Description

Advertising is one of the most prominent, powerful, and ubiquitous contemporary uses of
language. Its seductive and controversial quality has attracted consistent and intense attention
across a range of academic disciplines including linguistics, media studies, politics, semiotics,
and sociology.

The reasons for this academic interest are far from superficial. The study of advertising brings
together many of the key social and political issues of our time: the new capitalism;
globalization; overconsumption and the environment; cultural and individual identities; and
the communications revolution. It provides insight into the ideologies and values of
contemporary societies.

Advertising’s creative use of language makes it a particularly rich site for language and
discourse analysis. Operating in all media and exploiting the interaction between word, sound,
and image, it provides a key location for studies of multimodal communication. Simultaneously
poetic and commercial, it raises questions about the nature of creativity and art.

Ever since the intensification of advertising in the 1950s, leading scholars have analysed its use
of language. This new four-volume Routledge Major Work brings together for the first time the
most seminal and controversial works, allowing users to obtain a wide and inclusive view of
this rewarding topic. It will be welcomed by scholars and other researchers in the field as an
invaluable ‘mini library’ on the language of advertising.

http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/7194/volumes/v18/NA-18

https://www.communicationtheory.org/language-expectancy-theory/

DEFINITION PERSUASION THEORY. DESCRIPTION.

Persuasion Theory is a mass communication theory that deals with messages aimed
at subtly changing the attitudes of receivers.

The concept of Persuasion has been developed between the 1940s and 1950s after
studies aimed at defining the optimal persuasive effectiveness of Propaganda, being it
political or an advertising campaign. Like the Hypodermic Needle Theory, it considered
audiences passive although the scope of a campaign switched from manipulation into
persuasion. Researches on Limited Effects of mass communication demonstrated that
messages are successful only if they embed the same opinions of their receivers.
Therefore, the focus of any campaign has to be on individual psychological factors.
Unlike the Hypodermic Needle Theory, Persuasion Theory considers the Stimulus-
Response model as interposed by a filter: individual’s specificities, i.e. psychological
characteristics of an individual. In this perspective, persuasive messages are thus able
to activate an attitude change that can modify behaviors of consumers, voters and
individuals in general.

According to Persuasion Theory, the communication process consists of a three phase

model: Communication-Attitudes-Behavior. See also the communication process of:
Limited Effects Theory and the Two-Step Flow Model. Unlike the Play Theory of Mass
Communication, the concept underlying persuasion is that information is provided to
influence receivers’ behaviors. Once they had developed the concept of persuasion,
researchers on Persuasion Theory focused on the audiences and the content of
messages.

AUDIENCES IN PERSUASION THEORY

4 psychological factors of audiences have been identified:
1. An audience is interested in getting information. To reach a bigger audience
(including those who seem to be not interested in certain information at that moment)
the message has to be designed to capture people’s attention.
2. Selective exposure. People are more interested in a message if it supports the
same opinions and ideas that they already have.
3. Selective perception. Audiences select information that is right for them, and a
message can be voluntarily misunderstood or simply not caught if audiences haven’t
chosen to receive that piece of information. A receiver perceives opinions embedded in
a message according to variable assimilation effects depending upon:
o Lack of big difference between the opinion delivered by a message and
the receiver’s one.
o Level of involvement of a receiver in the communication process.
o A receiver’s attitude towards the message producer. See also: Balance
Theory, Congruity Theory, Cognitive Dissonance, Social Judgment Theory.
4. Selective memorization. Opinions transmitted by a message will be better
memorized if they are coherent with those of receivers’. There is also a link between the
message length and its memorization in a receiver's mind: the longer a message is, the
more effective the persuasion on the receiver will be. This statement, in media
literature, is supported by 2 thesis: A) Bartlett’s Effect: a longer message requires more
time for a receiver to research and select opinions coherent with his mindset. B) Latent
Effect: as time goes by from the reception of a message, receivers tend to forget the
source and remember only the content of the message. Latent effect is exploited in
case of communicators with low credibility. Compare with: Sleeper Effect.
MESSAGES IN PERSUASION THEORY
Regarding the message, Persuasion Theory identified 4 factors that facilitate and
reinforce the persuasion process:
1. The credibility and reputation of the communicator. It implies the acceptance of
the message by a receiver: the level of persuasion is low if the producer of the message
is considered not credible or reliable.
2. The order of statements. In this respect there are two different schools of
thought: some consider it more effective to put opinions supporting a defined position at
the beginning of the message transmitted (primacy effect); others sustain the opposite
(regency effect).
3. Completeness of statements. If receivers are not in favor of a certain opinion, the
persuasion increases when a message contains both supporting and contrasting
statements regarding the opinion. If receivers agree on a certain opinion or are not
knowledgeable or educated, it is better a message includes only pros of the opinion
supported. In any case, it has negative effect in terms of persuasion if any relevant topic
about an opinion is omitted in the content of the message.
4. Announcement of conclusions. If a receiver is interested in a message it is better
not to barely state the conclusions of the message, but to leave them implicit.
PERSUASION FORMULA
Following a rational approach to persuasion a scientific formula has been identified.
Values, Beliefs and Motivation are key generators of people’s attitudes; while attitudes
influence behaviors.
Value + Beliefs + Motives = Attitudes → Behavior

APPLICATION OF PERSUASION THEORY

Persuasion Theory can be applied in:
1. Politics: to promote certain candidates, persuade voters to switch their
preference, convince masses about needed changes or about the validity of certain
political commitment for society.
2. Business: in advertising, to position products or services in consumers’ mind, to
persuade prospects to switch supplier, to create a need for new products, to sustain
sales of cash cows businesses, to change organizational culture, to support or
implement a change project.
3. Conflicts and negotiations.
STEPS IN PERSUASION THEORY. PROCESS
1. The first phase of the application of Persuasion Theory requires an audience
analysis to determine beliefs, values, motives and attitudes on a selected topic. It is
common in this phase to make use of surveys, interviews, or applied knowledge of the
audience.
2. The second phase requires the communicator or the message (if that is the
purpose of the communication) to change an attitude. There are possible two ways: 1)
Try to change a belief. 2) Modify values or motives that drive an audience to mature a
 belief. This is much more difficult then changing a belief as values and motives play a
key role in a individual's identity. What can be more easily done is the attempt to add a
new value or motive.
PURPOSES OF PERSUASION
It has been proven that persuasion works well only if its purposes are realistic, taking
into account an audience values, beliefs, motives and attitudes. Persuasion can be
effective to achieve the following 5 main purposes.
1. Creating Uncertainty. In case a communicator is faced with an audience who is
strongly opposed to her view, the most viable way is to destroy some certainties in the
audience mind. This scenario is typical of audience with closed mentality. What is
achievable in such situation is a decrease of comfort with a defined audience attitude.
2. Reducing Resistance. When an audience opposition to the communicator’s
view is moderate it is possible to move an audience from a negative position to a
neutral one. This is often achieved by asking only to accept the validity of the
communicator’s opinion, even if audience doesn’t endorse it.
3. Change Attitude. If a communicator is faced with a neutral and open-minded
audience, not strongly committed to any attitude, this goal is accomplishable.
4. Amplify Attitude. This applies in situations where an audience is already
moderately favorable to the persuader's view. It would be adequate to design a
message aimed at reinforcing the validity of an opinion to sustain the current attitude
and prevent competitor persuaders to influence an audience already conquered.
5. Gain Behavior. In the presence of an audience strongly favorable to a
persuader's position, the goal is to get those people to take actions in line with the
shared attitude. Typical examples are brainwash to militaries and sales people: even
though they already are convinced on an attitude, it is needed to reinforce their
commitment in order to make them act. It is can be expected from such audiences that
they will persuade less convinced or weaker individuals via word-of-mouth.

STRENGTHS OF PERSUASION THEORY. BENEFITS

The main advantage of Persuasion Theory is that it offers cost-effective approaches for
various uses. It can help in many different kind of situations: from resolution of conflicts
to solve organizational, advertising, sales and marketing issues, but can also help in
interpersonal relationships.

LIMITATIONS OF PERSUASION THEORY. DISADVANTAGES

An authoritative source of limitations of Persuasion Theory is a book "Power and
Persuasion: Ideology and Rhetoric in Communist Yugoslavia: 1944-1953" from Carol S.
Lilly. The author analyzed the most frequently used Persuasive Techniques to sustain a
long-term cultural transformation of society. Lilly’s conclusions are: 1) Persuasion is
most effective when a communicator builds on existing values and beliefs. The attempt
to change people's values or create new ones has proven to be highly ineffective. It is
often impossible to radically transform an existing culture. 2) Since persuasion is
predominantly utilized in newspapers, radio, television, education and arts, those who
don’t enjoy these tools are less likely to be persuaded.

The language of Advertising

Language has a powerful influence over people and their behaviour. This is especially

true in the fields of marketing and advertising. The choice of language to convey specific

messages with the intention of influencing people is vitally important. Visual content and

design in advertising have a very great impact on the consumer, but it is language that helps

people to identify a product and remember it.

The English language is known for its extensive vocabulary. Where many other languages have

only one or two words which carry a particular meaning, English may have five or six.

English for Specific Purposes World, ISSN 1682-3257, http://www.esp-world.info, Issue 37, vol. 13, 2013

Use of Language in Advertisements Dr. R. Kannan, Dr. Sarika Tyagi

Moreover, the meanings of these five or six words may differ very slightly and in a very subtle

way. It is important to understand the connotation of a word. Connotation is the feeling or

ideas that are suggested by a word, rather than the actual meaning of the word. Armchair, for

example, suggests comfort, whereas chair arouses no particular feelings. The target audience,

of course, also puts its own meaning into certain words. Different people sometimes interpret

language in different ways.

Both the mass media, when reporting news items and marketing and advertising

personnel have to consider the emotive power of the words they use. First, they make a
decision about what to communicate and what to withhold. One way in which advertisers

adapt language to their own use is to take compound words and use them as adjectives. These

compounds often later become widely used in normal situations. Examples of these compounds

which have become part of the English language are: top-quality, economy-size, chocolate

flavoured, feather-light and longer-lasting.

The language of advertising is, of course, normally very positive and emphasizes why

one product stands out in comparison with another. Advertising language may not always be

"correct" language in the normal sense. For example, comparatives are often used when no real

comparison is made. An advertisement for a detergent may say "It gets clothes whiter", but

whiter than what?