Experiment 5.

Determination of the Concentration of an Unknown

Solution by Photometry

INTRODUCTION

In this experiment, we will use photometry to determine the concentration of an unknown solution (of
food coloring). In order to accomplish this goal, we must first determine what wavelength of light the
solution best absorbs (the wavelength of maximum absorbance). Then we will prepare solutions of
known concentration, measure their absorbances, and create a calibration plot. We can then use
information from that plot to determine the concentration of our unknown.

BACKGROUND

Spectrophotometry is the study of light as a function of its wavelength. Light is energy, in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. That light has the capability to do work. Plastic left out in the sun degrades
and becomes brittle. If you put a bleaching agent in your hair and go sit in the sun, sunlight causes your
hair to bleach. Solar cells change light energy into electricity.
We can understand the energy contained in light by understanding the light wave. If we look at the wave,
we can define the length of the repeat units (wavelength), how many waves repeat per second (frequency)
and the height of the wave (amplitude). We can relate frequency and wavelength for an electromagnetic
wave by: c = λ • υ, or the speed of light is equal to the frequency of the wave times the wavelength. This
equation works for the whole electromagnetic wave series. Refer to your textbook for a more complete
description. We are looking at a small portion of this spectrum, between the ultra violet and infrared
sections, which we call visible light. We see visible light. We can feel infrared radiation as heat. We
cannot visually see ultraviolet light but we feel the sunburn caused by overexposure to UV light. Violet
light, at a wavelength of about 400 nm has higher energy than red light, at about 700 nm.

This visible light can cause chemical changes or reactions in compounds. The compounds absorb specific
wavelengths of light. These reactions can be permanent or reversible. Different molecules absorb
different wavelengths of light. The color of an object is due to the combination of those wavelengths that
an object did not absorb. Plants appear green because they absorb the wavelengths in the blue and red
regions, leaving the greens, to be seen. The absorbed light energy is used in photosynthesis, the
conversion of CO2 and water into sugars and carbohydrates.

We can differentiate compounds based on their light absorption. We can look at blue or green mineral
samples and predict that there are copper compounds present. Dark red/orange rocks often have iron
compounds. A red ruby can be identified as chromium doped alumina. We can more precisely
understand these compounds by burning a small amount and examining the light spectra given off by the
flame. This is called flame emission spectroscopy. This information is tabulated into tables. You can
estimate the wavelength of the color absorbed visually by samples by use of the following table.

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 Table 1: Absorbed & Perceived Colors
Wavelength absorbed (nm) Color absorbed Approximate color observed
410 violet green-yellow
430 violet-blue yellow
480 blue orange
500 blue-green Red
530 green purple
560 green-yellow violet
580 yellow violet-blue
610 orange blue
680 red blue-green
720 purple-red green

Spectrophotometric Analysis:

A UV-Visible spectrum can be used to characterize or to determine the identity of a compound or by its
absorption spectrum. We can make a plot of light absorbance vs. wavelength for a sample being tested.
A sample with 100% absorption at all wavelengths would appear black. A colorless sample would
demonstrate 0% absorption. Colored compounds will demonstrate absorption at some wavelengths, but
not others.

Once we plot absorbance vs. wavelength, we can determine which wavelength demonstrates the strongest
absorbance. We call this the peak of maximum absorbance. This is the wavelength we use in the
photometry experiment to determine the concentration of the unknown. By using the wavelength of
maximum absorbance, we will get the best resolution between solutions of similar concentration.

Observe the two different absorption charts below. Notice that light is absorbed at all wavelengths, but
you see the color where the absorbance is the weakest. The height of the peaks in an absorption
spectrum is related to the concentration of the species in question – the higher the concentration, the
greater the absorbance for the entire absorption spectrum.

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Photometric Analysis:

Absorbance is directly proportional to the concentration of the solution. The method of photometric
analysis uses absorbance at a specific wavelength to determine concentration.
Absorbance = εbC where C is the concentration of the absorbing species, b is the path length through the
sample containing the species, and ε is called the molar extinction coefficient or molar absorptivity.
Note: ε has units of liters/mole• cm. As “b” has units of cm and “C” has units of moles/liter. “A” has no units
(they cancel).
A= bC

Symbol Units Definition

L molar extinction coefficient or molar

moles •cm absorptivity
b cm path length through the sample containing
the species
C moles concentration of absorbing species
L

We will make use of a photometer to measure light absorption. We will work with a fixed cell width and
a constant wavelength, making both b and ε constant. Absorbance is then directly proportional to the
concentration of the species in question. A plot of Absorbance as a function of concentration is linear
under most conditions. This linear relationship is known formally as Beer’s Law. We want to work at
the wavelength which shows the greatest absorbance, so that we can work with the largest possible signal.
We will express Beer’s law in the form: A=kC, or A=k[KMnO4].

Before we can use the Beer’s law relationship to determine the concentration of an unknown solution, we
must first determine the value of k for our solution at the wavelength of maximum absorbance. If we
make up a series of samples of known concentration, we can make a plot of absorbance vs. concentration.
The value of k in Beer’s law will be the slope of the line. Then, when we measure the absorbance of an
unknown concentration, we can simply refer to our plot. We can then determine the concentration
graphically, or by a calculation with Beer’s law (both should give the same result).

The solution that we measure contains our substance that we want to measure, along with solvents. These
solvents may absorb light as well. However, we do not want the absorbance by the solvent to affect our
results. To prevent this, we use a blank sample to “zero” the spectrophotometer at each wavelength
where we take measurements. The blank solution should contain all the components of the solution
except for the material we are interested in knowing the absorbance of. This essentially allows us to
correct for the background absorbance by comparing our sample to the blank.

We will be using a Spectrophotometer/photometer. This system has alternative ways to measure

absorbance. We can measure absorbance directly or we can measure % transmittance, and calculate the
absorbance. Transmittance is the ratio between the light entering the sample and the light reaching the
detector. The absorbance is the negative logarithm (base 10) of the transmittance, or A = −log10 T. Note
also that T = %T/100. Set the spectrophotometer to record absorbance.

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PROCEDURE

Part A: Preparation for the experiment.

1. Plug in and turn on a spectrophotometer. Allow it to warm up and go through it’s automated
calibration.

Part B: Determine the wavelength of maximum absorbance of KMnO4.

2. Fill one cuvette approximately half-full with deionized water (blank). Fill a second cuvette
approximately half-full with the stock solution (sample). Record the concentration of this stock
solution (from the label) in your lab notebook. Wipe both cuvettes clean with a Kimwipe tissue.
3. Load the samples:
• Be sure the smooth (clear) sides of the cuvettes are on the same sides as the holes in the slots.
This is where the light passes through! If you are not sure, ask your instructor.
• Load the BLANK into slot ”B”.
• Load STOCK solution sample into slot “1”.
• Close the cover.

4. Set the wavelength.

• Press the “set nm” button.
• Enter the desired wavelength (first wavelength should be 460 nm).
• Press “enter”.

5. Zero the Spectrophotometer, Measure the absorbance of the sample.

5. Press the “1” – the sample wheel “1”, not the keypad “1”.
(This moves the sample in slot “1” into the measuring position.)
• Press “measure blank” . This will set the absorbance reading to zero, and then measure the
absorbance of the sample.
• Read and record the absorbance (once the noise stops).

6. Repeat steps 5-7 for each wavelength to be measured – every 20 nm wavelength increment up to 680
nm (eg. 480, 500, 520, …). Be sure to zero for each wavelength!

7. Once you find your wavelength of maximum absorbance, record the absorbance at 10 nm above and
below this wavelength to better determine the maximum.

8. Remove your cuvettes, dump your sample, and clean the cuvettes.

Data Analysis:
9. Plot the wavelength (x-axis) versus absorbance in your notebook. Use greater than half a page to do
this. Follow the guidelines for good graphing.
10. From your graph, determine and clearly label the wavelength of maximum absorbance. Show the
graph to your instructor for approval before proceeding.
11. Obtain a labeled unknown and record its number in your lab notebook.

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Part C: Standards and Unknown Solution

Prepare Standard Solutions

12. The stock solution will be one of your 5 solutions of known concentration. Label it known #5. Deliver
about 5 mL solution to test tube #5
13. To prepare known #1, pipette or deliver (by volumetric pump) 5.00 mL of the stock solution into a
25.0 mL volumetric flask, and add deionized water to the mark on the neck of the flask. Mix well.
Save approximately 10 mL in a test tube.
14. To prepare knowns #2-4, repeat the above step, increasing the volume of stock solution by 5.00 mL
each time. (e.g. #2 will use 10.0 mL stock solution as calculated in the prelab)
15. Once you have prepared the 4 solutions, fill the numbered test tubes approximately three quarters full
with their corresponding solutions. Dump the remaining solutions from the volumetric flasks into the
waste, rinse them thoroughly, and return them immediately for others to use.
16. In the prelab, you calculated the concentration of each standard solution (knowns #1-5). Copy the
solution numbers and concentrations into your data section, with an additional column for
absorbances.

Obtain photometric data for the calibration plot and unknown solutions
17. Load the samples:
• Be sure the smooth (clear) sides of the cuvettes are on the same sides as the holes in the slots.
This is where the light passes through! If you are not sure, ask your instructor.
• Load the BLANK into slot ”B”.
• Load the solution sample into slots “1” – “5”.

18. Set the wavelength to the λmax value (determined graphically).

• Press the “set nm” button.
• Enter the desired wavelength (λmax).
• Press “enter”.

19. Zero the Spectrophotometer.

• Press “B” (moves the blank into the measuring position).
• Press “measure blank” (will set the absorbance reading to zero).

20. Measure the absorbance of each sample.

• Press the # for the sample you wish to measure – the sample wheel #, not the keypad #.
(This moves the sample in that slot # into the measuring position.)
• Read and record the absorbance.
• Repeat this step for all of your samples. If you have more than 5 samples to measure, replace
samples that have already been measured with the samples you need to measure and repeat this
step.

Important: Make all concentration vs. absorbance measurements together, at one time. The
lamp intensity fluctuates with time and house voltage. We want to avoid this source of error.

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Data Analysis:
21. Plot your calibration data, [conc] (on the x-axis) vs. Absorbance in your lab notebook. Use
nearly a full page to do this. Follow the guidelines for good graphing, including drawing a best
fit line.
22. Calculate the slope (k) by choosing the two points from your plot that would best estimate the
slope of your best fit line and plug them into the slope equation.
23. Express the relationship in Beer’s law form, substituting your slope for k.
24. Add your unknown data point to the best fit line based on its absorbance and clearly label it.
Drop a dotted line to the concentration axis to estimate the concentration of your unknown.
25. Use the Beer’s law equation to calculate the concentration of your unknown. It should be close to
the estimate in the step above.

Disposal:
26. Follow your instructor’s directions. Food color can go down the drain.

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Error Analysis Questions for Photometry Experiment

1. In preparation for constructing a calibration curve, a student consistently adds too much water and
overshoots the marking on the volumetric flask while diluting the stock solution of potassium
permanganate. Given this systematic error, would the determination of the unknown concentration be
overestimated, underestimated or remain unaffected? Explain your reasoning.

2. When transferring the unknown solution from a test tube to the cuvette used in the
spectrophotometer, a student spills some of the liquid out of the cuvette. Would this result in the unknown
concentration being overestimated, underestimated or remain unaffected? Explain your reasoning.

3. Imagine the unknown solution was transferred into a cuvette that wasn’t dry and contained
droplets of deionized water. Would this result in the unknown concentration being overestimated,
underestimated or remain unaffected? Explain your reasoning.

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Photometry Experiment • Assignment & Report Guidelines

READING Experiment – Lab Manual Pages

Laboratory Handbook:
Section XIII – Representing Data and Experimental Results Using Graphing
Section IV – Measuring Liquid Volumes
• Review Introduction
• "Pipets"
• "Volumetric Flasks"
Section IX - Visible Spectrophotometers
• Introduction
Chemistry, 6th ed. by Silberberg: pp. 281-282

PRE-LAB

Heading
• Title of experiment, your name, the date.

Purpose
• Briefly, but specifically explain the purpose of the experiment.

General Strategy
• Summarize the procedure of the experiment, and explain how you will use the data you measure
to determine the quantities you want to find. Showing the important equations can be helpful.

Standards Solutions Table

Copy and complete the table in your notebook. Show all calculations in your notebook. This is an
important table, as you will use these concentrations for your calibration plot.

Volume of stock Volume of dilute [KMnO4] (mol/L)

Solution
solution (mL) solution (mL) dilute solution
Blank Blank Blank 0
#1 5.0 25.0
#2 10.0 25.0
#3 15.0 25.0
#4 20.0 25.0
#5 Stock Solution Stock Solution 5.00 x 10-4 M

Data Table
• On a NEW page, prepare a table for each part of the experiment that includes space for recording
each quantity you will measure in the lab. (Do not turn in with the prelab.)

Answers to Pre-Lab Questions

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 • Answer the questions on the PRE-LAB Questions Handout.

LAB REPORT

Heading
• Title of experiment, your name, the names of lab partners, and the dates of the experiment.

Data / Observations / Results

• ORIGINAL QUANTITATIVE DATA (signed data pages from your lab notebook).
• Qualitative data (observations) –describe the unknown appearance in your lab notebook.
Visually compare to your standard solutions.
Calculations / Graphing / Results
Show calculations for the following quantities & appropriate graphs in your report. Use proper
format for labeling and showing calculations and for graphing in a formal report):
• Calculations for the concentrations of the standard solutions.
• Wavelength vs. Absorbance graph and precise graphical determination of λmax. Report the λmax
value.
• Beer’s Law graph, showing the precise graphical determination of the unknown concentration.
• Calculations for the slope of the line in the Beer’s Law plot.
• Calculations of the concentration of the unknown. (You will compare this to the graphical
determination in the discussion.)

Discussion – Theory / Results / Error Analysis

In this section, you will explain the experiment, evaluate and discuss your results, and analyze error.
a. Briefly explain the information you obtained from your absorbance versus wavelength plot and
why we needed it. Be specific.
b. Briefly explain what information you obtained from the calibration plot and why we needed it. Be
specific. How did you use it to find the concentration of the unknown? Compare the values you
obtained for the [KMnO4] of your unknown directly from the graph and from using Beer’s Law,
A=kC.
c. Qualitatively discuss errors in your calibration plot (best-fit line). Consider how well your points
fit to the line. Suggest specific errors that might have resulted in a poor correlation of points to the
line.
d. Hypothetical error analysis question: Would you expect to find the same wavelength of maximum
absorbance if solution #1 (more dilute than the stock solution) were used to determine λmax instead
of solution #5? Explain. Be sure to include how the plot for solution #1 would differ from
solution #5.

Conclusions
This section REPLACES the Conclusions section in the lab manual. Your conclusion should
include:
• The wavelength of maximum absorbance for KMnO4.
• The Beer’s law expression for you calibration plot.
(A=kC, with the appropriate value and units substituted for k)

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 • Your unknown number.
• [KMnO4] for your unknown.

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Photometry Experiment

PRE-LAB QUESTIONS Name:

1. What color of visible light is not absorbed by chlorophyll (the dye in plants that aids in
photosynthesis)?

2. What colors of light are used by chlorophyll in photosynthesis?

3. A greenhouse is made out of high-grade green glass that allows only green wavelengths of light to
pass through. Will the plants inside grow well or poorly? Explain.

4. Oz recorded a value of 22.8% transmittance for his unknown. What is his absorbance?

5. Why do we close the cover of the spectrophotometer during absorbance measurements?

6. If the chemical species we wish to investigate were dissolved in a mixture of 80% ethanol, 10% acetic
acid, and 10% water, what solution would we use in the blank (for calibrating the Specs 21)?

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