By the end of the 12th century, English poetry had been so heavily

Middle English Literature influenced by French models that such a work as the long epic Brut
(c. 1200) by Lawamon, a Worcestershire priest, seems archaic for
mixing alliterative lines with rhyming couplets while generally
Kinds of Literature in The Early Middle English Period : eschewing French vocabulary. The Brut draws mainly upon Wace’s
Anglo-Norman Roman de Brut (1155; based in turn upon Geoffrey
Poetry of Monmouth’s Historia regum Britanniae [History of the Kings of
Britain]), but in Lawamon’s hands the Arthurian story takes on a
The Norman Conquest worked no immediate transformation on
Germanic and heroic flavour largely missing in Wace. The Brut
either the language or the literature of the English. Older poetry
exists in two manuscripts, one written shortly after 1200 and the
continued to be copied during the last half of the 11th century; two
other some 50 years later. That the later version has been extensively
poems of the early 12th century—“Durham,” which praises that
modernized and somewhat abridged suggests the speed with which
city’s cathedral and its relics, and “Instructions for Christians,” a
English language and literary tastes were changing in this period.
didactic piece—show that correct alliterative verse could be
The Proverbs of Alfred was written somewhat earlier, in the late
composed well after 1066. But even before the conquest, rhyme had
12th century; these proverbs deliver conventional wisdom in a
begun to supplant rather than supplement alliteration in some poems,
mixture of rhymed couplets and alliterative lines, and it is hardly
which continued to use the older four-stress line, although their
likely that any of the material they contain actually originated with
rhythms varied from the set types used in classical Old English
the king whose wisdom they celebrate. The early 13th-century
verse. A postconquest example is “The Grave,” which contains
Bestiary mixes alliterative lines, three- and four-stress couplets, and
several rhyming lines; a poem from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle on
septenary (heptameter) lines, but the logic behind this mix is more
the death of William the Conqueror, lamenting his cruelty and greed,
obvious than in the Brut and the Proverbs, for the poet was imitating
has more rhyme than alliteration.
the varied metres of his Latin source. More regular in form than
these poems is the anonymous Poema morale in septenary couplets,
in which an old man delivers a dose of moral advice to his
presumably younger audience.
Influence of French poetry
 Joseph, and the vast Cursor mundi, whose subject, as its title
suggests, is the history of the world. An especially popular work was
the South English Legendary, which began as a miscellaneous
By far the most brilliant poem of this period is The Owl and the collection of saints’ lives but was expanded by later redactors and
Nightingale (written after 1189), an example of the popular debate rearranged in the order of the church calendar. The didactic tradition
genre. The two birds argue topics ranging from their hygienic habits, continued into the 14th century with Robert Mannyng’s Handling
looks, and songs to marriage, prognostication, and the proper modes Sin, a confessional manual whose expected dryness is relieved by
of worship. The nightingale stands for the joyous aspects of life, the the insertion of lively narratives, and the Prick of Conscience, a
owl for the sombre; there is no clear winner, but the debate ends as popular summary of theology sometimes attributed to the mystic
the birds go off to state their cases to one Nicholas of Guildford, a Richard Rolle.
wise man. The poem is learned in the clerical tradition but wears its
learning lightly as the disputants speak in colloquial and sometimes
earthy language. Like the Poema morale, The Owl and the Verse romance
Nightingale is metrically regular (octosyllabic couplets), but it uses
the French metre with an assurance unusual in so early a poem. The earliest examples of verse romance, a genre that would remain
popular through the Middle Ages, appeared in the 13th century. King
Horn and Floris and Blauncheflour both are preserved in a
manuscript of about 1250. King Horn, oddly written in short two-
Didactic poetry and three-stress lines, is a vigorous tale of a kingdom lost and
The 13th century saw a rise in the popularity of long didactic poems regained, with a subplot concerning Horn’s love for Princess
presenting biblical narrative, saints’ lives, or moral instruction for Rymenhild. Floris and Blauncheflour is more exotic, being the tale
those untutored in Latin or French. The most idiosyncratic of these of a pair of royal lovers who become separated and, after various
is the Ormulum by Orm, an Augustinian canon in the north of adventures in eastern lands, reunited. Not much later than these is
England. Written in some 20,000 lines arranged in unrhymed but The Lay of Havelok the Dane, a tale of princely love and adventure
metrically rigid couplets, the work is interesting mainly in that the similar to King Horn but more competently executed. Many more
manuscript that preserves it is Orm’s autograph and shows his such romances were produced in the 14th century. Popular
somewhat fussy efforts to reform and regularize English spelling. subgenres were “the matter of Britain” (Arthurian romances such as
Other biblical paraphrases are Genesis and Exodus, Jacob and Of Arthour and of Merlin and Ywain and Gawain), “the matter of
Troy” (tales of antiquity such as The Siege of Troy and King century, “Mirie it is while sumer ilast” and “Sumer is icumen in,”
Alisaunder), and the English Breton lays (stories of otherworldly are preserved with musical settings, and probably most of the others
magic, such as Lai le Freine and Sir Orfeo, modeled after those of were meant to be sung. The dominant mood of the religious lyrics is
professional Breton storytellers). These relatively unsophisticated passionate: the poets sorrow for Christ on the cross and for the
works were written for a bourgeois audience, and the manuscripts Virgin Mary, celebrate the “five joys” of Mary, and import language
that preserve them are early examples of commercial book from love poetry to express religious devotion. Excellent early
production. The humorous beast epic makes its first appearance in examples are “Nou goth sonne under wod” and “Stond wel, moder,
Britain in the 13th century with The Fox and the Wolf, taken ounder rode.” Many of the lyrics are preserved in manuscript
indirectly from the Old French Roman de Renart. In the same anthologies, of which the best is British Library manuscript Harley
manuscript with this work is Dame Sirith, the earliest English 2253 from the early 14th century. In this collection, known as the
fabliau. Another sort of humour is found in The Land of Cockaygne, Harley Lyrics, the love poems, such as “Alysoun” and “Blow,
which depicts a utopia better than heaven, where rivers run with Northern Wind,” take after the poems of the Provençal troubadours
milk, honey, and wine, geese fly about already roasted, and monks but are less formal, less abstract, and more lively. The religious
hunt with hawks and dance with nuns. lyrics also are of high quality; but the most remarkable of the Harley
Lyrics, “The Man in the Moon,” far from being about love or
religion, imagines the man in the Moon as a simple peasant,
The lyric sympathizes with his hard life, and offers him some useful advice on
how to best the village hayward (a local officer in charge of a town’s
The lyric was virtually unknown to Old English poets. Poems such common herd of cattle).
as “Deor” and “Wulf and Eadwacer,” which have been called lyrics,
are thematically different from those that began to circulate orally in
the 12th century and to be written down in great numbers in the A poem such as “The Man in the Moon” serves as a reminder that,
13th; these Old English poems also have a stronger narrative although the poetry of the early Middle English period was
component than the later productions. The most frequent topics in increasingly influenced by the Anglo-Norman literature produced
the Middle English secular lyric are springtime and romantic love; for the courts, it is seldom “courtly.” Most English poets, whether
many rework such themes tediously, but some, such as “Foweles in writing about kings or peasants, looked at life from a bourgeois
the frith” (13th century) and “Ich am of Irlaunde” (14th century), perspective. If their work sometimes lacks sophistication, it
convey strong emotions in a few lines. Two lyrics of the early 13th
nevertheless has a vitality that comes from preoccupation with daily the Katherine Group were written. St. Katherine, St. Margaret, and
affairs. St. Juliana, found together in a single manuscript, have rhythms
strongly reminiscent of those of Aelfric and Wulfstan. So to a lesser
Prose extent do Hali Meithhad (“Holy Maidenhood”) and Sawles Warde
Old English prose texts were copied for more than a century after (“The Guardianship of the Soul”) from the same book, but newer
the Norman Conquest; the homilies of Aelfric were especially influences can be seen in these works as well: as the title of another
popular, and King Alfred’s translations of Boethius and Augustine devotional piece, The Wohunge of Ure Lauerd (“The Wooing of Our
survive only in 12th-century manuscripts. In the early 13th century Lord”), suggests, the prose of this time often has a rapturous, even
an anonymous worker at Worcester supplied glosses to certain words sensual flavour, and, like the poetry, it frequently employs the
in a number of Old English manuscripts, which demonstrates that by language of love to express religious fervour.
this time the older language was beginning to pose difficulties for Further removed from the Old English prose tradition, though often
readers. associated with the Katherine Group, is the Ancrene Wisse (“Guide
The composition of English prose also continued without for Anchoresses,” also known as the Ancrene Riwle, or “Rule for
interruption. Two manuscripts of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle exhibit Anchoresses”), a manual for the guidance of women recluses outside
very strong prose for years after the conquest, and one of these, the the regular orders. This anonymous work, which was translated into
Peterborough Chronicle, continues to 1154. Two manuscripts of French and Latin and remained popular until the 16th century, is
about 1200 contain 12th-century sermons, and another has the notable for its humanity, practicality, and insight into human nature
workmanlike compilation Vices and Virtues, composed about 1200. but even more for its brilliant style. Like the other prose of its time,
But the English language faced stiff competition from both Anglo- it uses alliteration as ornament, but it is more indebted to new
Norman (the insular dialect of French being used increasingly in the fashions in preaching, which had originated in the universities, than
monasteries) and Latin, a language intelligible to speakers of both to native traditions. With its richly figurative language, rhetorically
English and French. It was inevitable, then, that the production of crafted sentences, and carefully logical divisions and subdivisions, it
English prose should decline in quantity, if not in quality. The great manages to achieve in English the effects that such contemporary
prose works of this period were composed mainly for those who writers as John of Salisbury and Walter Map were striving for in
could read only English—women especially. In the West Midlands Latin.
the Old English alliterative prose tradition remained very much alive
into the 13th century, when the several texts known collectively as
Little noteworthy prose was written in the late 13th century. In the anchorite, anchoress ‘reclusive monk or nun’), Cursor Mundi (a
early 14th century Dan Michel of Northgate produced in Kentish the history of the world), see Laʒamon and Trevisa below for other
Ayenbite of Inwit (“Prick of Conscience”), a translation from examples of this genre.
French. But the best prose of this time is by the mystic Richard
Rolle, the hermit of Hampole, whose English tracts include The
Commandment, Meditations on the Passion, and The Form of 1. Roger Bacon (1214-1294) English philosopher and scientist.
Perfect Living, among others. His intense and stylized prose was Bacon is one of the most prominent figures in 13th century
among the most popular of the 14th century and inspired such later scholastic philosophy. He was born in Somerset and
works as Walter Hilton’s Scale of Perfection, Julian of Norwich’s educated at Oxford and Paris. On his return from Paris he
Sixteen Revelations of Divine Love, and the anonymous Cloud of became a Franciscan and carried out much experimental
Unknowing. research in natural science and in his Opus majus ‘Major
Writers from the Middle English period work’ he expounded on all branches of knowledge accessible
at the time including grammar and logic along with
Anonymous Many of the works of literature from the Middle mathematics and moral philosophy.
English period are anonymous and obviously the authors are not 2. William Caxton (c.1422-1491) [Early Modern Period] A
listed here. There are anthologies of Middle English literature (see merchant and later a writer who set up the first printing press
below) in which the works in question – or extracts of these – are to in England in 1476. A few years earlier Caxton had visited
be found, e.g The Owl and the Nightingale, The Fox and the Wolf Cologne where he acquired his knowledge in the technique
(both poems in the popular ‘debate’ genre, from the late 12th century of printing and returned to England via Belgium to apply this
and early 13th century respectively), The Bestiary (a set of animnal new art. He established his base at Westminster and during
descriptions in verse which survives in an East Midland manuscript) his career as publisher produced more than 90 editions of
and the Poema Morale (an early Middle English work). Verse well-known and lesser known authors. Among the former are
romances are also found in the Middle English period, e.g. King Chaucer (Canterbury tales), Gower (Confessio amantis),
Horn (mid 13th century) and The Lay of Havelock the Dane (late Malory (Morte d’Arthur). Caxton himself prepared some
13th century), both tales of adventure with sub-plots concerning translations of works in Latin and French. He is also famous
love. Other works one might mention are The South English for the prefaces which he wrote to his editions and which are
Legendary (a collection of saints lives and events in verse form), the revealing documents of literary attitudes in late 15th century
Acrene Wisse (a guide for closed-order nuns, cf. modern English England.
3. Geoffrey Chaucer (c.1340-1400) [literary writing] The took place with the introduction of printing in the 15th
major poet of England in the late Middle Ages and the most century.
significant writer before Shakespeare. Born and educated in 4. Miles Coverdale (c. 1488-1569) [religious writing] One of
London, Chaucer served in the court and the army and went the main translators of the Bible in the 16th century. He was
abroad on diplomatic missions. His oeuvre can be divided born in Yorkshire and studied in Cambridge and became
into three periods, an early one based on French models, bishop of Exeter in his latter years. For much of his life he
such as the Roman de la rose, and which contains the lived and worked in Germany, producing the first complete
allegorical Book of the duchess (1369). The second period Bible to be printed in English (1535) and worked with others
lasted to about 1387 and is characterised by his use of Italian on the Great Bible of 1539.
models above all Dante and Boccaccio. The main works of 5. Robert Gloucester (13th century) The author of a chronicle
this period are The house of fame, which concerns the which can be dated to about 1300 and was written in the
adventures of Aeneas after the fall of Troy, The parliament of southern dialect. The chronicle consists of about 12,000
fowls, a story about the mating of birds on St. Valentine’s rhyming couplets and is noted for comments on the political
Day, The legend of good women (an unfinished work on and linguistic state of England at the time, with special
classical heroines and Troilus and Criseyde, for which he refernece to the behaviour of the Normans in the country.
6. John Gower (c. 1330-1408) An English poet of courtly love
drew on Boccaccio.The third period is that of greatest
who is remembered as the author of the Confessio Amantis, a
maturity and contains his masterpiece, The Canterbury tales,
collection of exemplary tales (from both classical and
an unfinished work of approximately 17,000 lines. It tells the
medieval sources) about courtly and Christian love. To judge
story of a group of pilgrims travelling to their patron saint
by the language of this work, Gower was from Kent.
and who pass the time of day by telling each other stories. A
7. Margery Kempe (c. 1373- c.1439) An East Anglian women
number of literary genres are represented such as the light-
who is known to posterity from The Boke of Margery
hearted fabliau or the more serious homily. Chaucer also
Kempe. This is a text dictated by Kempe which recounts her
offers much insight into medieval social attitudes to love,
religious experiences, including visions and pilgrimages.
marriage and religion. The linguistic importance of Chaucer
Kempe had withdrawn from society and married life to
is that he established the dialect of London (south-east
became a religious recluse and dictated this work –
midlands) as the input form for the standard in the late
essentially her autobiography, the first in the English
Middle English period. Later modifications of this language
language – towards the end of her life, probably in the 1420s.
She knew Julian of Norwich and had travelled to meet her.
8. Laʒamon A late 12th century author from Worcestershire Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table (based on
who is known as the author of the Brut, a history of Britain previous French romances), a topic which had captured the
from the earliest times to his day. It contains information on imagination of many writers then and since. The work was
early kings such as King Arthur and King Lear. The language printed by William Caxton in 1485.
is that of the West Midlands and the poem is written in 11. Sir John Mandeville (mid 14th century) The Travels of Sir
alliterative verse. John Mandeville was an immensely popular book of the 14th
9. William Langland, The supposed 14th century author of century which has survived in a couple of hundred
Piers Plowman, an allegorical poem on a variety of religious manuscripts. The name ‘Sir John Mandeville’ was probably
themes written in simple language which could be adopted by a doctor form Liège called Jehan de Bourgogne
understood by the laiety at its time. The poem can the figure who would have written in French. Hence the English
of the Dreamer who Langland is sometimes regarded as a version is a translation though it is not known who prepared
veiled portrait of Langland himself. The identification of it. The travels described in the book are entirely fictitious
William Langland as author rests on a reference to him in a though they may be based on genuine travel descriptions by
manuscript of the poem held in the library of Trinity College other writers.
Dublin. Langland was probably from the West Midlands and 12. Robert Manning (c. 1298-1338) An English poet who is
the language of the poem reflects West Midland usage in the remembered for his didactic work Handling Sin, itself an
Middle English period. Traditionally three versions – A, B adaptation of a French-language original Manuel des péchés
and C – are assumed and version B is often used as a by William of Wadington.
reference version. 13. Julian Norwich of (c. 1342- c. 1416) An English mystic of
10. Sir Thomas Mallory (c. 1405-1471) The author or at least the 14th century. A near-death illness at the age of 30 led to a
compiler of Le Morte d”Arthur. Little definitive information series of visions which formed the basis for The Sixteen
is known about him, though he was twice voted into Revelations of Divine Love or simply The Revelations of
Parliament and apparently was involved in criminal Divine Love, a devotional work which she wrote some 20
behaviour during his life, something for which he was years later. The language is that of the East Midlands. Julian
imprisoned a number of times; he is also known to have been (whose name is of uncertain origin) was the first woman in
explicitly excluded from a number of pardons by Edward IV. England to have a book published.
Mallory wrote the Morte at the end of his life. Le Morte 14. William Occam of (c.1285-1349) English philosopher and
d’Arthur is an account in prose of legendary Celtic King scholasticist. He was original in his teachings and writings
and represented a new turn in medieval philosophy. Occam
 was an adherent of nominalism — as opposed to realism, translation was simple and direct and this won his work
supported by Thomas Aquinas — which maintained that much popularity.
universals do not exist in nature but only in the mind and in 18. John Wycliffe (?-1384) Wycliffe is known as an early
language. The term Occam's Razor, which states that one reformer in the Catholic church, one of the pre-Reformation
should not assume more than is absolutely necessary, derives figures who foreshadowed the reforms instigated by Luther
from him. Occam denied the use of reason in matters of faith in the early 16th century. Between 1380 and 1384 Wycliffe,
and was a precursor of later philosophers who separated together with his followers, was responsible for producing a
theology from philosophy. translation of the Bible (deriving from the Latin version of
15. Orrm An English writer who flourished around 1200 and St.Jerome). Wycliffe’s style is close to the original and the
who wrote a religious work, known after him as the version contains a large number of Latin loans.
Orrmulum. This is of interest to linguists as it shows the use
of double consonants to indicate short vowels, a practice
which was an innovation at the time.
16. John Trevisa of (c. 1350 1402) A writer from Cornwall
known for his translation of the Polychronicon by Ranulf
Higden – a history of the world – from the Latin original. He
also translated De Proprietatibus Rerum an encylopedia of
science by Bartholomew de Glanville. Both translations were
widely known in the 15th century and were later printed.
17. William Tyndale (c.1492-1536) English scholar and
clergyman, an early translator of the Bible into English.
Tyndale was born in Gloucestershire and studied in Oxford.
He was one of the early converts to Protestantism, moving
from London to Worms, Germany where his translation of
the New Testament was printed (1524-5). While in Antwerp
he was betrayed to Catholic officials and was subsequently
put to death. In keeping with his attitudes, his style of