; -^ kwo-. ikihI; IPtj*- ehwen, turning: \j\\ .\vii\, away from. Each
CllAPTKR 8. affirmative: ANT> N'EfJATIVE (JUOri'S. 183

of tlieso words pn'dicntos of the iiction that it can or cftiinot Ije perfornud in

its own piutiiuhir tlirfttion. ^3 .^\ _\^ jcii puh slinng', /7 will not take a
ihfc upon »V;/J^ \\ r t'oh ])uli Ilia'. / cannot fake (thi.t clnfJn'nr/) off";
r*^ -y' I . ,
11/' ijn -4-
SDi 1^ I . *'^i'
P"^' shiin;;*, i/ou cannot put {this hat) on; ^ily, j^f "i;* tsin*

tt'h k"ii', ctrn enter: 1»|1 ^\ f/|-j

,sh<'ii jiuli ,k'iii. I cannot open it out; ^^
xjf\ f^' 'tseu puh 'chwe'i, it is not possiblt- to walk round; (southeni, in the

nnrtli 'chwon puh kwo' .hii, ^^ y^\ j^ 'p'lui puh kwo'. I cannot walk past
him; 'Js 1^ :iM 'ts^'^^ **'^^
•'^i»S «^^*^ ''^ enter; J^ ^T .t^'^uu ].uh

Ilia', there remains not; Jl \^ -^ shang' teh k'ii*, it will yo up; %r^ yf\
[LL| 'cluven })uh .hwci, not able to turn. In the north lai ami c'hii ^fv "2^
are freely added to these expressions.

33 It is predicated of verbs 0/ motion, irsistauce, endurance, and destruc-

tion, hy help of words cognate in mcaniniJC, viz. ^j] tuni;', to move, J 'liau,

destroy, etc. that the action can or cannot take place. ^^ ^^\ ^) ,\.h\\ \)\\\\

tung', it ivill not move for pushing; P^^ j^ ^J] yuu tcli tung', moveable by

bitintj :il\4 ^\ jj chan' puh chu', not able to stand; j^ \\ jH: .Ian puh

chu', unable to resist; ^' yf\ jx 'kwan puli chn', unable to r«/e;fll]f ^\
jX nai' puh chu', unable to endure; ^^vti
yf\ /]>i .t'au ]»uh t'oli, finable to

€8cape;i^ ^\ J niieh puh 'liau, not able to destroy ;^^'- |^ j 'kiai tcli

'liuu, it can be (jot rid </;IllJj" y\\ y nai' puh hia', 2 caAinvt endure it; ^^
y^\ J ])a* puh liau, cannot do without.

34 Tlie completion or non-completion of the action, is expressed in the

negative and afhrniativo form hy complete, ^TC 'o cud,

Jjx^ .c'hcng, -^^'ft")

J 'liau, t]*i pih. ^ tsin*, to exhaust, (nortliei'ii) JjY,

IC .c'heug ,kung,

to comjdf'fr, an»l ^, , shall, md, (southern) (as in f ji 7I, , kieh shah, end).

t\' ^^ J^ J ^""o' P"l' .c'heng Man, he cannot complete it; i[!y l\f ^7C
nien* teh .wan, he can read it throw/h; \;\l ^\ ] tso' puh 'liau, he cannot

complete if; j^ y{\ J .hii jnili liau, he cannot come; Pj^ yf\ J .hoh

puh 'liiiu. he cannot erase from drinkinrj: ,,7^. ^ Jf*: ni<'n' jjuh jtih, Ao orn/-

ni>t finish reading if; ^!|i ^\ ^* rliung' ]»uh tsin', it cannot be (dl sou v :]p)i

^ jfim t80' teh .(-heng ,kung. it ran br com}d4ted;i^ ^\ ffPi .mni

1S4 >iAXi>.\i;iN (iiiAMMAi;. i-aut ii

^^ ~y H"/.
pull sluih, they cannot all be interred; ^X ^^ 77»k^li<ili l"ili shall, they can-

not be all hilled.

35 By ^ kill (.clii), to reach to, arrive at, and ±\\ tau^ to nrrive the

fact that there is time or not for the action is exproBscd. ^v y\\ JX. dai

puh kill (.chi), there is not time for it; |/Ji' J^ /^t pan' teh kill, there As

time to do it; -^ /f\ J)C 'teug puh kill, / ccainot waif. ^ .^ JlJ "kaii

l^uli tail, he ivill not arrive in the time.

36 The word ]''

hia* is used to exi)i('ss the fact, that there is space or

not for the action oi' the verh. l|^ lif r koh teh hia', it can be placed

inside; JjX ^ \ fang- puh hia', it cannot be placed there; j[^ JJX T^
y ,sin fang' puh hia', his heart cannot be at rest. K'ii' -^ also follows,

as in jp)( yf\ \ ~^ tso' puh hia' k'u', lie cannot Jind space to do it.

37 The word -}jW. kwc' indicates that tlie agent luill conquer or be defeated.

1J 1^ lis,
'^'^ tsli kwo' he can be conquered by blows; ^f- y]\ iJli^. picu'

puh kwo"', he cannot be conquered in argument.

38 The decisiveness of an action is expressed in the negative and affirma-

tive by /^ ting-', as in pX* -^ !^ shwoh puh ting-', it cannot be certainly

said: o^ "f^ ^£'i teh ting'', it can be settled by talcing advice. The words
'1*7**
S -t'i'^g M^^^ !3^ S 't'o , tang, ^o/x',/xe J, have the same force, as

in pjl): -^ i
7"*
^ 'kiang puh .t'ing ,tang, he cannot settle it by talking.

30 The ver^>si5| 'li, to control, ^X ^^^'^^ f<^ ^"''^^ ^ 'si, <o t?/(',;58 yi"gS
to ansiuer;]\\^ 'lung, to come together, add their oion meaning io the verb

they follow. n>^ y\\ y^ K.hwoh puh 'li, he icill not attend, to ichat is said

to him:j] yf\ ^u '^'^ P^^^i '•'^^'; ^'^ ^^'f''*" "^^ ^'* coidd not be Icillcd ; \^% ^
jrjf^ 'han puh ying', to call without receiving an answer; t_i 4'^ jM /N
hoh puh 'lung .lai, cannot be brought together. The auxiliary 'lung with

/li^ 'c'hi, to raise up, might also bccht^sed among the auxiliaries of direction

or motion.

40. When the verbs ^ 'yeu, ^o /i(/w, and ^J^ muh (.mei), not to have,

form groups wilhj^ teh, and some other verb, in such grou]is a fact only is

asserted and not a possibility. -^^ 1^ 3^" 'yen teh ,c'liwen, he has {cloth-

ing) to put on; Ix r^f ^'Zlt ;^'^*"^ t*-"^^ c'hiJi, /<f ^c^s• nothing to cat: *l-l
 ClIAl'TKIl 8. GUOL-PS FOI'.MF.I) I'.V RKrFTITIoN AM' ANITI IIKSI.S. 185

yL ^ tl'j )'i 1^ m yih 'ticii .11 sill' .t'siug mull tdi iso', I have not
uuytlnnij at all to ilo.

41 The luorih ^ .lai, covie, and ^ k'ii', go, indicating direction

of
motion are placed after many of the preceding auxiliaries, wh(>n they exijrcss
motion, e. g. after i£ tsiir, UJ cliuli, etc. with /K 'k'i, to rise uj, and
Jjjll ^"»SS '<>
^»'''"r/
together, piflj 4\ ilU Jfc 'kiang puh cMiuh .lai, 1u can-
not dilivcr a discourse; l,])l .1\ ^^ ,ch'iau puh tsin' kir, /V cannot be
hammered in] ^J ^^f \n\ Jt^ ,fen teh ,k'ai .Itii, it can be separated; j^Jj ^
fe ^ 'siang puh 'k'i .lai, I could not have thought it; %?j T^ Jl j|j
'sic puh shang' .lai, he will not go on writing; ^ ^\ |llj Jf^ tau' puh
c'huh .lai, he icill not sjjeak.

42 Many adjectives are used in these conihinations predicating of the ac-

tion, that it can or cannot be performed to the extent or in the manner in-
dicated by the adjective itself, gjf ^^ tuh puh .tsiuen, he cannot read

it through ; _)/. ,^\ [0] lih puh chih, he cannot stand ujyright;
fj^ f|} jffi

shwoh teh 'man, he can say it in full; ^{ y\\ slli kwan' puh ,t'un", it can-
«o^ 6e conveyed inside; j^> ^\ ;|^ 'siang puh t'eu', hecannot think it com-
pletely out; ]SJ MW i^C ,«huiig liang' teh 't'o, it can be made secicreby
conference.

43 Often in these groups there is nothing said of possibility, but the fact

only is asserted and denied that the quality in the predicate Ix-lon-'s to the

action, as in ^ ^ff 'I'jt 't.st u teh k'wai', he walks quickly;

^X. 1^ ii!]

shwoh teh ,t'ung^ he speaks reasonably; ^ ^ fx jcHia puh ,to, it dl/'-

fers little; %?j ^\ TJ 'sie puh .ming, he has written it indistinctly; t},

y^\ \y\ swan" puh ,t*sing, it is wrongly calculated.

Groups formed by Ilepctition and Antithesis.

44 }>huiy single vrrhs 'Alii rcjicatedj iiii\]}}\ \\}^- .t>i.iu .l\siau, look; j^','^

Jj^^ mo' mo', r«6;[['jl: [[•)[: t'iau' fiau', to Jump; \^ U\^ hoh iioh, drink.

45 Transitive verbs are often repeated before the word they govern. \j^ \j^
186 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART II.

}\v}i'fii 'hi 'Ucn, to ivash the/ace; |^f-j \}f\ j[^ ,k"'ui ,k''ai ,sin, he is glad ',

ffl ffl IJS pi' pi' 'yen, to shut the eyes; Jfi ^P li^ t^J^i t'ai .t'eu, tolift

the head; H^ 'f j^J "i^j

tso' tso' hwoh, to do work : tU tU ^l c'huh c'hnh
k'i', to give out steam.

46 The verb.s ^^ k'an', ^o see, commonly, and Pj 'k'o, may, can, occa-
sionally follow a repeated verb in a tentative sense, ^.ife \\}}--^ ^] .t'siaii .t^siaii

'k'o, let us go and look; ^pg ^J^j '^ ,t'sai ,t'sai k'an', fry to j/W5s;g!e^ g^
-^ jt'ing jt'ing k'an*', listen and try.

47 The verbs r^ pa' to finish and 9;r k'ii' (c'hir) fo ^ro, are used in their

own sense after a repeated verb, as in ^\ Y-iK RlI lii^^i l^i<^h jjr', res< a ZiY-

*?e ; ^ ^ 5* k'an' k'an' k'ii', go and look ; |^\ t^\ ^ ^^g hieh hieh
k'ii' pa', go and rest a little.

48 Compound verbs consisting of tioo ivords are often repeated in an or-

der direct or alternate. ^^ i^- ^^ pai' wang' pai' wang', to visit on

ceremony; ^ pRB S nRg .p'an lun' .p'an lun', to discourse upon ; yM

H-m pA] cilv .t'siau .t'siau shV shi', to look at an try ; pyc pj/c W^ 5fl9 fan
.fan lun' km', to converse upon; uJL vi/L ^^ ^'c shwoli shwoh siau' siau',

to talk
f=T
and laugh;
r_t. X^.
Jffjj ^ S JiTlJ 'c'hwai toh 'c'hwai toh, to think of; \f\

^J ^p ig^ ,ku liang' ,ku Hang', to meditate upon.

49 A transitive verb is rejjeated when its object is varied. The substan-

tives thus employed are co-ordinate in moaning. -JU )P.a ^^ f /L 'y^^^ 'li

'yeu man', he has a p)olite ap)pearance; ^] W^ JJ tuug' ,t'siangtung'

^\\
,tau, to put in action spears and sicords; JX 1^ ix. J^ ni^ih ,pien muh
ngan', there is no side or shore; iX A^ -i^C & nm\\ ,kiiin muh .c'lien, no

X>rince or sidijcct; \i 3L {% H, "luh .wang muh fah, there is no laiv.

50 In other cases, the transitive verb and its object are both varied. The
verbs and substantives must be co-ordinate in meaning. J^^ 5M J Wl /^
.yau .t'eu 'jiai 'wei, to sJf((ke the head and wave the tail, i. e. boastful and
extravagant; ;^ 7\. Tl< Jill yuen' ,t'ien hen' ti', to murmur against

heaven and complain of earth; W/t. 7C ^ Jul -^^^^^ j*'i<^n ,hu ti', to in-

voke heaven and pray to earth; j-Q ?^ Jjil-I ^ t'oh ,t'sin lai' 'yeu, to trust

relations and depend on friends.

CHAPTER R. DIFFERENT KINDS OF VEUDS. 187

51 In a group of two words, priiuipal ami auxiliary, the former is often

repoateil. while the latter is varied, ^jv^, Jl ^|^ T ,fei shang' ,fei liia',

toflij up and down; ^^^ *

3j"t8eu .lai tseu k'ii', to walk backwards
and forwards.
52 After a repeated verb some times occurs yen for the atlinnative, and

^ffi wu,-^ )>uh and ^*z. niuh, for the negative with a verb or substantive
y^^ ^-^ -y* f-*-*
jj7i» j^» ^\ iiiy
following. nien' nien' puh wang', to think of tvUhout for-

(jcHiwj; fji\ ^ -T^ 0" yuh .yen puh .yen, he wishes to speak but icill not.

53 The verb is also repeated with the intervention of yili, one. as in

i'^jK
'
W'k I'i^'^i yil^ \i\i::\\, wait a little; ^ '
' -^ 'teng yih 'teng, wait

a little; li^ '

itl^ kwei' y\]\ kwei', kneel a little.

Different kinds of Verbs.

54 Verbs are transitive or intransitive according as they can t-ake after

them an object or not. The verbs in the following exami)les are transitive.

i^ TW ^ jsieu .k'iau .Hang, to rebuild bridges;

%, A. ,pang .jen, to as-
sist others. Simple and compound verbs obey the same law; thus in fj|-J j|^
a^K S^i y^^ jSiau .yin .t'sien, to expend money. Intransitives such as jj^

.lai,
Mnl.
come, are few; thus
-rryi -jt-r
^ tso', to sit is transitive, ini'ff}' "Hp '^
~-^-* ilJj
'''^
T'*

XSL 'J<
'
'jK 'i 'tsi tso' 'man 'liau .hwan (hai)yau'yih ,chang, the chairs
are all occupied and one more is needed.

55 A verb often loses its transitive potver by being repeated with — yih,

owe, before it. It then

—
becomes a substantive. ^ ^t.seuyih 'tsen,

take a little walk; Ijj^i ' i/l!l chan' yih chan^ stand a little; 7^ — ^
kwang' yih kwang', (jo out/or a little amtisement. Many verbs Ix'come numeral
particles by taking numbers before them; e. g. ^.pau, to wrap; a bundle;
l\Li rV^, f*^ ff'^^'c hold of; a handle.

5Q Verbs considered as to their place in a sentence are subjective, substan-

tive, or predicative. Substantive verbs will be first discussed. The sub-
stantive verbs in most comniun use, are "^ shi', to be; it is so; right; ]{iji

tm', to do; to be. Thoy are negatived by prefixing ^^ jmh. not, which is
188 ilANDAUlN GKAMMAR. I'.MIT H.

the particle of particular denial (coiitriulictory), as ^X. '"^^'^ ^^ t)f general de-

nial (contrary). ^ ^ ^WB^^M lii'^"' ^^'i' ^van' slian' till .t-'eu, filial

2nety is the chief of all the /t AM virtuc.<<: ng. TST Q^chc' sli'r kill 'k'li till,

this is very U7 for innate; ^ X, jfii ^lli U'J "iy- I'^i^i tsu' ,t'a till fu' 'nm,

they do not act as a father and mother; '\Xx \vi A— i li^va' tso' .jen 'ii,

being reformed it became a benevolent neighhourhood. Tso' is sometimes i)re-

ceded by kiau' and hau', to call, as in [rl %± W 7E Jl A. i-W ^J' "J^

^ \^\ i^k ^ -K pell sing' ,tu sin' sliang' ,t'ien till c'hili 'tsi ku'

and are there-

kiau'

tso' t'ien .min, tlcc people are all the children of high heaven,

fore called ^^heaven's ])eop)le."

Substantive verbs less commonly used are g| ,tang, /% .Avei, to be; I'p

tsoli, to do. § ^ H^ jtang ,kia till, he ivho is head of a family; §

^ Q~|,tang,c'liai tib, //eiy/joisrtwesscw^e/-; .^ /V VO
^
UJI-wei .jen tsai-

sbiS he loho is a man in the world; $$ TcxS IP 'clnven ,pei tsoh 'hi, his

sorroio was changed into Joy ; ^ I'p zh M^ '"^yo Uoh' elm i', I am master.

The book particles Ty 'uai, -zY is, and ^ - ,fei, it is not, are also used occa-

sionally, as in 1^ 73^ ^ il ^ /^ A itki>

t^'^i 'nai,t-ien'li, seh (shai)

shi' .jen yiih, virtne is the laiu of heaven, lust comes from men's passions;
jkwan consequences are not slight.
nil ^71^ ^r ^§ hi- ,fei 't'sien, the

have, also employed as a substantive verb. It then loses its

Yen' to is

possessive signification. It is negatived by ix ^"^^^^^ (•"^t'Oj "of. The con-

trary negative ^ x. "luli, also sometimes stands

without -^'ycu in the same

sense. So docs ^ .wu the con-esponding book word, which never takes^
'veu after it. In southern Fuh-kien -^ u", have, is the affirmative, and^
.bo, not to have, the negative. 3C ^1-^ S5 ) ^I^ I'n* '"^i 'yeu liau

mi' c'hiS his parents are angry; ^^ ^^j& ila tsi' ,shen 'yeu kwo'

fan', he himself has faults; tK i\ JS /1p^7Lli»ulisbih,mo t'sii' .ri, there

is no pleasure in that; ig '^ "5 Ix "tJ W
i^Mt^he' kii' liwa' muh 'yeu

on this sentence there is nothing to be said.

'kian<>- .t'eu, ^^
The book particle flit .wu is also used in some cx])ressiou8, as ^ W-
\fM \ /jj" .hau .wu ,kwan sieh, it has nothing to do loith it.

The locative verb and preposition, xE tsai', to be at a place, at, \>^ also
(JHAI'TER 8. DIFFERENT KINDS OF VEUH8. lyj)

iisdl as P. copulii. ^\ fl: ig, -j^piili tsai'che' '\\,hcisnothci'e{Jl,

"t fi/Jj'

^^ f^li tf: ''JP ^i '«u f'sih ku' Hell hu' ,tii tsai^ mi- 'Ii,/fe or six

hunters were tin- re.

The verb -^ yan% is somefimes necessarily translated as a snhstaiitive

verb, as m ^'^ ^ M: ^ yJ y] v/u' yau' ,dwn ,elien t'sieli t'sieh, you
viust be true and earnest. 1 1 may hoAvever here be explained as meanin*'' 7nust.
57 Verb as subject. The verb is connected with substantives in the sub-
ject, and with adjectives in the jtredicate of a simjde sentence. Thus in the

sentence ^ ^tf- Jl^ tlL 7E ^ ^J 'tsen 'chwen .hii yc shi- .yung i^ to

come back is caiijr, the first verb group is to be taken as a substantive: so iu

JT It ^ ^{i"tachangSkeng'hau, ^o/y/^^/s^,e«e>•; M W 4^ ^^
'mai mai' puh ,t'ung, trade cannot be carried on.

58 Verb as predicate. The close connection of the verb and adjective is

seen particularly in the predicate of propositions, where there is found a class

of words, which may be termed verbal adjectives. Such are^ [r| .ming
l)eh, to undrrstand; clear; U^'^nan'.fobenoisi/; noisf/Mj tni', to be opposite
to; opposite) W} timgS to move; inoviwj ; .-tfjl ,t'ung, to be reasonable or

feasable or passable; rigid; passable; ^ 'hiang, to sound; audible;

^5
hwoh, to live; living; yQ 'si, to die] dead. These words are usetl indiffer-

ently as intransitive verbs or as adjectives; e. g.|/|j| f^ f /JCnau' teh ,]iwang,

noisy to confusion, or the// arc very nois//.

The api)roach of verbs to adjectives is seen in the rei)etition groups common

to both, as also in the groups formed with 'f^ teh, and some word following or
with ^ teh and y'(\ lif puh teh alone. >=(] ^ ^^ ,k'wan j.uh teh, can-
not be widened; J^^ ^\ A< shau i)uh .lai, it cannot be done without- kl'

y^\ :ili3, 'hau puh kwu', cannot be better than. Tlusc groui»s serve instead
of adverbs to intensify adjectives, a*j in jrjj^ ^Ij:
4'!) i^ ,hiung teh li- hai',

very violent, or hard hearted. .

59 There are three chtsses &,' nn.r'Hary verbs used re8j)ectively, to connect

the cause with its consequmcij (rrru^rtf/rc), the act with the instrument (in-
strumental), and the actor with the object {passive).

60 For the causative %(, kiau', to teach, is used, j"^ ijj ^ ~{^
^(f
190 MANDARIN ORAMMAR. PART H.

^ ^vC \]}j, )X i^ 'iii flic' yang' piili 'Imu kiair 'w.. 've nnih fali. j/on by
hehaviiKj so ill cause me to feel difficulty; i{ii y^ |yjj| ^X 5x. -^^ f^ti fiX

Ql^ll ,t'a t'ai' nair' kiair' 'wo ])iih .nenpj shwoli liwa', lie ions so noisy that I
could not speak; JK /JC ^ 1{!i 5^ ^ cliili .k'ieii kiaii' ,t'a tuli ,sliu,

/ only ash that he should he made to learn to rend.

The corresponding book words, are '\% shi"-, to cause, and qi liugS to

command. In coll()(|nial usage tlioy -wifli ^, 'je, to provoke, are also some-

times heard. 13!^' llli /fv^ ^\ '^ "^shi-, t'a.cliung, shell s]ieu"k'u, cause

//?-»i to he miserable all his life; ^ 1^ f J |£ f|"| T^ ^ > teh

.hai .r'l .men puh hioh 'han, causing the boys not to learn to do rifjhf.

Kiau' ^)C to teach. The causative is sometimes written M^- kiau', to

call, but incorrectly. One of the dictionary meanings of WX kiau', is to

cause, -^fr ling'. Premare remarks, that 3<! jkiau is also used erroneously

for ^itl^iau'. This has arisen from the twofold pronunciation of ^X^ in read-

ing when used in a causative sense, viz. ,kiau or kiau'. The dictionary 77,

J^ 7G iH prefers the former sound, but the latter is more common collo-

quially.

61 ^\\% passive instead of being expanded into a voice co-ordinafc inform

with the active, is expressed by an auxiliary or H-j- chi.u' p^ pei' or gome-

times JJ£ ,yai or .ngai, whicli reflects the action of the preceding verb on

the following object. y^J |<^ /s. J,C\.iningpei' .jen ,k'i (,c'lii), to he openly

insulted by others; ^!^ f' T llli mil ^ J ''^^'o chiau' ,t'a nau' fah "liau,

I have bcemoorried to death by her. The use of ngai is limited to words

expressive of beating, scolding or any form of suifering Jjt ^ .ngai ma', to

he scolded. In the north pei' is not so common as chiau'.

^hQw'^^ to receive, ^^c^h'ih, to eat, to suffier, are from their natural

suitableness in meaning, also used as signs of the passive. '^ iHi []^ HK
M «lieu' ,t'a till ,k-i i\v, I icas instdted^hy him; H^ ]^ ^ /y cliih

jk'wei i)uh 'siau, he is wade to suffer great loss; P^ ^ chili liai', to he

injured.

Kien' ^^ to p>erceive, which is used in the books like /r^ .wei, to denote

the passive, is also found in many colloquial phrases. >[[j ;)^ kien' hiau'.
 CHAPTKU 8. niKFERKXT KISPS OF VERns:. 191

to he cffectuaJ;^ ^ kion' siaiiS to he laughed at; ^ ^J kien' 'liau, to

recover; >t!i oV ki<^n' ,k^va, to he jiraised.

G2 Tlio uistnt mental auxiliary verbs arc ^ .na, to hrinf/;i^ ,j>a^ ^o take
Ao/(/ <>/;
/hf ,tsiang, to fake hold of. Thoso words admit of division into
two classes.

.Na with the verb /tj yun-jj', ?o^?«e, are a])pH<'d more properly to the in-
strument of an action, ^r. f] Uj\ ]y '^[l fl'^ .na shih .t^u tsah 'si till,

he was Jcilled with a stone; ^ 7] 3w j'X -na ,tau tung' chang', he took
aswordtoherfinficjhtm<j;n] fit; JT j^ rung' kwnn' 'ta 'si, he took a chtb
and heat him to death.

Ta JL Cv^ in P»^'ki"g)j and Tf^ ,tsiang, are nsed to introduce the object
before the verb that governs it. tL Jl A. ^\. lt\ ||h-J ,pa shang' .jen

.lai ,k'i .man, he deceived his superiors; j\^ ||li r|'|f'] ){^ ^4 ,pa ,t'a 'k'wun
'k'i (c'hi) .lai, {take him and) fir him up; ifL flii viV] JR ,pa ,t'a 't'sing
Aa'u invite hhn to come: 7]^ tlli "f J ^^Q -^siang ,t'a 'ta 'si, take him and
heat him to death ;i[_j I'h IIUJ I ^ ?t"^ A^^ 'tsa .men tih .na .lai, take
ours and hrinrj it; jL W ^)l U^ \vi SU J£ ,pakieu' ,kwci 'kai tso' ,8in

fah, take the old custom and change it for a neio one ; J[_^ jj si* JJX HF
,pa hwoh ki' fang' hia', he set dotcn her tvork. The same word 'im but with
the second tone means to hold a city, or to carry from one place to another'.

This division of the instrumental auxiliaries is by no means universal as

will appear from the following examples. J[_^ ^ -f [^ /^ j{|^ ^pn. shan'
\>ii\\\V\QniV, recompense heaven and earth hij virtue ; l\^ -^ t^\1 ^ ~hjl

,l)a hiau' pau' fu' 'mu, recomjiense your patrentahy piety. In these cases
,pa is properly instmraental like^^ .na.

63 Auxiliary verbs placed close to the verbs tiiey f[ualify are either pre-
fixes or Ruflixes.

Auxiliary prejixes are the following : — 1. Permissive, '!/ 'k^i, ought to

^<", HI VA 'l^'o 'ij *'*^.V. «s '" ^ ''^* 'k^o ngai', to he loved; lovely. 2.

Prohibitive, \\i ,lii. u. /;!] .pieh, j |v ii>i .hicu shwoh, r/o not say ; y^\ ^
puh yau' in ^ ^ j] jmh van' 'ta, do not heat him. 3. Potential, U^
.heDg, physical powry; ^ hw.-i', acquired power. 4. Willingne>;s, ^
192 MANDAUIN OUAMMAl:. I'AIIT II.

'k'cn, ivining. 5. Likiiijx. ^* u^i^i', ^ovr ; ^ M^ ^ ngai' c-liili Jiweii,

7ie is fond of eating fc.^h. 6. Future, -^ yau', to be about to; to desire.

The su0xes may be compeared to derivative verbs. They are —Inchoative

lA S'X ^ 'tien 'k'i 'ho .lai, light afire. Collective, ^^ Jft^ jj^

shell 'lunp: .lai, to coUcct together. (The northern jjcople omit .lai) Separa-

tive ?)l* yfn 'c'hai (t'seh) ,k"'ai, to undo) take down. Words of completion
and cessation, ^^ *}i nien' pih, to finish reading. Resisting and destroy-

'^„^ |ij|^|
U .liien cliu', to limit; resist. Reflexion (middle voice), ;;^;X

H ^ tsi' shah ts'i' ,shen, to kill one's-self (in the south shen is omitted).

Direction and motion (in all eleven words, if H'J -t'sien and -f^ heu' be in-

cluded), :^ al^ ^T^ -ua kwo' .lai, bring over. Past thnc, iHu. kwu-, j^j"

^^y tui*^ kwo', / A«ye compared them.

Modes of Verbs.

64 In many cases the mood is determined entirely from the sense, and has

no particular sign. Thus the indicative and im2'>erative are often only dis-

tinguished by the personal pronouns. E. g. ^jj ~& IWA '^^'o 1^'^^' *^*^'' ^
ivill go and do it ; i ^» ^W '^^i k'ii' tso', f?o yow j/o a^id do it ; aft ^/k

^^ ^L ;^^^ '^"^ ,hwa tsin', his i^ropertij is entirely wasted.

Verbs whether simple or compound have the same construction. In

I Im tbi Itil '"^vo chii' p^a' ,t'a, I fear him; chii' pV is used in the same man-
ner as p'a', to fear. Bo pai- p'a and p'a' are both employed intransitively
for to be afraid.

In the colloquial of Shantung, .^ ,chi is placed after many verbs in the

indicative, and infinitive or taken as participles; e. g. ^ ij\_\ kL A^ uj

<%> /^ liwei' chan' ,chi puh hwei' tso' ,chi, he can stand but he cannot sit.

This is a colloquialism not authorized by books, nor is it correct mandarin.

Perhaps it is a corru])tion from ^^ cliuh, which is the form used by correct

speakers. ^~X 'Yy&^^^i^ Wl ih ^ 'tseu 'liau shih 'ki pu' In'

tsieu' chan' choh, after walking a few steps he stood sti/l.

G5 A verb is conditional in a subordinate sentence preceding an indicative

 CnAI'TEli 8. BIODKS OF VKUDS. 193

senteuce. The picstnt iind past conditional are botli embraced under
this
rule. So also is the present and past participle. The word ''conditional' is

here

clii

kwo' clic' jtsau'jhiang 'li ,tu .lai ,k-i \\v 'wo, if I pasn over this time
it
I
shall have all the neighbourhood couiimj to insult me.
Conditional sentences sometimes take as a concluding jmrticle f'l^ nia 'v IS

in \\\ ri!!j
HR f|: -^\l ftji
ii,'jj
jTR
^4 -f^ ,„i ,„, y,„. ,„.„„„ ^,^,,^ ;;a
'ma yau' wane:' ^i. as for yo\i, you tvish to go east, as for him toishes to
lie go
^^st; \^ )'-§ J """] A. Hl^ ;^>^ J jili loh 'liau 'ma ,t'ien ,tu ,hei 'liau,

when the sun has set it is then dark.

The verb in a inutieipial sentence sometimes takes after it the i)article ^^

,choh, as in JEJ ^ ifil ^"tui' ,choh mien'k'an', turning his face towards
it he looked.

66 A jj)0/en<i«? ?»oo(;Z is formed in the negative and affirmative resi)ectivclv

by placing f\ pub and j=f tcli, with some auxiliary verb correspondin gm
meanini? after the principal verb. ^ ^^ Jf^ kwo' teh .lai, it can pass:
/f\ ijiy^- lung' pub 'chwen, it cannot he made to turn; ^i^ ~^ )^ .hwan
pub 'k'i, / cannot find means to return it.

The auxiliaries ^ bwei', / can {have the skill to do), and \j^ .nen"-, can
{have the power to do), also give a potential .force to the verb wliich follows

them: ^ H ItW 3C ^puh hwei' tso' .wen ,c]mn^^, I cannot write cssat/s;

y^\ 1 JLi y^ P^'^*

.neng .lai, / cannot come.
67 K pcrviissiveand jyrohibitivemood tiYc(o\u\Qi{,hy \Ai\c\\v^\kf fch and
y^\ %f pub teh after the verb, as in ^ %f k'U' teh, ijou can go;-^^ ^\
\^ k'ii' pub teh, you ought not to go. The compound ^*J j y/k*u i, is also
used in a permissive sense before another verb, as in ^\ l^J ] X ^"puli 'k'o
'i k'ii', you ought not to go. Furtlur, '^j' 'ban, good, is employed in the
same way. -4\ 'Hj' Jj^ -^C 1'"^^ '^»^u shang' k'ii*, you may not go up, or it

will not be well to go up.

d>Q An optative mood to a verb is fonued by prefLxing to it certain compounds

 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART II.
194

suited in meaning; viz. IM ^ 1^ ^(^^' V^^ *^^j ^ «^'^ ^"^^^^^ '^'"^ ^ ^^^-
wo^ i. e. ?yow?rf that; \^ ^ f^ ^X -V^ P^^^i "^^S ken', [^ ^ 1^ ,pa
puh teh, loould that I could; Tk HS Hb OX lien' puli .neng keu', zyoit^cZ

^/itti. Hen' means to he vexed. ,Pa is used of the eyes expressing desire, as in

01J P [^ i3^ ^i V \^^ -^ y^^ 'P^ 'P^ *^^ P'''^^'

'^^ *'"''' ^^'^^^ earnest eyes

they desire that you should grow tall

69 The mode of expressing the hiiperative varies as it is affirmative or

neo-ative. In the former case the verb stands alone, or is followed by Hj

'k'o yoti may or ^^ pa', aiid so conclude the matter; 3|^ 3F9 ,t'sai ,t'.sai,

aiiess- ^7 ife shah ,t'a, kill him; § fl* Hj k"'an' k-an' 'k'o, look at it;

j/J ^ ral '"i k'ii' P^^S 2/0^* S'^J ?X: 111 ^ t^ '^vo ,menc'hu' pa', let us

o-o P£^ c'hih pa', eat {ivithoiit another ivord). To hear k'o is very rare
f^jg

•Pa is common.
The negative imperative is formed by //IJ pieh, ^ JlU puh yung', ^
® puh yau', )}!] W: pieh yau', I4C ,hieu, to stop, or ^. moli, as in \7f.

uiA jhieu kiau' 'yin sliih 'yeu k'iueh, do not cause provi-
WL ^j\, f^ ^n
sions to be luanting; ^ ^ ^ / V puh yau' ma' .jen, do not revile men;

)j!) W^ i^l' ^ & ^pieh "f* kiau' 'ni 'lau 'tsi,sheng k'i' (c'hi), do not

make your father angry; ^ j^ g^ ;^nih yung' tung' k'i' (c'hi'), o?o «o«

he anarv %\\^- ^ uXj P^^h yau' ,to shwoh, do not say much; //IJ yl\

1ltJ J§ pieh puh tso' hwoh, do not cease loork; ^^ 1|Sx llji ^ moh tso'

't'si shi', do not do this thing. .

70 A verb is in the infinitive, when it forms the subject of a proposition.

Many of the negative and affirmative groups may be considered sentences, con-

taining a verb in the infinitive as their subject, d^ /7IJ /\. f|^ ^pj ^y
•^ ^S toh pieh .jen tih wuli kien' puh shi' 'li, to rob the property of

others is not in reason; fH ^ © ^" ,fei puh 'k'i .Jai, he does not hegin

to fly; ^Q '^^ tu 'sie puh c'huh, he ceases to write; ^ .-^N iJ_j tK tau'

puh c'huh .lai, he ceases to speak.

After verbs of willing and desu'ing, a verb is translated in the infinitive,

as in yf\ iM^ ^f P^ih 'k'eng (in the north 'k'en) mai', not willing to sell it;

^ ^ M> ^ p^i^i y"^"' ^' ^^''^'' '^^ '^'^^'^ **^^ ^^*"'^ ^^ ^^-" H cL -^
CnAPTEH 8. PARTKLKS OF TIME FORMIN'O TEKSF.S OF VERBS. 195

TIG tsi" 'ki pull \i\\v he was hiinsrf/unwiUinrf to coync;^^ A^yucii'

^|v .lai,

'W ^ijj- t-siiii,' yiieii', also take yau' after tlicm,whicli'k'c'ng does not.

71 When a verb take.s case particles, it is translated as a participle orger-

un d. ^ili tl- "v jt'a tsai' 'k'au, he is he ing examined; yji '|'c I|J i':*

^Jt p'li' '^^'=^ ^''^ .yuen kii', Me cause of the family s declining; __^

Sfi 'hJ ^1 ^'H ^^^^''^' ^^^^''^* '^^ -^'^^^ '3'^'" -'^^^'^^ ?^^^'> '*'' drawing there is method.
After verbs of liking, a verb is translated as a gerund, as in xf\ 3^* j^^

^j i)uh ngai* .k'i 'ma, he does not like riding; 5('j"

ill I
-./• b'^^i' 'tu poll,

/o«f? of gaming; 3(T :'v^ i7Cb;ur' ,yeu .\\im, fond of saunteringfor pleasure;

& i£iK ^iB ^X I'i ,li\van ,yeu 'shuij/owf? of stoimming. Ngai' and hau*
are auxiliaries of tlie gerund, as yau' and 'k^-n are for the infinitive.

After Pj 'k'o verbs are translated us passive gerunds, as in PJ ;^iX k'o

shall, ought to he hilled.

Many instances might be given of the gerund, or of verbs occun-ing after

olher verbs, and requiring to be translated as gerunds; e. g. X^ ']';* }^j /v

chih 'kwan ma' .jen, he only thinks of reviling others; y^ ^^^ \IL\ ^fv pnh
'siang .hwei .lai, does not think of returning ;'^\ ptj j\^ nla «" I'^^i -IJ^^^i jSin
tiili ,shu, he does not attend to reading. The distinction is hnportant chief-

ly when the preceding verb becomes an auxiliary, because the second verb

then retains its independent character as a verb. Wlien the first verb conti-

nues to exert its full power, the second becomes rather a substantive than a verb.

72 Verbs are made interrogative by a])pending the particles "/tl .ni and

^^; 'mo (pronounced 'ma), as in Pj W^ 'k'o 'i 'ma, can it he sof ^

^i|t -^ n '[^ yau' tsin' k'ii* .ni, do you ivish to enter ?

The interrogative is also formed by repeating the verb, with the negative
{\ i>uh before it. The inten-ogative particle n!(^ .ni, is often placed bt>fore

the nagative ))article; "2^ ^ '^ c'hir puh c'liii', will you go or not? ]p/

*vi ^^/b -T^ Ir n\ ^^^^ hwoh .ni puli tso' hwoh, do you work or nolf

Particles of Time forming Tenses of Verbs.

73 When a vei'b is ivithont a tense paiiide, it is t.iken to l>e in present,

IDG MANDAKIX (IKAMMAK. I'ART II,

past, or future time, according as the sense rc([uiros. ^X 1^ .^ ]T '^'o

puh siau' 'iii, I do not (or did not) laugh at you; Jit J/C 'fT lu ,};" t'si*

.hint; 'li, in order they 2-)crformed their boivs and 2)rostrations.

74 The ixist is marked by appending to tlie principal verb, the word -(^

kwoS to x^nss: ^ iM. X ^'i'^l^ 1^^'<^' 'li'^^^j ^^^ ^'«* ?cani^ jY; il -}li5
J

chu' kwo' 'liau, he has lived there.

75 To kwo' the word ^\ liieli, fo rest, an instant, is sometimes addt-d in

southern mandarin, as in ||,y ^ ^\ ,t'ing kwo' hieh, / have heard it.

This usan-e is however not common, and is unauthorized by native books.

.T'seng '^is used for the past before its verb. In tlie affirmative it fol-

lows Pf 'k'o, and in the negative ^ puh, or 7rc wei'. P] O^ 3:!] m ^'±>

'k'o .t-'seng tau' kwo' 'mo, have yo2i gone there? 7|C ^ nAi wei' .t'seng

shwoh, he has not said it; ^ q Mi .iM- T"^^ -t'seng kien' kwo', he has

not seen it. It is also sometimes used alone, as in J/p ^ J-IJ ,-i]S ^ ui

.t'seng tau' kwo' 'mo, have you gone there?

'Liau J is another particle for the past, following its verb. vL nfj J

^ ')-e 't'sing 'liau ,ngau, he also asked hoiu he was: 3^* r^ JQ J ^^

^^ ye' 'ma
—
sliang' 'liau 'lung .t'eu, the ivild horse has been entrapped; ^
i/p ' [E,j ^Q yen' chan' 'liau yih .hwei .ri, he tlien stood for some
J

time longer; ilS T FR ^ -V'L ^S t"li 'liau niang t'si' tsieu' .ming

peh, after reading it ttuice I understood it; ^ J ST J chung' 'liau Id'

'liau, we havefgllen into a snare, [t^ J 1lll l^^J ^kwei"liau ,t'a'^iang

t'si', he knelt to him twice. 'Liau is not limited to tiie past*; thus in ^ /\
^ Ma im J -^ ^ phan' .jen ]>uh 'kan .man 'liau fu' 'mu, the virtuous

man does not dare to conceal anything from his father and mother, it is used

for euphony.

The negatives ^ •I'Z i""li 'yen, not to have, and ^J^ muli, express past
time; a? 1^^ Jl ® ^ iKl T Vi ^ '"i
^^l^^^'
-t'^" k'u' kwo' 'liau

muh 'you, have you gone above or not'/ ' '

IH) VX iK 11 & yihhiang'

muh tso' shih 'mo, hitherto I have done nothiny.

7G Among i\\Q future t.'iise paraticles occurs 7|f^ ;tsiang, as in Tjf- ^

.tsiang .hii, henceforth; Tj^ '^ ^- ,tsiaiig 'yen sin', there ivill beadistur-
 cnArTF.i: 0. ox ri;i:i'i>.siTioNS and rosTi'osrriuNs. 107

lunvc. This auxiliary ^taIl(l^^ rirst, so tliaf in a negative sentence it cannot

be used.

The verb^C y^^i'

yau' k'uS I (>haU go to-morrow.

*^1«'^ oxju'esses the intuie, as in [Jrj \:\ ^- ^ .niing
jili' In the negative yau' does not take a

future sense, but ].n'.serves its own proper ineanini; wif/iua or viunt irfj. !^
^ :?->r
^* ijIVL W^ .t-u puh van* k'lf 'k'au tsieu' j.a', //e (/ocs not icish (o

go to the cxnmi/iati'on, then he it so.

The negative future is expressed by a verb of motion, and a negative par-

ticle before it, without any auxiliary of time. \^ ^ Jn '^''i l'>ili iai, he
iclll not come, or he has not come. It is also expressed by y^\ ^[|^ puli kitn'

it tvill not, preceding the verb with a connecting particle, as in /f\ j/j^ ^^
1^ it|:j ].uh ki.-n-^t.-h hia' -u, ^ Mi 6^ T HI 'J puh kien' tih hia' 'ii,

^ ^^i W r^ PIU 1'"1i ki.-n' yau' hia' 'ii,

^^l]\^T R.j puh kien
'k'i hia' 'Q, it is not likely to rain, or as J see it, it will not rain

CHAPTEU IX.

On Prepositions and PosxrosiTioNS.

1 Most of the prepositions are also in common use as verbs. They are
all more or less transitive in their nature, and as such precede their words
Few examples of their use are here given. More will be found in the chai)-

tcr on substantives, where they are described as case particlw.

^ ehiS to arrive at, to, is a book word used occasionallv in colloonini

\M l-J dB. .7C 7^ 7iZ 1i* tso' .kwaii chi' t'ai' 'tsi t'ai' pan. he rose in
office to the post of guardian to the intperiai jjrince.

]u\ liiang', towards; to go towards, or to look towards; to (dative of ad-

dressing). \.:i f^ \^P\\l^'i' .t'siuh'niiv^' ,h\i, to turn away/romrclatioiis

and go to strangers.

^ .ho (sometimes p hoh n< ,kenandhwan), with; {along with), as an

adjective /*ar7/jo/ii"o7/.s: /or (dativ<); of or from (after verbs of askinr') •
as
(after the same). ~~*
^'H ^v: T rf • .lio 'wo yih yang'. the same as I.
198 - MASDARIS GRAMMAR. PART H.

^ 'i kill, with; the surne as /)C kih, but less familiarly iised.

i^SM
l^^

If^ kih, to ylve-for (dative), f 5' ^ ^ Itl if^if 'ni

.lai 'kci 'wo chieh c'hii' yili .t'scng ik-'i\ come and take of a coverVul for me

(said by a sick man).

7^
^
kih, arrive at; ivith. Ik. ^ kih (.chi) 'tsau, earhj ; ]X. P^ kih.shi,

«rnt*e(? af its time; mature; ^ M- 1t I'll^ a '^^o kill 'ni ,tu hNvei', /
and yon both can do it.

^ .lien, together with, as a verb to connect.

an adverb and conjunction. As a con-
^Pt i)ino-*, certainly, and further, is

nective conjunction it freciueutly dues not differ from a preposition, i)^ ^

Hi V( ik A %^ 1!j1 p5 '^VO 'ii ,t^a ping' chung' .jen shwoh .hienhwa',

with him and them all I idly conversed.

^^itai', instead of; to act instead of;\\ ^ tai' t'i' or t'i' i^i', instead of;

^^ J\^ \JM ^p tai' .jen shuh tsui", to redeem men from sin.
Yi 'ta, to heat; to lyractise; its use as a preposition from, is exclusively

colloquial.
^^
^ ,tang, at; in front of; is used in g jTj ,tang ,c'hu, at a former

tirne;'^ ^ jtang mien', Inforc his face ; g ll^ ,tang .slii', at the time;

*^ ^ jtang ,chung, in the middle. This word properly a verb to meet, to

he at, is not used colloquially as a ])repofition, except in a few phrases. In

such instances as ^^ I)^ iS m ,tang 'wo tih mien' .t'sien, before my

face, ,tang may be translated at will as a verb or preposition.
^ij tau', to arrive at; to; till; the colloquial equivalent of ^ chi'. .^
"-
-j^ i^ ^Ij ^c 'tseu ri- shih 'li tau"' ,kia, it is a walk of twenty Ii to

my house ; ^ ^ 7C 9^ 'teng tau' ,tncii .ming, wait till dayliyht.

^ t'i',/o?- (substitutional); to (dative of addressing); /or (dative). ^

lui I hX -^ /C t'i' ,t'a tso' ,kung ,fu, do work instead of him..

fl: tsai', at a place; to be at; y^ H: 1jy -^ ,t'a tsai' 'ua 'li, at ichat

place is he i
^~^
jp ^" \ tE WJ pfeyi^i ko' 'lau .jen tsai' .p'ang shwoh,

an old man on one side said. Tsai' is used adverbially at the end of a sen-

tence :
tf |l 'ii '0 ^ fi^ )d!. 4 ,tu 'yen ,kai tsin' tih ,chung tsai', all

{sicch thinya) contain in them duties to be discharged faithfully.

CHAPTER 9, ON rUEPOSITIOXS AND POSTPOSITIOXK 190

PI tsi',//-o>/j (of motion), is a ])Ook word ocousioimlly used in colloquial,

as in @ f)ii tsi' .t'sung,//om; Q ]}[, ^^ -iji'- tsi' 't'sV .wii Hhr', /Vom
M/s /iwie nothiiKj happened.

'f/l;
.t'sun'^, /Vo;/? (of motioii'i; h// (of diivctiof), as a verb tojoUow. "^jl;

^- ^ # ri'; >ll^ ^(H JlJ YAWi H- A .tVu„g l,iau' f,i' •„„, lil, .sin

jU'liui tail' i»ieh tih 'lau .jen,/Vowi reverencing parents, proceed to honour

the aged among other perfions.

^It tui', towards; to (dative of acUhvHsinj;); in front of] opposite; for

(dative).

MU .t'ung, with {togithii- ir/M);/o/- (dative); of {from after verbs of ask-

ing). |rJ ini ^^ ^:\i .t'ling ,t'a .t'sang 'to, to hide icith htm.

^ 'ii, to give; for (dative); of or from (ablative); to (dative of giving);

to (dative of addres.sing). {\ |;ij- ^ "t/I f[£j |^ puh 'ii fu' 'mu ,siang

jkan, it does not concern the father and mother.

^, J ,u, at (locative); to (dative of addressing. 3^ j ehr ,ii in re-

gard to "J ' '^ ,\\ sb'i', ?/^)0H this. This word is not j)roi)('rly colloquial.

It is u.sed only in l)Ooki.sh exjjressions, as in ^fe ~J tfj^j _L. ,cliwang ,ii

.c'hwen sluing', stow it aivaij in the boat. It is also employed in the sense

of than, as in -j^ ^x yC kwo' ,11 ta', 7nore than great, very great.

^f wei',/oj- the sake of or |a| J^ ,yin wei' or ^^ wei' ,cho, ^

fi f'1* \Yj f^ /ii % ^Jc fl^shi' wei' 'ni tih pub shi' wei' 'wo tih, it is

for your sake not for mine.

I'm ,yj"' ^'^^f'"'^c ^/ jy^i '^ ^^^^^'^'"^''^ heard without ^ wei* folldwing

it: ifl rti \ '! ^^01^* fe che' ,cliiiang ,kwan ,si ,kiai ,yin 'ni

'k'i, this iawsnit is soldy for your sake.

UI yen, from; by (of din^ction); as a verb to spring from; originate;

depend upon, fj^ UJ ]}\^ lh;| ]>ih .yen 't'si In', you must go by that road.
The verlial use of this word is exemi»litied in \A} L_i f^ \\] /v yeu ki

pub .yeu .jeri, it depends on youraeff not on others.

Other book preposition.s, such as /y» 'i, Bh j'^'Ji") ''^'^' "''^'*^ ^^^y i" combin-

ation with other words.

200 MANDAUIN (MIAMMAK. I'AllT II.

I'vatitofiHlons.

fur tlic locative case aiv jjosf/jos it ions. Tlicv nn- pri-
2 The words used
prepositions are coiniuonly verbs. Tliese
marily adjectives, as the i.nr(Mling

adjectives when used as locative particles, do not retain like the prepositions
They become abstract signs of place, and are trans-
their original character.
or ])roi)ositions, according to the exigencies of
lated as substantives, ad^-erbs.

the occasion, as in 1l!l ^ _h ^' 4 T ,t^a tsai' shang' 'wo tsai' hia^

and I helow. Here i)erhai)s it is most correct to say that shang'

he is above

hia' are substantives governed

by ihe verb tsai'.
and
^ ^Q\\\m%, central; %cithin. J\^ T ,^\n ,<:\\\uv^, in the heart; }]\T\\ J

^ W^ ?!) Itll S
Us
^,twan
room.
'liau .c'ha fan' tau' ,t'a .fang ,chung, he took

tea and eatables into

^^
^ hen-, behind; after. ^ ^ Y^ Wi ^ '
^
i:y/teng yih .nien lieu'

tsieu' 'k'o 'i, loait till after a year and then it mai^ be so.

HF Ilia', below, as a verb to go down. yy\ ^ pifj |^ puh tsai' hwa' hia',

{t need not be set down in ivords. ^^ ^^^

1^, I^IS, M 'li loithin, is found in the adverbs ig. ^che' 'li, //<-;•( ;?)-P

.na there; and in the compounds,^ [HI 'li mien', inside; f'|g i^ 'li
^J 'li,

.t'eu, wsme etc.1^ ^li" fi ^M ^'^'"^ '^^^ '^'

P"^^ '^'^'''' ^'wei', you do

H T^^ ^ y^
not in heart repent. j, ^.^ ^
P^ nui* (or nei), within: fE .} W ^^^^' ""i' '^^ 'liau 'ki

jih, he hid himself several days ivithin; MH -^'hu nei', in the kitchen.

H shan<-', above; to ascend. ^ }l ^ \ W\ IK ~r ,sbeii shang'

'veu shih 'liann- .yin 'tsi, he has with him ten taels of silver.

]|fl" .t' film, before. ^ W] hioli .t'sien, before the temple of Confucius;

tt PT l^t cheng' tsai' .men .t'sien, >«^ before the door.

JF
outside. tjJC ^^[ .Cheng wai', oidside the city; ^fc PI "^1' peb
j^\ ywai',

meu wai' outside the north qafe. "^l' wai'

is sometimes a verb and pn-cedes

its nouu, as in ^ ^ » E %' ^ fl^ 'A' 111 !§ Pl*j

good customs of
^ k" -lai

anti-
tih 'hau jfeng sub puh wai' .k-in 'kien 'Hang tsi', the

quity consisted in nothing more than diligence

and economy.

3 The ori-nnal character of prepositions as verbs, may be seen exemplified

 CIIAlTKIl 10. OS" t03H'«H'M> A t»VKJllSS. 2()l

furflior in the u>«' of tin- insfnmitutiil auxiliaries lor tlu- preposition ?<•////. aiul
in other nuKUs of s|Hvtli i\n- fn-fiit/i ,
Iirt/imi/. e.)-rcjtf. rei/drditK/. d/'tcr,
for, etc.
soineof which here follow:— Pj"; J /X! £/- J/i. <>^|'
g'l^ fij" .( Im liaii

In' 'mn 'i wai* >iini 'Ic'eni;, ej-ccpt fn's own fnfhcr ami mofhn- tcho ictnild be

wiUuujI SS 'I- Tk i]k -A i Z: TA M wan; •li..-han;.^.c'hen. kwo-

k-n- ,san j.rh 'li, 300 // U,jnv,l thvOrcnt walf-^^ J}\j j"J 'j^f jl} {jj^
^^*

3(T ^aV '""' ^-i"' '^'* .I<w;in .SI 'y<' j>nli 'hau pair, (t.s to fjoiiuf to law it in

'litf'-'ii: \i\ W\ m'A \t VX '1'

Vi^W: M ||x-i.u •liu,,.. .„,.„ ti'
'i wai- ninh shen* 'mo 'c'han xiAx.ixccpt fwovtcu of hind he hcufvo inoperft/'

mi nmmi\> d^
'lian 'yang .t'san ehih pu- tih ni
i^- \n i\i^m^^^±
.men ,pa.shen' 'mo ,c'hwen
mi::.;

tsai' '.sli<'n shan---'

.ni. cxcejitiiKj si/kn'orni cultivntiou and wravhiy clotli. froui ivhenee could

youheclofh>d{\':\\ ] ZL I I hieh lian .sai» jili. ^///t/- Mnr </(/y*; ^ j^I^j

A. kwo' 'liang ,t-ion, after fivo dnys; ^ j^J^ \l\ .lien 'liang jih, after two
days.

\-
CHAi'Ti-:!:

On* AnvKuns.

1 A<lverhs nvr primitive or derived. The former are very generally sim-

ple, the latter com pimuil. Simple adverlis are such a.s }1|- tsjii', rrr/a/w;]:f3/ tsni*

vcri/. Worils applieil to (pialify adjeetivcH are usually simple adverbs. For
example ^^ ,keng. inore: jtc '»''"> vcri/; y^s^ fai". too. Adverbs of time,
9
an«l those uwd in aflirmation and negation, are usually primitives. They are
either .simple or compound; e. g. ^^ .t'sai or [WjlJ f>^ .kaiig .t'sii'i. jtisf now.

On rniipound
t ^\ilc> rh".

'2 Adverbs (lualifving verbs are derivtr«l from adjeetivenby repeating them
with a sulHx. The w..rds [fj tih,^* .cho y^j •''? "'"^ Jc '»«'»>*'* the most
common
)n endings to these group?*. ^^ ^C WV .l^'»"g ,k'ung till, 7*« oji ernpfij

iimnne r; IB |[11 \Yh^' H- tih, accJ/m^Vy; I^J iV'j W] ,kau,kau tih.///y/,;

 '

202 MANlVMilN f;i:AMMAR. PART II.

^ ^' 6^'yuen 'yuen till. (^/,9/(.//^/.v/(T (ff ^I'liau 'liau 'li, lali }})] ^}H

ft^.m'uvj: .iiiins till, ckarlt/;^ ^ []] .c-hixui; .c-liang till, comtanthj;

6 fl|-1f
I'^'li (-P'^i) I'^'l' (-1'=^') ^'^1'
'"'' ra/;?;^^ Tji^ [Ij .si ,si till, sccrdhj; Hff

^^ ngair- tili, «ccrc^7^; © $X IE ,^^5"^=^ .^^ing .iV, Ujhthj; ^% vtjl M

.liaiig .Hang .n, cool.

3 Simple ami (lissyllal)ic adjectives take the same endings without rc^ie-

tition, as Bfl ^"& 1^- ^'o^^'^'

t^'' '^^' *^'^''^'^^^'
^^ '1'^^'
^ ••^^'"- "^'^^'^^'^ •^^'

sharply; ^ ^ P^ '^^^^ '^^"^ •^''^''

?«'^'^^'^i/-

4 Words not adjectives are used in the same mauuer, as in ij^' ff ^- f !{i
oiiimrpose, (in the north t-'e' t'e' ,tilf^ fj- [J^ ) where teh is an
teh teh 'li,

%, Ife ^!i,t'eu ,t^eu'li, secretly, from ,feu to steal, (in the

adverb, and in

north ,t-eu ,t^'U ,ti).

.5 Terminations less common are -^ .Im, /fS .jan and ^_, ,chi,^all of

them book words and limited in their use to certain phrases. \^ ^^

twan' twan' .hu. certainly; :^ ^ "4^ 'Ivi 'ki .hu, almost; ]\% ]\% /ffe

,hin ,hin .jan, rejoicbujly; "tr "tT iv^ m ^"^"S -J'^^ ^^'''"^h '^y-

riedly returning; ||^ -^-twan'

.hu, certainly; t/T ^
•^"•'^l^^'

jlii" -ja", S'^c'^; t7c

^ .fu .jan, uselessly; tu ^^ ^'^^^^^ 0^"' ^''^'^^- -'^'"^ originally means

in the book language. Hence its use as a particle for adverbs of manner.
^/^?^s.

#/p^ ^(^inChihli),t'eupeiSc'hi(,cho),sc'a-c%;'^i'j ^ ^ ^ H^
J^ .minf ,chi puh yau' ngan' ,chi, it should be done ojicnly not secretly.

These forms with Z^ ^^^^^ heard in the dialect of Shantung are not found in

tlie mandarin of books. In Chihli the suffix ^ cho is preferred.

G An adjective, rci)eated or not, before a verb becomes an adverb; yl

5^ .Idling .miiig shwoh, he spoke 2^lainly or .ming shwoh. ,
nft
There are many simple adjectives used as adverbs, M-hich enter into com-
bination with .simi)le verbs, often in four- word groups, as Q i)eh, uselessly;

f^mair. slowly;^% -tu, uselessly, as in ti ^ TC peh [pai] lei'

,kung ,fu. .s/Hudtiiiic uselessly; THc ^ "^•'^"'

'^'"S slowly go, i. e. good bye;

;|'|^ i^sluur ,fung jsiang amv^', favourable winds attend him; i[j
j||^ 1)Ji[

inattentive.
yj^ jr)j 'leng puh .fang, coldly
 '
CnAPTEK 10. AOVKIUIH uT MANNF.H. •
^O'A

7 Piiiuitive adverbs aro8(iiiietiinesrt*]»eutod, us iiipJIJ pnJIJ J^ ,kaug,U; \n<r

.lai. / am Just come.

Two |uiinitivo adverbs arc ol'tcii coiupcdiiitbd, as in v/L, .LL;bNv;ui^ 't^Hie,

and much )iw)'e when\furthi r.

]\Iaiiy coiiipound adverbs cimsist dfa })riinitivi' advorbandanotljor word, as

V i
t»i\ i .king, already.

8 The nunibcrs yih, o;/c, n^ I iuuu,', /u;o, combine with various words

to form adverbs expressive of union, unil'irniity, separation, universality, etc.

— j'^ vili k'wai- .ri. to<jether; ^f yili .t'si, in all; i^yih
.\\v\\,
fiJii

joined together:
— ' 1^ yih liia^ YY\ 'liangliia^, together, aeparatdij

—
I

IkL yi'i <^"^''i^') directlij;

'— " yj yih t'sieh, the whole; iH yih tau',

iofjether.

9 Nouns of time become adverl>s <if time by repetition. ^^ \y^

\\j .nien .nien yih yan<i;^ tih, year by year the same.
Numbers with nunnial ])artieles are repeated to form adverbs of succes-

sion. fR — tl?'l ^ tU ^ yih ko' yih ko' 'tseu e'liuh k^i', one hj

one they went out.

Between the repeated words when they refer to time, the verb^ kwo' is

introdueed to represent succession in time. Tlius fiveword j^'roups are form-

ed.
'

— iir .jjn^
— ' |y^ vih .shi kwo' yili .shi, one generation after another.

When a number and its nuuK ral are repeated with an adjective betwe<^n

them or with the au.xiliary verl) JQ for comparing plaewl between them and
the adjective at the end, they give it the sense of gradual increase or di-

minution. — ^y\ ~/<^ — Tf'i yih 'tien ta' viK 'tien, little hy little it grows
gnat;
— '
Jy" |', /;
'— '
IQ' yih .t'seng ,kau yih .t'seng, hy successive la yem
it grows hlg'lu i\ or yih .t'seng JL P* X'^^ .t'seng ,kan.

Adiurhs oj Manner.

10 Adjectives are use»l as adverbs «)f manner with or without the suHixes

already described: ^ )\j ^(s S '^'^ }'""??' )»*'" j*^'j ^^^ thinks much; j^j

i^ ^ ,!<•»" teh ,to, (southern) or i^j ^ .kaii .tofnorthern), miirh higher.

 '

204 MANI>AKIN' OKAMJIAl;. I'AKT II

11 The uuxiliaiy substantives (see page 133) ofmaiinor, with vili, one, or

'liang, two, are used advcrhialiy at the end of sentences. ^>P ^X^ hj: y^
.ho fii' 'mu yili yan^^', the .toynr as one's father and mother.
12 The interro«rative advevh i^ .to, how? conimon in the north, as in

^/^ ^L .to cluing', how lieavyf is sdinctiines ii.^cd like our wuid how! -with

a note of admiration ^ yC -to fa', hoiv large it is! ^ /^ yv^ .to .mota*^,

18 also used in tlie same sense.

Tlie words thtis, so, hoiv'f are expressed priucipallv ])v com])ounds, consist-
^^
iiig of pronouns and suhstantives, as :tQ, ^'^
4-?/*
ch(!-'
'
'

yang'. ^n.
^•^* TjV-
Wi ^
-yir
clie'

,mo ,cho, tsen' ,mo ,clio, thus ; \^^ ^^ 'tsen yang', hoio/ 'XII ]x\^ .jii 't-si,

tlius. For other examjiles, see cliapter on pronouns. \^ j^ 'tsen .mo,

means how'i or tsen' ,mo (clianging the tune) thus., /ti ji^» ,11^ P/t^ -f^hi'tsen

,mo .111 ,
is it thus? 55 6^ 't'^^'ii tih, ;^ ]S 6^ 'tsen ,mo till, how'^ ^iS

Wt 5 '*'^c° j"^*^ j^^^^-* Si* S T^ 'ti^^'ii jUio yang', how?*

13 The words «s andZ/Zr, are expressed hy "SP .ju, as, like ; tHP TfC '^^'^^^

siangS # siang', -fjl] j| 'tausiang', '^U |U .ju .fung, tij I'lfW'ang fuh,
like. In purely colloquial examples formed from these words, the jdirase

m yJh yaiig', or" '

fix yih ,pan, of one kind, or 10, \\-j si- .tili, like.

follows the word to which the subject is compared. 3^P |pj rf-; 'f^f t^
WJ -j" .t'ung .hwang ti' yih yang' tih, the same as the emperor.

Ueciprocity is expressed liy words such as j'p .siang, in.utaaJhj ; yC ^<-

ta' ,kia, mutuoUii; ^)^ ^ ,siang ,shang, to fake counsel for/ether. yX ll'b

'pi 't-'si, and T^ Jili .siaiig 'u, mutuaJhj yC ^ 7^ yu ta'.chiahwo' .ri,

together, with, one another.

14 The contradictories of tht'sr \v{)i\h, ofhcrwise, 2(nlikelt/, etc. are sueli as

m TTJC riv liaiig' yaiig' ,tili, diferenthj; ^^ \^ \\\\\\ siang', not like] "^
^ U^ ,c'lia \uen tih, vrrt/ diferent; ^^ "M* iS pi'l» -t-'ha .sheii

,nio, not very di£'crenthj\ ^ TQ /i^ 13- r^ P"l' chicn'. shi* die' yang'>

* In I'f kin^', i)] 'kp" " <'»f"'ii "*<P'1 >«"' JS "">i' «s in j^ JH I^ <li'' .mcu ,kau, .«o /«i(/A_

Tliis is an iric^nlarity and i.s on«- of tin- insianrcs uiiero tlie I'ekiiiy dinleil (liHor.s from .stamlanl

nianilaiin. ^f^ Tft' ^Q. -CE XtL 111 ^^ 'we .cliii tau' shi' die' .men rim, I himc that it is so.
 ClIArTKU 10. AnVKUIlrt OF INTENSITY AND giANTlTY. '^OS

it is not lil'dij to he so; 'K^ 'li T^ Veu' slir yili yuiij,'', that is differ-

ent, it is otherwise; y\\ 1'[i| ?K i3£ I'uli ..siiinj; .lai 'waiig, thcij do not
visit with one another.

It is nearly the same is exjnes.sed l>y^L i^ ^ ,t-'l»5i piili ,ti), niid y{\

l^j^ pull .li or ^ 0^ "I^J lltc ,c'lui till 'yi'U hiuir, it differs little.

The greater nn!nl)er of adviihs of manner aie adjectives single or tluubled

placed before or after verbs. In the north nvo used e. g. to express the .sound

of fifes and other wind instnnM.ntsH»|{ Ul^[ A^i\ *yi\ .Huu .liau liau"^' liaii"-*'

soundimj loud; l^f. iiS S S X''^ y<^" jt^ng jtang, tvith prolan (jed i>om\Ci.

The ornaments carried in a procession at a wedding or funeral are said to be

tE ^i. R ISt M'-^ jli^^i^ j«i^^" ?8i<'»> btaufi/ul. Four word groups formed
like these, and imitative of natural sounds are employed to descriljc those
sounds'^. Thus to represent the chirping and calling of a flock of birds Hp
'^ri ^11 f' il ,thi ,chi ,tswa ,tswa, is emi)loyed. Other e.Kamides used in

Chihliare sueh asjiljlj jl;|'j] )ij]lj l';|'Jj ,sh\va la' ,shwa la', the wind Jioivinrf on
rcfds: ^f^ jlj].'
i^^, W^ ,hi ,li many men walking with vaggager^^
,hu .lu,

i'jL" W\ ''M /^ ,li .'^^^^^"1 M, wind among pines. The tone in such ono-
luatojioeian words in usually .^hang p'ing, but sometimes hia p'in*'.

Adverbs of Intensity and Qiifnififif.

15 Words ajiidied to qualify adjectives admit of )eing I classified according

to the degrees of comparison. (For examples, see adjectives). Thow' that
fonn the comparativp, are ^l^.kv\vj,Jorhuii>i, ;
XjC •li\van, ^ yeu',aya/w
4^- tsai', again; f^ J}\] yueh ,kia, ^' ^ J^(^ yueh fah .ri, mueh.
IG The particles forming the su|H'rlative, arc j).-! 'ting, ^j! kili. 35 chi*

,l5tli .tsiueh. |:l3^

tsui', and in northern colloquial JI^-^J .heu for disagreable tas-
tes and smells.

17 Intensitive particles (meaning very), are yC ta'. (after yy\ puh, not
very, JR 'hen, !£ kwai', %]' 'hau. ^ 'lau, j[j' -^ hau ]m h, ^ .shen*,

* Sec alw Part III. ch. 4. \) 17.

.?()6 MAXnARIN GRAMMAF.. PART II

o their word, ami

receding
prcv. fe kili, ^ "kin dose: 7}^ shall, end, u.sed as

suffixes.

18 The sense too is given to adjectives, l.y 7^^ t-ai'. 1^ t'eh, ^ kwo',

to pass, or -j^ yf-" kwo' ,u,siir2mssui(/?i/, and by ^' yiieh.

19 Borne of these adverbs are employed to form a double com])arative, as

^ yueh, (colloquial) j(^ .u, (literary) as in ^ )H9 3S %j' y^^h 'man

vueh "iiau, the fuller the better. This indeed is the proper use of ;§)i yueh
and ]{V^> X\. They are employed but sparingly to express the single comjja-

rative.

20 Many of these adverbs are also ai)]died to verbs, as \\\(yx T^ '-®

'hen ,clu tau', Ilcnow it loell; ^R Wl yT?l 'lien tung' c'hi', he was very an-

gry ; ^. ^* 13i jkeng ngai' ,t''a, he loves him more.

21 The following words singly or in compounds are used adverbially some
before and some after verbs or adjectives.

^ chih, only ;
7s ^=]- 1|h| chili teh yih ko', only one.

Ml 'chi, to stop; with .^ puh, merely, as in y\\ JE '

\ puh 'chi

vih .jen, not only one, or there were more than one.

7u I^* jkwang 'king,/o?-m; appearance', used for about, as in JH jij

EI 7L ^^ j*^^^^ ^"^^
P^^' jkwaug 'king, abont 300 or 400.

J-cL king', //iis/iCfZ, used for o«7y, as in _^ ,^1 M^ ^. ching' 'siang jChih
't'sau, he only thinlcs of eating straio.
jij^ hien', limit, is used Avith ^^ 'yeu, to have, for « little, as in ^^ |lj)

^ PK^ hioh wen' 'yeu hien^ his learning is not much.

^Ig^ .hwan [colloquially .liai], still, more.

2 .hau, rt .<?7??rt77 division, used with '

' yih and ;J[>^i,si, for a eery little,

//<e least, as in^;;p ^^ -^ ^J ,sT .hau puh tui', it does not in tltc least suit.

'lioh, compendium., as an adverb a little; -^ ^/f;!

%) ^z:^ ^i*'^^ .-^i' '^^^^

.sie, a little better.

)h\^ 'man, full; fully; as in -f^ ^^^ — jf - pnh 'man ri- .kin, not fully

two catties.

~Xj, .mau, htiir, is used bdure numbers in the sense ui almost.

jL P"'^?
''' handful; about; as in 5C ?L<^'^''i"S' ' \^^: about \(^ feet f^ JG
 OnArTER 10. ADVr.ailS of intensity and glANTITV. 1>1)^

t'suii^ 'pa, ahouf an inch; /]' j[_. Jviu iia, ahuiU a catf,/:f\' ]\^ HI fj'

Jfv (I J ?!<'" T^i ii" ;l<in Jiii till, ff/K>?/< ^ rr///y or two arc come; ~p i(|j^

jt'sien 'pa, about a thousand.

F/fe ])!iS PMfAv/ Htt.M- ^\ j.iih, not, si;;niri('.s inrrcli/, as in^ "j^
^\ ^"^
I'd' T^ i^- 1
'
•^•^» •'^I'lJ' 1'"^' P'l' 'tsuni,' 'y.-ii "wii shih.fhrrearr more than
thiifi/, there mitat hejtfty.

(^ pan', hnJf, is used adverbiully, ui

^ ^''.'^^ ^)l\ ])an' ,kwan pan-
,^-i, half puhJic and half private; =^ fl'*^ ^^ ^, p;in' kia j,an' ,r]ion,

half true and halffalse; 7n^ ^ /L^"'" } '1' J'Ji'i'' .n, //<e r/>Yfl/er part or
— X -p yu }''» ^«i' p'^'»' •»'•

JXHp'^S >-«</'t'>-; '"'i" s^««^' (/^'/m'; 9^ ]][[ )jj} ^ ..slion 'fi 'r/o ,nf^an

7c;?;o// tolerable health: \)] 'j^ &i1 ^v: tili ,slu!n<r p',)- ,tsieii, ^/<e
sound of
the fife is high and clear.

y^\ 'ijS pull kwo', not passing; only; y^\ -jli|0

/^ |/J> [^J (^ '^ ^^
pull kwo' shi* 'ni tsi' 'ki shou' 'k'u, yott only yourself suffer.

ix 'shau, /Vjy; not much; as iu>'^ % J*'sliau 'liau, not much of youdnesa ;
y" / TJ 'sliau yuii^', use little.

Ti\ ^h "Sliau wei, a little ('sau .wei' till).

^1^« .SI, uniiic of a small divi.sion, used with yili and *^-^ .liaii, as in

'[•'I' ^V J'll y'^i r"^*

-^^'i t'so', no^ inthe least ivrony.

i l^.siau, to use; spend; necessarily; in tlie neijjative, as in-^ Ij^J ^is.

pull ,siau n* "li hr', ?io^ so 7?i?(cA as two li.

— ,sit', a //7//r, is used in tlic compounds, ^J A»/ .sic .woi, a /////<' ; **P
i^t'I ,sir ,811, a little; as in ^[ :^^ "^ Jv.I/ ^j "^j^ii' .suliwci' 'sio 'sic tsT',

I can write a little. A synonym of these phrases is Jj| j ytiyih 'tien,ry,

a little.

:^|t[.sri, ,11 Its/: II little. IS used in ]/\;[ ^,s\i .\\v\,^}j[

'J/ ,si\ 'shau, a little,

as in ^p( ^} Yj ^ ft' 111 ;>«« .wd 'yeUjSic hai' p'a', he fears a little.

yvC ta-. is used with the negative y\\ ]iuh, for not very. The particio

W!{-| 'li sometimes follows, as in yf\ TC^'^'j. ^T I"il» ^'i'' 'li Iiirif,', /^ ;> wo<

mu ch practised, (soutliern) Jf\ 7C '^T p»h tii* jiiing, (nortlirrn).

lyi .tan, .st«f//«'. is used as an adv<»rb for on/y, #{'«7///, as in .^\ J|/ ~~'
2U8 MANDARIN (.flAMMAIi. I'AUT II.

'f^ pull ,taii yili k<)', not one only; ^ S^ iul ^f .tan ,taii .t'a liwci',

onhj he. can do it.

jg tanS but, only, as in (i M ft ^ ^ S -T Mi S T '^f'

filj] tan' kien' clieu' ye' ,slieng .yiin, puh kien- .vim ,cliung hia' 'u, he only

saw clouds coUecting night andmorning, hut did not see rain fall from them.

J^lj tail', to reach, after the negative y{\ pnli, means so much as, as in

^ ?!)
— ' I r^^^^
^^^^' y'^^^ jt'-siL-n, not so muvh^as 1,000.

g^ .t'eu, about, in reference to numbers, as in [1^ ^H U M Itu t'eu

,san s'i' 'li InS about three or four li.

tsuli, enough and^X keu', enough are used after y\\ jiuli not in the
/L;^

sense of amounting to.

|§ 'tsung, echoic, most, cdtogether, is used in some compounds,

^/ic as

|g yih 'tsung, ^
|g kung' 'tsung, all.
^^ tiih, alone; singly; ^1 10 ^uh yih ko', only one.
"^ .wei, to be, one of the substantive verbs is used in some compounds of

an adverbial nature, as in ^P Mj 'sbau .wei, a little.

\% .wei, only, a book word, used in the compound, ^% ^ifi -^^'t'i tub, on-

ly, as in tH ^fl) — A. -wei tiih rr' .jen, only tico men.

^^ yob, to mal:e an agreement, about, in genercd, is used in several com-

pounds, as ^ 8-1' y^'^i 'i^^^b ^ JM y<^'i^ luo, ^v4 15: yoh shus :h ^
til' yoli; $^ ^ yoh lioh, «&o?t^, of numbers.

Adverbs of Time.

22 Primitive adverbs of time are numerous.

^^ chan', temporarily; as in "^ £L chan' 't'sie, and ^' H^-chan' .shi,

/*or the time.

^ ,c'hu, at first, as in ^ ^jj ^^ ,(''hii iau' che' 'li, on first com-

ing here; J^ fjj 'c'lii ,c'l.'U, at the beginning ; (JJ Jiff ,c'hu 'shi, at the be-

ginning.

/j jfung, at that time; Just noio; Jj $j| .fang .t'sai,y?(6< now; ~/j 3£lJ

jfang tan',./ws^ come; /j y^ ,fang \A\,jnst come.

 IIIAITKI. IC Al)\ i:i;r.> (tf TiMi;. >()(,

^ iK'ir. (iftv,-; i]\ \ \\\ fV (li.iir tsai- licir. .sY-/«,/ Uhiml.

.j^. liNviili, H,i,l,l,„l,i, a> ill ,1?; ,'&Ii\vuIj .jan, fiidilru/i/:^,
P^ /^ |ij|

liwuli jail jtlii ,kirii. /// (^y< iimtitnt.

fnj hiaii^--, hUhivtn', ft, ijo toxmnls;\\\\ '^'\^

liian-- .lai, |l'Jyil. I.iaii-
r. J

hitlnrtO.

"J7L l>i('ir, utjnc.-icnt; ijt (H l>i'''»- tsai-, u,>u:Vll ^^hi.ir ,kii,/^^* j5^
jtaii^ liinr, y/o/r.

i^ .Uwjuj, wjain; .tV£ :^ 7K •Il^\aIl yair .lai, I f^haU come aau!,,

I — T— I
^'{' ..

1 . i,/'y//>.//t'f/. as iiiL^ I'X ' .l^in;,;, alrcculi/. It is also used in the*

l.hrast's, xf\ f^j: [^ puh ti-li 'i, ncccssariJij: M EL •>' '- <(ii</ (/lof dlonv.

^ ki- (chi-), alrcuihj, as iiif^ /{^ ki- .jaii, ahratly; ^^ Vv A\i\ //

;7 is (ilrcdi/// no.

PJlJ .kang, nccnt/f/, as in ^1) l^ljlj

jj^ ,kaii- ,kaiig .lai, >.s< coinv.
-4^ ,kin, MOJt;, as in UW -^^ Ju Jdu, gf ^^ ,(ang ,kiii, »otf; ^ -^^

chi" .kin, /jV/ jwiv.

^•il .nan, ii{(ficuU, is usi-d in th.' .s.-nsc

seldow, as in ijlJIt j^ ^/jv^ .nan tdi

.lai. //( foiues seldom.

\\\\ Ji^ "o^" -.i'"^'

orcusionnUy.

^^' i^'\\\, fonntrlij; ^ )X^- s\\\ .'An, in former times; \.\ fj sili jVli. /„;•-

m^rl/f ;
"

f-r, y* wang sili, i« j!>«*.Y timeti.

ft; pirn-. Mru; fjii /l^ yk-xv sln\ M,.< //<c« />.' it; X^ jji [III ffj^
^'\<^

A/^ TIv/ itii 1'"^' 1'^' i)i('n^ pa', .lai i»iii shall .tM, //'//. ,/,„ v „,./ rimw hi it

he so, hut if lie etunes hill him.

yQ ,sicu,/or>«er///; u: 7L tsai- ,sieu,/<»-m<'/7//; 7L :^ "ii^T >i«'ii van'

c'hn'. .'/"* inUHt first f/'>.

lig ^^' .f. n •li,/ar>,<rWy.

^ .t.i huw? com6/m« with tsan ^^ to iurin «7<f;/ .i*

in tju- north,

-^ ^ .to 'tfwin .lai, when did }/<>ii vouic'i

-f^- tsai-, «^.n'// : j^j- j; [^^l T" ts«^' ^'i" >'•' J'^^" i^"- yo o//rr

//Jo/•f.

|'<| .tsai,>.v< now; as in^.^ )k -tsai .lai, he injust come.

^ .t-s(.ng, idrc(fdy, /H(-fi, is iist-tl rt** «i ])artiih' tor tlu- past tiiiso. It ful-
 PAllT
lilif
MANf'AKlN t.KAMMAn. 11.

in tl.o sons,, nul „,l ..r „ut, a.i.l

knvs smne otl.er wovcl, as Tfcwri-.'-f^ I-til..

kc as II past interro.U'ativc have ijouf

"pf ^

l2p.^ui tsilu n.>/^e./m/.^//;il|i tnh k^l,.

{|p t.ih. «^ o.cc. as
in \^ >^1J

''^'""' ^^ '""'''•
Tif .tsiuug, «6u»/ ^.; as in .W ^^^^''^"J=' -^^'^^

•y^ tsl.ir, ;.n.cr7;afc7//: as in \^t ^ tsi.ir .lai, com, at o.r.^

^^^

T ?f IPl ft* A tsnh fsien .lai "liau 'ki ko-' k-'cli .jon,

W ^[l
rr /('?<-'

..s6r k„- or ,s,V k,.-<,

rZ(/^6' arjo

LnZ.er.l.i.i,orsM "^ tPl' 'H^ 31

prev!ou-^hj, is used with /L ,^H-n its synonym ;

as m JU ^L IVU
f|i ir

X vevr, a7«/.»; X :^ ""^

1^1 -^'^ J >'*^'^ •'^^'^- ^"'^^ -^'^^'^^ ''' ^''''''

he has written
H or,ain.
pronouns com1>ine with substantives of time to lorm
93 The domonstvatlvc
' na' .sl.Y, r.^ M«? time Jtl^^lJ 't^si k^:h,
a.hvvl.s of time. ?H^ Hf
g
;

compmmf
,ouncl
-^
^^^^ ^^.^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^.. ^^^^^.^ ^^^^^^ ^j ^ ^ j^^j^, .^^_^ ^^^^ ^^^..

''/LV^^ ,y/,„f f/>»r.^ T^ m ^& ^^ V''^'

^'"^'' '^' •^^^'- "^ ''"^'^^'* "^ "-'^'"^

nr
tbnr.
V t;,-ov; 'ire Viovrowed to form compound adverbs of time.
04 Several
,
..^*
,
adject nt^ <"^

c'hanji;.
.^
fO«.9««»jf;1^beu-, f(/i{er;
-^'
|
Ina', ?Wo«t';
^
Jf kicu-,

^'/t^i ,'!".
i^ m'ar; ifr
.,..,,.
t±I
ku. ««c?*e«^;^ k-'ii'
l^"- «;^'^'"-' t^.«,,m,
- " departed: ^ . 5^
y. .min^% t//r/A^;
.xu^.^^.. ,y.c

^c
77.

"'
kin^
.
^ to nuun,: ^ -tsau, efl;^// ; H'J -t'sien, he/ore; ^ VsV,

.c-hang,/m^ue;^^///: g, J^^ .c'hang.lai, co/i-

T^ .,lo.-
Examples. In
'1^ mj*
iiJ
1'^'^»
,. ^^
^
1 ,
oiext
aj- 4^* ^^ ..
^^.^ constantli/: fg 7>|^ hcu' .lai, -g.

•
xi nfferivardo: f^ Pl ueu' jih, Me (Za// fz/Vc/- to-morrow;

'^ A. lou' kin, o/fcr

//"*•.
H I
muli hia^ «^;^)ts<v/^- ^ I
Jang
^^ '^
"TV 4p Ilia- wu, in the afternoon'. '^\- kieu' .nien. ^rt6Y

•
' -J- ndL. HM 'ku ^iii .kicn. /// ff«c/V;/^ //?»e.v: ^^ ^ .ming .nien,

nn 7/ .niing .t-ien.
/o-wo>-ro?i-; ^,/| ^- .sin .men, »('?f> ?/ertr;

^''
fr.to Vik, mnny dm,.: ^^ ¥ '^^^^^ "t^-^"^ <>-'Vy; Wf B ? -I'sicn
 Al.VKUr.S OK IL.M i: AM' I'lHF.CTlOM. 21 i
jj^j.j.,.,; li)

aro also toinul in .sumo i-uimumi conip-uiuls, o. g. iii

Adicc-tlvf i.roiu.uns

Adverbs iif riinr and Din <-fui/i.

duiwHsfrulivc pronouns juiiied^ with

05 Adverbs of place are /omc(//>//
In adaitiuii to the comninu demonstratives -}nt
che-,
..•tiiii v^ultstautives.

tJus, atul W •'=l^ ^^'"^ ^^^^ '^''''^'

^ '^''' ''"'*^ '^'^' ^"'''' ''^»-^' ''^l^o "s^'^^ "^ ^'^"^•^

T.hrases. ,.., -, ^t. -p.^.

v- FiFi , ,

«rrem.d Vn' lE il k"' '"^ 1(^1- '"' -^ ^>1 ^''^

H.n- is .i'^'

//./s ,idc an- t-uml. m 1^ -'^ .1 : ^ -" " '--

'"' '^"' ''"''''
• —
^''*^
. .
•.,.„ '5,^ .i'^y die' ,p'ang
^ ,1"^'"; '"^^^ ^'^^'

the* pan- .pieii Abt

.''f-j -^-^ '-^ •

with lui".
cdrrespopding iurins
preposi-
^^-•'^^'O.vV/o^., or case particles answering to our Jocative
o,; Th.
ti.^H cnUr .Undar ^u-Y-A^'^^' -
^M-essed by ± ^^ shang' ,pien,

h ni .han.r .t'eu, X
ll ^^^^ ^^ ^'^"'' ^>'
_!;. pf^'''''
-V^^^^^^-

n.-i- .chung, «wo;?^ Mrm etc.; uv7/to//^, by •/(• wai',

ilk '.••Mi and fM ^f^

with tbi' same adjuncts. _^

expressed by W] .t^en and f^l-.-. with the words
/^wo.c and ^.A/.'/. "re

Tg innMf-- iS:
/^,A/and/':/V.an..xp..^^..n.yX'tso,
^t ti hia..
d-b
:^ y.-us w.th th. .nl.joined
%
i^^ pan' ,pien. T +
words f--sbH. 4^^!'- l-"- .,.,,, . „
and direct. on^ a.. A'J yicU.u .,.,,..,,/ ruund;
,
-.7 O.lur adverbs cf plac.
pLj'l^,] j//.] ,p .,.h.-u .w.i. "//'•"•""/• i^ "€ cl'Vh •-••". "'"/^ ^/-''7^V
 * "•
5IAM>AlilN (iUAMMAK.
l'-^^*'^'
•212

^^:f ^ .sic 'tseu, icaU: vhlupichj; ])) ^ ^\^y^^^\ ,wan .n. ohf!qnel!/;^

knli c-lnr, cctnj ivherc. ^^

J^ ^^
'

2S 8cn-eralac\i(H-tiv.'soriM.sti.ositi..iis, asBl.tVi.-n.fe l.eu^ X sluing-',

aiv i-lacc-d witli 1 ^i. at tin- riid .)f .sciiti-iia-s

T* hia' y^[ \vai-. 1^1 inil-.

to define tlic direction of the

aetion, 1(P 4^ Vl M J" .l^in i lienS./Vo./i

forward. The words for north soutli cast and west are med in the
this thne

same way as in
^' ^ ^ehhi^^ ^tung-, cost of the metropolh:
also thus used, as in pj
M^J^^^^'
W Jii
,si, west of the temple. .Lai^l^ to rome is

tsi" "ku "i .hi'i, from (niricnf tiitn-s tllJ now.

Affirmative, Kegcdive, and Emphatic Particles.

29 The afiirmative of fact is usually /E ^^ii'S 7E H^ ^l»i' till, ?V is so;

by thejvord^^ <^i'
fvf ;t'so, with the ne-
yes. It is also expressed ^''^^'h

gative ^ puh, 7tof, preceding;^ ^d I'ldi t'so-', vV /« so.

expressed hy ^ /E^ puh

30 The contradictory of any proposition is

sh'r, it is not so.

Puh ^ is the contradictory ne^gative before verbs and adjectives generally,

yf; ^ puh .neng, ?/o» c«»«o^ ^^ ^T"!' ting', ?Y is not certain; ~^>, ^
puh 'Chun, not certain; ^ M. V"^^ '^"""i.^-
^'^ '*' »^^ reasonable; ^^
i,uh to notmanv. Puh is sometimes affirmative, as when found in a sen-

tence originally interrogative

and precedcl by ^(t Iwiu, e. g. in Ift ^^^ ^
^ "hau puh .yung i', very easy;
but this wt)uld b.- In Peking very difficult;

Ufy ^^ 'iiau .yung i', is also very diffi'cnlt

an interrogative sentence).
the final particle being

omitted which would have made it

31 Our affirmative yes is expressed by

spoken of,
^
iS ^ ^
'y!^'^^^'"'^; ';^'"
^h ^ H^
*j|^ l'*'^^''''"

-vi" 'tsi
'sion orr existence of things is

yuu iii? yen tih, //auc yoK silver? I have, or /s f/<cy(! silver? there is

possession and existence, isj^nnih

32 The opposite of the offirraative of

(meiO, as in j^ |M ^muh (niei-) .yin 'tsi, (hcrr is no,siIvrr; ji 1 5^

under no law. 'Veu and ko^ are some-
J j muh .wang nudi fah, they are p]
times used after nndi, as in fi ^A ^nnh (meiO \veu .jen, there is no

one.
ClIAl'TEU 10. AFKIRMATIVK, XKCATIVR, ANO KMI'IFATIC rAIiTKLES. 213

3.'} OtliLT ncfjativcs horroioed from the hooks, aiitl used in soinc })liin.ses, nif

^|- ,fci, tlio cMiuivalriit ot .^\ /j^ pull slii', and ffH: .wu, tlic same as j^^

'f:] mull 'vt'U. Tlu'V aio sonit'time.s combined as in flit ^\'' /ii -j^- f')> f|"|

•clj' /j- -^^h 'f^'i «!»»' ytiu' 'iii .men ,cliiini,' liou ',/^ 'S </'«^ ijouinay be fuithfitl
and uprltj/it, and for that only.

?A Tilt' aflirmativo i.s dofinod more cloarly Ity cortain i)aili(U'S, viz. Jn
clu-n-Siili i.icnS Jjli/fitsieuS ]£ ^ chcn-' shr, it ,'sjusf .so;t^* ;§|: pi-u-

shi', that then is it; )]'/(] /^ tsieu' slii', that is it, if is so; f««j^ /J^ .t'sai

shi', that is it. Theso woid.s sometimes precede other verbs, asj;^ r'J pi<ii-

k'o, that then can he done. ^Jl^ tsieu', before oilier vt-rbs takes the sense ot"

imiiicdiatehj, as in ]\Vi^i \^i^\Q\\'^ 'io., he immediately heat him.

li.'i The em}thasis o^ positive certainty is conveyed by two sets of ])arlie]es.

one ai)plied to alHrniatidiis and neL;ati(»ns, the other to iH'f^ations only. The
former are such as i|i J^ pih king', ^ [[-_ shih tsai', ^^vj\ ^^' twan' .lin.

fji^ k'ih, with-tlL y^ following, as in {\P -Qii .^\ ijfjjc k'ili "ye puh .nan.

crtainly not diffictdt.

Tn negative phra.ses ^K pii.?' is employed, as in ^^ y\\ yV^ V>ng' I'^i'i

shi', certainly it is not.

3G Some words assert that something mnst ho so {moral certainty), .fj^

'tsung,^^ /2 pih ting', /[;. yili ting', are examples.

37 That a thing is naturally so is ex])ressed by certain words, such as | *J

jl/i tsV .jan, .TfC ^^ J.en .lai, j^. ^ .yu.-n .lai, jjjl ^<^ .yuen 'pen, ^f^

J^ 'pen 'ti, .$. ^ -J^ 'pen 'ti 't.si, oriyinally.

These ])hrases are often prefixed to the substantive veil), as in |Jj^ /}S \'U

]vL i yC \<- \s [I Jyu<'n shi' ,king kiai' .mei .Hung sin , tih, this is a learn-
ing to thr inirhd.

38 That a thing ought and ought not to bo done, is expressed by ]»ii fixing

to the negative various words. For the aflhnnative are employed q:;^A -^•

tsung yau', jV) -^- ^vu' yau', you mvst. /Ji. -^'ting' yau',^>y /(/jwu' pih.

you must.
F«)r the negative are used ij\. kiuchj^v t'sieh, "| *
*J/; ,t'sien wan': '^'- in
214 BIANDARIX (iRAMMAP.. PART II.

"T" 0J -^ ^J jt'sion wan' pnli 'k'o, ccrtainhj you may not; j|^'| -J— !^
Hj twair .liu pull 'k'o, certainly you may not.
"^^ HI
39 Some adverbs prefixed to y]\ })ii]i are intcrror/ative. Tlie}- arc ]5>'*

'k'i, lioiu'^ Hit ^13. .nau tail', hard to he said; is it so tlicn'^ Tlie suffix ^\
)x(i pull .c'lieiig, is also interrogative.

A donlilc negative is sometimes interrogative, as±;^. pp moli ,fei, Av /7 »o^i'

CHAPTER XL
Ox CONJUNCTIOXS.

1 The ]. repositions meaning ^vith^^w,'^'u!^ .t'ung,^ kili, \^^ 7k.

"\ kill, are used as copulative cunjunctions, to connect nouns. In Peking liai'

is common as a conjunction, meaning icith or and. Both —and may be ex-

pressed by ^M -lien and ^^^ tai' as in M ^ts m' ^1 -l^^'" ;C-liili tai' ,lio]i,

both food and drink.

3E l'i"gS '"11^ adverb certainly, is also used as a conjunction and, to con-

nect nouns.
•»
tnt.
2 Clauses are connected by means of ^^.liwan, still, and .liai, a collocpiial

pronunciation of the same word, probably shortened from an old form .hain.

'Ye illi also, is also used to join clauses together, in the sense even, also,
and.

'T'sie jEL and. further, is used only in compounds jfl -O- pi^g' 't'sie,

and further; ffo xL .k'iuen (c'h) 't'sie, under the circumstances. \vi] i L
.ri 't'sie, and further, by The .ri oc-
|h] _tL shang' 't'sie, if still further.
curring in books between tAvo adjectives, in the sense rtJi-of, is also expressed by
HU ±L .n 't'sie, as in ^l/fc fllj _LL )pj ,shen .11 't^sie ,t'sing, dee}) and
cle/xr. , Hwang 't'sie yL -tL i« used for how much 7nore, lohen further
A new subject is introduced by ^J^ -^ .hwan 'yen, and further, and -f^J-

tsai' 'che, ar/ain.

3 Adversative conjunctions. When our word hid means merely, only, it

is expressed by 'JP /£ tan' sh'i', or \^ :iI[U i)uh kwo', J' ^ chili. Tan' and
chih combine M'ilh various verhs, as with fipj 't'sing, please, in the .se.n.se /
 iHAi"n:i; 11. on coxjixitions, 21.'>

onhj ask you to, ami \wnvL'jusf viilf/ T.tn* kicii- ]]_[ >[|^/« onf/j saw. Tliis

liOAvevcT is ail n(lv('rl)ial usage.

Our Wdiil f)i(f ill its liglitcr sense is more nearly expressed l)y jflj 'tan, on
Mt' olhcr hand, Jiowivvr, and ll'lj [\^ 'tan 'ti, ?h ///e end, hoiccver, and yet.

Less trc(|nently /)C 'Ian is employed for on iJic utJicr hand.

When perversity is imjilied \\\\\ .p'icii is used for 'tan.

The phrases^fE J{^ ,sni .jan and /J\ \\W .jaii .11, althoiujh, yil, are used

to commence separate clauses. For J{^ [IfJ .jan .11, the jtln-ases ;/^ ^^
'kieu Icing', and Jl'IJ /^ 'tan 'ti, Aoia-yty, are also nsed.

4 Disjunctives. When two clauses are introduced hy cither, or, the word
^^ hwoh, or componnd y)l ^'hwoli 'che, is i)lacedatthe beginning of each.

The phrases yj\ ^, pnh shi', jj,y{] ^ tsieii* shi', //' it he not, then it is,

answer the same purpose.

When the first clause is interrogative, and the second commences with or,

the interrogative .ni is used at the end of the first clause, and.t]^ ^ .hwan
shi', at the beginning of the second. ^^ \/\i i^j[^
^SL /H //'J /^ •'^I'l' ''i

.ni .hwan shi' ]>iLdi .jen. is if you or another'^

'Ye {jii and, and yC yen', ayain, luc used with ^puh, not, and a viab
for neither, nor.

On the one hand, and 071 the other hand, are expressed by ""^ ]']' yih

kieir', ^ yih mien',

'— ' jjfj yih .t'en, ^ yih pan'. When ei-

ther of these compounds is nsed, it is re]ieated at the head of each clause.

Not only, hid even, are expressed by ^|"- ^'Jj ,^^'^ t^il^ WL /iS tsieu' shi'.

For the latter, nSl li*""? together toith, is also found. Pnh tan' ^\ jUand
nJi 'ye, are also used for not only, hut also.
•
.Ning ^ it icould he better

to, supplies the place of "than." ^ ^ ^^ ^- \\\i S^ -'li-ni"K '««

I>"li

yau' tso' ngoh shi', it would he letter to die than to do luhat is lorong.

J Causal cojijuHctionJi. |a| ,yin, [aJ J,'^ ,yin wei', fy ^ .wei ,cho,

all introduce clauses with the scobc because. The word tjX. ku', cause, i)lac-

od at the end of a clau.se with ^^ .chi, tlic possessive particle before it, or

tS 5^ yuen ku', cause, with [J J tih, also gives the meaning hecanse.
G Illative conjunctions. W\ \J '«" i- ^^ iH^ ku' •t'.si,^^; f^ ku' 'so,
216 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART II.

Jy'i jy^ ku' 'so 'i, (Southern) I^j ]Xu ,y'^^ '^'^'h therefore, hecmise of

this, all introduce clauses in colloquial.

TliG Ji)ial conjunction that, is expressed by jy^ 'i, in order to, pn'Ccding

certain verbs, as \J^ y^j '^ uiion', hi order to avoid. A plainer colloquial

mode of expressing this conjunction is by the auxiliary causative verbs, \^)i

t ..r ^^ 1 •

shi^ ^)C Kiau', and -^- van'.

^ 1 tits ,

The conseqiiential conjunction ao that, is also expressed by the auxiliary

verbs, ^^ kiau', ^% shi"'.

Lest is expressed by ^ }^ .c'hang 'k'ung, ^ I'p .c'liang p^a', ,tvj{ tp

k'ung p^a', tirl p^a'.

7 Hifpothetical conjunctions. Job :^ (yau') {/*, combines with /^^ .jan,

if so, /t, sliY', if it he that, or is used alone.

Another conditional particle used abno or in compounds, is J|ri)'t^ang, if.

The compounds, Kuj ^ 't^ang hwoh, "f ji^!j ifl 't^ang shi^ f ^j ^^ 't^ang

'jan are common ;

iliil :^ 't'ang job also occurs.

Ki' YfQ already, is used conditionally, in f^ /^ ki' .jan, if it were al-

ready so, and when it stands alone.

Another conditional particle is ^'l^ tsung^, although, even, if. Further

"^ 7H y^^^'^' slii'S is used in novels and means if, as in -^ /H j/p y\\ p
^JC "S yfiu' shi^ ni' pub boh 'wo k^ii^, if you tvill not go with me.

Tsieu' shi'^, jjJ/[] /i£ means even if, when commencing the first of two

clauses, ft ^ 1iii ^W fl. Irlil {ii ^ W bI llil tsieu' shV ,t'a

k'uh .ri' 't'sie nau' 'ye pub yau' jang' ,t'a, even if she iveeps and makes a
noise yet do not listen to her.

If, with the negative is represented by ^ j^S P^^li •j>'^ib ^^'

'ri' -H^ rfS
tsai^ pull .jan, shoidd it not he so.

The use of ^P .ju, like, if, as a conjunction is only found colloquially in

phrases such as ffl ^P 'p'i .ju, J-t J^P 'pi Jib ll§ J^P '^^^'^
-j^b ^^^^^ P^'i'"

haps even here it should rather be regarded as an adverb.

 CHA.PTKR 12. MISCELLANEOUS PAUTICLES AND INTEItJFXTlONS. 217

CHAFTER XII.

MiSCELLANEOl'S PaUTICLES AND InTKKJECTIONS.

» 1 The particles tluit euimut be conveninitly classed uiuler any part of

s])ecch are tlie following.

P^ till, the sign of the possessive. This word is also i)lace<l after adjec-

tives (as attributive) and verbs (as jn-edieative). After verbs it often has the

power of a relative pronoun : y\\ /£ ^Jc vOL \\ ] l''»li ^hr 'wo shwoh tih,

it was not 1 ivho said if /K U'J /^ A^ J^ .h^i tih .jen i)uh 'sliau. those
;

irho came were not a few. When it follows material nouns it chunircs them
into adjectivTS ^|nj f]^ .t-'ung tih, made of copper. It is also used couver-
tibly with ]^ teh after verbs. In mandarin books jjll ti- and J^ 'ti are of-

ten used for this word from identitv

f
of soiuids in northern dialects. .Chi'
7

<^, is the book representative of the preceding word, and is used in bookish

(•X[)ressions in conversation.

2 Ko' ^j or ||i'| i,v

f^ is a numeral particle for many nouns, and fol-

lows the demonstrative ])ronouns as an expletive.

o 'Liau J
is the sign of the preterite, and the past participle.

4 .jMen 11 I
is a jilural ])articlo for substantives.

f) Tin' //?/f// ])articles arc ll'}- "li, which is indicative and sometimes in-

terrogative. :jQ, yy /^ ^[^ ^'J^ 2j^ ^^ I'lll t^li^*' jfangshi* .ii'-ngwu' ptii

yj-'h 'li, thift tlien is to he able to apphj to one's own business: |J

ij |{1J
f J j
i] 'Is 'l'''d /iS 'I: t'i ,t'a tih 'ban ,sin .t'sai shi* 'li, sympathize with hift

kind heart, let it be so.

Till- words n'[^ .111. aii'l jii. witli "tjy .na arc also used as finals in indica-

tive sentences, as in^j<| 7^M -XIJ. •''/{' wo ,chi tau' ,na, T know it.

,La ^i and "\^ .lo, are used occasionally in Peking as finals in indicative

sentences. Thus /ii j iLsh'i' ,1a and .shi' .lo, for yes, it is so, are both heard,

as also /^ I'
'I
>-lii- ,ya.

.A or ,nga p'!j is used in addressing persons. '{^ /\. |^"J lau .jcn ,a,

old man I
6 'Mo ,^ is the r«^'>Toyrr/j"re of remonstrance. whil(l'j[^ .ni is that of
2 IS MAN1>AR1N' f;nAM>rAR. I'AKT III.

simple qui'stious. For f:±\ tlio cluinictcr

"'-'j 'iiiii is also used. Tlu' oUl

s(»und 'ma is freqiK'iitly heard in c'(tllo(|uial usage, and this new character has
been invented to express it. ]>oth are found in the Sacred Edict. }±fl'uio is

also used after several of the interrogative pronouns, as •ptr.sheii, etc. It is^

there also pronounced ,mo or ,ma the tone changing hv the law of accent.

']\Io is also emiiloyed in sentences headed by the initial interrogatives \j'

"k'i, hoic!' H^ ;v5.nan tau'. After the latter, the phrase -^\ Jj)l puh .c'heng,

often takes its place as a final interrt>gativc in northern mandarin.

7 The interjections are such as the followingin^^'jai (,ngai) an answer to

one who calls, intimating that he is heard, p'lj ,a (,o ,ngo) is also used in
'

the same sense.

Cho is used in speaking to superiors in the same sense as tlie last h is.

as used in Peking, |^ p[ff ,kwan hwa', puhlif, while the preceding is ^l\

Qfj ,si hwa', 2>rivat^.

Eu or .0, or a P/l means inind what I say. •

It follows the advice or in-

stniction which it refers to.

P^* P/l ,ngai ,ya, alas! Premare has pg ,a or ,o for the second of these

words; he spells it .ho, a pronunciation unknown at Peking.

P/l ,ya, wonderful! Also used as a final particle in indicative sentences.

Pp .ni, is used interrogatively for ivliat do you say'^

PART III.

SYNTAX.

CHAPTFAl I.

On Government.
1 The rules for the relative position of words in a sentence are few and
fcimiile. They will be first considered in sentences of an luiinvolved form.
2 When a noun is united with unother by the connecting particlep^ tih,

it is related to it as an attributive genitive to its object, and it always precedes.

Fj| %X 11 I il";/ )llS 73 peh shig' .men tih fuh fen', the peojjlc' s share of

happiness.
 (•!IArrEK 1. INFLLKNi'K OF rOSlTIOX. 210

.') A<lj«"ctivos luvivik' their snUstiin lives. Fiv<[m'iitl\ [J^ till is inserted.

wliicli as in tlu' f(»n'«;oiu«,' instanoo indicates an attrilmtc Jl 'T4 m* cht-n--

,kinLj .sliu. rurrrtf mnJ rJussirnl books; i.ij\^ n|'|' 'li\van|j; hwix'^/u/nc words
^^i ^ -W ffi ^J^ )7i' ffi ,kia cluing 'yell
, 'li:in- .tsnu lnv..li fnl, (f,,),

/>/ yo^O* JlOhUti IjnU hltVC two llviiHJ Jiuihllidfi, vj/. jiKfOlfs.

4 Transitive verbs precede tlieir nlijects. -^ tj^ ;^ _Q ,tsnn kin"'

'eliang sliang*, rvverena' eMers:^\ ^ "J
*
|:1: kai" .fang 'tsi cliii', luihf «
hnt(sc to live in; ^|"- jjlL gij I';]:: ,eli\ven .hung kwa' liih, ^> (1r('S.'< in inl
and jjut on t/reen.

/) Willi! the ohject is twotnid (douhlo accusative), rhythniusregulatcb the

pdsitiou of the nhject. In x^ |{ii 4^ W'^^i^g' j^"'^ }'•'* P^^'i ,sliu, tjive

him a hook; ^f 4^ %"" i^ llliiia yih 'pen ,shu sung' ,t'a, ^

4^ ^' l;lj.
JtJi sung- yih 'i)en ,shu 'ii ,t*a, all meaning give him a look,
there are three modes of placing the words, xh. (1) verh-direct obiect-indi-

rect ohject; (2) indirect ohject-verh-direct ohject; (3) verb-indirect object-

direct object. The most natural order in this case, is for the direct object to

fnllnw the verb, as is shewn by the necessity in the other two modes of intro-
ducing a case particle or an instrumental verb. But rhythmus often make«
the third mode more uatural.

6 Adverbs usually precede the adjectives and verbs they qualify, yj [J

»iiy ^K >n pl ^ .mingjih .c'heu .lai .ming jih ,tang, should grief comi:
fn-htoivoiv ht if he home to-morrow; \\^ /TJlang' yung', <o m.sc wastefidhj;

T^ ?? y*^ \M l/ii 5C i}!i n \r I'lili yau' ,chwen 'kiang tso' .wen t.so' ,shi,

do not think ejcelnsiveig of making essays and poetry.

7 The prepositions as the name denotes, prece<le their wonls. The post-

positions ov case iKirticles follow the nouns to which they belong; as in ^f

r ,sheu shang*. on the hodij ; ^C ^^ -^ ,kia (ts) 'li 'yeu, at home thcru

are some; 'f/c '^^ iO* f^ .tsung ,kin i heu',//o//i this time forward.

CUAPTER II.

In'flcence of Position on the Parts of Speech.

Very many words admit of being classetl under several parts of 8i)eech.
220 MANDAIUN GRAMMAU. I'AltT IJI.

That to ^vllic]l tliev Lclonii; is iisnallv Icmdwii from tln-ir ])Ositi('n Avitlioiit

difficulty.

The Substantive.

1 One suKstantivo frequently qualifies another, and may then be viewed

as an adjective, 51 ti" .l^eng .leu, laatch tower; iJrl t^^ .c'heng .t'siang,

cifff tvalU tjjl^ I Ivh ~i^ .c'heng .men .leu 'tsi, toivcr over a eity gate.
mi I .,' . . ,

^p / Vtsur .jen, a ainjul man.

The Ailjeetive.

2 Adjt'etives become substantives when tliey follow a substantive with

or witlumt 0"^ tih. ig. tM Jit T^ ZLs 1^ 'hJ <-"^i'^'^ yang' 'liau puh kien'

.tch 'yen, tlis Ichul of goodness is not Wcrbj to he found; )^ \Y-j ^ ^ f|||

.lio tih ,wan c'hidi ,to, the windings of the river are many.
?) Wlien adjectives follow transitive verbs they also become substantives.

/^ J 5m! ^^ i! I iWj -fang 'tsi kai' .to .men ,kau, how high is the house

huiH':f (to .nion is used in Childi for :^ y .to 'shau, hmomany'^) ^^

ilii il 1 fi'J 'ttU yi k'an' ,t"a .men tih ,t'sung .miiig, considering their in-

telligence; ^^ ^"jh Mf ^^hioh (.siau) 'hau .wci shan', leai'n goodness and
do rvhat is good; \{i^ /^ tso' ,hiung (s), to act the part of ct violent man;
^ /Xs ^'^^^ jl'i"^ig"j to w.se vioUnce.

4 An adjective is sometimes governed by another adjective. It is then a

substantive: J^^ tAK ,shen liUi, light green jy^.^'v^.'^- f|^ i)\\^ ,cdiing ,c'hing

lib t'ung', a slight imin; ^j^ ^ tan' .hwang, ^j«^e yellow.

5 Adjectives preceding verbs are treated as adverbs :

^=^r\/Ly^ 'tjj mj
,to shwoh 'kl kii' hwa', speaJ: a few toords more ;
j/" )\] ^j 'shau yung'

'sie, use a little less; »Tf'^J z^ t'ung' Ivuh., 2X(infally weeping; yC 'pj ^/J
*~-^ ta' 'yen ,kung .lau, he has great merit. (The word great cannot be
made in the translation to qualify the verb.)

G Collective and distributive adjectives are frequently used without a sub-

stantive following. They are then pronouns; tlius ^tj' koli, every; in '^^
 fMAI'TKU 3. RKPL'CTIOK AND KXI'ANSruX. 221

*^r "^ 1^'^^' kwaii kul", ht eacli oiw attend to his otcii vffuirs; /j\] [j J -^
jiit-h till 'viii. others have it.

The Verb

7 A verb as the subject ot'ii piupositioii is a substantive. \^-l[

J,|-
\\h !^-

p-liTib .c'lnvou 'ye .nan, tojiml/oodund cfothiwj in diJicnU ; ]l\jl Itp ^\ ]']

']»-aii 111" puh .liinj^, it will not do to walk.

8 As attributive genitive to a noun as object, a verb isalsoasuljstantive.

fill
%** v\~J l^V vK ^1^1^ ?=^l^ii ^i^^ -^^^^ \n^\.i\ the time of ntudi/i/i'j.
\) Vcrljs when they (juality nouns liecouje a 'jectivos. fj>£ y\\ ^^ l\j '^
sh\v..li i)uh .hii tih 'iv'u, nntipeakable uiinery; tJI^ jp ^* f/,;^ f]"^ Gi -f-
mi' ko' ugai*' 'c'hung tih .c'hen 'tsi, thcd favoured mandarin.
10 A verb l>econjes a substantive Avheu governed by anotlier verb, t^ |^--i

hioh (.siau, siiie) 'iiuii mai', to learn a trade. 113, /\£ ^Xt II J .ili ic
die* shi" 'avo tih t.sau' hwa", this is my good fortune.
11 When verbs beooiue gerunds by taking case j>articles before or after

them, they may also be viewed as assuuiing tlie form of substantives. jQi,

it ^ ,t£! VA y\ fl!i nft ^3 ^t^^^ ^heng' tsai"siangi.iehtuiM''aK]iwoh

hwa-, he is thinkiwj, do not speah to him; \{i)t \rJ, ^C^ T |-J Ml" ^ >^
mi t.so- jkwau ,chi ,chuug 'yeu 'hii ,to .wei nan-, in being a mandarin there

are many dijiculties.

12 The facility with whicli words jjass from one to anotlier ])art of speech

jiermits many verbs to become numeratives to nouns. ^J lyj y\\[ /\. yf\

V>y lij y*'ii 'liang ,chung .jen pub 'hau till, there are two kinds of bad pco-

J*h", ^vl (l^* ^^ ^C \\ yih t'uu' 'wan chau ,kia ho, a set of ehina
and other furniture.

Prepositions and Postpositions.

13 The prepositions are almost nil freely used as vcrlw, being sucli origi-

nally. In l)otli cases they preceile nouns, so that their character as preposi-

tions or verbs in any individiuil caso. must Ik- decided by the 8<*n.s«*. not by
222 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART III.

position. I-Ij Uiu', to is a verb, in — HT l.i! S'J 1^ TyilU'ili 'k'^>

"i tail' tell 'liau, in one day you can reacit it) 3:!J Jt> ^^yi'i ^-i-ii' .k'lijIf
o
'li, ?f;7icw owce yo?t have rccuclicd the cajyital; and a prepo.sition, in]£lj J'7^ ^
'^ J tail' jking 'li k'ii' 'liau, he is gone to the cajnial.
14 The i)osti)o.sition.s are freely used as adjectives. When they follow their
word they are postpositions; Avhen they precede they are adjectives. Among
them should be included the points of the compass. }^ ,chung .yuen, ^
China j[^ Fp ,sin ,chung, in the mind; j^l i(-I.,si ,kiang (ts), the ivestern
;

river; ^X Fi| Xmng ,ii[, the 20est of the river; P^\ J"|li nui- (nei) ti', the

interior of the country; tj^ P^J .c'heng iiei', loithin the ivalls.

The Adverb.

15 Adverbs derived from j)ronouns or adjectives, and auxiliary substantives

are employed freely as attributive genitives to nouns, or as nouns under the

government of case i)articles. ig, 7q 0^ /\. die' .ri tih .jen, the men of this
place ; %'Y J%, yQ 05 Q %^ na' k'wai' .ri tih peh sing', the people of

that place; 1{li ^5 £0 lib it!i 5^ ,t'a .mei tau' 't'si ti' .lai, he has not

yet come here.

16 Adverbs derived from adjectives may form the ])redicate of a proposition,

and are then translated as adjectives, /v 7E /\T ViY /U. Qv 0^'^ ^^^^' '^^^^^

'liau .ri tih, the man is very good.

CHAPTER III.

Reduction and Expansion.

1 In colloquial Chinese may be witnessed the development of a remark-

able power, which probably belongs to no other language in an equal degree,

the power of expansion and contraction under the control of certain laws.

These laws are those of rhythmus, and the position and grouping of words.
2 Examples. Many phrases used colloquially have all the laconic, con-

tracted character of the book style, from which they are many of them quo-
CHAPTER 3. REDUCTION AND EXTANSlON. 223

tutions. A i)ioce8s of expansion is gone throui^Mi, wlicn sucli sentences are

changed for more familiar jilira-seolofry. Thus l|l|i'ij ill; i| l!'',- | | ill: \ tl
-^ lio'fuh.uii .men .Mil .jcn tsi* ,cluui, is cxpn'sseclmore famihary, /L< /^
li~l M ^ MU M U — ^ \\^:}V'\ Ijffitau jen iih ho' hnV fuh k'i'

.wu yili ting' tih .men lu% tncii'a kuppini'sa and miser have no fixed if oi'ijin;

y>k \\l /\ Q liy p| ^cliih tsai' .jen tsi' t8o' tsi' shell', they only sprinrj

from men's own actions and deserts. In this i)ara]ihrasc each important word
is doubknl, and various particles etc. are inserted, l)y which the sentence is in-

creased to nearly three times its original length. In the Sacred Edict the
sentence ^ /V -T^ f^ti 11 fllj ^ )tj ,slieng .jcn puh .nengyih jili

,ri .wu yung"', is thus i)araj)hrastd, /\ {^ ill iiil-j^-'H ,sheng tsai* shi-', P^^
3>^" 4-<c'liih fan' ,c'hwen ,i, 7/ie7i living in the loorld, eating anddrinlc-

^^^'Jj 3<I 1^ /1^ li ,kiau (ts) tsieh .lai wang', minglinrj with others and
going hither and thither, Jj\^ pi ^ 3^ '^ >4./'J 'na yih jih ,mei yen
fei' ynng', ichat day do they pass ivithout expense'^ Here the verb iftt^.wu

becomes ^ >^ -J^ nuih 'yeu, to he ivithout; and /rjyung', to use, is expanded
into ^Tj^ /tJ fei' yung', expense.

3 It is with this expansion, or parajihrasing of the more terse phraseology

of the book language, that we have now to do, more than with the converse
process. The principle on which it is based, is simply to choose such groups
of wortls, and modes of arrangement, as are euphonious and in common use.

This is done by the natives instinctively.

4 To accord with the rhythmus of the language, the munerical constitu-

tion of groups of words, whether of two, three, four, or more numbers must
be maintained. Thus in the sentence $\;^ ||^ jX, >^\\ ) j J
'^ j .t'sien

.t'sai lib k'eh yung' tsin' 'liau, your money iviU he at once expended, there

are three doubled words from the original. \\^ JJ^ [y([ ^^. t'sai lib k'wei' .i.

In the senU-nce ^ ^' ^ 5^ >$1 Ini ftli ^ J^.lu hiau'(s) 'che,t'ien

,chi jking (ts) ti' ,chi i', now fdial pietif is law in heaven and duty on caHh,
as cxpanaed iuto iE # M W iH (t ^ ilil I HI ^tE l\'j

^ iltche' hiau' shun' ,tie .niang .tsiii' ,t'ien ti' ,kien (tti) .wei ,taug.jau tih

tau' 'li, the word hinn'Jilialjiiciy, is developed into a four- word group hiau'
224 ilANDAhlN CKAMMAR. PAIlT 111.

ijhiUi' .tie .uianj^. In the other ]»art of this jiara phrase occurs an instance of

reduction. Two nieniLeis «)f an antitliesis law in heaven and dut// u)i earth,

coalesce in the words the binding laio of heaven and earth.

5 Anionj^ these examples the briefer ones are taken from the book style,'

Many reduced sentences are however as already observed, also found in common
colloquial use. Thus P
/J ^[£ /pC jil' yueli ,siii<:; .c'hen. .<?^^//. moon and
stars, which is expressed more familiarly (nj j/^ 7[»M r\ >3^ ^U ^^ /^
jih .t-eu .ho yueh lianti;' .ho .sing ,shig-, in the Trking dialect, -^^ ^^ .kin

.tung, ^ 1^] .niing ,si, to-djij he goes east and to-morrow west, tor ^^

7^ Ul 3^ 5^ ^^W M^^ ,'*'^^" ^^^^'

j^^"»o .ming .t'ien tsai* ,si.

These })rocesses are facilitated by the readiness with which many particles

are at will dispensed with or introduced. In tiictirst .sentence just j)receding,

snn, moon and stars, no conjunction is neces.sary. The words are boiuid to-

gether by rhythmus instead. AVhen however the one gnnip is broken up in-
to three, the particle aiid is twice inserted. In a western language the con-

junction would be only used once. The Chinese ear regards this as a viola-

tion of symmetry.

C The laAV of expansi(m here briefly illustrated is the i>rrnciple on which

the modern idiom of conversation has been formed. The old colloquial was
probably very like, if not identical Avith the Ku-wen. As words, tones, and
dialectic ditferences multiplied, it was found necessary to use two or more
words, where i)reviously one was enough, otherwise the meaning would not

luive been distinctly conveyed.

••^ CHAPTEn IV.

Internal Structure of Groups,

1 In the preceding chapter it has been observed, that the expansion of a

familiar colloquial sentence from a terse one like those in books, is done in
consistency with the laws of grouping words These laws will now be consi-

dered.
 CHAI'TKU 3. GOVKUNMKNT IX GROUrS, QO';
SS t

111 rtj^anl to intonml nrrangeinent, tlie worils in a group are oitliqr in tli.*

(.nk-r (1) ofgovenuiK'nt iu syntax, (2) of antithesis, (3) of ri'iR'tition, (4) o{

.species anil genus, (j) ofniatterand furni, (7) of natural priority, (8) of time.

(9) of arbitrary choice, or histly, (10) they may constitute of thesemlves an

entire sentence.

2
m
Very nniny grouplf exhibit an
Government in

int^LTnal
Groups.

syntactical order, witli \vin\h

their external reh\tion to tlie rest of th«» sentence does not interfere, iff: i tjf

^M I'll ^A T^J* 7^ M^ -^vvi .yen 'siieu hau- .hi,n ,cl,i .Jen

'you ki .ehung ping', hut ]Hoj>h-/ond of ramhUmj andhitcrinfj have several

funits. In tliis sentence tlie four-word grou]) ,yeu 'sheu hair .him. eonsists

uf two members. .Yen ".shell, a wandcriny fvUuw and %')'

\}\\ hau' .hien.
fond of indolence, form together an adjective to th.- wonl /V .Jen, man. Thr
verb .VLii forms an adjective to the substantive 'sheu, hand, used metajihori-

cally tor agents generally, and .hien is the object to the transitive verb hair.

3 (iioui)s of two members Avhich might be analysed in a similar manner

as each consisting of a verb and its noun, are such as the following :
J4^ P$
.-tiA lln ^"^"o ^l*' ^^^""'^^ taieh, on the arrived of f stir ah; ^ % |p W
.wei ,yuen kitdi .c'heu, to be an enemy and form yrndyes '('^^^;
V '
;
t'=t hIh
tsih .hien tu' .m^ng, to envy the wise and fnJmted.

4 Many groui)s are fonned of two niendiers, each consisting of an ad-

jective precediny a substantive. yC |pj /J^ ^ ta' .t'ung 'siau i', nearlt/

fi'f^r
^fcii X.^ J' .t'«i fu^ hiaii' (s) 'ts'i, kind fathers and Jified sons.

Or an adverb qualifies a verb, as in |@[ ^ [^ ^ chili k'ii' chili .lai, yo

at once nn<i come back at once. Or a compound verb governs a cnmjiound
noun, '}'L' ]m -^ ~K ,tan koh .kuiii,' A'n, to icosfe time. Or there may In-

aw adverb, verb and 7ioun, as in I ( y[^ n^^- p.-h (i)ai) fei' .yin .t'sien.

to sfMiid money uselessly. Or two nominatives may govern two verbs, /s^

JJiJ Jlli %<, .t'ieu ,peng ti' lieh, heaven f(dfi„f/ and earth burstin<i.

5 So a verb may govern two nouns, (>i an adjective and iinuii. ^X. 7\.
22G MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART III.

Jljj, king' ,t-ien ti', reverence heaven and earth ; ^^ /(^ Itp s^iuii Vi W^to
seek death by one's otcn hand (in the nortli ^jl yQ.sin'si).

In the composition of a(lvorl)s witli other words, the order of the words is

usually that uf syntax; e.g. in j'^ j^ ehili teli, Jw could onhj ; onhj; 7^
'^^ chih 'kwan. to attend only to] onJy;^ -l!ii puh kwo', onh/; ehjli'liau,

in ^/N ytf HH jliichili 'hail .yen ,t'a, hccoiddonhjlethhn do a.s he jihci^sed;

^^ ^ '.shall .wei,i^ h'ttle; ^ TEI chih i>'a', jfcrhajts; ^ |i-piih liair',

unexpcctecUu] ^\ ^ piih kioh, involuntarily.

shewn by examples, that these fixed groups con-

7 So it might easily he

sist of words, bearing to each other all the grammatical relations, wliich spring
A

from their position and the parts of s])eecli to which they belong.

Antithesis.

8 Antithesis occurs in single groups or in sentences. It will now be illus-

trated as found in single groups of words.

9 A pair of words naturally opposed to each other stand Jirst and third
in a four-word group, or second and fourth. y^\ ^ ZK, %^ A^ \±, puh
pill ta' jking 'siau kwai', you need not fear much or luondcr little^ i. e

there is no ground for fear p^c ; ^ n^ Jtli -t'an ,t'ien shwoh ti', to con-

verse alout heaven and earth, i. e. things generally; "vj. ^L ^^]A ®^ jsieu

.wen 'ven 'wu, to cidtivate literary and military accomplishments; ^ Pj

v>t 5^k'i* (t's) ngan' .t'eu .mmg, forsake the dark and seek the light;

\^^ y^ ^'tso .lin yeu' she^ neighbours on the right and left-^ JW 1dE

4u 'tseu .nan 'wang peh (,pei), going to the nortli and to the south;^^ PjfJ

}J[ n'|',tunghan' ,si kiau', calling to the eastward and shouting to the west-

ioa rd; P/fj gU .1^ "^'tsui .t'ien ,sin 'k*u, sweet in the mouth but bitter in

the heart; ^ Pf %^ ^\ .c'hang ,hu 'twan t'an', long sighs and short la-

mentations.

10 Antithesis of adjectives and verbs, in some cases changes them to sub-

stantives. ^ 5tl W: V& Ml /C ^van' chang' ,shen 't'sien ti' hiueh, a

pit often thousand fathoms depth; ^ •-||p A. ^ Hv ^ ^ P P"^^ 'ky^iin

7^^"
.jen ,kia tih 'si hwoh, men's living or dying he does not care for; y]\
CUAl'TKR 4. IlKrETITlOX. 227

I'l'i'' Bxl P"^^ ?<^"'" '^^'" y"'.-' «<^^ f^ know whctfur they lost or yaineil.

11 Two pairs ut" o2)])i)si'd lulji-ctivcs muy form u lour- word j;rouj» ; "^^ ^x/
yC /r cliiuii^ yen' ta^ 'siau, ohl and f/ouw/, fjrcat and 8maU.

Jiepetiti'on.

12 The rc'i)Otitioii of nouns frefiuontly alTwts tlair grammatical soruje.

But in the case of adjectives and verl)S its use is rhytlimical or fur emphasis.

Repetition of nouns <j Ives them a phirnl .sense; X, ^5(^ ~J

*
~Jn fu' fu' 'tsi

'tsT, allfothers nnd sons; -y \7\\ ]y]\ ^ 'th'i 'tai .mn.mn, sous and (/rand-
4ons; ^< ^<. ^
H Jii 7C J ,l<ia ,l<:ia ,tung ,si 't'siant; .wan liau, r///

the houses have been robbed of their projierty ; fj^* jjj" |j[i xf\ ^"jp 7J2 jl^i^i'

jkiai ,tu puh 'hau 'tseii, the streets are all imjtassable.

13 The repetitions of subdivisions of time, wel;^dit, etc. and of numeratives

to nouus, gives a plural sense to the noun, "y^ ^IJ ^IJ ^f^ .t'a k'eli k'eh
.lai, he is coming every quarter of an hour; ~r* %L jlc, ^ yW nieu chih
chi'h hai' pingS the cows are all of them sick;^^^ /s^ -^ ,t'ien ,t*ien'yeUj

they arc to be had every day ;

\\v\ \\^ /V tiP ^ J ko' ko' .jen jtu 'tseu

'liau, the men have all gone away.

Many names of relatives when consisting of one word are repeated. This
\s without any alteration of the soise : ^I) fji kieu' kieu', mother' s youngi r

brother; %] ^[\\ ,ku ,kn, father's sister ;

%ij 1(1J 'nai 'nai, cniy mistress oj

a family.
14 Several of the formida3 for the repetition nf adpctives and verbs are

the same. Two coordinate adjectiv^^r^erbs are eacli rei>eated, or the sec-

ond of them is repeated, while tho otft^^ notj^. fj% n>L ft'fC U'K shwoli
shwoh .fan .fan, they talkrtl and convtr.frfn'^'' ^*' I'j'l) n']|j.(heng,cheng

'jang '.jiing, they wrangled noisily; \\\j\ [j^ [j^ nau" liungMiung', «o?'6y; )|4'j

"5 /]»J 'man .feng .feng,/M^/ <o owr/?o<yr«.7; fJWi fiy 'iH ,piau tang'

U\n^', to loander without a ho7ne : lijL I

)]C 1 /IC 1^^'an' ,]nvang ,liwang, ///

confusion; Hjj^j Hjj^ ^r^ ,wnng ,wung hiaug, jwise oJ wind.

The constituents of compound verbs are also repeated in an alternate order,

tirl um of'l ^MJ i' l^m' i' I'^nS '<> '^^ advice upon.
228 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART III.

* 15 111 three and four-word rp-oiips a repeated aOjcctlvc forms an adverb to

a simple or c<^ini)ound vcrh. U\^ h0 iuK ® n^an- ngJin- Jiwaii 'hi. secirt-

1y 2ylc(tscd) T|^ TH y UJ 't'siau 't'siaii liia^ (s) ,slian, ijnietJij he went

down the hlU; \f^ j'J JT ^ hwuli hweh 'ta 'sY, to lent to death; 'I'k ijt
7J2 k'wai- k'wai" 'tseii, tcalk qnicJch/; ^ \U H^ 9c!l I'^i"' "^i"' 1""^" i, /'<

parth/ believed it and parth/ doubted it; ^ ^f Ihlg T .t'si .f'si kwei' hia',

toijether the)/ Icnelt (hion; ^^ Pj T^f^ shih shili 'k''o A'uu, truhj to be

pitied; ^» ^^ ;lg^ ^^ 'kin "kin .chui 'kaii, elosehj pursued him.

16 Some nouns take aftt-r tli(Mn a repeuti'd word expivssinj^ some quality or

mode of a})i)earance in them. |i)l'< \\y ilr M"J'yeu ,tseng ,tseng tih, the eyes

looking amjHly; \\[k \ i 1 4 El^'yeu .pa .patih, the eyes hokiny wistfully.

17 Very many groups expressive of qualities, sounds, and ai)j)earances,

are in use, consisting of a i)air of rei)eated words. They a])proaeh nearly to

the character of adverbs. pf| 7jC |-|^" ^ A f^ A f^ ii 'shui tien .ri

,pa ,ta ,pa ,ta, tlie rain drops jmttering ;

{ov use fl/V ,p'a) -^^ -H* -p^ -^
y^
jping ,paug ,ping ,pang,
m
somd of hail ; ^ ^ y-^
_£L
9-^ y-^
_Q^ ,teng ,teng ,teng

,teng, sound of fir in ff cannon; ,t'eih .t'ung 'k'u ,t'ung, noise of men rushing

together; J# pIJ ^ Vi% ,si ,1a ,hwa ,1a, noise of the sea.

IS In many groups the idea is repeated by means of synonymes. |_| \b\

,/v 3v SI" niien' pah ,fang, the four quarters and eight regions; XL ilyj

\!S i^ ''^^^1 -l^^i ^i" li^Jj the*fve lakes and four seas.

10 Numbers occur in groups as adjectives denoting variety, in the first and

and third i)laccs. "tl J u -^^ ju ^'^^^^ ^^^^
V^^^ *^^^^? in a meddling manner
A /h
;

-b ::^ A y^ t'sih ta' pah ta^ of diferent sizes; but "t :;^
"~^ ,fen ,fen puhyih, cow-
t'sih ta' pah 'siau, is more common; I// $// ^\
fused and various.

Numbers also occur in the second and fourth places as ordinals. T J ^^

i'^J '\2 ho luh (lieu') .ho t'sih, some one number six and some one number
eight; t'5( JH ^ |3 .hung ,san shu' si', making repeated strokes down
and athwart.
CRArTEU 4. ORDER OF SPECIES AND GENUS. 229

Order of species and Genus.

20 In comixnind nouns wliere one word specifics and defines anotlier, the

fornicr precedes. ^^ /{^ ,^\\\\:, ,'^\\m\)::,, the Uijht of stars ', 'AJV I'jnJ
p 'au'
'liiang, noise of cannon ; \±\ ^p ,slian .yaiig, « yoat ; ildj ^p .mien .yan o>

a .v//(ry) ;'t'^ T'T •'^^*^'i

M^h f mast', Jft f-f* .k'i (t'.s) ,kan, aflag-poJc; \y
z^si ,slia tai-', sand hags ;
\-A FJ^ 'k'eu wei', taste ; e>t Su '^PlJ shwoli

liwa' 'liiani^, noise of talking.

21 Any word expressin<i; the use or nature uf another precedes it. Hence
adjectives ])recede substantives, and a verb enterinjj; into composition with
an auxiliary substantive also precedes it. ^]^^ jjji [J-J {^j U:§ tsih ,t*a

till ,k\v(i lii\ cut off his retreat; i53. J ^^ *^ '^^^'j' '^^^^^ ^'*^^ .t'eu, Ara*-

iny past the place for jxissing the night.

Order of flatter and Form.

22 In compound nouns, where one word expijpsses matter and the other
loim, the Ibnner precedes. $j(|^ ti| t'ieh tih, an iron fife.', 41 iSrf chuh k'i-

(.t's), hanihoo articles; -rn Jui ^li'i'» ,kwei, stone tortoise', X] I'lX 7Q sliih

pan .11, a fiat stone; ^]\ )H 'chi kioh, corner of a sheet of paper; -^^ pp
'kwo p'in, /ir«c?s of fruit.
23 Further, all auxiliary substantives, as ;p 'tsi, [i^ .t'eu, etc, and all

numeral particles, when compounded with .substantives, stand last. J\ jl_<

'ho 'pa, a torch; \1\\ "jr ,s"" '^sY, grandson; 2^-. i^L, .li ]'a*, handle of a

plough ;
M)fj ^
"j" 'thui ,i)a 'tsi', instrument of torture for striking on the
I

"-
inoutJi.

Order of Natural Priority.

24 ^f S 5<^ ^ >^ fcl/ X ^'-^ .-fiiJ

^^ ,l^i»" -^'I'^'n fi'' 'tsT ,lu i.r

jhiunjj; (s) ti' ,l>'eng 'yeu, j^n'nce and suhject, father and son, husband and

wife, elder and younger brother, friend and friend; ^ -^- y[j. 3\ 1'^"

.p*o .ri 'nil, tcife, sons and daughters; )(^ 14'

^Jj" "J" lu' 'mu ,t'8i 'tsi,/o-
230 MANDAllIN GRAMMAR, PAKT 111.

ther, mother and ivifc ; Js^ J-'[!i /V ,t4eu ti' .jen, heaven, earth, and man ;
"g J /n 'tsif ,sun, so«5 and grandsons.

^ Order of Time.

25 Wlien the action is gradual in a compound verb, the word first in time
is first in order. ^^ tso' ting', to sU stiU; (ijC flljjk'an 'tan, to strike

atid thr 010 down; JH"- ^^ jt'ui loh, to 2'>i''^h doivn;7^ i(^ 'tscu pien', to go

through tJie whole extent of.

26 When one verb expresses power, andtlie other action, the former pre-
cedes, as in the case of the potential auxiliaries.^ ^ IhS Itu P^^^ hwei*
'p'au hi', he cannot toalh.

27 Most of the auxiliary prefixes to verbs are originally mental acts, which
naturally precede physical acts; e. g. }p\ 'k'eng, luilling :^^ y^^^^S to desire.

28 The suftixes to verbs describe the progress and issue of the action. In

^ Jl H'J y^ 'tseu shang' .t'sien .lai, to icalh iip and come forward, one
action is described, viz. coming forward. The first verb represents the action

generally, 'tseu, lualking. Shang' and .t'sien describe, the direction taken i(p

and before. .Lai indicates the conclusion of the action. Thus the several

words are arranged according to the extent of their speciality. The most
specific stands first, 'tseu ivalk, and the most general last, .lai come. The
law of order is the same for verbs as for substantives.

29 "When one verb is the object of another verb, it follows it; ^ H-j- JJ
puh kiau' 'ta, they did not call out to heat him; y\\ i^> ^^ ^ puh'siaug
tung' jShen, lie does not think of setting out] y\\ tfx j^jl^
p^^l^ kan .t's'i, he

does not dar&jrefuse.

30 The first verb is in such cases usually a mental action, or it expresses

permission or iirohibition. This rule embraces therefore the one above regard-

ing prefixes. ^^ it® ^j •^'h'an' 'p'au 'ma k'ii' (t's), he is gone to see the
horse-race; ^yfC nX mi. nP ,hieu shwoh ,hu hwa', cease to speak falsehj.
niAi'Tini 4. ouDHU of akiutraky choice. 231

Orih'f of Arbitrary Choice.

ol Words aliko or coordinate in signirication arc placed in an ord«^r dcter-

minrtl l>y cust.iin. |^ "^^ \\\\qV .V)^\, tOyiiwet and asficiahlc; ^^ H. -yki
.(.'ha, to vxantinc into; j^^^ jLj! ^^^^^ U\\V^ robbers; ^^ |rj)liinh (.siau) wen',

learning; )\vl S)'^'"' "S ^^ f^''«^'*A'i' and hate; ^ |*$ Itfe f^^ ,toiig kiang'

kwt'i* pai*, /o </o ?/y) an<l descend, kncci and juaJce prostrations; X[^ )^|h.lseng

jt'ien, ^o «(/(^;!lt III pi' yen', to protect; Jlfc; ;}|Vl,'^''ii -v^'o) '^'/t'«^"«<^i^'*t''-

/orv; TJC HM iMc. {-ii^'shui 'tsieu su' fan', water, ivine, vegetables and rice;

li^it l-ty ^tib I^'^i^'" tail .mi 'wanj::, overturned, con/iiscd and^icrong; jjl

^\i 'fhaii .siiui, to seeli-; jq|; t[I] kih .niang, hasty. "^

Order of a Proposition.

32 In some groui).s of closely connected words, there are both subject and

predicate, the former jireceding. Tims a substantive may be followed by a

npeated adjective. >^>C /ulL ^m v^;-,wei,fung..lin .lin, «m mV q/'«oWe«(?56';

TpJ j/\^ ^^ ^^ 'siang man' .t'ang .fang, his appearance ivas dignified.

33 Or a substantive may precede a verb as predicate.^ /C --T^ S WJ

tI^I yl ^van' ,fii puh ,tang tih k'i' lib, a strength which ten thousand could
not resist.

34 The verb groups formed with |^ teh and -^ jiuh, are to be regarded

as originally ]»ru])o.sitions, though they are used in the same manner as simple

verbs, f'jjj f^ /\^ 'pu i)uh tsuh, cannot be filled completely up.

35 A subordinate clause in agreement witli th<' noun forming the subject,

may even be introduced betwe(»n the subject and predicate, ^'ij lAjlt ;/lP ^
wuh .li jhiang kwei', all thinj.i Hf. ay from hvnie, arc dear. Ju proverbial

expressions like this, the most varied modes of a proposition may occur, but

it is needless to multiply examjiles.

Variation in Order.

36 The order of repetition in four-word groups is iu many cases direct or

232 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART 111.

alternate, as tlie 8i)eaker pleases. This i)nvilege is limited by custom to

certain groups, of which some examples are here given. The order iu two-

Avurd groups, where the terms afe synonymous, is also often varied, /fp
^i 'T'n ^ ki^'l^ i^lii^i ^^itili slnh, or -f p i7>'pj
^^ '^ kieh kieh shili sliili,

secure,)jj^ ^C .p'eng 'yen or 'yeu .p'eng,/;7'e7uZs; 4^ ^F 'cheng .ts'i or

.t'si
Try I
jCkeng, w orcZer; ipj^ pyij .t'sai ,kjuig or
A
,kang .t'sai, J«t.s^ now; -^
^
•*
—I ,

•^ "kin yau' or yau' 'kin, important', /{_, ,hiung ti', elder and youmjer
hrotkers, or^ti' ,liiung, brothers.

Mr CHAPTER V.

I**
External Relations of Groups.

1 Groups of words such as those described in the last chai)ter, bear the

same relation to the other i)arts of a sentence as single words do. Thus in

the sentence, ^j^ A ^' 1^ 1^1^ Hf ifi ,sheu juh ,kien nui-' (nei') till

.shi lieu', cd the time of his being i^laced in prison, the first group of four
words is related to the compound noun, .shi lieu' as a single word Avould be,

^ M^ P^T \ul -^^^ ^^^^ -^^^^ hen', the time of his coming. So in the sentence

tE U 1^ ^ M 0^ bB P^ S 1tll 'pa .wu 'ying .wu .bing (s) til.

hwa' hien' (s) hai' ,t'a, bri?ig him into trotible by groundless charges, the
four-word group .ww 'ying .wu .hing, might be rei^laced by any single word

meaning/aZse. The government of the words 'ying and .hing by the verb

.wujs for the time lost sight of. jji tli^ llj |f- ^ |ffl (54/ ffl till
.c'heu hen' tau' 'kiai puli ,k'ai till . t'ien ti', i/ic?r enmity ptroceedcd to an in-

curable length. Here 'kiai puh ,k'ai, it cannot be untied, in itself a jiroposi-

tion, becomes an adjective to the following noun. ^'j]i ,^» Ifljj ilj j^Q

A^ Iszi 0^ /v yih wei' 'jen nai' tau' 'si' puh pien' till .jen, a man ivho is

all p)citience, ivho does not change till death.

2 Groups of two are frequently repeated, /f^ fp yy\ fp pulip'a'jmh

p'a', I do not fear, I do not fear •,'^X\^ jj[^ >(P lltiju 't'si .ju 't'si, thus and
thus; ^^ J ^ J .lai 'liau .lai 'h"au, / tt?>i cow?mf7, 7 «;;i C07?im7; ^^
1F< H W< ^^'<^»g' li^^ii' ^vang' heu', to visit friends; ^0 i^^ j|"l ^ ^^f-
iHAPTF.R T). IKRKPARABLE GROUPS. 233

J] )]•'!' t'i' '"' •""'• •^^*" '^^'''' •^''" kiai, I will separate them for you; ^\
iM ^31 i^ flJ "yt- f'/ii J l''il» k^^'*^'' -^^'i" '^^^^''^t "^^aii '«'iwii pa' 'liau, he

h only phiffhuj. that is all. ^

3 Some groups admit of tlie iiitroUuctioii of other wnnls into tliciii.

Otliors arc too closely cnm]mcto(l to allow of this. Tims ^J ijx '^'^ ^•l^fii'""',

tojiijht, may be extended into jj J

j|i'j|
|^ i^V^ta liau yih ko' pai-

tlmng". he hasfoiujhC and been ilefeattil. liut the constituent words in j

H^'tii .ting, to .seek inf<.llic/enee, cannot be sej)arated without affecting their

meaning. Thus it ai)pear.s that the words in a group are not combined in

;ill cases with the same ilegree of closeness. They may be separable or inse-

parable. Th'' latter will now be considered. •

Inseparable Groups.

4 Among inseparable groups are some phrases originally dissyllabic.

JX J|Aj .j)o .li. i/lass, from the Sanscrit sphatikn :

7J.^ /\''ya\>'\<}n',opiu7n;

".%' R^'^ .ai yaS alas! ^}j f1|) "fang fuh, lih-e: I'T ^'^J^ ,ting .ning, to inti-

mate; \\[ \^[_j 'ya .pa, a dumb person; [I,^ lt^,c'heuc*hu',^e/7>/ca-e(Z; J^

^ .hu .li, a fox.

5 None of the words in these groui)s are used alone in the same sense,

but some of them may be replaced by anotli'-r Tvord ; e. g. Plji' j^ 'ya 'tsi,

a dumb person; H J P^j ,ting chuh, to cjiv' iJir< rtions.

6 Among inseparable groups are many whose constituent words would

have a dilferent force if separated. Many verbs resign their governing power

when they enter these combinations, taking the character of the entire group

whether substantive or adjective^e. g. JiT jf'"ig. to seal, in ^J i>C .fnng

.pM, a paper pasted on doors to seal them up ; fj^' sni. (n/oUoiv, in |il^ |>}y

.t'sin .sui, his oicn servants; y\< .lai, to come, in ^ 1}^.^ .lai lih, orifjin;

nr/J I'fj^
tung' tsing', to move, to rest, in@ -^"J" J?// p/j^ yen .hing(s)tung•
t8ing*, At» wort/^, actions ajid moucinents; /j\] /\. \\-j /\^ ^p jiieh .jen

till shi" ,fei, other men's virtues and faults.

7 So also many substantives and adjectives lose their proper force when
234 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART III.

they enter into coinl)inati<in with verhs, and assume tlic character of the

whole group. |-l \j>\ 'k-cu Jcuiiti;, io confess a cririwS/]^ iili ,k\vaiii;cli.nr',

to sldne upon] ^{ji || |

'?](, )i^X X A'^ -^^^'''^ k"i* ^^^'^^^ ''''^'^.- ^^'^'!/ ^^'^'^ 'V"

(y>-/c/*. ^IJ tah, ^>««/67<;/^e«^, becomes a vorh, in ^ =g,-IJ tsdi (diai) fali, /o

punish. In 'IJ,',?! ^ /j* j[^ 1lii 'tsnng van- 'sian ,sin ,t^a, you must he

careful of him, sian litflc, an<l sin heart, join to form a VQihbe careful. Ki*,

a project, in PQ ^^ -^ ri I
/v ngan' 'h swan' ki* .Jen, secretly he jylots

against men, is part of a vorh.

8 Substantives in a group Avhose predominant character is adjective, then

take that force. Tlius in /\. \l\ ,\ jjp .jcii ,shan .jcu hai, men in vast

numhers, .shan and 'hai, mountains and seas. -Dwnnvcr// inimrroux. fn»ni tin-

si)ace they occupy in a kndscape. p\ ^i\^ )^ fy.t-au/tsui ngai- "tsieu

tih, gluttonous and fond of loine ; /v [1] ^\ \^ [rj-J \ .Jen mien"' shcu'

.sin tih .jen, a man human in face hut a hrutc in heart \yCs ^C ^ "i Tn:
W^ pi '"^^'*^
jl^^^^o -liic^ 5^^'i'iS ^il'; ^'-^- ^'^ younger titan I. Here the substan-

tive .nien, years, forms with ,k'ing light, an adjective after tlie adverb ,keng

more. In ^^\ y{}^ si' ,sin, careful, sin heart, is an adjective.

9 In names of agents many verbs areemploycnl, wliich then lose their ac-
tivity. )^ "^ .yuen kau', (accJise) ^:)7a»if /^'; p^ pj i^ei'kau', (Ztybic^a^ii;

|rJ T^P .tnuig ,dii, -assistant officer in a department.

10 In many inseparable groups one of the component words adds nothing

to the sense, as 7L,kwang, light, in 7L ^^ ,kwang "king, appearance of

things, %% ,feng, wind, in ^ )% >K" eliieu' ,feng 'king, a?i old turinkkd

look, J ,ting, a man, in ^ J ,piiig ,ting, a soldier. -^^^

/^
k'i'', in y] 3J]^(

lili k'i' or k'i' lih, strength, pf 'slieu, head, in pl ,shi"sheu, a corjisc,

f^l
nndi, eye, in -^ ^ tsi' muli, characters (used in Kiang-nan); and in

^4^ y sill' mull, influence. In some of these examples, the reason fur the

use of the superfluous words may be detected. Thus in tlie last, muh cye^

indicates that he who has influence is looked up to by others. In ,shi 'sheu,

sheu head, is probaljly an eld numeral particle, which as such regularly fol-

lows its substantive, when no number is used. In ,piug jting, ,ting is an

 CHAl'TFlt !). SEPARAHLE GROUPS. 235

ii'jfnt.'-'' In stiiiir such iinmos of tliinijjs tlie f'tvmc>lo;'v ciiiHi"t Ix' tli.scovcivcl:

e. •;. j£ 'tuni;. in M qa ku 'tuii<jj, « curiositij. In ^1 llf-j .tunj^ ,si, </

thiny, both words Utsf tht'ir own sejisc, iind join to t'orni ii nicuniiij; entuely
ilifferent.

Separah/c Groups.

11 In a f^rou]) of two co-ordinate words, a<^ov«'rning term may bc» prefixed

to each. ^^ 7Lr UJ '"'J ^"^^ j^'i'in^^ '^"li ,t'siin, mc// hamJct and viUar/e:

~K fiS: ^^ 111 ^^' '•'^'"p t'^'

'^^"S r7''t'«^^y wakened and enlijhtemd;^ W
I
'J ^* Ic'o kiii;X* 'l<''o n^'ai', ^9 /^e rewre/icerf rt7ir/ /oivr/; fj 1^)* I J if-:
—^- ':,J'^
tf||
'yen .i 'yen k'air, he has somethinfj to trust to and rehf upon; ]^j W-Jc lii'il

, piig kiiu ,t'an k'woh hin', hud and hoastfid wonts; ^k %'i|j* vJ.V A ..kwa

Ip* .ku 'nil, tvidows and orphan girls', 3(P 'il> WX V^]\ .l'^
,l<iaii si' t'sih,

f'tivhlug together as if with glue and^xiint\%Yi /K V-d. ^^ .fan .hii full k'ii-,

turning bachcards and forwards; ^f /|^ ,^1 ij'j^ p'in^ jslienp: sih k-i',
'fl' ~^ 'i^^ ~^
holding their breath from spteahing', -^
J 13" 'fl^ fip" 'k'iau .yen .liwa 'ii,

flowery and subtle words

12 An oliject may follow eacli memher of a j^roup of two coordinate words,

'f'li
'
Vi /iX l;-v-:^"^'in{^ .t'sing fang' sr', giving loose to the feelings; ^ "y^

hl}l )t} 'sheng cMiih 'kien ynng*, to be cconomieal in food and expenditure.
In tlie first of these examples, the order of the two verhs is inverted, y^^ TT*

nJi: fll ynng .tsung van' 'tsu, to bring honour on one's ancestors; "i^ H^-

/i»!f |i|li,t'sien ,ehen yyiin'k'ioh, perfecflg trite and arcuraf'-^^\\: ^^ ^%x |_|
.c'heng ,san t.san' si', to praise on various accounts; JJjll^ f'll. 1^ "^ 'hicu
'tsu .yang .ming, to glorify anrrsfors and sjmi^ad one's fame.

13 Adjectives arc inserted l»»l\\-'n numeral particles and ^th<ir snhstan-

tives. ]7C :Jj: Mj yih pMh cMiih 'ma, a bay horsr ; ^^ 'Pm
yih .c'heng su* kian* (ch), a plain sedan chair: Jyj
~/\. :VlJ. irt }''*

.fan ta- tau' 'Ii, a great doctrine or argument ['tt' 'jK t|J |-I 'han yih

.chang Ii* 'k'lMi, a very sharp moM//i (cutting in speech). lint where a num-

See chapter on substantive**.

236 MANDAraN GUAMMAR. TART ni.

oral particle, or tlie name of a subdivision of a substance is 4ualifi(.Hl hy an

adjective, the adjective precedes it, as in — - ~| ^ (or^^ .lai, coyne) 5C
t^ri' shili ,to ehan,t;' ti\ hwre than 200 fevt of ln,nl :
'Y ^^ jTU sS^ sliiii
.lai p'ih 'nia, more than 10 horses; — )^ fl.Jc /-'W yi'' i-^"' niiau', a

ruined temple;
— ' tK' Ji W X^^^ j^^^''^ ^^' •^•''•'^"- ''' .?"^^*'
l'"^'"'

/""'•-/>''/?; ?J|i

]7L >;ji jitrj na- p'ili c-hili "lua, that red horse; jx] J j /{a, /]"* ) j j j'

shell 'liau yih k"\vai' 'siiui shili p-ieu', he picked up a siiudl stone.

14 Auxiliary particles and other words are inserted )>ut\veen a verb and
its object. J J 7i2 J ^p J 'ta .wan 'liau IviCdi 't.si. //^/s/hv/ tijing this

hnot; ^^ '
%^ 'fifp yaiit,' yih "yang .shen, tu refresh one's spirits alif fie;

~^ ^f f ^ l¥j yili -t'ung tai^liau.laitih, hronrjhtivithhim; "|T

^VS J :?H JxS ta t'so' 'liau swan' .ji'an, /te Aas calcuhded wrong on the

abacus.

15 Au.xiliary and other words occur between a verb and its auxiliarici;.

S^ T iJ-i i 'P'^-iii 'li^^^i ^-'li^il^ l^-'iiS ^'c loalkrd Old; f^ fl^ ^^#
^^ jhwang .mang lib 'k'i ,shen .lai, hastily he raised himself up; [li,| Ijl^v

»•
^ i^ TN -hwei 'chwen 'ma .t-eu .lai, lie turned the horse's head round ;

M-\ -j^
^^ J}^ "siang "k-ikieu- sh'r' .lai, hv begon to fhinh of old things:
.
I'4I

-t 5® 5tv 'pai shang' 'tsieu .lai, set on luine; il'i) \]^ ^ ji). -^
V 7/|x ii< J I" 5r5 ii''^' lei' (ui) ,keng s'i' 'tseu ,chu yih .pan 'kwen
'liau Ilia' .lai, tJiose tears yet more like moving pearls rolled down.

IG In negative verb groups, an adverb is sometimes placed after the jirin-

cipal verb. ^^ y^ y]\ ^Ij^ring ta' jiuli c'liuh, / do not hear ivell.

(Southern) This may be regarded as abbreviated from y\\ /si 3i< ^y \^

CU pnh ta' 'hen ,t'ing teh c'huh. It is not admissible in Peking mandarin.
17 In verb jiotential groui:)s with the negative and affirmative particles,
the object is frequently introduced after the principal verb, p^ iHi H^ -jM.

shwoh ,t'a pull kwo', / cannot overcome him ivith toQrds.

18 When repeated verbs with the tentative ^" k'an' or Rj 'k'o, separate

to receive a word expressing the object, the division takes place before k'an-

and 'k'o. J J ]\ jjJi ^ 'ta 'ta ,t'a k'an', strike him and sec.
rnAPTER 6. ON' SIMPLE PROPOSITION'S. 237

CHAPTEli VI.

Ox SiMI'I.K PUOPOSITIOKS.

1 A proposition in its simplest form contains a subjoct \^i\2, W\\\,1ioftt,)

anil ]»r('ilicate \^^ .]>in, guest). Tiic sulycot jnocedos, ^'^3j tJ^ .c'liau .lai,

the tide cmncs ;

/'C 5(T .^Mtn Mian, the weather is fair. T)ie predicate is

an adjective or verb, x<, Li T'J ^^ .c'lianf^ .man li' hai', the long-haired
men are form idahle ; /J'j ^^ |LL| vj4 .p'eng 'yen .liwei .lai, hi
y friend has
returned.

2 Tn till' case of somt' verbs as jLi' \ c"huh, liia', tlie Rnbjcct follows

ihe Verb ;
pll iJlj ~f^ c'iiuli ten' 'tsi, to have the smaIl-2>ox; y |:):J
liia'

'ii, it rains : ^ 'M loh (Ian) .c'luui, ^ 'JC loh 'shni, //<f tide falls; T
^^ Ilia' (s) siueli, it snows. Yet in such examples the noun may also bo

considered as the object of the verb^^and a nominative, supposed to be lost

by ellii>sis, supplied.

3 The copula is inserted or omitted, as clearness and rhythmus require.

^ /H W IH 'wo shi' .fiinj; ,tun;^, I am the landlord {of a house) ; jlS

'Jl^y fan' 'hau, the rive is ready, '|tji -yv ^i ^.-i V^^ /V ,t'apuhshi' 'mai

mai' .jen, he is not a trader; /p] .\ yf\ 7^\^ ^ i»ieh .jen puh ,chi tau'.

others do not knoiv. The omission of the copula before adjectives is as com-
mon as before verbs, -f'^ j^f^ ye' ,shen, the night is far advanced; /\, ^
.jeii ,to, the men are numerous. ,m^
4 A proposition in a still fuller form contains also an object, viz. the

noun {governed by a transitive verb. ^^ -^^ IK |iii wo ])uh hen' ,t'a, 1

do nut dislike him- (j ^^ \\'j :^ \% l{ ^ \\\ fj^ JjV >" t'sien

till slii" jhwan hi- .yen ,slmn .wan 'king, those who have money are fond of
wandering among hills and fine scenery.

5 -V subject may consist of a substantive, or a su])stantive group, or of a

pronoun, a verb or verb group, an adverb of place and time, or an adjectiv<»

construed as nouns. 4]^^ [] '(V'J till [I'll/ ]%\ .t'sin t.si' k'iuen' ,t'a ,kwei

shun', he himself exhorted him to sidnnit: •^- |:J

^])'' ^'^t^ slum' 'yen shan*

pan*, virtue has a gnod reward;]^]] }^, :tQ. "^ y ^ ^\ ]]i^ fl J .k'ai
23S MANHAHIN fiUAMMAC. PAltT 111.

.iigon dio'lnvoi' 'tsi shi" jiuli .noiiu^ tih, to show mcrci/ I hi slime is inipossihlc ;

/\. mI.j 211. \

'
|wj y]\. J .jcn 'ma ,saii ,t'si<'n \ ih .t'ung .lai liaii.

three fhoKsand 7)icn and horses carne io'jcfhrr.

() 'IMic pronoun or noun is often not expressed, so ihut a proposition sonic-

liiiKs may appear to lie witliout a suliject. 'i:S ^ /V ^[^ |)j| /^ i.-uiii;

yair 'siau ,sin .hien .jen, ifou must I-c carefnJ of lotln-rrs\ JjI/(]^* J
tsicu'

k'ir (c"li) "liau, he went at once ; Ca 7H J^\

-y-
l V ''J" '^7 J "i pH'i' .hwan<,'
III. r:f Jfy
jliw'.Mi .sill ten" 'liau. it is nlreadif the time of twi/ii/ht: J,J^ y]\ /£ jjQ ki
pull slii'- "hau, is it not (jood'^

7 In very many sentences, the predicate is a liaiisitivc xcrli witli an olt-

ject, consisting ot" a single word or agrouj) of co-nrdiiiatc wurds. Sninetinu's

llierc is a double object, one direct and one indirect. -y<: \'\\ |L| ^* -P'^^'

Aw. Xxsyy-x s'm}^, the soldiers all returne d to the eauip; m J\ |'||^ y "f;

jsan .jen .tu hia' 'ma, the three men dismounted from their horses; "y^ |^

fP J jt"a ])ien' p'eli 'slieu, he then clapped his hands; ^tJi Jjf./(] !;(;/-
^tli

— ~h ffi ill "F ^J 5S K' ;t"''i tsieu' 'ii ,t-a rr sliih 'liang yin 'tsY

.wei .p-'an fei"', he then rjave him tiuenty taels of silver fur his travcllintj ex-

penses. The place of the object is after the governing verb, but there an?

Exceptions to this arrangement, itji "tsl -^ -T^ T^P^t-a shi- shr puh ,chi,

he does not understand the business of the world.

Extension of the Subject.

8 Great variety is introduced into sentences. Avitbout the addition of

.separate clauses, by a})plying qmilifying words and groups to the parts just

enumerated. The subject is extended, for example, by prefixing an adjective.

/Y 7^ ^5! li^ ilk ^< ?M '«i'^" -t'i Pi^'i' '1^'^i *so' ta' .t'i, a small charge
is then magnified into a great one; ^ J^ /^ ^-fx ud ^ Yyll ^\' shan-

.bang .jen puh tso' die" yang* do such things.

shi', a good man will not

Numlx-rs and numeral particles are prefixed to substantives. """ "^^

"M~" L-i 'I'hl itlS. J y'li ,t"sien .nien 'i .king kwo" 'liau. a thousand years
have already passed ; ^Q. 1|»'| /V /E I'VA c^^"
^^" j*^^^ ^^^^' tbeh(tsei), this
(.HAITKK it. KXTKXSIOX OK TIIK S11WK( T. 231)

man is n fhi,/: .^ irl /v \'\V th ,s"' •<"'

J'" tu tsai', I /a three nun
((ff (fff hcri'.

1(> A Mili>tiii»tlvc is [Ui'L't'tlcil lty aiiotluT. expressing- s<»iin' sprcialitv < r

attriliiitc iM'lonjjJTi;; tn it. with <ir withmu tlic conncctiiu' j»aitiil<' [|^ tiii

li 'ii I'l'j \t J^^ALW 'it U \\'i k-1, .kia .ih fal, ^,„- sl,V- .nan

.k'waii .snnp; till, tin' hnr of the state is hard to rc/ao: ; \\'i] \,C ]\ ^^ .ya

pi\i ]ni\\ An'i. thr i/nmcn pnf ice did not i'owf'jK^ \'v^ \j,] ^(J J
ku Am
kai' 'hau "liati. thr drum tower is rompletcd; ^\^ j^ l\J /^ ^[^ /}^ \[]^

iij l"'li .jii'-n till .jell .sill slir tliiU till, the men of the north an straitjht-

juru'itrd in their disposition.

11 Adverbs of time and j)lace are iiiefixod to a .substantive, -in the same
manner a.s attributive substantive.^, with or without H^tih. ^ij, jj^ /\^ ,^\^,

J4- ^'hc'' Mi .jell .rhung hcu', the wen here are honest and liberal ; ^}\^ |JlJ

llj /j ^t; 5(i* .t'sung .t^sieu tih jl'ang lah liau, ///' method fornorlij iisfd

if good.

12 Substantives with jtrepusitioius or postpositions also precede another

substantive with cr witliout thj tih, to form the subject. §1 f[|- /^ .jp^ uh
li .jen ,to, the people in the house are many.
13 A ntlexive ])ionoun often follows a noun or pronoun in the sense o(self,

Ilii S lL ^S i![i f^ :t-a tsi' 'ki puh -siang ts..- .kwau, he himself

does not desire to become a mandarin ; ^X pJ ^^ ^il '^^'^^ ^^''* '>' "

tan' 'li. / myself have a tray of acting. __

14 A numeral particle sometimes follows Ti noun in the subject. X^ ~y

i'li ft''i |m"J ^^B
*'!' 'tsi 'liang ko' yih .fung 'si, th' father and son died
together.
j,
15 Dem()nstrativo, possessive ami other adjective pronouns precede a sub-
stantive t(. fonn the subject. ^'f< /v ^ M» fining- J.'n .fing kien', all

the people heard it; flii {Y} ffe }f^ }'U A U\ i\L f ^'»' ^^ '^" '^••'

per
i' .jen mau* fan- 'liau. his tiger pride has been rniUly injured hy some one.

Iti
l( A verb with its objective case may form ft subject. |W X) I'lU ^I'll

tso* jkien si* .nan, to be a spy is difficult.

17 Each member of snch an extended subject may further W .jualitied by

240 MANDARIN' GRAMMAR. PART III.

some other word. B~f ^M fl'j M A ^f

Wl ^fe S|> .lang

Ilia' si"' hcii' tih 'Hang ko" 'lau .jrn ,tu k'xv 'Wan, the two old nun who wait

1 n the vercmdaJi have both gone; jtli M @ A ~~^

flli- 'f' ffi (l^ ^t
1^ l^ ^^ J jt'a na' yih ,chung muli ,chung .wii .jcii tih ,k\vang kim;
.mei 'yen liaii, that air of his, expressinrj universal conteiirpt for mnnlcind,

is (/one.

Extension of the Predicate.

18 The predicate i.s extended in a similar manner. Tlius it may consi.st

of a substantive with its adjective, ig, t^ /)£ '\\H Jj. clie' k'wai' slir 'kia

ii', this 2>icce is false Jade-stone.

19 A luimbor and numeral particle with a substantive may iorm a ]>redi-

cate, or tlie substantive may constitute a subject, and tlic number jmkI jtar-

tiele a luedicate with "f^' 'yen, to he; ]^ ^ /Jb — bjIJ J"^ if^f?
E?.

.Yuen .lai shi' yih fu' ti' 'li .t'u, it was a map ; -j(Ia JjJ ^— ^
"I

che' .fang uh ri' shi- ,kien, this house has ticcniy rooms ; y r /^
ys^ ^* ,tu shi" yih .c'hang ta' meng', it was all a long dream.
^ 20 Another substantive exjiressing some specialitv or attribute mny be

prefixed to the principal substantive in tlie predicate, ^xi /br .'^l Uu /v

'wo shi' wai' hi' .jen, J am a traveller from other p>arts;^^!i^ \j\{ /q ^^, y^\

/H /\^ Jji the' yang' ,hiung ngoh puh shi' ,t'ien 'li, this violence does not

agree luith heavenhj reason.

21 Demonstrative, adjective and other pronouns are also ja-efixed to the

substantive. ^^^H %^
;/ SJC 'wo 'yen 'wo tih .yum ku', / have
my reasons; ittl ^ ^"^
^^ Wj 1t'i 1^ 't'si shi- yih kung' tih kia'

.t'sien, this is the price of the whole.

22 AVhen the princijial wc»r(J in the jii-edicate is an adjective, an adverb

may be i.refixed or affixed to it. ^J ]> 'j|Sl §jl J- ^1] {Ij, I'?! Wi ";^^ Ivo'

.ngai 'tsi 'tau 'ye ,i)iau chr, that idiot is indeed pretty; ^jii u'^ r>j Pik ^ I

1^ QK )t'a tih ,shen 't'i 'leng teh 'hen, his body is very cold.

23 Adjectives also take the verbal auxiliary TcB 7^ 'k'i .lai, as verbs do
CIIArrKR ('). F.XTKNSION OF THE* PRKDICATE. 241

till' julvcrhs tlirtt

wcathtr
qimlify tuljectiws. /v^ ^'^ i"^ ^^ ,tM<'u k'i' 'leng

'k'i .liii, tin' is (jvttin<j colli.

24 Tilt.' |irt'tlic»ite may coiiHist of two or more verbs in npjiosition. R* Jfif

"^ -^ [p| ,k\V!iii fu yiiif .lai weir, the iiunitfan'n will come to ask ; y|*
fl: J f^HA'_Il fjl] iih' .diwiiii^' .tiiiiX puh 'kan8hiin<^' .t'sien, f//(/ryj7-

faytr did not dure ajtjiroacli; "({ii ij(/(^ tu ^M ~}j ,t'a tsicii' c'liuh k'u-

,k-ai .tiiMi;, he then loent out to write a per script ion) jjijl JjX |{ll [U.] |'^|

tsieir faiii;' ,t'a .liwei kwoh, he then let him go back it> his country.

25 The i»retlicate may consist of a verb and its object, and further the ob-
ject may be double, viz. direct and indirect. The direct object is nsuall\

next to the verb. yil y]\ ^P iji- .^'^ ,t'a puh ,ehi shi' wu'. he does not

know business; V^ \\ (]^ jsV iH ^* mai full tih .pin<; .hwei .yinj,', the

soldiers in andmsh returned to the camp; y^ .^\ 1^ ;^] ,t*a jiuh hwei' i-,

he docs not understand what is meant; T'l^y || J

.^\ Jf] -^ y:\^
fui 'tsa
.men ]»uh yung* ,t'unf? ,chi ,t''a, we need not inform him; ^ ^^ j } |[jj,

'ER ^'>' ^^'"^i" '^''^ j*'*^ }'^' ^"'^S his father gave him a beating; ^ 'fjf

xfL itli iJli 'Xa Mt Ji^vang ti* sun^:^' ,t'a .lung funi^'' .k'i, the emperor pre-
sented him a dragon and phoenix banner. *
2G A substantivt! with a jtre])osition or postjmsition, jaeceding another
substantive may form a predicate. a§.^fe ^C |{]j UJ 1;^ P| ehe' shr
,kia li tih 'pan })ei', this is a thing of value belonging to the family.

27 A verb with ^^ tch or y^\ puh, and an adverb following it furni a

predicate. ^£4 Ij^'i ii.L l# TI'j V .kung tinr kai' teh jtsing 'k-iau, the

palace is ingeniously built ; -j^ y± i\\l |^ y] p] tan' li shwoh teh

.ming p«'h, the argument is clearly expressed; l{l], i'Ji£

%f ^l^C jt'a 'tung

teh 'hen, he understands extremely well.

^8 A verb and adverb may form a predicate, "j^^ )^ ^ ^ y^ J Jl}

'ni .nu'i 'you .t'siuen .jan .wen sih, you have not yet learnt it perfectly;

W^ '(§ A M't 95 §S n^J [1^ T na' fu' .jenrhan' 'king king tih kwri-

hia*, the woman trevddiugly kneeled doiun ;

^<. igi^ '^~^ yy ^]^y\\\ ,kia
tsin' .hing .chau mieh, the family was entirely exterminated; ^j<j \ , l^^;

"p p/f ^W wo 'i ,king kau' su' kwo', / have already informed him; -tTi
242 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. TART 111.

^J^ 'Jjc. l" 77 5n clie' ,wa ,wa sliili ,fen .luing i>ch, this child un-

derstands i^erfccthj well.

29 A noun expressing the cause, manner, time, or jilace of an action com-

bines with a verb to form a jircdicate. The noun may liave a preposition or

postposition attached to it. ^ p| U4 | |

,kin jih c'huh .men, /«? /.s j/o«c

out to-day jljl ff | ^}\: -fe: 1 I

[J-l ^< ,t''a .men .t^sung lieu' .menc-huh
;

k'u', they loent out by the back door; itli l|"| /h J}j f^ ^ W\ •^'•^ "it'ii

'siau .fang 'li ,ngan hieh, they ivent to rest in the smn^l room; 'Jp /V
'pE r'M I ~1^ y^^^ ^^^' j^" ^^^^^ )*cng Ilia- tso', a man sat beside a lamp;
l^j ^ y^
^|r.j yiuig' 'sheu 'chi ,t'a, with his hands he pointed at hiyn; j{li

\^ IMj -^ /^ 5^*''^ jy"^ '^'^^ P^^^^ •^^'' '^^' ^^" account of this did not conic.

30 Tlie noun with its adjunct follows when the order of time requires it.

'y ^'Ijij JjX r /p T^ .na 't'ung fang' hia' 'tsing .chung, he took a bucket

and let it doivn into the iveU ; ^^ ^\j ^ W] 'tseu tau' 'ma .t'sicn, he

loaJked to the space before the horse.

31 Each member of an extended predicate may have a qualifying word

attach9d to it. M % ^^ Iw iff ffi \^] ^'na' chih 'siau .c'hwen chih
'ti .hu nf^an', that small boat came direct to the shore of the lake; j]y
|I^ J^'^Jy^ ISI ^t)| PT na' yih tui' ,ping 'hau ,sheng lar'sheu

.c'heng .men, that co^npany of soldiers kept good guard at the city gate;y^

^ t4 Ylk 16 ~ t]$ I?i3 tR ^,t'a soh siug'kih 'k'i yih ,k'iang men'

k'i' .lai, he quickly began to feel a bosom full of grief; /C ^ Fft 1pl 1i
4 — 11 BS ^' ife '1^1 W P^ fti' ,t'si 'liang ko' chu' tsai' yih 'ting

p'o' .nieu .p'i chang' .fang nui', the husband and wife lived in a torn cow-

skin tent.

32 Sometimes exi)letive particles terminate the predicate. 'f^ p/^ J ye'

tsiug' 'liau, the night is quiet) ^ )J^ {jl g %^T.' f^i^i '};e tang' .wan

'liau, his clothes also are all pawned ; p^ ^ \% ZL 113 Y SS fl" M

-f* Wj\^ chih 'yeu 'liang ,8an ko' ,ya .t'eu ,k'an uh 'tsi .ni, there toere only

two or three girls icatching the house.

 CHAl'TKH G. EXTENSION OF THE COPULA. 243

Extension of the Copula.

'Mi Hliytliiiius tlirows niany atljirtiws, tulvfrbs, and coiijuuctions before tlic

(v)|)ula, cwn wluMi it is simply connective, and luis no sigiiiluance of its own.
as in ^ /4i "
l|»''l yeu' sl»\- yili ko', that is another; lillf. /k M&
tsii'u' shi- clu'- yang', // /*• n/ M/6- ftv/y ; ^Li^ ]^ ;^ )l'j f|J ,,Mn tsui- slii-

invuh till, th". heart is very variable. Hence it becomes i)ro]ier in Chin'-sc

i^raniniar to speak of tlie extension of tbe copnla.

34 The copula is extended by prefixing a negative particle. ^^ /^ jV

^»X I>'»b shX* ciieng- .king, ;7 is not correct. Before a verb predicate, xfv

l)uli stands alone ;iQ A. ^^^ l> W che' .jen ].uh (soh ,sheng, the man.

did not speak. »Shi* is omitted in any case where the rhythnius would be

improved without the sense ])eing injur^'d. .Mei and .niei 'yeu are both used

l>efore verbs; jp] ^'S<, i^i^ ^ TtL ® yili ko' .t'sien .mei k'an' kien-

kwo', I have not seen a single cash.

35 It is further extended by prefixing emphatic adverbs expressive of what

is known to be (positive or objective certainty), uf wliat ougiit to be

(moral
suibjcctive certainty), and of what by nature (natural certainty).
•r is
^^ ^^
ij yi \3 kirii,'' nmh ,fing .ming peh, we have certainly not yet heard

dearly ; Jc /E "ic ^ %.W^ clieng' shi- yau* lui' ,t^sin .jen, this must
involve relatives; f{}i f|U J Hi ^ di M jt'a ,tMijg 'liau ping' null
jsheng k*i*, tvhcn he heard it he certainly ivas not angrii' 4q 4»* jj^

^ ^' iU A^ chc' yang^ yih ting' sbr yau' sheh '])en, in this way you
must lose money; fcl /Kt /E 1 [|l ^ -^ f ^^'' jan shi- ,t*rt .na k'u-
'U&n, of course it is he that has taken it away; xl"^ /J£ ^5 h ^5^ 'pen
shr yau' shang' ,king, he orirjinally wished to rjo to the capital;^ /[^ ^
Uf /^ ting' jan shr hau .Jen, he is certainly a good man. |]^ -
{\ N^/
tsung pull c'hih, he would not eat on any account.

3G Other adverbs also precede copula. y^

tlio JQ. )J(^ f\i \\}i\
J^ eh.
'y\r\'r '\innnhV kn' 'kwci, this sJiadow is probably a ghost; ^ |4 ij.'jf] /i^
Jl 1tt' li^J Fl J .niingjih tsiru' shi' sharfg^'lmu till jih'tsi", fo-woz-z-ojc;

then is a most lucky day.

244 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART III.

37 In the same umnner conjunctions are tliruwn beioro tlio eopnla. jl'IJ .^f^

.© Jisl I-Li I I
'^'^^^
P"^* yuen' i' chuh .men, hut he in uuwiUiii<i to 70 out.

38 The ]>runouns tliat mark tlie plural precede the copula. |yJ ^<. I'jP ^
'Iha ^ HV li''^iVi^ -l^''^ jtu slip tso' ,kwan tih, loth the famiJ'us hove mem-
he, s who are mandarins ; %% iif ^ lilt Jh rh '}"» ^l''l» t'siuen .wu

t'su' pan', their food and drink they were entire!ij wifhrntt nnanfi 0/ pro-

curing) |^; /% ^^ T£ .slien .wei .k'i kwai', it is much to he wondered at.

39 Some adjectives i)rec'de the copula ^^'yeu, and occasionally ^shi',

etc. -^ "W /^ iS "^ "S* -'It lul'tsau 'yeu .jen tsiir k-ii' kau' su' .fa.

fhere was some one who had gone in hetimes to tell him; ^p" ^ ^ ^Q
to 'yeu mau' fan', 7 have (jreathj insxdted you.

40 Adverbs precede not merely ^>(J^ shi', the common substantive verb but

also copulas. \% 77 W >% .S ^'^ li"o' 'y^^ i' >si, he has other 3)lans;

QK. -^ !^ / 'J
'^""'^
r^^'^ slieu' yung', he was very ill-satisfied; •^{fi ^|

^ ^ ^ Jl J^ IK: gi j'i 5^ ,t'a .men .hau .wu tau' 'li chih ,ti

.t'eu tsoh hwoh, they xoere left with nothing to say, and could hut hend down
their heads and work] "^ /£ PJ -^ shen' shi"' 'k'o 'hi, it is greatly to he

rejoiced in.

41 Many verbs not having a full predicate sense, may be taken as littlf

more than an extension of the copula or substitutes for it. ^(Q. /v -T^ ^T
^j" '\ che' .jen puh kiau' 'hau .jen, this man is not to he considered good:

/j\ .^ Jx^ If^ puh swan'"'wo tih, it is not to he considered mine. The
verb iflx tso', is used before relative nouns, professions, etc. ^x| y\\ ipi'^i*
tM V
''^^
P^^ ^^^^ 'kwan chang' tih, I am not a Icccper of accounts.

42 The negative/f\ i)uh, when taking as its opposite 'jif teh, to ohtoin,

Ibrms degrees of comparison and intensitive adverbs to adjectives, and the

])otential mood to verbs. In such cases the verb and adjective precede. JiJ

T^ 1^f lui \M P^ >f"nj? piili tt'l^ ,^''^ tso' jkwan, he should not he ap-
pointed to office; -tri /^ ^J^ %f
fx \Y^ che' shi' 'shau })uli teh tih, this

is i,,d!spc«lob!.;B M lYj J^ i -
M ffl M 11= * iii ?it
»'' B"-
tih .hai 'tsi 'na 'li tso* teh .Ini .hwang ti', a child offour years, hoiv can he

act the jjart of emperor'^

 ( llAF'TKli (j. COMMAKDS AM> vrKSTIONR. 04-;

43 Tlic nl.jfct is I'lvqiit'iitly taken frnm its position, ul'ter tlic verb, and
j.laci'd bctbiv tlio cupuUi. When in sntli cnsos tho snbjcft is oniitt.d l»v

ellipsis, the object seems to take its j.lacc [^|^j jj£ 'J' ')\\l ^>, Jfj^ '^fj
'Uan<; cbili 'sluii k'ii.b pnli lain tnng' he docs nut dare move his two hands'
^ry pp 4 3^ fix. 7L >'•» J^"'"' Ji^^«^' •""» sbwoh .wan, he had notjinishrd
owe sentence.

Commands and Questions.

44 Coniniands, pntbibitions, entreaties and ([nestions, are exi)ress('d by

sentenees constructed like tbosealreadv described, or varied bv iieculiar nre-

lixes and sutlixes. Pa" j:j{^ is a common affix to commands, but tliev are

still more Ireiiuently witliout any ]>:irticu]ar si<;n. ^| r_^ 1^^ fjtlt^^i' ki"

c'lnh inv, eat it i/onrself fhut; "Jxi. t-l" IjJ' fiX IJl! '^vo t'i" 'nishwoh pa', ht
mesjjeaJcfor yon:]/^^ \\ J j^ [{li :)t2 *^J pi'f 'ni .men ,t'ing ,t'a die' tinu-

liwa'', listen yon to his ivicked words; \f\\ "pi ji/j> {{li 'ni kair sii' ,t'a, do
you tell him.
4') Tlie interrogative pronouns take tlie same ]»laee In a .sentence, afi tlie

personal pronouns as subject or object. p|t y]\ p,(^ jij: f,|r: .sliui j>ub jeir

tell ,sbui, who (in a vHhaje) does not know every one clsc'^ y^] ^[I ,^. iflJ-J

-^ n J lV7j JitJ ju 'j<'n nai* ,8ie till ,kau, how is it not hettei- to he a little

forbearing?
46 The interrogative' adverbs ])re(i(l(' the substantive or other verbs lik<'

the intenjiitive adverbs. '^[ y\\ 3('J"

''""] k'i jiuli 'ban 'ma, is it not (jovdf

JIl I Iv ItL,' i \] ^^^^ J»'"' 't.sen ,siau, how shall this hatred be removed f \)\
^^ /U ?lil ^IJ" i\'i M f if l^-^'k-i I'lih shi' tsiueh 'hau tih ,tnng suh 'm..

('ma), is it not an exceedingly good custom/ j^

47 The final interrogativesoccurHometinies after the precedinj:^ At other

times they are the only mark of a question. ([^ Jjy (• j. '', [jjtsai* 'na'ii .ni.

where is if f}i' ij£ -t;[i

(E 1)|> -jy^^^l: v'wiv .i k-idi tsai' 'iia li .ni,

wJtere then is the advnhtge/ jjl], jj^h

J
I'/tl.t'rtkwo' 'liau .ni, is he dead/
southern for ^- "(H^ j
]V[^ e'hii' shi* 'liau .ni, is he dead?
246 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. I'AIIT 111.

CUAFTER VIL

SrnoRDiNATE Sentences.

1 A compound t^eiitence may consist of one or more subordinate clauses

with a principal clause, or of coordinate clauses. Generally a subordinate

rlause stands firHt, as in J|j ^IL % M tt J^J iS M'' W ;t^ing kien-

pull 'ya .mang yung' hwa' 'kiai k'iuen'j hearing them use i-^idc longuagc, he

hastily hy words exhorted them to peace.

Circ u insta nt ial Cla uses.

2 Many subordinate clauses consist of circumstances of origin, instru

mentality and mode. They usually precede the }»rinci})al clause. '0^ illl

^ M IS _il PtU -IM. fill i^ ^ tsai^ ,t'a 'mu .t'sin mien- sliang- .jau
]:wo' ,t'a chc' t'si', for the salce of his mother forgive him this time ; |a|

llll y^y ni xl) •yi'^ j^i^ng (feng) 'hau "tsau tau', hecanse the wind was

fair they arrived early; ^ )j^^ ^ 5n T^ ^ '^'hai- ,sau 'k'i .lai j.nli

'k'eng ('k'en) .lai, beginning to feel ashamed, he would not come ; 'j|ji f^
jmi '^A vf5 J jt'a pei' jfung ,c'hui ping' 'liau. he was attacked hy illness

from the blowing of the tvind.

3 Verbs preceded by " '

yih, 07ie, form circumstantial introductory

clauses. " '

fl" 7E llll Q-J ^ "f yih k'an' shi' ,t'a lib .ri 'tsi, on look-
ing, it tvas her son; 5^ If^ — -^ JT 11 /^ M f ^ i -i^ing .n

yih 'tsau 'ta fah 'siau ,si .men kMi', the next day as soon as it was light she

sent some waiting boys.

4 Subordinate clauses expressive of time and jdace, also precede the prin-

cipal clauses. ^ ^^k. ^ ^ \^' i^ M. '^^ 'lau t'ai' t^ai- k'lVshi-

.bhi' 'wo .liwan 'siau, when the old lady left the world I was still young;
-fjj;

iy _il ^ r 5K ) .t^sung .t'siang shang' 'tseu hia' .lai 'liau, from

the loall he came down j/^ ; ] ^ fg f j' 'si" 'liau 'veu .kwan .fsai, when
he dies he has a coffin; ;^ ^ ^P Vh IQ ^ >li H III ^S^
"w bP '^^i' '^^^ jchi jsung peh ,chi ,siu, kwoh nan' kien'' ,chuug ,chen ,chi
tsieh, in the cold part of the year we knoio the constancy of the pine and
( IIAriKU 7 CIRCUMSTANTIAL CLAUSES. 2-17

rifpnsa, n>nl in the frouhh's of the date we sec the JoyaHy 0/ the/aifh/ul and

the upnrjhf. ][• |)Vj nk ^-i' P- ^iL A 5|sL cheng' ,8hang i' choh chil.

kicu" .jon .\ii\,just while they were deliberotim/ they saw a man come.
J Many Miboniinat*' circumstantial clauses are introduced by verbs, and

precetlc the jirincipal clause. These are our participial clauses, and arepn--
sent or past in time. Amon;j^ verbs in the present, I'orm.s correspondinj]^ to

our j;erunds are included. 'r|:| JA^- y\\ IjX p'a' .t-'sien puh ken', ^ yzi^

1^,* — .
[3^ .to sung' "ni ri" i)ch, /caring that the mOH>:y will he insuJiciaU,

f ijive yuu two hundred eash more ;

%^ yC ] H\f* JjI'L ^J JO. "tengt'ai-

.p'ing .shi tsieu* 'k*'o i, wait till a time 0/ peaec and you may ; /JT 3:'J
^^
'J 'jC if\ yC 'kan tau* pah yueh '.shui 'ting ta*, passiny on to the eighth

?rl I-' 'j'^L BX mIil pa,l^'i"'k'eutsieu'shwoh

'hwang hwii', on opening his mouth he at once utters falsehoods.

() A^erbs in the past in a circumstantial clause con-espond totiur ]ia.st \>a\-

ticiples. ^ );ij -ii ^^ p\ R^-i^M^'ff^ ^pai^piehkwu-

.tsung .si kill 'lau 'mu 'k'i ,shen .ri k'ti*', when he had maile his j^rostraiions
he/ore his ancestral temple, and his mother, he set out; /'^ Ci C-i ''
'l ^
JE^ jt'ien sell 'i 'wan fui- .jiing, ivhen it was late in the day Itc withdrew

his soldiers; J|)^ f f{ii \^- j^ MS k'i" 'li'^'i ^^'' ^sai' ttioh tau' 'li.

having captured him, form some other jilan.

7 The circumstantial and principal clauses are often drawn by rhythraus

into one four-word group. /J y {-{j /V ,tau liia' .lieu .jen, let the be-

heading of that man be delayed; ff y\. ^ ^[^ Uii' .jen .wu ,sin, in trea-

ting others he is neglectful; f^i'- %\^ ^'\^ ^iai- .liang .t'sai .lai, he is just
-f'^t

arrived with the grain ;

^- ;^ |LL| JJv pni' k'eh .hwei .lai, after calling

oil visitors he has returned.

The Object as a Sejmrate Clame.

8 When the object is made a separate clause, it is often introduced by a

verb ot speaking, ijj; i-jj S^ ^ nS ¥ ffil ^ t^ ^& (i^ s'^^^''^'

tau* tuh .shu jen* tsr ,t'a pub .neng keu' tih, as to study and reading h^
248 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART III.

cannot: ']'} il!) ipf* ^[Ij ItJi

~^\ f^^ W ,.c'hau tan' ehi' ping' ,t'a jmli

jchi tail', «>s /o Jtcali/i'j dificascs hv hioivs nothinfj.

1) The olijcct often takes an instrumental verb before it, and thus liTuis

a subordinate intrcnluctory elause. ^[_j va^ ^vIJ '])a .feu yih t-i', he

.<<h((ucd his head; ][^ ^Z ^ |'^|>

'''Jy f -t]S, ?}v J^ 'j.a ,kia .si' ,tu tai-'

"~^
"liau kwd' .lai 'liau, i(dii/irf h ispropcrf)/ hr IrougJit it orcr here: -jl^ ^^
fe HO ^ ^T "li 'pa ,t-siang yili "e'hi .t'sien .hii 'ta cliang-, takinr/ the

sjicar he lifted and came on attacl'i/i'j: j'

it / IJ j\^} ^Xa y^i"^^' '.«heu

y'lh 'ch'i fihwoh, 7cith his Jinr/er he 'pointed and said; 71 v li}l'
' '
llit Iti^

^13 lul ,tsiang .c'inveu yih 'i)ai ,k<'U choh ,t'a, tcdcimj the boat he sculled it

and folloiced.
10 The ol>j(^ct also stands before its V(^rb "without an introductory verb.

% Y^i fl^ IM t''Jc M llV Wil )" A .fung .yau tih shu' ,chi .ri t'so-

jen' 'liau .jen, branches tvaving in the wind, he onistoolc for men; \vX \!t^

\\^ 5'£ 7" 'f{!i ^. -T^ lii P'^' i"^'ii' ^i'l ^"'i^ 'tsi ,t'a ,sheng puli c'huh,

he cannot thinh of a way to remove his grief.

Ilelativc Clauses.

11 Among subordinate clauses are many consisting of a verb, ^vith a sub-

stantive -vN-hicb it qualifies. Such clau.ses correspond to our relative clauses

in use, and lu our ])articiple taken as an adjective in form, "tji fHl "^ p}|L

1\K Vi~i •3fi ^ ^^^^'

'M^'^'^'^
^^<'^'^' 'Invang chwang' tUi "hen ,to, in the world

those tvho bring false charges are very nuuierous ; \>\\ 1%: pj^ Ijl. ^f< /f\
\ 'ni ku"' tih ,c'he clnvang' pub hia-', the carriage ivhich you have hired
t'.'ill not hold if. The whole subordinate clause may also in such sentences
he taken as tlio logical subject, in distinction form the grammatical subject,
whicli consists of the substantive only.

12 Another kind of relative clauses, consists of tho.^e Avhich contain an

interrogative pronoun preceded by some one of certain verbs. ^Xt -^ nW

Tl j^ pp ))C j rjshwoh pub bin' shih 'mo hwa' .mci yung', whatever he
says it is of no use; P| j^ ^ j^' ^. fff ^ ti ^^ k ±.suipien'
V riAF'TKI'. 7. FINAL CLAUSEa. 249

'ki kieii' shi' ,tu koh tmx'v 'wo .slieii similar-, hoiarer inanij thi/ujs there U
tltvy arc all jrut upon me; ^ ifpj ^ I'd n^'[-
({jj ^puli .kii pIiY' Mxxii

k'uur' ,t'i\ k'ii', whoever it be tell him to go; ]'^. f^I H^ ^ vM hl!i /J-
nfl: I'^'n '" sliwuhshr .sliul tsieu' ehV* .sliui, whoever you say it is, then
it is he.
13 A lelativo chiuse is sometimes placed after the principal propositioTi.

^^ n?£ 1^ Itli ;25 M^ M ^E IHih "hiau teh ,t*a 'tsen 'mo yang' 'si, J
do not know in what way he dieil.

Final Clauses.
14 Clauses expre.ssim? the object of an act usually follow the sentence that
contains the act. fS ^ f^ -f^ ^^ ^fi 'U\ fnh .lial 'tsi e'hii- jitrnu

hieh, she sent away the children to rest; ^X ^}^ -HF* 1^ tT TS rf'j fl
?tJ ^ lt!i"\^'t> 'shau puh teh 'ta 'k'i ,tsing .shen .lai tah ,t'a, I must rottsc

my spirits a little, to answer him; ^y 3^ 4^ ^V \^!. h* tsi<?"' chi'

,c*h\vang wai' ,t'eu k'au', secretly he loalked to the outside of the window to

look furtively in; M'}" ftii UJ 5K fp) IrJj kiau- ,t'a c'huh lai wen' won',
he called him out to ask him ; ^ \l\
lU. -^ j^fij ^ 'mei jili kwo' kii'
't'sinir ,ngan. every day they went over to ask hoio he ivas ;
'
'J jjv^ -Yk T^P

(T \\d *|E 1|H 'k'o 'i pau' ,chi 'hau tso' 'chiin pei', ?/o« can announce it so

that preparation may he made;

la The final that or to, is often expressed hv the auxiliary verbs JC^^'i.^^-

vau- a,ui n 1--. 1 ft? aa <}^ ti-'j W ^ it sw f ^it^

ftii

.ining pan- che' shi' .t'sing yau' ,t'a suh k'ien .tsiang .kwan .k'in .na, they

reportrd this affair to him (hat he might send officers to capture them; ]^[^

IMj fill W fui ""^ ^ tsieu' ma' ,t'a yau' ,t'a Jen' tsui', he then repro-

ached him to make him confess he icas tn'ong : i\']^ -^ pX y] '-£/^ |{il

j^ tsungyau* shwoh .ming kiau' ,t'a "tiuig, you must speak plainly that
he may understand /y ; .{j /y /L> jy, 1^ j\. J/^ 'siau ,8in 'siau .sin i

mien' 'ho ,taai, takf. care, take care, that it may not catch fire.

1(^ The final that being not seldom unexpressed, rhythmus often draws the

two verba expressing the action, and the object into one clause. lli| '^
250 MANDAIdN GRAMMAR. PART III.

\^^l \l^ .hwei k'ii' (c-hii-) c'liih fan*, he is (/one home to dine; }y^ vC J^
JK. /^» 'fij' ^C "^- 'i 'h<^ 3^^^i»S ^10 'i lull jkung tub, tahejire to combat
fire, take jjoison to conquer poison.

17 The instrumont.of an action is often made to take the form of a full

proposition, hy means of tlie instrumental verbs. The principal action then

iollow.<« as a linal clause. JLi ^^ -^^J "J 'P'*^ P^" '^^^

^^"S ^^^ ^^^^ ^^'^ P^''^

to write; -^ j'^ ^' ^ .na .t'sien k'ii' 'mai, talx the money to hinj it.

Explanatory Clauses.

18 An explanatory clause such as describes what lias been, or is. heard,

leen, thought, or wished for, follows that which contains the action. ^ /<l'

'^ BtS i^t P7a tsi" .chi ]iuh .neng 't'au .iau, he himself hneic that he could

??oi rtsA; ^o he forgiven; y\\ \u\:± |^ /t;, yQ "j* puli Jen' teh sli?' .ri 'tsi,

/ie f/icZ not Jmow him to he his son; ^ P^- ^;J» i£ ^ 10 In Itll "S"

J 'wo kiau' 'ni sung' die' ko' kill ,t'a k'ii' 'liau, / require that you should
talce this and p)rcsentittohim; 'J/p ^ ^^ /I::, jgl ZL 'ni ,tang 'wo shi*

\\vfa.^ ,knwg, you think that I am a piO'inter ; jcsi in ^"^ 1^ (.ul

^^'^".-

p'a' pull tell .hien, I fear that I shall not have leisure.

19 The ex])lanatory clause also sometimes precedes, ^i]^ tj^.

"
'
1t1

A -^ ^P
'^ 1/1^ '3© /',t'icn kwo' yih 'liang ko' ,jen 'ni 'tsau ,elii
rm ^^
tiur

"liau, <^a^ o?ie or two more men had heen added you already knetc: ^M ^^
fl^^ ^ ^^ ffl /(J* Btl 1^'mai mai' tih shi' .t'sing pub liau wo
pub 'hiau teh, that trade is in a had condition I do not know : \% ^^J >£
HT iy yR A — ^ bS W ^ ft >fr _h woi 'yeu 'li k'o 'i f,.!,

.jcn yih kii' hwa' yau' fang' tsai' ,sin shang', you must keep in mind the

words, "oidy by reason can men be controlled."

Comparing Clauses.

20 Clauses containing comparisons are introduced by i[^ 'pi, to com-

pare, or more rarely $5^ kiau', compare, and are placed before the predicate
 rHAPTER 7. COMPARING CLAUSES. 25

of tho principiil proposition. l{!i JL Hf^ fe ^X" l|'| TT iift Hh' ;t-'ii >i
puh toll 'wo .men hwei* slnvoli liwji', he cannot compdic with us in abih'f'/

to talk: Jt ^.Ic [|"| il'/ \Yj 'j[l'

^ 'l.i^wo .nion 'mai lih .k-iang ,sie, it As

6c<<er Mew Mrtf jf;//jVA it'c 60 Mj///^; ig, yl^j 1 Li 1 J

Ij -InJ ,;^ rli<-' pinj;' 'pj

.t'sicn li* hai', M/s ;7/;;r.s\<? As- won* sct'ov ///a;? before; j'L xt >^l Pi! |,c;j

4- ^* jfll >K ^^T" ^ 'i'i <^=i'' 1'^^ '1' >'"*"' ^«""' •^'" "tiiu 'ti I'iiu .sie, it in

really better than sitting gJoomibj in th^, house; JL Ilii f J- yv o[^ yu V'
.t'a teh .jon ,sin .ri, she obtained ynen's good opinion more than he did: itl
I'l Ml ft^ n5 K lli ILI-I ^^'I'i 'mn ,t'sin till hwa' 'f.m .nan .l.uvi tal..

lomjyared with his mother he was more di^ieuU to answer.

21 When the compared objects arc in a fixed ratio to each other, so that

they increase ami decrease together, the adverbs ti^ yiioh and l^ 'ii, ar-

used in both clauses. iJl 'l\!: ^ jf i^ ^^ ^' y^C .c'hcu hen' yuch
jshen fen' nu' yueh ta', the deeper the enniit}/, the greater was his anger.

22 For the negative ^^ j'L puh ^ ^P '])i i)uh .jii aud Jx 'W-"^^'^ }'"
are employed. |/]> ^\ 3(P i^ ^^ ^ ^{y 'ni puh .ju ye- ])an' k'ii' 'hau.

it would he letter that you should go at midnight. Jx W :Ui 'M l^U I'l'"

'yen che' ,mo ,kau, it is not so high as this.

Clauses expressing Simiiarity.

23 When resemblance is asserted, a clause introduced by yji .ju or | f:

siang*, is ]ilaced before the predicate of the principal proposition, ^i^ ijf/J[]

('i; .^:'J r 7\. ^ l^-II 11^ — I'l'wo tsieu' siang- tau' 'liau.tMen .t'an-
li tih yih yang', / /'eel as if I had gone up to heaven; ^j '({li /^ yy^ UJ
A j@ j(P X 'T> H^ ii] @~ /i^ kien' ,t^a .t'sau tsih tih .jen y. u

.ju ,hiung ti' tih k'wen' 'k*u yih ,pan, he regards those maimed jjersons ns
if they were brothers.
24 Sometimes the predicate precedes the comparing elause, and form*
with it one sentence usually of three words. ^7^ 3^11 Jj^.slieu .ju Imi, derj)

"V the sen: j[^ ^^ t^P ^^^,siu ,kien .ju tMeh, his heart isjirm as iron;^
/it^ 3^P ill rDgau .jan .ju 'tu, tranquil as a wall.
•2r)2 MANIJAIUN' GUAMMAP.. PAnT III.

Conditional Clovses. Jl ^||* P ;;^^

2;") Mtiny conditional clauses are without the appropriate particles. Thcv
precede the principal clause, g §it 0^ '\i\t ^^ nX WL 9u tsi' tsiu'

till ming' ngan' ting' slnvoh 'ngeu 'si, if any one has pnt an end to hi/nsvff'.

lie is f-ure to say thai he has been beaten to death; -pf- ^4^
— ' ||n) /\. Yfyi

linl ^^f^^iii' ,.t'ien yih ko" .jen jeli nau' ,8ie, if another mail be added, it will

he moreUvchj; ^\ \\^ 4f i\^ W] —^ tf^ t^^i' tsoh ,,sheng tih fah

vih .liu 'tsit'U, if yon speak acjain you must forfeit a -pot of wine ^j(| JJ
|{!i
— T ' till dL iT ^ic
— * T 'wo 'ta A-A yih hia' ,t'a
;

'ye 'ta 'w.i

vih hia', if I strike hint a blow, lie luill strilce me a blow.

2G Some verbs are used to give to a clause a conditional force. -^^ /li
^l M t'i Ik hiJi IL M^ Irt T yau-' sh-r 'wo ,kia che- yang-' 'xvo

tsieu' lih k'eh tso' .c'hwen 'liau, if my Jiouse loere liJce this. I would at once

f/o a boating.

27 Sometimes an interrogative suffix marks a conditional clause. /\^ ^p-

f P)b 5'fX i /)C Wi jt'ien han' 'liau .ni tsieu' k'li' (c'hii) .k'ieu 'u, if

there is drought, they then go to pray for o-ain; y]\ ^ (jjx )§ JL tul

Jc ^^ pull 'k'eng full 'ma ,pa ,t'a cheng' iah, if he does 7wt submit, he

must be imt to death.

28 Many conditional clauses are introduced by conjunctions. V^ [V^

:i^ W /U ^ ^»> Iaj ipjt a liwoli yih .shi fung' choh .hiung pih .jaii

hwa' tso' kill, if any time you meet evil it ivill turn to good; :Q" ^B ™.iVi

T fill i;l^ ^W\- ^\X ^ job shi' ,shu 'liau ,t'a k'ioh yih .ban
-4--I- -=^1* ^-i?^
shi' 'ye .mei 'yen. if he is defeated, he suffers nothing at all; i^ Ji£ :(g
'h '^m 1^^ {{L Il^^C
'^*
tij' T joli Inva' die' ta' i'lih tih 'ye tsieu' 'k-o

^<ih 'liau, if you paint this large picture, it luould be a pity.

29 Sometimes when the conditional clause has no conjunction, the ])rinci-

pal clause takes ftlj 'tau, yet, however. — J?^ ^^ jf'l iS" fli- yih

.t'si tsin' k'ii' (t'sii) 'tau 'sheng shi', if they go in together it will save trouble. m
30 In the preceding examples the conditional clause is a case supposed. I

It may also be a fact introduced. ^ y^ ^p ^ ep ^ ki* .jan ,fei ,t'sln

'
 CIIAPTKU /. Si:rERAr)DKD CLAUSES. • O53

fsih 'yell, if it is not a relation it is a friend ,1^^ /E ^fe yfc ^^ ^

("J T^ h'^L iSj ef^ ^T 1^'- t^l'i' 'I<i» t^'iii- f'ai' ,kiiu Auxicr (s) .1k» puh
tsieir jbliung i* ting* 'liaii. since t/iis aid hidij is wiUimj whi/ should we not
tnake vp our 7)iinds to it at once'f

'M The comlitionnl clause is sonietiiues placed in the niidcUe of the princi-

l>al clause. # iS i^t ^5 vfr 'fJH tj^ 'jij i.m ,t^siu ,sui ping' ,Bin

11 IvMoli ining peh. 7ny mother although ill ivas in mind quite char\y^ ii[K

fft ^ :^ ^ di '"^
^ :ilii y^ >t'ii «"! jini P"li -l»i' 'wo 'ye 'yeu,sic

kwo' sh'ih, cdthough he is wrong, J also have faults.

32 Even if, is expressed by !\i)i ^ tsieu' shr, or f^! pien'. j^ ^j* $^

J )3^ i^ S" I'i P'en' 'yen .yin 'tsi .mei c'lur Ic'ir 'niai, /// had the

monry thre is no place to Innj it: |f| /£ H ^< (]-J S ^J[-%:k til

^ ^ Ox €^ Wl A [% ^ lit 1^^ tsung' shr' kwoh ,kia tih ,ng(.u

'tiea jk'wun ta' ye puh .neng keu' chiau' shah .jen tih puh .c'hang niing',

although the state bestoics its favour abundantly, it cannot let the nnirderer

escape the forfeit of his life.

Superadded Clauses.

33 Some fragmentary clauses at the end of a proposition, consist of another

proposition curtailed of its subjt'ct. Such are the ])hrases ^ 3l-^^'t^i 'chu,

^^ .wei ,kittn, etc. ^ ^ /h

'miau, i/ou must carefully p>repare, this
^(^ Jfll ff ^J /('> ,8U yau' 'siau
.sin 'chun i"-i' .wei is important;

flfi M. {-l ''k i^ Il5 J"l!i !^ it ^ .c'hwen yu' ,cho 'shui 't'sion tih

fi* ,fang 'hn ,to, the boats meet luith shalloiv places in great numbers: 'f/<

)"J ••!/ iTt ji hn .wei kiai' (chie'), taking the river as the boundary.
34 There are several short and imperf»'ct sentences, used to conclude the
sense of the principal proposition, or to interrogate, or to qualify adjective and
verb predicates. They may on account of the weakness of their own signi-

ication, be considered as subordinate sentences.

35 A ]>roposition is more clearly defined bv adding certain verbs witli 7(^

.f-sai. W. pienS or Wl tsieu', as in "^i T'l 'A' ^ \% W N fill ^
254 .
•
MANDAUIN GRAMMAR. PART HI.

.tung .men wai" la' .cMiiau ,si 'slieii pien' .slii', it is outside the cast r/ate

on the west of the great hridrje] JK ^ ^^< ||li ]\y[j /H J cliih 'kwan ,i

,t'a tsieii' slii' 'liau, she only thinks of doing as he wishes that is all.

36 A nuiiioral particle -svith a number often follows a substantive to detiiic

it more clearly. Sometimes the class to which a substantive belongs is adchnl

fo the numeral. }]% "mJ I§ ig \v ^ Si ^sieu- wei' .t'sien oho- kicn-

.tung ,Hi,. // was for monq/; j'-Z i% Wl M "¥ W ^H 1^ ^ H^ jni

i- 'Hang ko' tsi* tsui' shi' yau' 'kin till, benevolence and iMegrity, these two

things arc all-imj-^ortant; ^]c fl^ ^^ #' ffi fl I'^l^' '^t T'^KoHl.
fu' 'mu 'liang ko' ,tu 's'l 'liau, mg imrents arc both dead.

37 Yih one, with |S] .t'ung together, ]\% 7Q k-'wai- ,ri,^{'.t\si, etc.

motion or union. TpM yL '^

'

follows nouns governed l)y 2)repositions of

fjJ^ j^d 1^ l^'l: ^.ho ,hiung M ti' yih k-wai" ai (c'hi') hiang- 'li mien-

'tseii, ivith my brother I ivent inside.

38 After verbs of motion and nouns of place, adverbs, such as Jiy )'[['

na- "li, there, are commonly used. ^(J ilji \\ \ l]y \^±^ ~S^ \\a\ tau' ,t'a

.men na' 'li kMr' wen"^, go tojhem and ask; ^Xt ill JJr f'x ^U '^g"^ -^i^^'''

ua' 'li 'ycu, with ws there are some; y\^ \a ^. iHii ~£ ^<. :(fl :^* .'^v

't'si jih 'tseu kwo' 'lau jkia che' jpien .hii, the next day he came home here.

39 In interrogation and remonstrance ^ .5Kl'"li .c'heng is used at the

end of a sentence. .Nan tau-|m -X^usuallv begins such a sentence. llfE l^

M- 7 1/1: n< XTmm^ r/' :^ a^ ^ji ...a,, .,,r .ci,,,

'liau "ni ,kia ,t-ien hia- tsieu- nuih 'yen "liau .nun .jeu puh .c-heng, is it so

that excepting in ijoiir family, there is no qood husband to be found in the

,.orMm m -T"- A^ t: £ -it ^ m * «=!& ^ T il *

^ 5K -"'"^^^ ^^^'^' :^' j'^"^ P^^^^ ^^^^^^ .hwau yau' 'yen k"'an' ,t-a 'si 'liau .t^<ai

k'ii' puh .c'heng, are you not then content, but wish to see him die and
then go'i

40 Intensity is expressed by J ^ -^^ 'liau ])uh teh, exceedingly so, it

is very sod. liikencss is expressed by adding ]}\ [rJv ^^^ ^'^''' ''^ '"*''
''^'^^; ^^ '•«

sentence. 'M f''!"

A fc % ^f S M fl!f l^^ v'^^'^^
^'^''^^^^
J-'" .^^'i^^

k'an' choh .wu 'li sV tih, do not cause others to notice that you seem destitute
CUAl'TEU 8. COORUIKATE SKNTKXCKS. . 25
ZOO

of reason ;i)C ^\- /^ ||Ji. [IJ.mfi .shi' ,jcii sr tih, like a man with uothhuj
to do. {11 lly. ye sr' is also (•mi)loyed, us^ (ji \U M 'vc kT, Ukcflyinq.
' '
7iU yi'' j1'=^'i- " '
y>k y'l» yii^K', -- IrJ yili .t-ung, are u.sed in nearly
the same rnannor;^IJ jX. "e/: ^\j^ .ho fir "mu yili ,i)an, like, a father
and mother.
42 Many phrases toriuetl of a verh or adjective, ami a negative particle, ar<^

u.sed ns intensitive particles. K \V\\ ^\ iiu! 'kan sit- piih tsin*', he is incx-
haitstihly thank/aJ \ ^''V\ VWK ^~^ Lj jCMieng tsan' puh 'i, /jc praises him
ina'ssanthj; ^ 1|n| fv jHlsiair ko' puh chir he laughed icith out stopp in >/.

CHAFTEll VIII.

COORDIN.VTK SeNTEXCKS.

Under this denomination are included not only sentences conijdete in thcui-

selves, but also all those commenced by conjunctions corresponding to eacii

other.

Simple Connection.

1 There may be several subjects to one predicate or several clauses or

sentences connected without a conjunction. J' ' y^M H^] ijij j,||_^ ^'^ |J|^

i^ iw \ )V A'^tT ^fe t;hih jCliT c'hili 'tsieu 'tu .t-'sien .mien ,h\va suh 'lieu

.woi loh, he only considered drinking ivine and gaming, lying a /nong glowers

and sleejiing under willows to be happiness; J-, "j" '^K. ^f ^ yj l^

y^ \'\\n 'ta'i .nu .t-'sai .ming fen* tsui' ta', the di(f'erence between the master
<nid the slave is very great; ^ =f ^^ }\\ ^^ i^ |]|- \l\^
'^-
]\\ ^>
K|> iau tsi yau' kiai' .ri 'tsi jko dang yau' kiai' ti* .lung, the father should
tear n his son. and elder brothers should warn their i/ounger brothersy^^

M ^ -^ & M 6^ A ^W ii fill n<i ki ko'' .nivn 'la,. ,k»n^- tau-

tih .jen .ho ,t'a shwoh 'li, s> veral aged and upriifht men reasoned with him:
X X Mi m mwjc iyjwj m
ffc ii'j .--.ng fu^ ,hiuug uu
kiau" hiuu- ,t'ing ,t'sin 'yeu tih k'iucn' 'kiai, they listen to the instructions
 %

._).-,G
MANDARIN' GRAMMAR. PART III.

(//' fathers and chJer Irothcys. and to the exhortatio7is of relatives and friends:

M ^ ft :S Jl ^ H "fr
on the Jong table and regarded
fi^t\ing' tsai' .t'iau

it
choh sbang' ,tang'ku
as an antique curio-
Hiinw till, he placed it

«''Cv;iM A^ ^ ilHiSi' ^ -^'^^^ (.man) yueir .sheng .nmi yueu- 'sV, he

complains of life and of death. (In the north man yuon').

'2 There mav be several predicates to one subject, or two imperative

st-ntences or two comiilete propo.'^itions connected without a conjunction.

m ^ S ^S .^1 1<IJ if< 5"i It Pi .c-hen Shi' ,iung ,t'sing yueh

.lanij- .vin .ho .wei ,yin, fruh/ the air ivos clear, the woon hrinht, and the

niilkij way a little indistinct -/i, yfc Iff TU M'j ^ 1Lt §^ ^ T^-^^ang

L*ai' .i .mano- .kung ,slien 'ti .t-'eu .ban sian', Wang, the imperial fihysician

hastily hotved, lent his head doivn and lav.ghed; Idi* HE ffi m& m
^^ WL J
— 1m' /H'l :^'"i pii"*©' -"^'^^ pieb cheng' 'ngeu .jan "kan 'liau

vih 'tien .fung .ban, you have no other ailment, you liavc accidentally caught

a little cold; ^ 1H uS T In ?fe il ^^^e' ko''_.lien hia; kihjwo py,

leave this here, and give it to me; j/Ji ^\\ ^ ^ ^ -S K l^\^ ^J^ ^(s

nM THI "lii -i^^^ii I'irig' •^^1"'! ;'^^^ ya^' <^^^o^i s^^^^ '^'^^'^'^
'^'^ ^^i^^ shen". 7/o?i

soldiers and peajjle shoidd all be earnest, attentive and diligent ,))l ^J X.
'^: /L -^ J2. :B'
— ' /^ mull 'yeu fu' 'niu .hiung ti' chib ,shen yih

.jen, he has no p>ttrents or brothers, he has only himself to look to.

Connective Particles.

3 Tlie propositions ^^ .ho, J^ pbig', P] ^

-t'ung. .lien arc used to

connect coordinate clauses or sentences. 'i^iJiZ yfc 4*0 VJ vj lIC ^H

S /^ M f I :ilE # ;i ffl 6-^ ftl'f 'iB f SP * 7
I
'la.. <-•

t-ai' .ho 'nai 'nai ping' na' ,,8ie 'siau 'tsie .men .lien kob .fang 'li tih .kn

.niang .men ,tu .lai "liau, the old lady with the mistress, and those young

ladies, and also the young ladies in each room, cdl came:-' /jtj /V hi A^
1^ 11 IS Hl'ft fi ^ J$ Jlf iii Pi^'^^ Je" "yeu ,pen shi pub tan'

jCbe .man ping' yau' t'so' cbeb ,t'a, tvhcn others have talent he not only hides

it, he also seeks to deprive him of it.

niAl'TKU 8. CONXECTIVK PARTICLES. 257

4 The conjunctions tlL 'ye, X^ VL-ir, also, and ji^ .hwiin (.hai) intiu-

Uuce a nrw claus(\ X )^lL is i

'*
/ft l!ll f 1 1 1 5|v y-u' ki.n' cht-

.kwun 'til .ying 'lian chnli .lai, he alsoaaiv IhiH hiandarin come uut to escort

him; ^\,vL i^ /'' v® '^^'^^ 've piih ,chi tair, I also do not know; [lii

.2J i^i to-

- i,liJ i^c m fill lit ii!i^ X ',';^-
T -t A» ri^j

;'i X^^ J 1^ 'M'(E}M±. :>" I'wul. ki.u- -yc-u yili lu'

.c'hwangclmng- ,ta 'Vsi ,shi ycu' tai"linu t'sih })ah ,ft'n till 'tsieu yeu"tscu
fall 'iiiiii pion* tbu' tsai' .c'lnvang shang", he sjtddtnli/ saw a curtained couch;
at this time he was intoxicated seven parts in ten, and had aho walked
himself weary] he at once sat
t.j, (111 —^ down on the couch; /V I'll* -T* V±, l^I vL
'J'/L n^ J j*-'*^ M^ pu^' '^i hwoi' 've tsieu' pa' 'liau, they none of them un-

derstood him, and so it ended.

' 5 Tho conjunctions nH .n, witli _fcL 't'sio, and its compounds also
I'.y^v M( r\'^ C.J.I, -r- _il
coninicnce a new clause. pX. :±|i "^ {^'Jf ||IJ ^^ shwoli i)i]i kau' .tsi .n
c'hii', havinij JinisJied what he had to say, he took leave and locnt away
S^ /^ i}i W ^ :^ flT- S 't'i pull -yi'i '«iau shr .n hai-
ta* shi- *mo, is it not to suffer great loss for the sak.e of a small advantage i

VL i L '^^iji /\. ^ "j^Qjlnvang 't'sie shah .jcn 'die 'si, and still more wlten
t<j kill a man is a cajntal crime; _l1 j|l \u] -^ shang' ,c'lu' .n k'ii', he

ascended his carriage and went away; ]^]^ y^ y/L J:L yC cL Tv I'^L

.fung ta- ,hwang 't'sie ,t'ien seh ,tsiang 'wan, the wind is high and further
it is growing late.

G The cunj unctions (JX ye and J^ y<^u', are repeated at the head of

two and soraetimea three clauses in the the sense both-and. ^ ^^ ^ ^

\\'\v M'lug yau^ 'hi, both frighteyied and pleased; vL fj !?[' ^£j iS fU
lli 1 J 1 ]' \jZ ^^lu nM. n J'ye 'yeu 'ui c'hih kwo' tih 'ye 'yeu 'ni .niei chih
kwo' tih, there are both what you have tasted and what you have not tasted.

7 Not only —but even, are ex})ressed hy ^j- 3lUl >^^'' ^^^^j *^"^ some other
compound ailverbs in the first clause, and Jjl/L /^ tsieu' shV, even, etc. in

the second. fC (n ^ jji^ I^ ffll ±L Ijsi J uiC t'^P"l» tan' puh .neng
.c'hang tsin' 't'sie hwai' 'liau shih y»tig', he not only could not steadily ad-

vance, but further his pla7i was broken up ; y]\ iii ..il- izi ^^i /r^ h\^i
258 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. r'ART III.

^ ^^ firf 43;^ /N piih tan- .wii full 'k'o 'c'hu tsieir' ahV .cheng pien' 'k'i

.lai, there teas not only no ivatj of acting, they even began to quarrel.

Sentences ivith Adversative Conjunctions.

8 But and however, are ex])rpssecl hy conjunctions introducing a new

sentence. |JM W\ 0l< I?p1 P^ 1jj ^ ^P 'yen ,k'ai 'yen ,k-'ai chih tso'

pull ,cliY, his eyes ivere ojoen to it, hut he professed 7iot to knoio if; /X. H^i

Jul '\'\H ^^^ 'fan shwoh ,t^a .liu .t'u, you however say that he is foolish:

jT- r '
-^ jl^ TK -T* fe iul '^vang Ilia*' yih k-'iin' .ynen .lai pub
shi' ,t'a, he went down and looked hut it was not he; ji'lj yj\ ^P '^ ^^
r. Jt^ 'tau pull .ju .kin .mow sliang' ,king, hut it will he better to go to the

capital this year; -jlij }K W ^S^ '& ^k H^J i^fj' ^ 'tau -fan yair pih
'k'i 'wo till iiiing- .lai, you yet luish to 02)prcss me to death.

9 Sometimes no adversative particle is used, fj^ H^ ^^ yj'li P^- f A

sliwoli .shi .c"lii na' .slii k'wai', it was long in the telling, hut qnicl- in the doing.
10 The antithetic particles ^^ J/^ ,sui .jan, although, J^ ]u].']im. v'i,2jet,

and some others, jirecede two sentences which are opposed to each other.

The second sentence may also be without a ])article. BiE Ji^ 3^P ]}\^ ijfi,

w iS H m i$ 11 m. )a m *
1^= :^- ,sui .ju,, ju h'.-,- .mvan
yau' 'kan teh si' ,fang tih .hau kieh w^ang' ,fung .ri .lai, although it is so,

yet it is needful to induce heroes from all jt arts to observe lohat is p)assing

and come ; ^fi /S, sH^M it ^%m ffj M )& ^ ^ Ml'"'

p'ih ,8ui .jan 'pi puh teh .c'heu peh 'tau 'ti shi'' ,i fuh, cotton cloth, although

it cannot be compared ivith silk stuffs, is still used in dress; ^e '^ /V

WJ ^ ^ "^ $^ g/[ ^^ ^ ,sui 'yeu .jen tih .niing shili ii .k'in

sheu' ,c'ha puh ,to, althoughhe has the name of a man he difers little from
a beast.

Sentences loith Disjunctive Particles.

11 Particles are repeated to introduce sentences of the form either — or,

imther —nor, whether— or. BX fe /v EX H Ci tS P hwoh sung' .jen

hwoh tsi- 'ki .lieu hia', either give it away, or keep it for yourself; ^
 niArTEK 8. SHNTF.VCES WITH PI.^JUKfTIVr: r'AKTICLES. 250

^flt iii I?S ^^ III hwoli 'cho k-i' ,t'a hwoli 'cho siair ,t/a, /^c j/;a,s-

eif/icr nnijvii at him or/nu>//itd of him; ^xl vL i)^ W yC t!§. Ill -^^

ijfi," {11 1^ i3 ]Jii' 'H ?T 7k '^vo 'ye muh 'yeu c'hien' kwo' chai' puli
.liwiiii ye pull .tseng je c'hi' 'ta chia', / have neither failed to pay mi/

debts, nor have I done anythinrf to provoke anger and fighting; ^^ y]^
11^* \YJ aW ^n' tiLrfi:
^" tli fl ya.r .sui .c^han^^ tih ,tung ,si

"hau yo pa* 'tai'yo pa', / want common things, whether good or bad, it does
not matter.

12 The form whether — or not, is also expressed by a proposition atHrmcd

and derived. y{\ /^P /H -l''i- ^^ ^. P"h ,chi shi" Hi puh sh'r', / do not

know if it is so or not/ fill (^M ?." fti ]J |> ^ '^X P ,t'a 'sing puh
'sincr 'na 'H 'k'o ,chT, lohether he will wake or not, how can wc know? y\\

%M ;.V^ p7 P J 4k ^ l'"li lull heh (,hei) tih peh (.jjai) tih .f'siucn

yau'. whether black, or white they are all wanted.

13 On the one hand — on the other hand, are expressed hy — '

jg] yih

mien', and some other siniihxr foiTns at the liead of each clause.
'

— [U]

%SL ~ 10 t^ '1'^ UO f'l^ ^ tij 5|i yih mien' .hwoh yih mien' man'

man- tih .shen 'slieu c'huh dai, while she, spoke she sloivly put out her hand;

W— >'^ ffl ^M!- yih mien' kMih yih mien'

—M
t-'an', he both toept and
sighed ; MM lis ^C il Hil lA A^ yih mien' 'cheng

pei' 'ho yoh yih mien' ngan' tien jen 'ma, on one hand he ptrejyared powder,
and on the other hand secretly collected men and horses.

14 Some — and others, are often expressed Ly jdacing the princijial virb
with tih at tht» beginning of each sentence. ^Q U J ^U ^W UM UJ i_b
J ^ Ih ^ Vi till 'si teh ming' tih .t'au liau ,sie .hwei k'ii', some died
and others. ran away home again; n'll* fl J itlt |p'(-: [I J |(.'J-:
t'iaii' tih t'iair

wu* tih wu', some jumped and others clapped their hands.
1") llln'le — at the same time, are expresscu in various ways, as —
"
' il Ll
V P3
^
nil
""^ II

llU .^
fUb HM
••

vih In* kMih yih lu' ma', wht'le he walked, he used reviliu'/
HIL •"*
words; \Yi :/^ "im* A?^ tai' k'uh tai' ma', while he wept, he uttered re-

proaches.
2G0 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART III.

Illative and Transition Sentences.

16 The illative conjunctions introduce these sentences. j|y y^ \/\\ ^

kien- 'ni .lai 'liau 'so 't'sing kiau', 1 Jteard
J p)\ \J^ gpj ^it ,.t'ing "i

that you had conic and therefore ask for instruction: [a| ||:i| |{li fj^i .yin

Aveir ,t'u shwoh, he therefore asked him ; 1{il ^M >I^ l?3 itB "feV 4^
t'a sien tsin' .king ,yin 't'si .wu shr, licjirst entered the capital and there-
fore it came to nothing.

17 Adverbs of time introduce sentences, which describe the consequenci'<

ul' the action related in a preceding sentence. /V ^ y^Jj WJ \}^ Jj
ofe ^^ .jcn 'vL-n ta- ,fang tih ,sin .fang .neng .-wu slii', Id a man have

a liberal heart, he will then he icithout trouble; yC 4 9f 7J "^ ^

iU\ ^^ ^ ^<. shih 'liau ,shen fen' heu' .lai pih ta* hai- .kia .t'sai,//^'

lost his x>osition and so aftericards his family revenues.

18 Illative sentences are sometimes introduced by a causative verb, iti]

^^~Wy W: f 1 liP ^ nib M lien lei'

causing a roomfid of limiting girls

choh yih .fang ,ya
have
.hwan .men ,tu puh .neng shui', to

a sleepless night.

19 Among such verbs are Tp P'^^S ^^ /"^"^'^ ^"^^ JCiit'k'ung, to fear, mean-

ias ?o.f. , ffi g B m ft J- *# ft M U m T ^P i.'.i ff

"llli ft 5 u ^ /^ T''' tsi'
'chi till .ri' 'tsi 'slie tsai' miau' "li tso' 'liau .ho

shano-' p'a' ,t'a 'yang hwoh puh ta', he cast off" his son into a temple to he a

monk, lest he should not he able to bring him up.

Questions consisting of Two Sentences.

20 A common mode of asking questions is to use two correlative clause •S

one the contradictory of the other. An inteiTogative particle is soinetimes

placed between them, or at the end of the second clause. |B| Jfv J ^ ^
'§' .hwei .lai 'liau })uh .t'seng, has he come back or 7wt? 53c *^Lt -T^ ^L,
& 1^ ® S Wi ~P '^^'*^ Chill puh c'hih 'ii 'ni shen' 'mo ,siang ,kan,

iuhether I eat it or7iot, what matters it to you'/ /£ ^ fe ^ib ^^^'^' 1'"^'

CUAl'KKU 0. ELLIPSIS AND TLKuNASM. 2C1

slir .iii ur slii' .ni puh slir, ;'*•

iV 60 o/- noU iQ ''y ^ P|
^7^ ^\ Pj |(fj

I'hc" kcir .taiii^ 'k'o .jau piili 'k'o .jmi, ca?? ////.v matter he pardontd or not ^

^ lij ^ili; rt^ A U ^ ^^ uS 11

l"l: ri'j .1.V' .t^ung ,hi«n, .ii,

.jt'U .ni .liwan slir ]>iih jnr tcli tili, is he of the same viUaye as yourself or
/*•/»•« .^„„y,-,/ f'1:|T ^'h 7 ^l|! fl \k I"! i'^ %'m ting-si -iia,,

iia" ko' j)*uii" .int'U umli 'yiii. /aav; yoM spiked those gxms or not?

Coiiqjurison.

21 For examph, and such like plirases are ('X])rcsscd byj L yy 'pi ,ian»;,

uiul ..therconirouiul phrases. j|g j(P ^/^ 'fi'^

1^ ^^ T^ f^ fii
']/][ ij^ kia .jii 'ui tso' hia' 'tai shi' piih .neiij,' .jau 'ni tsui', supposimj
that ijou have done ivhaf is wrong, you cannot look for forgiveness; ^p ySl

'M /v '1^ I -T^ HtS ^ r P'J' J" pi"^'' j^ilj ,^i" liiii' piili .ueng kieir
liau, /'ur cxa)iiji(e, tvhen disease has entered the jmrts below the heart, th^re
is no chance of safety.

22 Like and us if, are exj)ressod by adverbs of similarity commencing new

senttnces. ^ \^ Wj 7L MK
\(X \] -^ TJC ^i' "}<'" }»iii' 'sliui van-

.t'aiiLT till jkwang king, hr seemed as if he wished for water and hrotli; 3(P

1^ h% Wl r — iN ^P ^ "^' ty: .ju .tMing .c'heng tsieu' 'liau yih

ko' .ho .p'ing shi- kiai', as if a peaceful world had been established; fli; jl^i

^ T ^ ^i J^ i% —^ M A ^ .t'sung 't'si ,t'ien hia' .ho 'mei

chih siang' yih ko' .jen ,kia, /Vow this time the empire will be at peace,
just like ^J ^^ ^
a family; ^)j t')|j iJj •/(:
~] 'lang Inh ehnli si lib

tih .j.ing jting, like a soldier who fights for life and death; J j^ iJj 7C* ^
/\. \]j siang- \v kivn- ,t''sin .jen tih, the same as if he had met a relation;

rJ -i'v y^n ~J" tai' ;ping .ju 'ts», he treats the soldiers as if they were his
children.

CHAPTEli IX.

Ellu'Sis and Plkonasm.

1 Among tiie figures of speech uswl in conversation, the most worthy of
notice are ellipsis, i)leona8m, repetition (already illustrated), and antithesis.
2(J2 MANDARIN GIIAMMAK, PART HI.

In regard to the lir>st of tliese it may be remarked, that for ek'gance^ words

which can Ix' understood from the circumstances are omitted. ^^^ f^'* pai-

sheu', to visit and bow to amj one on his hlrth-daij;T^ '-^ pai' .iiicn, tn

make nciv year's-day visits; |n ^- T 5l ^B ^^ /L l^ieh pai^ 'liau

.shen"- 'sT ti- ,liiung (s), tJiey hoiuvd {to each other and became) sworn bro-

thers for life ; f!)\ yX \l\ S "^ ty 'so 'i ,kwan clii^ 'tsai slang', there-

fore (he rose in) rank till {he became) chief minister; pi ^ kau- 'lau, //c

announced {that he was too) old {for luorlc); pj 'M l^^u' jiingS he an-

nounced that he was ill; ^ ^J m 5l^ •^'.'"'^ si Mu.he came on Lorsc-

baclcandatjhjin<js2yeed;'il i/J i}A)^' ^^^'W<Hl '^'^ P^r' tso^

iiicu' kin"- .ien .mu vang' {for his) dress he assmncd the aji/)caraiice of a

native of Fien-liang the capital; ^Ji^ T^M ^ oM ^ ~'K JK -iii'iig ,chi

tau' kwo' k*u' wei' .lai, he knows ^mst and future {things) ; ]^- ZL f\)^

^ tsai' ,san 't'siug tsui', two or three {times) he ashed {pardon for his)

fault.

2 In the use of respectful and self-depreciating adjectives for tlie i)o.sses-

sive pronouns, there is an ellipsis of jthose pronouns before such adjectives,

thus we hear "[/ji

^ 7& H "^ KP 'i»i 'yeu 'ki wei^ ling' .lang, or -ki

wei' ling' .lang, how many sojis have 7/ou'^yil XI ^ rSi Wb H^ "tP T3E

-^Y ,t'a pih yau' .meu hien' ling' tsun' sing' ming', he luas resolved on ptlan-

ning the destruction of your father.

3 The omission of the personal i^ronouns in comi)limentary conversation

is also common, when the substituted adjectives are not used, nl 7L't'au

.kwang, {I)beg {your) favour; (southern), ijj TLtsie' ,kwang, {may I) bor-

row {this by 7/our) favour; {northern). y^V\\ 'kieu .niang, {I have) long

looked up {to you); ^ S'^i^^^i i"^i^ {IJiave)long desired {to meet you);

^ lijj[ -k'i 'kan, how {can I) dare'^ e^} gSt sie' sie', (/) thaiik {you).

4 When the language in use is not complimentary, the pronouns are also

very fnn]uently omitted. ^ IS ^ puh .t'ing kien', I did not hear it;

fill ^T ^ 15i I'l' ^^ rM * ,t'a ,tMng 'liau pien' k'u'

sben 'slieu .na 'liau kwo'.lai, having heard it he then tvent, stretched out his
 t IIAITKU 10. ANTITIIKSKS. 2Go

haml, and drew it ovir. Hero tlie words if, /n's. and, //, aiv omitted witli-

iHit injury to tlie spn.se.

.") Atlirmatioiis juv ro]>oatod liy mentioning their opposite wifli a ne'^ativc

partiele. /H Hi fl^ T^ p ll'^ fl^ sl,i'_,chen tili puli shi' 'kia till, it

in true, it is not false; \~\-

^\S 5c Wi X '^^ ^ JX' /J^.t'sun ,.sinyau-
Uwany ta- imli van* liiali siau, //<e /te«r^ should he kept liberal and open, it

should not hecnutraded and close; ^f ilA "'-i ^J J '

J! Il^j^ ^ 'fl'ii

lL.j ^\ ;^ Jf)( hau tso' 'ma 'k'o 'i tso* j)uli 'hau tsu' nia piiii yaii" tso",

// it is practicable do it, and if it is imjjracticable do not attempt it.

C Clauses are repeated, or the idea they convey is repeated ]>y lueans of
synonyms. 7J;X ^ Ul'X i"J -1\ \j]'\ shah puh san- 'ta puh ,k'ai, killin'j

and striking did not cause tJiem to disperse :

yf^ 7-1^ ^\ ^^puh ,c'ha ])uh
.cM.a, ;t ,V, it !s; ^ "f f''j AZ fl'l MT f'} 'v 'Z ^ kih
'liau .ho .jen ,che .Hang 'kien liau.ho .jen ,che't'sau, what manhave I deprived
—p ip
of his amount of corn ?
i
^|^
I
^
bQ ^
i ^ J

pG .hiu ki' .lauki', 6car MaYm 7/j/;i(/.

7 An idea contained in a verb is often repeated in the substantive which

it governs. ^Vl flii U^J f :^ InJ' shah ,fa tih sing' ming^ he killed him.

8 Unnecessary words are inserted in many combinations on rhythmical

gi'uunds. Such words are chosen as are ])artly connected in mcanin*'- with
those to which they are united. ^ \\jl /£ y\, |[l]j fp] ^jij .t'ingshwoh
shi* t'ai' jshi .siang 't'sing, they heard that the prime minister had invited
fhetn. Here ;siang is introduced to form fipj 't'sing into a two-word grouit.

So also in f lij 7II4 ,-i[li ^^ , siang .fan jf^ung pau', / will trouble you to an-
nounce fo me. .Lai and k'ii* are pleonastic in many verb groups, as i/p /|^

7K ciian' 'k'i .lai, to stand up, for chan' 'k'i.

CHAPTER X.

Antithesis.

I Antithesis in the formation of groups of coordinate words has been

already considere<l. The antithesis of propositions will now be illus-

trate<l. This very common figure of 8j>eech pervades Chinese converbu-

264 MANDARIN GRAMMAR. PART IIT.

tion as well as written compositions. \;\ ^^ lil -^ ^ lio'yau'

jchen kia' yan' sliih, the articles mtist he good and the jrr ices true ;
'
1l5l

J^ ^hS 1H a. ^»P yili k"o' .jen c'hang' peli ko- .jcn lio^', one man san<j

and a. hundred joined in harmony; ^ W H^ iPjj 'ill m A T^ JL

^ fiW irn .'•t'i*-''^ 'y^''^ p^^^^ ^'^^^^ -^'^"^s (^<-'"o) ''^
-J^'" 'y^^ -t'^i' ^'i' ^"•' ^''*^'-

heaven has wiexpected clouds and rain, man has unexpected turns of good

and iU fortune; ^fe ^ ;! f$ A ^

fl^ ^[s \^^ ^'i St wo ,slK.n^

shi' 'ni till .jen 'si shi' 'iii tih 'kwei, livinri am I your slave and ivhcn dead

I luill attend you as a ghost; {{L ^ m ^ >(t til ^j* 11' 'ye piili

'hau ,t'ui 'ye ])uli 'liau jen', he could not refuse nor yet say he ivas wiUing:

^^ W ^ ii S P f I-' ni 1t M ,sin 'li 'yen shih 'mo 'k-ou 1i

};lnv;)li shvli 'mo, ichat you have in your heart, utter with your lips; A. ^
T^P ^ -7^ *Mi -J^^^ P^^^^
y^^^^ ''k-wQi pull kioli, men did not hioiu it, demons

did not 8usp>ect it; ^ )^ ^Ij), T\\\ T^ 1W fl it \% Sl ,kung,k'aisi-

'man yueh tsieu' fall slang' .lieu ,sing, the low opened like the full moon,

the arr02vsfleiv liJce falling stars; ^ J^ y^P ^< /v ^ -^ 3(n ^<. ^

k'an' .min .ju ,kia .jen k'an' slii' .ju ,kia shi', he regarded the people as if

they ivere his family, and public business as if it was family affairs; 4>C

)jg^ ^^H W^i.

^ J:
|g )jl ,i lull yau' .hwa 'mei

and he must live

c'liili fan- yau-

un animal
jhwen ,sing, his dress he loishes to be elegant,

food; P j(P |i| fi ^. ^ jll ^f ,«^»' > A^^^^ tsil^ hiuehjoli,e-hwen

.lieu, corpses tvere heaped like mountains, and blood flou-ed like rivers.

2 Many pairs of propositions begin with opposed adjectives and other

words, such as JL shang', T hia', 5^ .mmcr bright,

^ oste7isible; 0g ngan',

dark, covert. JL "W ^ ^ T -^ S ^% shang' 'yeu ,t'ien .t'ang

hia' 'yeu ,su .hang, above is heaven andbeloiv are Sucheu and Hangcheu;

^J^ :^ ^ ^ j^ 0& :^ "~^

ffi 7J "'i'ig shi' yih .p-en 'ho ngan'

.shi' yih 'pa ,tau, externally he seemed like a mass offire {so loarm was his

friendship), while .secretly he ivas a knife (to destroy) ; §^ ^j^ 7v / P

\\% IJA /L W -li^t-'i^ jf^-'i >t'i^» ^^'^^i' P'^'^i san' 'kieu ,siau, his soul fed
beyond heaven, and his si^irit to the nine coelestial regions {said affright);
 lIlArTKK 11. RHYTIIMUS. 265

# jli S^ ='4
Jllf! 7- ft- m S ^ tt m j'i l.im.' shun'
.Invau jshc'iig liiair sliiiu' 'tsi \\\v nili .Invan ,sheng wu' nih .n\ ^Ae /^Y/ff/

have Jill al children, the lUsohedient (jive birth to disobedient ehildren.

CHArTER XI.

RHYTHMUS.

1 By rliytlnnus is iiKant the syniinetrical arrangeiiieut of groups of words

hkI of clauses autl scntouces. It belongs to conversation as it does to writ-

ten styles. It causes words to fall into groups of two, three, or four words

each. Their })osition in tliese groups is retained by all speakers, depending

not ui)ou the caprice of an individual, but on the custom of the language.

Thus in ^^ J^ .hau kieh, a hero, a mem of ability, the two component

words are constantlv used together and in oue order.
2 It is this rhythmus that regulates the formation of new sentences,
when the processes of reduction and expansion occur, A few illustrations
of its influence are here given, Eedundant words used in short sentences are

omitted in long ones.;^;{ ffli f] J Tx V^ «li'il> jt^a tih sing' ming', kill him

{his life); andPT D. ^iZ ftli'k'o 'i shah ,t'a, he may be jmt to death. The
sentence stops where it does in this last exami)le, because a four-word group

is already complete.

3 The new sentences which the exigencies of each individual lead him to

construct, are invariably formed in conformity with this rhythmus; as much

so as with the rules of government in syntax. |/]» ^a gJc _I1 ^J I^| V^*

Yl^ ni .fu 'wo shang' 'ma .hwei .y^"g P'^S nsist mc to mount my horse and
return to the camp. Here the words T. ^J IG»| ^^consisting of two actions
in succession, form a svnniietrical fuur-wunl grouj). Then follow the words

"M U ik 1& J: T B'J U5 .^^ f? ,chang 'pau .fa ,t'a shang'

'liau 'ma .hwei chi* 'pen .ying, Chany-pau assisted him to mount his horfir,

and he then returned to his encampment. Here when the first of the actions

is lengthened by inserting J liau, a time particle, there is also an addition

26G MANDARIN GRAMMAR. . PART III.

made to the second action. Tlie words 3E '^ form it into a new and
synnuetrical four-word group.

The omission of pronouns, and the fewness of tense particles and connec-
tive conjunctions, very mucli aid the rhythmical construction of sentences.

4 Rhythmus frequently hinds into one four- word sentence two coordinate

clauses, or one subordinate and one principal clause, ^q ^ -f^ 0^ 'si

c'hli' tsai' 'sing, he fainted aiucnj and revived; ^f^* ^ 'TX. jjIl t'^i' ti'hir'

jSlieu ,kien, he ivas taken aivay and j^^ciccd in prison; J J jjSx "^'ta
tso' yih ,pau, he tied it up into a bundle; JL '»U ^/J 1x 'pa'maleh chu',

he reined uj) his horse; /f\ /^P ^ ^1^ puli .clri puh tsui-', luhat is done

tvithout hioiving is not a sin; ^ 4^ ^ p^^vang' ,k-ung i)ai' sie', look-

ing into space he boived his thanks.

5 Three- word groups are somewhat less common than those of two and

four members. When they occur they usually consist of words in some or-

der of syntax, ffi \'^ ifec'huh \hr\m, a tiger from theforest;i^' ^ Jj^
tsieh kwo^ .lai, he took it.

6 The connection of accent with rhythmus arises from the numerical

character of the groups into which words naturally fall. To mark these

groups an accent is usually placed on the last word. This occurs whether

the group consist of two, three, or four words. In a group of four a weaker

accent is also placed on the second word. This subject is more fully discussed

in the first part of this work. It is by rhythmus that the expression of

thought is brought into a finished state, adapted for vocal utterance with

the constant accompaniment of an accent of position and the tones. For it

is only to sentences disencumbered of expletives, and arranged symmetrically,

that these peculiarities of pronunciation can be conveniently applied.

THE END.
 APPENDIX I.

On recent Philological researches in China.

TIk- ancient sounds given by Chii-hi, in liis edition ul" thu Shi-kin^, oi

Book of Poetry, are those of Wu-t'siii-lau ;7'^ I^ ^- That autlior way

a little oarlic'r than Chu-hi. His investigations on this subject are contained

in his work \\l\ p|}j Vun-pu, a book rarely to be met Avith. He is the foun-

der of this branch of literature in China.

The author of Ji l|i (jj,?| JfJ"? from which Morrison formed his syllabic

dictionary, wrote a short treatise on ancient sounds pf |:j^ ll:]|^. Towards

the end of the Ming dynasty, C'hen-ti a native of T'ing-cheu in Fuh-kieu,

wTOte on the sounds of the Shi-king, and the jioetry at the close of the Cheu

dynasty. He has given in the former, the old sound of 500 words. He htw
been influenced by his own dialect too much, but in many cases has been led

by it to correct results. Though he added little to what was before known,

he imparted an impulse to this branch of study, and subsequent authors free-

ly express their acknowledgments to him.

At the close of the Ming period, and the beginning of the present dynasty,
nourished Ku-yen-wu, who among the multif;wious subjects he studied, gave

much attention to ancient sounds. His five works ^ £^ 77 .

^^ Yin-
liioh-wu-shu, consist of 1^* p^ On the literature, of sounds^ g^ 7\>^ ^"
On the sounds of the Book of Poetry y 0) g On the sounds of the Book of
Changes, M* hM Jc On the tables of sounds made in the T'ang dynasty,

M Q ^^ Tabular view of the old sounds. In these works he has given

what he supposed to l)e the ancient pronunciation lx)th in regard to parti-

cular words, and as to its general features. He also wrote hh nil iil ^*

critique on the work of Wu-t'sai-lau.

•2G8 MANDARIN GRAMMAR.

Mau-si-ho of Shau-liing followed this author in studying the ancient sounds

(>f the Yih-kinf):, and the tables of the tonic dictionaries. See his 0fj y\l%

and tJP. ^ ^- fg- The finals m and p, now lost from mandarin, lie

describes clearly as labials, i)ronuunced hy shutting the mouth. He states

that in Cantt^n province they are still pronounced.

Kiang-yung of Hwei-cheu is one of the best authors on the subject of

sounds. His three works are Q i-f-T ^^ ^fy[ Critique on the science of

sounids, "^ fiM W, ^ Dictionary of old sounds, ^ W^ hFi ^'

Tables of sounds arranged according to the tones. He makes frequent re-

ference to modern dialects to illustrate the old pronunciation, and marks

the various differences between it and the jiresent mandarin.

Twan-yuh-t'sai has followed the three preceding authors in reducing tlie

ihvmes of the tonic dictionaries to a small number. He has one arrano-e-

ment of seventeen classes, aud another of six. The latter is in fact that of

the final letters, whether vowels or consonants. He was the first to state

clearly the late origin of the -^ }^ or third tone-class. Others had erro-

neously believed that it was the fourth tone-class juh sheng, Avhich was want-
ing in the ancient pronunciation. He shewed that the phonetic part of a

character indicates to Avhat class a word belongs. His system is contained

ill y^ w "& i% A<-
T'sien-ta-hing has attended to changes in the initials. In this dejmrt-
iiicnt his predecessors have committed errors wliich he has rectified. He
was the first to remark that these phonetic changes do not belong to indivi-

duals, but to large groups of words having the same initial. 8ee p. p. 92,

of this grammar.

A juore recent author K'ung-kwang-seng, in his work on the pronuncia-

tion of the Book of Poetry p^" )^ 9;-^J? has assumed that the fourtli tone-

class (juh sheng) is modern, and the third tone-class old. This erroneous
view has very much vitiated his conclusions. In other respects he adheres
to the results of modern investigation, as in the statement he cites from Yen-
peh-shi, that "ancient and modem sounds difier, just as the dialects in mo-
dern times of two jjUiccs distant from eatli other."
 ATPKNMX II.
269

A great viiriety of inforiuation, botli on the old languuge and on tlie luan-
ilaiin dialect, is collected in
^ i\ f -f |2. The author, who lived early
in this century, knew the Kiarig-nan dialect, as well as that of Pekiu--
When he writes on the ancient sounds he exercises a goud judgment anil
gives a fuller account of alphabets (formed with Chinese characters) than any
other author.

The work of Kiang-tsin-san, called JEI ^ The science of somuh, I have

not seen.

The above are the most noted writers on this subject in the present dynastv.

With regard to the i)arts of speech and syntax, I know of no recent work

which has advanced the knowledge of the Chinese on the nature of their
language, except that of Pih-hwa-tsun pM ^ )5J5 nX <-'f which 1 havt^

spoken at large in my Shanghai grammar.

APPENDIX II.

Ot> Mandarin Literature.

This subject has been admirably treated by M. Bazin in his ''Siecle des
Vouen." It was in the Yuen dynasty, a.d. 1280 to I3G8, that the coUociuial

literature of China originated, and was most flourishing. It had begun in

the precetling period, that of the Southern Sung, and the works of Chu-hi.

and the Shantung novel Shui-hu-chwen, are consequently the earliest exam-
ples of it, if the latter does not belong to the Yuen period. This date syn-
chronizes with that of the origiu of the modern mandarin pronunciation, as

shewn iu the early part of this work.

At the same time, the dramas composed of songs and familiar diak»gue, be-

came popular. Previously the national poetry had been sung, but at this
epoch, it was displaceil by songs ^k'iih (c'h). This was theuatiual result
of the great change in the language that then reached its crisis. The close

connection between the origin of the dramas, and that of the mandarin pro-

nunciation, is shewn by the lact that Cheu-teh-t'sing's dictionary for man-

270 . MAN'DAIUN CIRAMMAR.

darin sounds, published in tlie Yuen dynasfy, was used as tlie standard for

pronunciation in the collection of 100 jdays of the Yuen period, and in tlic

songs and dramas of North China generally. Yet these songs are not purely
colloquial, though much freer in construction than common poetry. Works
partly in dialogue, and partly consisting of songs are called'|?|L "^Clnven-
k'i, or *fl l|!)Tsah-kili. In tlie catalogue of reprints calledg^ ^ij ^§
Hwei-k'eli-shu-muh, several hundreds of these works are mentioned. They
are given mostly with the names of the authors. A writer may acknowledge

a drama as his composition, but a novel is always anonymous or a lictitious

name is assumed. The novels are not included in this cat.alogue, nor an*

the lives of their authors found in books of biography. Both novels and
dramas are excluded from the imperial catalogue.
These works are regarded simply as books of amusement, and as not worthy
of the study of scholars. To the foreigner however, they are not only interes-

ting as an oriental development of the imagination, similar to that which

has created our own schools of dramatists and romancists, but as furnishing
an easy introdifction to the history, manners and language of the country.
In the work called Jj )|j^ Fung sheu, the early part of the Chen period,

B.C. 1100 is described. In ^'J p| ,^-, we have the last part of the same
dynasty. The Western and Eastern Han periods are illustrated in P^ ^Ir^

i^M #io' ^^ i% ^M iic- '^^^^ "^^* period, when the empire was divided

into two states north and south, is described in pj-J ^f(^ l^J )\}\ ^^. The
time of the Sui and T^ang dynasties, is illustrated in \)\:j j^ )\}\ ^§, and
the fall of the latter in ^^ j§". The history of Yoh-fei and the Shui-hu,
describe the state of the country during the Sung period. Tlie manners of
y>X i-^U' Tigr
the metropolis during the present dynasty are depicted in;^*!. T^- ^*Hung-
leu-mung and fiip -f^ t;^ J^j^ P'in-hwa-pau-kien.

M. Bazin has translated copious contracts from the Shui-hu-cliwen and

and Si-siang-ki, the best novel and the best dramatic production of the
Chinese, in his "Siecle des Y'ouen." In the same work lie has given a de-

tailed account of the 100 plays of the Yuen dramatists. In a separate

volume he has translated at length the P'i-pa-ki, or Tale of a gtiitar. The

 APPENDIX II. 271

boniitifiil ami touching story of tlie P*i-pa-ki neodSno arguments to win tin-

.suflfrnge of the rea»U*r in its favour, but it is interesting to know from th.-

original prefatory matter wliieli M. Ba/.in with excellent judgment decided

on translating, the iH)sitioii nliieh tliis work holds in native estimation.

They regard it as the second of its class, but since its rival Si-sian'>--ki is

says M. Bnzin, (Uticient in plot, a foreign judgment will j)crhap8 reverse the

native one.

In the Yuen dynasty, there were more than 200 dramatists, from whose

works the 100 plays above-mentioned are but a selection. Tiie generic name
lor writings of this class is \\S k'iuh (chii)."^' They originated in the Kin
dATiasty, immediately preceding that of the Mongols. Among works that
may be referred to on this subject, is ^\] f|t by y7 SS ^ a native uf
Kwci-ki (Shau-hing) in Cheh-kiang. Pie wrote in the reign Wan-lih of
the Ming period. He states that dramatic productions, called k'iuh wer<i

in the Yuen dynasty divided into two schools, the north and the south. For
the former, he states that the work of Cheu-teh t'sing ^ j^ ^ jj^ is

the standard in regard to pronunciation. For the Nan k'iuh, southern son<j-

dramas, the tlialect of the ^Vu country (Sucheu) is made use of It is thi?

tirst of these schools that belongs to mandarin literature. The Sucheu diama.s
have a different dialect, which may be seen exemplified in my Shanghai gram-
mar. The author here mentioned says, that among celebrated southern airs

(tiau*), are many by natives of Hai-yen, K'wen-shan,t and T'ai-t'sang, all

near Sucheu. In the poetry of the Sung dynasty there was a kind, called

ri^" \^ Slii-ii, which aj)proached the character of the more recent species of
compositions, known as k'iuh, but in those productions the pronunciation
and general rules of versification were still the same as in regular poetry. In
the Kin dynasty (centuries XI and XII) the modern pronunciation iK-gau to

l>e adopted, and this change was completed in the Yuen period.
* y\. Bazii) ha.s fnllowctl Prem dre in omitting the lost word, a very important one, in tlie nanio

uf the collection Td A. H vl\ HU

t The K wen k'iuh. or songs made at Kwen-sban are cni.si(lor>><l to be the b«".i of th*' nnnih«ri)

songs.
272 MANDARIN GRAMMAR.

The songs in these dramas, form tlien a pojiular poetry for nortliern Cliina,

in the old mandarin dialeet of tlie Mongolian dynasty. From the rules for

eonstrncting these songs, given by the .^ame author, I extract the following,

''The rhymes must agree with the arrangement of words according to tlicir

finals in Cheu-teh-t'sing's dictionary. The upper and lower "^ Jj^ p'ing

sh('n'^ are not allowed to rhyme together. Words in/\. ^i'^juh shcng. may
rhyme with those inn" ^M" P'"^o ^heng. Two sentences should not begin

with a character having the same sound. Four consecutive words should
never all have the same tone. Not more than two alliterative words should
-^juh sheng, should not be used

consecutively. Not more than two words whose finals rhyme together, should

1)0 used consecutively. A sentence ending with a word in m, must rhyme

with another sentence, having the same final. M must not rhyme with
H. Two words both ending in m are not allowed to stand together, but a

^ shang sheng,

and two in -^ 'f^ k'ii sheng, come together, the tones should alternate."

These rules of versification are much more simple than those of the regular

poetry of the T'ang and Sung dynasties. A good ear would be to the poet
a sufficient guide. The regular poetry still made by the literati at examina-

tions is the result of learned labour in the tonic dictionary, and rigid adherence

to antiquated rules. This newer poetry is the more direct exjiression in a

modern garb of the finer feelings of the heart, and is suited to be sung, ap-

preciated and enjoyed by the people generally.

Tlu! author of the above-mentioned work, states that tlie^fj^ IxQ 1*^'^^ k'iuli,

are in their dialogue (called Qpeh) adapted to be widely understood, because

of the homogeneousness of the mandarin dialect in the northern provinces.

On the other hand, he says, in the south [Sucheu, etc.], the dialect of each

city has its provincialisms, so that many phrases used in one, would be
unintelligible in another. He lays it down as a rule of composition, that

such expressions oidy should be used as will be understood by persons from

a distance. Yet in many southern dramas the localisms of Sucheu and its

i)eighbo\U'hood are freely employed.

 Al'PKNDIX II. 273

III iiKUulariii litt'iatinv, tlit.Tu may bo distinguished three priuoipul styles.

'I'Ihtc is the style nt" familiar ('(tnversation. n half-literary and halt-ronvorsa-

ti»>nal style, and that ut'tlie songs. The dialogue parts in the drania.s, and
many of the novels are in the free style of conversation ; but only sueh
arrangement and choice of words is admitted as is agreeable to the ear, and

in the case of plays, suited for elianting in the usual native manner. It is

these parts of the mandarin literature, which may be studied witli advantage

by the student of that dialect. The language in some of the older specinn>ns

(o. g. Shui-hu) now

anti<|uated as noticed elsewhere in this work.
is
-f-f- sj?
\4
Specimens are here given of the style of the two works |:j|:j '[^ ^ Api*
^J',^

P'in-hwa-pau-kien and ;j|[l. f^- r^* Ilung-leu-mung, both in the metropo-

litan dialect.

A meeting of scholars.

-fV V\B
—^i
tah ying' 'liau shi', Zte re/>//ef? ?/es; J^ >q '
J\ ^
'^ J ^ '
5ll M-l ^ chih kien' yih .jcnyeu^na'liauyih'chan ,tong

(••huh .lai. they then saiv n man bring out another lanthorn) 71 y 7L jh
IH il ^1^
j^il T/c J jtsiang ,sien kwa' till na' 'chan ,teng hwan* 'liati.

lie took the lanthorn that teas ham/ing there hi fore, and exchanged it for thin

oxc; ^i M ri M 0J 7l2 7' — A

}ii li' 5l$ l^i"- r'inK .mo„
hell' .t'eii 'tsen 'liaii c'hiih yih ko' .jen .lai, they further saw some one come
out from behind a screen door; 7Q
";p 211 ^ ZL iiil |" /T^ J^ Tsi
11* kien* ,t'a 'yen .san shih .lai sui', Tsi-ii notirrd that he was past thirty

years old; ^ 1^ /j'-l ]vi f^ M th ^ Iji) ,8heng teh .niei ,t*8ing

muh sieii' k'i' 't'i ,kau .liwa, as to. his ajtpeamnce, he had a clear fo'ehcod.

beautiful eyes, and handsome featttrcs; yj( ^If -^

f /|(i \')l 4^ ]yX
.c'hweii \o\\ yih ,shon 'ya tan' ,i full, he wore an elegant and jtlain dress:

I'bl I'bl /J^ /ftt n^ S 5|i -^'i' " -^'i'" 'y^^ 'y^ ^'l' 1^^^'"' l*^- ff'^'rely and
rlrgnvtly hr rrnnrforioard; Mi X J^ |'|' j'i'j Hi 1llJ Zl A ^f
1^ _tl H'J ^ kion* .Wen t.seh Chung' .t'sing .Wang .siiin ,san .jen yih

t'si .ying shang* .t'sien .lai, to see Wcn-fsrh. Chnng-t^fing and lV<nig-siii/i.

who together advanced to meet him ; ^\*f-

^'' \^ ^ ^f JL /L !3L
274 MANDArax grammar.

jC'heiig ,1m ,t/a .^vei Tsinp:' .1 ,sic'n .slieng, tltcy addressed him as Jlr. Tsiutj-
i; MAM HA T !/iL ifl "<^' -J^'Ji '^^ ,^'^^^ •.)'" ^ien' 'Vnm li. (his

fjfenileman and the three friends havinr/ miitualhj paid, their compUinents
X fp]
?' 31 11^ r It'll ]\!\ yc^ir liiaiig-' 'Tsi u^ ts.-h liau ko' yili. _/.(<

approached Tsi-ii ivith hands joined respectfully ; "Jr Jl :iHl t|_* ^" )|iy

'Tsi ir' .lien .mang .hwan 'li. Ts'i-il instantly returned the compliment : ^
m gp m ajk mmmm. i4':t m; )^i ^ .wo„ uewtsn,
tui' 'Siau t'si- .liien shwoh tau', clie' wei^ sin' .Mei .ii jhiang, Wen-tseh then

said to Siau-t'si-hien, this rjentleman is Mei-ii-hian'j \

/^ g -^ ^jl:
^
rrr sin' ,tang .kin .avu ..shwaiig slii', //c /.s (d (he j)resent time a scholar with-

out a rival; fjf- S /L ^ J^ ^ f)" l]S, fi^cTsiiin- .i ,si(Mi .sluMig .,„ei

'yen liwcr' kwo' 'nia, have

^g
you not yet met him^y\^ ^^ -j^ P pgj^ ^-fj

j^
.^-
j^
.fe?/ ^
- HH^- :dt^
^¥^ T*si' .liien tan' ,kin jTh shili ,king sliili .wci wair liiiig', jf-sii-

/i/e« (Mr. Tsing-i) said, to-day I have become acquainted (,king following
ali'ih, metxwH your apjjearance, you ; it in an elegant ])hrase used in letter

writing) ; truly it is my extreme good fortune ; f$ ^p3 |3 /\ ^ pS

pien' 't'sing si' .jen tsin' nei^, he then invited the four men inside ; "J^ JE
-aS 4" UJ/i "j^ M ^ % T^ ^^ 'Tsi ir tan' .kin 'wan pien' fuh wei^

'mien i)uh jkung, Tsi-il said, this evening toe are not infdl dress, it icouhl

necessarily be disrespectfid ; -^ y:j P ^' ^X 1=^ pr/ ti^ -y^^ug l'"g"

jih jcliwcn .c'heng tsin' holi pa^, let tis another day loith all res2')ect call a-

f/«m (tsin lioli, an elegant expression for calling on any one) ; y^ ^i -^^

M)H^^^'^A^^:t T'si' .hien siau' tail' .U ,hiang ,sien

jBheng jtang ,kin .ming shi', T'st-hien said, you sir, a celebrated scholar of

thep)rescnt time; A^ lM> ^M Jr .S lib P"^^ .V^^p' '^^ '^^ ^^^^ '^^^h ought

not for a trifling reason to come here; v/L 3.1 A. {IL -T^ pE ^C.hwang
'chu .jen 'ye puli tsai' ,\i\ix, further the master of the house is not at home;
"JJC "^ h)\* lJ* ^f<. P'^ ^^^'<^ pt^i' .liau'i tsii' .fan, ?e^ws7Meaw?f7A<7cco;H'ersc

together; ^ ^J J^ J^^ )jlf| fp t'.sieh wuh ,kii 'i 'li tsieh, do not on any
account stand on ceremony ;
"j^ ^ pN 1=^ ISj ^^^ *?* "t*
'Tsi ii' chill teli .t'ling clioh 'tseu c'liuh .t'ing 'tsi; 2'sc-il could but go out
with him from the arbour.
 Ari'KNDIX II. •27j

Tlic l"(illo\vin<' is from the lluiii'-ku-imiiiLC.

Di'rcim a/' Pan- it a/frr the ricnfh <>/ f/ir ohji-rt of his attadimcnl. ^ 3»-

lis J f'^ ^jv //^ ^I=r ^v! :?C I'dii-u on hinn'u'j if, auild not restrain
himself, but wei>t aloud ; fflj (\[ j^C ±^^ [1!^ if f^ M A, M,r,.
hinhseff on the bed, when suddenly before his eyes all became 2)iteh-dark:
})\\ y\\ \1a V PTI lie could not disfim/uish the direction vf aniithinn:

A^ I Jr. H 1 ^L T-L:.' I' !•'< lit iiid was alirrtd by restless thouf/hfs; JR
>iL Hk H'J ^J" f'i^ ^J.<^ $^ ^"' •"'"*
^"f"^'^ ^""^ '^'''^'^ appeared tn

be a uion aj>f>r<>achii}<f ; pi 3i ;^Y': M IriJ ;lll J\iu-u hurriedly asWil

him; jujiil llti S rll ;^ / bey to ask what jdacc this is? ?]|> A ;ttj

lib P^'; PJ :/JC ItU /^'<- »««« replied, this is the way fo the (nine) fountains,
where resides the rider of Hades
;er>H ot' life is not completed, tohy
; (3> J^t

hove
:''|^-
^ j"J i^il ^. J-ti .v^wr

f/ou come here '^

^^ ~\i -iTl ^^
^- AG
jifj

It^l ^/E m fi s;^/ lij ilh T!Ei i'»«-. >.-

j)lied, I have heard that when any one has died, this is the jdace to seek for

him, but I have missed my ivay; ji\i y\ ^ t^ \ y^ n(fi//' e w«;4

ask d, who is the departed one i %^ Ji '>£! '(/i \\\\: fj^ ^ ^; / au-u
anstcered Lin-tai-u of Sncheu ; /Jji /V ^ fj ^s^- i^ ^'.\\. ^^ -jt |3£ xj\
|pj /V •''t T^ M'J 7^ flte man laurjhed sardonically and said, Lin-tai-a
and yourself could not be united as men, nor can you as a yhosts ;
|!|t vj^

fflv li/k r'J P/:h ^t^ iVJ ^'(^>'

P(-'^'<^*^'ptive and material souls are gone, how
then can youjind her/ (\\^ p'th, a kind of soul supposed to be possessed by

vegetables as icell as all animals; 5'k li^vcn. hsduI possessed by all animals:
its ofHeo is said to be chi kioh. perception.) J'L A ^y^ \\% M$ W ^A
V, }^4 ffi S) € ^L Ml) M5 >t ^ i!^ \A Sf5 mc .o./. ,/ ...
\chen thy collect, form the body; when they scjuirate tht y become vapour;
in life they collect; at death they are dispersed; }^ /\^ [uj ^- '^'J ^jl

^7 '^'^'i regard to men universally, there are no means of Jinding them:

l"J <
'L \'\^ ^ 111 ^v6 how much more an individual, Lin-tai-ii'/ {\ 'fill

i'k 1^1
^^
ii w^: you had better go quickly back; H i! JMS T 7\^ T
li|nj Pan-u on hearing this became lost in thought for a short time;

mU7:ft^ U dL X tl M turn U f^J "lliAe Me,,

 '

27G MANDARIN GRAMMAR.

saiilj since yov. ttU me that the dead disperse info vajiour, how /v it thnf

acre is <^.ul.r of Hades

niaji
mA i^ #*
smiling answerfd, as to the rxder of
M M ^ B^ ^ fl ^"
1''^

hell, you
nit ffi 'if'L ffi '^'C if

say he exists, then he does exist; if you say there is none, then there is none :

it "M ili \i\ V^ ^ & ?B ^2. 'vy^ all this arisjsfrom groundless

notions current in the ivorld respecting life and death ; fjx. ^ VX 'r^T ilL
they are stories invented to terj-ify manlcind; iSJJ ii§. _£l 7C ):^C. Sy i'cL*'

/^ ^1^ ^\ TJ" yy 3(f ^j //(' further remarked, high heaven is very

angry at those foolish peojile, who do not perform their duties; ^x ^^ l^\^ii

^ ^^ p| 'fT yC ?'! '" '^'^"5 heforc their term of life is comjyhted, jnit

«7i end to themselves; ^X l'i| J3E JOi^ fP] ^nl ^ \l1\ or ivho are guilty of

fornication, and 'proneness to anger and violence; if ^ nX. J^L ^lli vA jA|

^> ^^ H/k c>" purpose to imprison the sonJs of such is this prison of hell
f'j)pointcd; ^^ ^^ ^^ (J^ "qT ^/i«f they may receive unlimited sufftring:

V)ATi^^- H'J i^^ ^ in retribution for the sins of their life; 1(P ^
^^ Ili /H ^ 5^ H 1^^ you seek Tai-it who has without reason piut

an end to herself; ]^ £_^ g^ y\^ J^ />J jj^ she has already returned
into vacant space, into the regions of oblivion ;
3^PI ::g* ^ -^ j[^ af]
ifyouivishto seek for her; Iff vf^* 'fil ^ § M % Hf M M
<nid will earnestly cultivate virtue, you will be s^ure some day to see her;

t^'^^ S^i]^ \D. Q It ^i^f Z^ # if unwilling to live, yon

.shorten your days by your own act |Aj ^\ jj^ ; nj yj\-^ jX. ^^ /I' vK
[i^ ^^ ^S Ji. ^^ 1\ fOli :^^ you will be Icept a prisoner njider the
rider of hell; excrjtfing her father and mother, whoever icishes to see her,

if cannot be; ^J P A ^^ ^ ft ^ IJJ Ui 5 the man 7chcn he

had finished what he had to say, took a stone from his sleeve ;
|nj ^l ^H
^fr H J5I' 7^ "^^'l ^^'^'<'^<^ ^f «^ Pau-u's breast: ^ IE. sS J "© 5p"

Xmm '6 f n m a- ?-r, m % sp m m fi P"«-u <•/.

ter hearing these words, and being sfrucJc on the heart by the stone, felt al-

armed and wished to return homt; J^' '\'lc ^3S J '^ l^M ^'^ only regret-

fr-d that he had jnissed the path ; IE 4 Iti It^ ^ M Ifcj ]£; ^' A
^X 1ui if^'hile he teas hesitating, he suddenly heard some one on one side
 .m-1'i:m»i\ II. o
-/ /

.„//,•,,.,/„„,; iiii
m i^ m 7x 'A >;i] a jf. ^ ii-- u ^n t^
T li J - ^ u'Jmi III tuiuid his hroil nniiii/ (i, InnJ:, it icu.s nom uthvr than
hix uiittlur and othvrs of tin'fuiiillij; \\\'\ ^^/^ ^ \ >i \\\ ^ wlio stoo,f

rotiiid him wvvpitnj iuul vaUiiiij ; pj (_', "(/) fe 5l'''l xE }\l .h /"' «'«%•

f!hHSv//.s(ilfrccIinin.jont/uln./: '4 ^^ j; jjU .^n ^g flj/ ij^l- )J

//( .sv/zr ii/i tin tithlf a ml ffiiif/mr/i, und Inforc the tvindatv the white muon :

ik ^ ^ M^V % Ji'il ii'^^ilL..^ OS h,/ur.-Jh,r. mu. a channin.,

—
ficwof-a >/rnvc in all its hcuntij; /i^ ifllj-I
'

'
^^^ ljy\
J^J J^ ^— '
JQ
7\, ^' (ipj>li/iii</ his viind to think, he sow that it was in real if ij onJij <i

very notewarthtf dntnn.

Ill tlu'se si>ec'iiiK'iis tluTc lire boiiu' i)ljni.sos wliieli ;uc nut jtuivlv conversa-

tional. It is indeed ditKeuU to select })assuges, which are entirely free fVoi,i

expressions of the kind called iven-/i. There is however much ni«»re of this
higher colloquial in the Sau-kwoh-chi and similar works, which constitute the

fcecoud hranch of mandarin literature.

The work Hi t^l" lU ^< -i" intro-luction to the Peking dialect, hy .i

native of Canton should be nieutioued here. A jiart of it has been translated

by the late R. Thorn, Esq. in his Chinese speaker. The dialogues are <'-ood.

but the pronunciation of the metropolis was not ])ro]terly understood by th^

author, nor by his translator. The vocabulary, which has not been translated,

contains useful lists of common words, but the author's attempt to teach th'-

orthoepy of Peking is disfigured by such defects as are natural to a southerner,

when aiming to describe the dialect of northern China.

An examj)le or two will be given here of the style of jtopular son"-s or

[Bp ~J" k'iiih tsT, which are often j)urelv colloquial or nearly so.

T>
't.^a
W US $JJ
'tsu ,tsung ,t'sien.
-'IJ "H in M'Mv»h 'Muns.c-lmu'.l-inijnu',.,!,,,,^-

-f

J"*^" •»» '»»«

i};k I I /L A* tLl 'MJ }ill\
'">:^i» jtsau .hing hien'.

M L L_a [i \\i< W: hJ y'ls ^^^ng' d'^ jpft >" 'yen .wu ;veu kien'.

:^i ''ill "iij JUL iM fib %^ W, ^'"1' t'i A'\ hiueh lei'- .k'ung .ju sien-.

Little thoufjht I that the court would he angry, and remove the yrave «/
viy ancestors; and that all my family, loth sons and duuyhters icould vurt
278 MAXDAHIN GIIAMMAI?.

with 2^umshnicni o^ivlalhj awarded. Looking carmsthj, I have cjjes hut

cannot see. T weep, and hhodt/ tears faU Ukc sleet, till their source is dry.

^G M 7L ^C
n-i' Blil 1
1*X ye' slmi- ,tsiang .laii .c'Ik'H ,kwiin^' ii sail'.

G i% Wt i§ f ^ ^' i J" i^4'- 'V^ jChu .lien 'kiueu ,i pir ,tan .c'l.i.

m^
^^
Mt
m 4& ^ Vi
?^'J
/r> ;^?i
ijli ,-^ li^"' •^'»'^' 5^^'" 'i^'o "o'"^'-

2'he colour of night is passing away ; the light of morning is sj)reoding.

I will draiv aside the bamboo curtains, and icnJh out on the red jtavemcnt.

I win put this table in its place. (P-i p^a ki) {^ ^l,
—i ' fl|t ) jt ©
S 'wL i£ >iV mi n* Jnlifii n yih k-ir .^^•ll ,siau .si .slnvang ,t-sin 'lau

king .nan .t'sun tsi".

Our boy since he left its, we have heard nufhing of. 11 c hi.s(w<> parents,

in our old agcjind it hard to siistain life. (V''\ i»'a ki)

In these conii»o.sitions the nuniher ( »f syUahles in each line. i.s detcrniincd

l)y the requirements of the music to which they are sung. In the histexam-

/^f juh .'iheng, rhyming with another

in one t»f tlie lon;rer tones. This is in conformity witli the regulations ahvadv

referred to. It conld nut occur in regular poetry.

APPENDIX III.

On Southern Mandarin.

The dialect of the J^ ^nan k'iuh, or southern songs-and dramas is that

of Sucheu or the neishbouriuo: citv K'wen-shan. This is not liowever the

southern mandarin. It is the dialect of Nanking that more properly receives

this title. When it is said by some native writers, that the northern pro-

nunciation is in use at Nanking, it is meant that the dialect of that city has

an equal claim with that of the northern i)rovinces to the title of mandarin.

The five-tone mandarin of Nanking extends north-west and south-west of

that city with more (U- less i)urity, to Ngank'ing and Fung yaugfu with othei
cities in the j)rovince of Ngauhwei. The Yangcheu dialect has five tones like

that of Nanking, hut the initial consonants are many of them less pure. In
 Arn:Mii\ m. 27[>

the soutliein inaiulaiiu a common auxiliiirv vi'ib f'or^ give is-j[__^ 'jia lur f jj
kill (kfi). F«»r ytw, it is so, ^""cho is common, as occasionally in the iiortli.

This is the same w«>nl as ti<>h in the Changcheu dialect in Fnhkicn, hut
ditferently pronounced. Many men from Kiangnan reside in Peking, especially
of the class of scholars. They retain many peculiarities of the soul!. mi

j>rununciation, even after the lapse of three or four generations. In such

cases the tones of Peking are sometimes used in conjunction with tin- initials

»nd finals of Nanking.

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GENERAL LIBRARY U.C. BERKELEY

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