1

LAB SAFETY

“The condition of being protected from any danger, risk or injury is known as safety”

1.1 Purpose:

I) Safety of worker.
II) Safety of machine.

 Safety of a worker:
Some areas of a work site or laboratory require the use of personal protective equipment as required by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. For example, laser glasses must be used in areas where lasers
are in use. Safety glasses are necessary when there is flying debris, chemical fumes or liquid chemicals or
acids. Earplugs protect an engineer's hearing in areas where the equipment or machinery is very loud. Hard
hats provide additional protection from falling objects. Mechanical engineers must wear steel-toed shoes when
there is a danger from falling or rolling objects or hazards that may pierce the sole. Engineers must keep
personal protective equipment clean and in good working order. If personal protective equipment is damaged,
it must be replaced.

 Safety of machine:
The machines are very expensive. They should be handled with care. Large machinery should be inspected as
soon as it is purchased. Operator training is usually done at that point, but training needs to be kept up.
Employees come and go, skills become rusty and poor operation leads to breakdowns. Lubrication is one of
the first and most important of maintenance checks. Look for signs of excess oil or grease build-up on pistons.
Check for leaks around oil seals. Be sure to use the right lubricant. There are specific kinds of oil and grease
for every component. Check the manufacturer’s recommendations.

1.2 Accident:
Unfortunate incident that happens unexpectedly and unintentionally that can cause damage and injury or, an
event that happens by chance or that is without apparent or deliberate cause.
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1.2.1 Causes of accidents:

 Lifting:
Many employees are prone to sprain, strain or tear a muscle by virtue of lifting an object that is too heavy for
them to lift on their own. Keep in mind that there is no harm in asking for help with objects that are difficult
to lift.

 Hazardous materials:

Improper handling of hazardous materials or not wearing personal protective equipment (PPE) is another
common cause of accidents in the workplace. By reading material safety data sheets and providing the
appropriate protective attire, many workplace incidents can be avoided.

 Over confidence:

Confidence is always a great thing to have, but there is also such a thing as too much confidence when workers
walk into work every day with the attitude that, “It will never happen to me”, they are setting an attitude that
leads to incorrect procedures, methods, and tools while working. Be confident, but remember that you are not
invincible.
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 Poor lightening:

Inadequate lighting is responsible for a number of accidents each year. This is often overlooked when
attempting to prevent accidents in the warehouse or workplace.

 Fatigue:

Failing to take a break is another common cause of accidents. In order to recover from grueling manual labor,
it is essential that employees take adequate breaks. Not doing so can lead to a slew of physical issues, including
atrophy and general exhaustion. The results of either of these can be far more devastating than taking a 10-
minute breather.

 Operating Machinery Without Any Protective Gear:

Every machine comes with its own unique set of risks and potential for injuries of different types. One of the
most effective ways to reduce the risk of injury while using any machinery is by wearing the recommended
protective gear for that particular equipment. This could include a combination of one or more of the following
– safety goggles, a hard hat, well-fitting gloves, heavy-duty boots and flame-retardant clothing.
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1.2.2 Unsafe actions:

 Loose clothing:

When working in any type of facility with moving equipment, it is important to make safety a priority. While
some dangers are obvious, others are often overlooked and can result in significant injuries. One example of
this is working near moving machinery with loose clothing. Whether it is an un-tucked shirt, a tie, an
unbuttoned jacket or even loose shoelaces, these things can get caught in the moving machinery and pull
individuals into harm’s way.

 Long hairs:

Long hairs are the most common cause of unsafe actions. If the worker has long hairs he/she needs to be
controlled so it stays on your head and out of machinery. If the worker has really long hair or wear a pony tail,
you may need two hair nets to hold it properly.

1.2.3 Unsafe conditions:

 Sharp edges:

Sharp and cutting tools can cause cuts and puncture wounds, if they’re not handled properly. Workers should
be trained in the tool manufacturer’s directions for proper use, including how to inspect, maintain, and sharpen
the tool. For some tools, workers must wear personal protective equipment such as safety glasses and well-
fitting gloves.

 Slippery floors:

The main causes of slips and trips in the workplace is uneven floor surface, wet floors, changes in levels and
poor lightening which are unsafe conditions for the worker working in the workplace
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 Improper lightening:

Proper lighting is crucial for safety reasons, preventing accidents and reducing eye strain. It is also an
important component in influencing workplace efficiency. To boost employee productivity businesses are
finding ways to balance the use of natural light with artificial lighting. Having suitable lighting also helps to
combat against depressive illnesses such as seasonal affective disorder, which is brought on by long periods
of dim or dark lighting, primarily occurring during the Fall/Winter months.

 Noise and sound:

Excessive noise levels over a long period of time will damage your hearing. This may happen so gradually
and painlessly that you may not notice the minor deterioration from one day to the next. Excessive noise in
the workplace presents a risk of hearing damage and other health problems. The parts of the ear that process
high frequency sounds are usually the first to be affected. The degree of hearing loss depends on the loudness
of the noise and your level of exposure. Sudden explosive sounds, such as gunshots, can cause immediate
damage.

1.2.4 Safety clothes:

 Gloves:

Glove plays an important for the protection of the worker’s hand. Gloves protect the worker from serious hand
injuries and disorders like cuts and punctures, thermal issues, chemical burns and dermatitis.

 Plastic shoes:

Plastic shoe also plays an important role for the protection of the worker’s feet. Plastic shoes protect the worker
from serious feet injuries as well as skin diseases which are hazardous for health also.
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 Safety goggles:

Safety goggles provide additional protection that safety glasses cannot by sealing against the wearer’s face.
As a result, goggles are suitable for protecting employees from hazards like liquid chemicals, acids/caustic
liquids and other hazards that
could splash into the eyes. Some goggles are ventilated, meaning they allow air to enter, while others
are non-ventilated. When certain dangerous substances are present fine dusts or hazardous liquids,
for example non-ventilated options may be necessary

 Helmet:

Most head injuries can be avoided if the proper head protection is selected, used and maintained. As anyone
who has visited a construction site can attest upon entering a job site that some workers don’t quite follow
signs that require them to put on safety helmets or hard hats. This can be for any number of reasons such as
comfort level mismatch, or simple neglect or disregard for safety helmets due to misinformation.

 Lab coat:

Lab coat protects the worker body from different chemicals, it protects the worker from serious injuries like
loose clothing. However, it plays an important role.
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1.3 General safety rules:

 Always wear safety goggles or a face shield to protect ourselves from serious face or eye injuries.
 Always wear hearing protection for the higher level of frequency. The human frequency range of
hearing is about 20hz to 20khz.
 Be sure you know how to perform the job and perform it safely.
 Be sure you know its hazards and how to protect yourself. If you aren’t sure or have questions, ask
your supervisor!
 Report all near misses, incidents, injuries and illnesses immediately.
 Wear the required personal protective equipment necessary for the job. Safety glasses are required as
minimum eye protection on all jobsites.
 Always work clear of suspended loads.
 Never conduct work, unless trained.
 Do not become complacent! Always keep your mind and eyes on the task at hand.
 Always know the emergency action plan for your jobsite. Know what the warning tones are and where
to go.
 Obey all warning signs and barricades.
 Inspect all equipment, scaffolds, ladders, lifts, etc. before using. If found to be defective remove from
service.
 Report any unsafe tools, equipment or hazardous conditions to your supervisor.
 See that good housekeeping is maintained in your work area.
 Exercise proper lifting techniques.
 Operate vehicles in a safe manner and obey site driving rules.
 Do not perform work under unsafe conditions. Any employee has the right to stop work if they feel it
is unsafe.
 Horseplay of any kind will not be permitted.
 Only authorized personnel shall repair company furnished tools or equipment.
 Firearms on the job are prohibited.
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FUNDAMENTAL FITTING SHOP TOOLS AND OPERATIONS

2.1 Measuring and making tools

 Center punch:
It is used to mark the center of the point on the work piece. It is between 60-90o used to mark the center of the hole. It
forms a large enough dimple on a work piece to guide the drill bit.

 Scriber:
A scriber is a hand tool used in metalworking to mark lines on work pieces, prior to machining. The process of using a
scriber is called scribing and is just part of the process of marking out. It is used instead of pencils or ink lines, because
the marks are hard to see, easily erased, and inaccurate due to their wide mark; scribe lines are thin and semi-permanent.
On non-coated work pieces marking blue is commonly used to increase the contrast of the mark lines.

 Tri square:
A try square is a woodworking or a metalworking tool used for marking and measuring a piece of wood.
The square refers to the tool's primary use of measuring the accuracy of a right angle (90o); to try a surface is to check
its straightness or correspondence to an adjoining surface. A piece of wood that is rectangular, flat, and has all edges
(faces, sides, and ends) 90o is called four square.

 Scale:
It is used for marking and measuring. It is also used to measure the depth of the hole.

 Screw gauge:
A micrometer sometimes known as a micrometer screw gauge, is a device incorporating a calibrated screw widely used
for precise measurement of components in mechanical engineering and machining as well as most mechanical trades,
along with other metrological instruments such as dial, vernier , and digital calipers. Micrometers are usually, but not
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always, in the form of calipers (opposing ends joined by a frame), which is why micrometer caliper is another common
name. The spindle is a very accurately machined screw and the object to be measured is placed between the spindle and
the anvil.

 Vernier scale:
A micrometer sometimes known as a micrometer screw gauge, is a device incorporating a calibrated screw widely used
for precise measurement of components in mechanical engineering and machining as well as most mechanical trades,
along with other metrological instruments such as dial, venire, and digital calipers. Micrometers are usually, but not
always, in the form of calipers.

 Inside caliper:
An outside caliper is a precision device that is designed to take accurate external measurements of different objects. The
caliper has bow-shaped legs that are specifically designed to measure spherical or oddly shaped objects, such as eggs,
orbs, sculpture, and other 3D objects. While other types of calipers are designed to measure linear measurement on a
single plane, the outside caliper is designed for 3D objects.

 Divider:
Instrument for measuring, transferring, or marking off distances, consists of two straight adjustable legs hinged together
and ending in sharp points. It is used principally in drafting for the accurate transfer of dimensions from a measuring
scale and in machine shops for scribing lines on surfaces, usually machined, with dimensions taken from a ruler.

 Screw pitch gauge:

It is used to measure the pitch of the screw thread. It is used to quickly determine the profile of the thread and quickly
categorized a thread gauge, also known as a screw pitch gauge or pitch gauge, is used to measure the pitch or lead of
a screw thread. The uppermost gauge in the image is an ISO metric pitch gauge, the larger gauge in the center is for
measuring the Acme thread form, and the lower gauge is for Whitworth screws.
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 Outside caliper:
Outside caliper is a measuring instrument that consists of two adjustable legs or jaws for measuring the dimensions of
material parts. The calipers on the right side of the illustration have an adjusting screw and nut and are known as spring
calipers, while those on the left are an illustration of firm-joint calipers, which are held in place by friction at the
joint. Outside calipers measure thicknesses and outside diameters of objects; inside calipers measure hole diameter and
distances between surfaces.

2.2 Fitting shop tools

 Straight peen hammer:

A straight peen hammer is used like the cross peen but differs from the cross peen since is turned 90o. This
keeps the handle parallel to the struck surface.

 Ball peen hammer:

It is the type of hammer where peen is like a ball to strike soft metal objects to modify the shapes of the objects.

 Rivets:
A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener. Before being installed, a rivet consists of a smooth cylindrical shaft with a
head on one end. The end opposite to the head is called the tail. On installation the rivet is placed in a punched or drilled
hole, and the tail is upset, or bucked (i.e., deformed), so that it expands to about 1.5 times the original shaft diameter,
holding the rivet in place.
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 Curved claw hammer:

A claw hammer is a tool primarily used for pounding nails into, or extracting nails from, some other object. Generally,
a claw hammer is associated with woodworking but is not limited to use with wood products. It is not suitable for heavy
hammering on metal surfaces (such as in machining work), as the steel of its head is somewhat brittle; the ball-peen
hammer is more suitable for such metalwork.

 Rubber peen hammer:

A rubber peen hammer is the hammer which is used to strike light objects like metal sheets which are thin. It is also
used to change the shape of the objects.

 Mallet:
A mallet is a kind of hammer, often made of rubber or sometimes wood, that is smaller than a maul or beetle, and usually
has a relatively large head. The term is descriptive of the overall size and proportions of the tool.

 Cross peen hammer:

A cross peen hammer is a hammer used by blacksmiths to complete metal work. The wedge-shaped end of the hammer
allows you to make the metal fuller when used with heat. The main functions of a cross peen hammer is forging and
riveting. Forging is a process in which you heat a single piece of metal and use tools to obtain a particular shape.
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2.3 Loosening and tightening tools

 Spanner:
A wrench is a tool used to provide grip and mechanical advantage in applying torque to turn objects usually
rotary fasteners, such as nuts and bolts or keep them from turning.

 Open end spanner:

Open end spanner is the spanner which is open from both of the end. It is a tool which is used to provide grip and
mechanical advantage in applying torque. It is used for tightening nuts and bolts.

 Ratchet spanner:
Ratchet spanners are spanners that are a great labour saving device but they do cost a little more. There will always be
a place in the DIY sheds and motoring stores for the ratchet spanner which allows you to undo a nut without taking the
spanner off, kind of like a hybrid of a spanner and socket and ratchet.

 Pipe wrench:
Pipe wrenches are for large and heavy jobs. They are also known as Stillson wrenches or Stillsons. The beauty of using
Stillson is the sheer strength of the grip the teeth on the jaws allow. As you have no doubt guessed they are used for pipe
work, where the diameter of the fixing is typically larger than common nuts and bolts and the torque needed for
tightening and un-doing is much greater also.

 Four edge screw driver:

Four edge screw driver is a tool that has four edges and it is used for tightening purposes.
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 Double edge screw driver:

Double edge screw driver is a tool that has two edges and it is also used for tightening purposes. It is a tool that gives
grip

 Nut bolt:
A nut is a type of fastener with a threaded hole. Nuts are almost always used in conjunction with a mating bolt to fasten
two or more parts together. The two partners are kept together by a combination of their thread’s friction, a slight
stretching of the bolt, and compression of the parts to be held together.

 L-key bolt:
L-key bolt is the tool in which the L-key is linked with the bolt and it is hexagonal cross section used to drive bolt and
screws is known as L-key bolt.

 Hack saw:
A hacksaw is a fine-toothed saw, originally and principally made for cutting metal. They can also cut various other
materials, example plumbers and electritions often cut plastic pipe and plastic conduit with them. There are hand
saw versions and powered versions (power hacksaws). Most hacksaws are hand saws with a C-shaped frame that holds
a blade under tension.
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 Metal chisel:
A chisel is a tool with a characteristically shaped cutting edge (such that wood chisels have lent part of their name to a
particular grind) of blade on its end, for carving or cutting a hard material such as wood, stone, or metal by hand, struck
with a mallet, or mechanical power. The handle and blade of some types of chisel are made of metal or of wood with a
sharp edge in it.

 Rectangular file:
It is the tool which is used for finishing the surface Files have also been developed with abrasive surfaces, such as natural
or synthetic diamond grains or silicon carbide, allowing removal of material that would dull or resist metal, such
as ceramic.

 Round file:
A round file is a wood or metalworking hand tool of cylindrical cross section that is used to remove small amounts of
material from a work piece. Round files typically consist of a long-tapered body and a pointed square tang at one end
for attaching a handle. The body of the file is cut with a series of parallel ridges which remove material from the work
piece when the file is drawn across it.
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 Square file:
A square file is a metal tool with a rough surface used to remove small amounts of wood or metal from a work piece.
Ranging from six to 18 inches (15 – 46 cm) long, more or less, they generally have a narrow, pointed tang at one end
designed for insertion into a removable handle. Square files are wider at their base, but rarely more than an inch (2.54
cm) or so, and taper to a narrow tip.

 Triangular file:
A triangular file is a specialized tool for trimming and sharpening edges. Its unique, three-sided design makes it a great
tool for sharpening hard-to-reach places such as saw teeth. With proper care and cleaning, this type of file will last for
many years and consistently sharpen and smooth surfaces.

 Single cut file:

A single cut file or a mill file is a tool used in both wood and metalworking applications that remove small pieces of
material from a work piece they are the most common type of file. At one point, mill files served a very similar purpose
to a milling machine, mainly being used to finish the surfaces of parts.

 Alphabetic punch:
It is defined as the tool which is used for punching alphabets on the work piece as shown in the figure.
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 Numeric punch:
It is defined as the tool which is used for punching numeric words on the work piece as shown in the figure.

 Drill bit:
Drill bits are cutting tools used to remove material to create holes, almost always of circular cross-section. Drill bits
come in many sizes and shape and can create different kinds of holes in many different materials. In order to create
holes drill bits are attached to a drill, which powers them to cut through the work piece, typically by rotation. The drill
will grasp the upper end of a bit called the shank in the chuck

 Reamer:
Enlarge, finish and shape holes with MSC's complete line of reamers. Select tapered reamers for precise hole size
dimensions, hand reamers for manual operations, chucking reamers for tasks that need a little extra drilling power and
more. You'll find a wide selection of carbide reamers, high-speed steel reamers and other reamers made with durable
materials.

2.4 Miscellenous tools

 Nose pillers:
Nose pliers are cutting and holding pliers used by artisons, jewelry designers , electricians, network engineers and other
trademen to bend, re-position and snip wire. Their namesake long nose gives excellent control while the cutting edge
near the pliers' joint provides "one-tool" convenience.

 Tap and Dies:

Taps and dies are tools used to create screw threads, which is called threading. Many are cutting tools; others are
forming tools. A tap is used to cut or form the female portion of the mating pair (e.g., a nut). A die is used to cut or form
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the male portion of the mating pair (e.g., a bolt). The process of cutting or forming threads using a tap is called tapping,
whereas the process using a die is called threading.

2.5 Different types of operations

 Measuring operation and Marking operation:

While making any metal job first of all correct measuring and then accurate marking is needed. Accurate measuring is
taken by accurate measuring tools such as, screw gauge and vernier caliper. Marking is held by scriber

 Sawing operation:
Metal sawing is done by hacksaw. A hacksaw is a fine tooth-saw with a blade under tension in a frame, used for cutting
materials such as metals or bones

 Filing operation:
Filling is done by a file. A file is a wood working and metal working tool used to cut fine amount of material from work
piece. It is commonly refers to the hand tool style, which takes the form of a hardened steel bar with a series of sharp,
parallel rings called teeth.

 Punching operation:
Punching in metalworking is a process of using a punch press to push a punch through the material and into a die to
create a hole in the work piece. A scrap slug from the hole is deposited into the die in the process.
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 Reaming operation:
Operation used to accurately size and finish hole previously formed by drilling is called reaming operation. This is done
with the help of reamer.

 Drilling operation:
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge holes in the solid materials. The drill bit is multipoint
end cutting tool. It cuts by applying pressure and rotation to the work piece, which forms chips at the cutting edge.

 Counter sinking operation:

A counter sinking is a conical hole cut into a manufactured object, or the cutter used to cut such a hole. A common
usage is to allow the head of the countersunk bolt or screw, when placed in the hole, to sit flush or below the surface of
the surrounding material.

 Counter boring operation:

Operation that enlarges the end of a predrilled hole to allow room for a head of a screw or nut is called counter boring
operation.
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 Spot facing operation:

Spot facing is a machining operation where material is removed from the surface to make it flat and smooth, usually for
a fastener and bearing. It is usually required on work pieces that are forged or cast.

 Taping operation:
Taps and dies are cutting tools used to create screw threads, which is called threading. A tap is used to cut the female
portion of the mating pair. A die is used to cut the male portion of the mating pair. The process of cutting thread using
a tap is called tapping, whereas the process using a die is called threading.
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MACHINE SHOP AND LATHE MACHINE

3.1 Machine Shop

3.1.1 Definition:
It is a room where machining is done. In the machine room the machinist use machining tools and cutting
tools to make parts usually of metal or plastic.

3.1.2 Operations:
The production can be consist of cutting, shaping, drilling and finishing.

3.1.3 Types of Machine:

 Milling machine.
 Machine centers.
 Dill presser.
 Grinding machine.
 Lathe machine.
 Surface grinder.
 Tool grinder.

3.1.4 Purpose/operations:
 Drilling Machine
A drilling machine is a machine used for drilling holes in various types of wood, plastic and metal.
 Shaper Machine
A shaper is a type of machine tool that uses linear relative motion between the workpiece and a single-
point cutting tool to machine a linear toolpath. Its cut is analogous to that of a lathe, except that it is
linear instead of helical.
 Lathe Machine
A lathe is a machine tool that rotates the workpiece on its axis to perform various operations such as
cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, or deformation, facing, turning, with tools that are applied to the
workpiece to create an object with symmetry about an axis of rotation.
 Tool Grinder
A tool grinder is used to sharpen milling cutters and tool bits along with a host of other cutting tools.
It is an extremely versatile machine used to perform a variety of grinding operations: surface,
cylindrical, or complex shapes.
 Surface Grinder
Surface grinder is used to produce a smooth finish on flat surfaces. It is a widely used abrasive
machining process in which a spinning wheel covered in rough particles (grinding wheel) cuts chips
of metallic or nonmetallic substance from a workpiece, making a face of it flat or smooth.
 Milling Machine
They are cutting tools typically used in milling machines or machining centers to perform milling
operations (and occasionally in other machine tools). They remove material by their movement within
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the machine (e.g., a ball nose mill) or directly from the cutter's shape (e.g., a form tool such as a
hobbling cutter).

3.2 Lathe Machine

3.2.1 Construction of Lathe Machine
 Head Stock
The head stock is the part of the lathe which serves as a housing for the driving pulleys and back gears,
provides bearing for the machine spindle and keeps the latter in alignment with the bed. It is a fixed
part which will present on the left side of the lathe bed. Head stock will consist of a hollow spindle
and drives unit like main spindle, feed reverse lever, live center cone pulley etc., The tapered bar with
pointed or projected end is going to grip the work piece between two centers of lathe bed.

 Bed
The bed of Lathe acts as the base on which the different fixed and operations parts of the Lathe are
mounted. Lathe beds are usually made as single piece casting of semi-steel (i.e., toughened cast iron),
with the addition of small quantity of steel scrap to the cast iron during melting; the material ‘cast iron’
facilitating an easy sliding action. In case of extremely large machines, the bed may be in two or more
pieces, bolted together to from the desired length. Lathe Bed are heavy rigid structure which is having
high damping capacity for the vibrations generated by machines during machining. The rigid structure
will help to avoid deflections. The guides and ways which are present on the top of the bed will act as
rails and supports other parts like tail stock. The bed will be designed in such a way that easily bolted
to the floor of the machine shop.

 Carriage
The lathe carriage serves the purpose of supporting, guiding and feeding the tool against the job during
the operation of the lathe. The carriage will present between head stock and tail stock which will slides
on the bed ways of the lathe bed. The carriage will give feed to the tool and it holds the tool, for taper
turning the feed is cross feed, for turning it is longitudinal feed. The carriage consists of the following
parts.
 Saddle
It is the part of the carriage which slides along the bed way and support the Cross-slide,
compound rest and Tool post.
 cross-slide
The cross-slide function is to provide cutting action to the tool and the action of cutting tool
will be perpendicular to center line of lathe. It can either be operated by hand, by means of the
cross-feed screw, or may be given power feed through the Apron Mechanism.
 compound Rest
The compound Rest will be placed over the cross slide and it consists of a graduated circular
base which is having swiveling nature.
 Tool post
It is the top most part of the carriage and is used for holding the tool or tool holder in position.
 Apron
Apron houses the feed mechanism, clutch mechanism split half nut, gears, leavers, the apron
wheel can be rotated by hand for longitudinal motion of the carriage.
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 Tail Stock
It is mounted on the bed of the lathe such that it is capable of sliding along the latter maintaining its
alignment with the head stock. On common types of medium size or small size lathes it is moved along
the bed by hand, whereas in heavier types of lathes it is moved by means of a hand wheel through a
pinion which meshes with the rack provided on the front of the lathe bed. The main function of the
Tail stock is to provide bearing and support to the job which is being worked between centers. To
enable this, the tail stock is made to possess a number of parts which collectively help in its successful
function.
 Chuck
A chuck is a specialized type of clamp. It is used to hold an object with radial symmetry, especially a
cylinder. In drills and mills it holds the rotating tool whereas in lathes it holds the rotating workpiece.
On a lathe the chuck is mounted on the spindle which rotates within the headstock.

 Lead Screw
The basic function of the lead screw is to move the turret by a précised increment for every rotation of
the screw. As a result of this it allows the machine to generate threads in a work piece and helps in
generating precise length and diameter dimensions, and also to maintain a constant rate of metal
removal.

 Back Gear
As its name implies, "back gear" is a gear mounted at the back of the headstock (although in practice
it is often located in other positions) that allows the chuck to rotate slowly with greatly-increased
turning power.

 Tool Post
A lathe tool post is a machine tool that spins a block of material when abrasive, cutting, or deformation
tools are applied to the block. Other tool posts are commonly available.

 Feed Rod
Feed rod is a power transmission mechanism used for precise linear movement of the carriage along
the longitudinal axis of the lathe. Such lathe machines generally have a lead screw as well for thread
cutting

 Tail Stock
A tailstock, also known as a foot stock, is a device often used as part of an engineering lathe, wood-
turning lathe, or used in conjunction with a rotary table on a milling machine. It is usually used to
apply support to the longitudinal rotary axis of a workpiece being machined.

 Cross Slide
the part of a lathe or planning machine on which the tool post is mounted and across which it slides
at right angles to the bed of the lathe
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LABELED DIAGRAM OF LATHE MACHINE

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3.2.2 Types of Lathe Machine

 Multi spindle Lathe Machine
Multi Spindle Automatic Lathe can provide the various types of machining such as boring, turning,
chamfering, threading, grooving, and drilling by moving the workpieces between 6 or 8 stations (machining
position). This machine tool enables to realize overwhelmingly fast cycle time by dividing into 6 or 8 processes

 Gang Tool
Tooling set-up features a row (or gang) of tools that are mounted on a long work table that can hold a large
number of tools. Rather than being indexed, as on a turret lathe, the work table slide repositions as each tool
is engaged in the sequential steps of the part turning process.
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 Wheel Lathe
The Wheel Lathe machine is a rugged and reliable surface wheel lathe designed and manufactured for turning
solid wheel or tired wheel treads of worn wheel sets of railway passenger and freight cars, diesel railcars, and
locomotives.

 Brake Lathe
Brake Lathes are essential equipment for any automotive or truck repair shop that wants to re-machine vehicle
brake drums, resurface brake rotors, or flywheels. Surface finish is crucial to proper vehicle braking and
extended friction pad life.
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3.2.3 Lathe Operations

 Boring Operation
Lathe boring is a cutting operation that uses a single-point cutting tool or a boring head to produce conical or
cylindrical surfaces by enlarging an existing opening in a workpiece. For non-tapered holes, the cutting tool
moves parallel to the axis of rotation.

 Turning Operation
Turning is a form of machining, a material removal process, which is used to create rotational parts by cutting
away unwanted material. The turning process requires a turning machine or lathe, workpiece, fixture, and
cutting tool.
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 Facing Operation
Facing is the process of removing metal from the end of a workpiece to produce a flat surface. Most often, the
workpiece is cylindrical, but using a 4-jaw chuck you can face rectangular or odd-shaped work to form cubes
and other non-cylindrical shapes.

 Parting Operation
Parting uses a blade-like cutting tool plunged directly into the workpiece to cut off the workpiece at a specific
length. It is normally used to remove the finished end of a workpiece from the bar stock that is clamped in the
chuck.
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 Drilling Operation
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid materials. The
drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often multipoint. The bit is pressed against the workpiece and rotated
at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute.

 Threading Operation
The process can be done to create external or internal threads (male or female). In external thread cutting, the
piece can either be held in a chuck or mounted between two centers. ... Today engine lathes and CNC lathes
are the commonly used machines for single-point threading

 Knurling Operation
Knurling is a process of impressing a diamond shaped or straight line pattern into the surface of a workpiece
by using specially shaped hardened metal wheels to improve its appearance and to provide a better gripping
surface.
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3.3 Lathe Accessories

 Work holdings
The work holding devices are used to hold and rotate the workpieces along with the spindle. Different work
holding devices are used according to the shape, length, diameter and weight of the workpiece and the location
of turning on the work1. They are
 Chucks
 Face plate
 Driving plate
 Catch plate
 Carriers
 Mandrels
 Centers
 Rests

3.3.1 Chucks
Workpieces of short length, large diameter and irregular shapes, which cannot be mounted between centers,
are held quickly and rigidly in chuck. There are different types of chucks namely, Three jaw universal chuck,
Four jaw independent chuck, Magnetic chuck, Collet chuck and Combination chuck.

 Three Jaw self-centering chuck

The three jaws fitted in the three slots may be made to slide at the same time by an equal amount by rotating
any one of the three pinions by a chuck key. This type of chuck is suitable for holding and rotating regular
shaped workpieces like round or hexagonal rods about the axis of the lathe. Workpieces of irregular shapes
cannot be held by this chuck.

 Four Jaw Independent Chuck

There are four jaws in this chuck. Each jaw is moved independently by rotating a screw with the help of a
chuck key. A particular jaw may be moved according to the shape of the work. Hence this type of chuck can
hold woks of irregular shapes. But it requires more time to set the work aligned with the lathe axis. Experienced
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turners can set the work about the axis quickly. Concentric circles are inscribed on the face of the chuck to
enable quick centering of the workpiece.

 Magnetic Chuck
The holding power of this chuck is obtained by the magnetic flux radiating from the electromagnet placed
inside the chuck. Magnets are adjusted inside the chuck to hold or release the work. Workpieces made of
magnetic material only are held in this chuck. Very small, thin and light works which cannot be held in an
ordinary chuck are held in this chuck.

 Collet Chuck
Collet chuck has a cylindrical bushing known as collet. It is made of spring steel and has slots cut lengthwise
on its circumference. So, it holds the work with more grip. Collet chucks are used in capstan lathes and
automatic lathes for holding bar stock in production work.
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3.3.2 Face plate

Faceplate is used to hold large, heavy and irregular shaped workpieces which cannot be conveniently held
between centers. It is a circular disc bored out and threaded to fit to the nose of the lathe spindle. It is provided
with radial plain and ‘T’ – slots for holding the work by bolts and clamps.

3.3.3 Driving Plate

The driving plate is used to drive a workpiece when it is held between centers. It is a circular disc screwed to
the nose of the lathe spindle. It is provided with small bolts or pins on its face. Workpieces fitted inside straight
tail carriers are held and rotated by driving plates.
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3.3.4 Catch Plate

When a workpiece is held between centers, the catch plate is used to drive it. It is a circular disc bored and
threaded at the center. Catch plates are designed with ‘U’ – slots or elliptical slots to receive the bent tail of
the carrier. Positive drive between the lathe spindle and the workpiece is effected when the workpiece fitted
with the carrier fits into the slot of the catch plate.

3.3.5 Carriers
When a workpiece is held, and machined between centers, carriers are useful in trans- mitting the driving force
of the spindle to the work by means of driving plates and catch plates. The work is held inside the eye of the
carrier and tightened by a screw. Carriers are of two types and they are:
 Straight tail carrier
 Bent tail carrier
Straight tail carrier is used to drive the work by means of the pin provided in the driving plate. The tail of the
bent tail carrier fits into the slot of the catch plate to drive the work.
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3.3.6 Mandrel
A previously drilled or bored workpiece is held on a mandrel to be driven in a lathe and machined. There are
center holes provided on both faces of the mandrel. The live center and the dead center fit into the center holes.
A carrier is attached at the left side of the mandrel. The mandrel gets the drive either through a catch plate or
a driving plate. The workpiece rotates along with the mandrel. There are several types of mandrels and they
are:

 Plain mandrel
The body of the plain mandrel is slightly tapered to provide proper gripping of the workpiece. The taper will
be around 1 to 2mm for a length of 100mm. It is also known as solid mandrel. It is the type mostly commonly
used and has wide application.

 Gang Mandrel
It has a fixed collar at one end and a movable collar at the threaded end. This man- drew is used to hold a set
of hollow workpieces between the two collars by tightening the nut.

 Screwed Mandrel
It is threaded at one end and a collar is attached to it. Workpieces having internal threads are screwed on to it
against the collar for machining.
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 Cone Mandrel
It consists of a solid cone attached to one end of the body and a sliding cone, which can be adjusted by turning
a nut at the threaded end. This type is suitable for driving workpieces having different hole diameters.

3.3.7 Centers
Centers are useful in holding the work in a lathe between centers. The shank of a center has Morse taper on it
and the face is conical in shape. There are two types of centers namely
 Live center
 Dead center
The live center is fitted on the headstock spindle and rotates with the work. The center fitted on the tailstock
spindle is called dead center. It is useful in supporting the other end of the work. Centers are made of high
carbon steel and hardened and then tempered. So, the tip of the centers is wear resistant. Different types of
centers are available accord- in to the shape of the work and the operation to be performed. They are
 Ball center
 Ordinary center
 Half center
 Tipped center
 Pipe center
 Revolving Centre
 Inserted type center
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3.3.8 Rests
A rest is a mechanical device to support a long slender workpiece when it is turned between centers or by a
chuck. It is placed at some intermediate point to prevent the workpiece from bending due to its own weight
and vibrations setup due to the cutting force. There are two different types of rests
 Follower rest
 Steady rest

 Steady rest
Steady rest is made of cast iron. It may be made to slide on the lathe bed ways and clamped at any desired
position where the workpiece needs sup- port. It has three jaws. These jaws can be adjusted according to the
diameter of the work. Machining is done upon the distance starting from the headstock to the point of support
of the rest. One or more steady rests may be used to sup- port the free end of a long work.

 Follower rest
It consists of a ‘C’ like casting having two adjustable jaws to support the workpiece. The rest is bolted to the
back end of the carriage. During machining, it supports the work and moves with the carriage. So, it follows
the tool to give continuous support to the work to be able to machine along the entire length of the work.
In order to reduce friction between the work and the jaws, proper lubricant should be used.
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ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP TOOLS

4.1 Tools:
 Plier:
Pliers are a hand tool used to hold objects firmly, possibly developed from tongs used to handle hot metal in
Bronze Age Europe.

 Nose Plier:
Nose pliers are both cutting and holding pliers used by artisans, jewelry designers, electricians, network
engineers and other tradesmen to bend, re-position and snip wire.

 Combination Plier:
Combination pliers are a type of pliers used by electricians and other tradesmen primarily for gripping,
twisting, bending and cutting wire and cable.

 Needle Nose Plier:

Needle nose pliers (also known as pointy nose pliers) are both cutting and holding pliers used by artisans,
jewelry designers, electricians, network engineers and other tradesmen to bend, re-position and snip wire.

 Round Nose Plier:

Round nose pliers are a specialized plier characterized by their rounded, tapering jaws and most commonly
used for creating loops in pieces of wire by electricians and jewelers.
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 Hammer:
a tool with a heavy metal head mounted at right angles at the end of a handle, used for jobs such as breaking
things and driving in nails.

 Spanner:
a tool with a shaped opening or jaws for gripping and turning a nut or bolt.

 Adjustable Spanner:
An adjustable wrench or adjustable spanner is a wrench with a jaw of adjustable width, allowing it to be used
with different sizes of fastener head (nut, bolt, etc. rather than just one fastener, as with a conventional fixed
spanner.

 Screw Driver:
A screwdriver is a tool, manual or powered, for turning driving or removing screws. A typical simple
screwdriver has a handle and a shaft, and a tip that the user inserts into the screw head to turn it.
 39

 Flat Blade Screw Driver:

A slotted flat blade screwdriver is a long standard hand tool dating back to the 1500's. It has a flat bladed tip
used to turn, fasten or loosen screws and bolts.

 Knife Cutter:
It is a knife that slide up and down in a plastic type cover. It is used for cutting the insulation of wires.

 Digital Multimeter:
A digital multimeter (DMM) is a test tool used to measure two or more electrical values principally voltage
(volts), current (amps) and resistance (ohms). It is a standard diagnostic tool for technicians in the
electrical/electronic industries.

4.2 Power Cables

4.2.1 Construction:
One wire is the center conductor and the other is the outer conductor. These conductors are covered by a
protective jacket. The protective jacket is then covered by an outer protective armor. Coaxial cables are used
as transmission lines and are constructed to provide protection against outside signal interference.
Working voltage: determining the thickness of the insulation.
Current carrying capacity: determining the cross-sectional size of the conductor
Environmental Factors: such as temperature, water, chemical or sunlight exposure, and mechanical impact,
determining the form and composition of the outer cable jacket.
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4.2.2 Types of Electrical Cables

Majority depends on cable insulation, core of cable.
4.2.2(a) ACCORDING TO INSULATION:
There are 5 types.
 VIR:
VIR insulation is applied on cables of low and medium voltage. Vulcanized rubber contains Sulphur, which
react readily with copper. A thin layer of pure rubber is first applied beneath the VIR insulation.

 PVC:
PVC Cable is the most common type of cable used today and consists of a chemical compound called Poly
Vinyl Chloride. If a fire occurs, burning PVC Cable can emit large quantities of dense black toxic smoke, and
significant amounts of hydrochloric acid.

 CTS:
As rubber is easily damaged, a protective layer of tarred jute braiding is applied over it. Conductors with VIR
insulation and protective cover of tough rubber are called tough rubber sheathed (TRS) and cab tyre sheathed
CTS.

 LS:
LS cable is a vulcanized cable insulated conductor covered with a continuous sheath of lead. The lead sheath
provides good protection against mechanical injury and so can be used without casing system.
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 WP:
These cables are used for out-door wiring and for power supply or industrial supply. These cables are either
PVC insulated or vulcanized insulated-rubbers conductors being suitably taped. These cables are not affect
by sun or rain or heat.

4.2.2(b) ACCORDING TO CORE

 Single core cable:
Single core cable is mostly used for industrial applications where it is run in conduits. In domestic wiring, it
is usually only used for certain situations. Here they consist of stranded conductors twisted together and
housed in a PVC covering.

 Double core cable:

2 core cable (live and neutral) for ‘Class II’ or ‘Double Insulated’ appliances which do not require an earth
connection.
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 Triple core cable:

3 core cable (live, neutral and earth ⏚) is for ‘Class I’ or ‘Single Insulated’ appliances which must have an
earth connection.

 Four core cable:

Finely stranded bare copper flexible conductor. Insulation: Oil & water resistant thermoplastic rubber, Sheath:
Black heavy duty thermoplastic rubber. Core Colors: 4core: Red, Yellow, Blue, Green or Black.

4.3 Types of wiring

4.3.1 Cleat Wiring:
This system of wiring comprises of ordinary VIR or PVC insulated wires (occasionally, sheathed and weather
proof cable) braided and compounded held on walls or ceilings by means of porcelain cleats, Plastic or wood.
Cleat wiring system is a temporary wiring system therefore it is not suitable for domestic premises. The use
of cleat wiring system is over nowadays. It is simple and cheap wiring system Most suitable for temporary
use i.e. under construction building or army camping.

4.3.2 Capping wiring:

Casing and Capping wiring system was famous wiring system in the past but, it is considered obsolete this
days because of Conduit and sheathed wiring system. The cables used in this kind of wiring were either VIR
 43

or PVC or any other approved insulated cables. It is cheap wiring system as compared to sheathed and conduit
wiring systems. It is strong and long-lasting wiring system.

4.3.3 Conduit wiring:

There are two additional types of conduit wiring according to pipe installation
 Surface Conduit Wiring
 Concealed Conduit Wiring
Surface Conduit Wiring
If conduits installed on roof or wall, it is known as surface conduit wiring. in this wiring method, they make
holes on the surface of wall on equal distances and conduit is installed then with the help of rawal plugs.
Concealed Conduit wiring
If the conduits are hidden inside the wall slots with the help of plastering, it is called concealed conduit wiring.
In other words, the electrical wiring system inside wall, roof or floor with the help of plastic or metallic piping
is called concealed conduit wiring. obliviously, it is the most popular, beautiful, stronger and common
electrical wiring system nowadays.

4.3.4 TRS wiring:

Single core or double core or three core TRS cables with a circular oval shape cables are used in this kind of
wiring. Mostly, single core cables are preferred. TRS cables are chemical proof, water proof, steam proof, but
are slightly affected by lubricating oil. The TRS cables are run on well-seasoned and straight teak wood batten
with at least a thickness of 10mm. Wiring installation is simple and easy. cheap as compared to other electrical
wiring systems