Keypoints Xii Bio RO Watermark

Prof.
Muhammad Saleem Mughal 31

UNIT – 15
HOMEOSTASIS
Key Points:
➢ Organisms have to maintain a steady internal environment to face the harsh fluctuating external conditions.
➢ Biologists term the maintenance of a steady state as homeostasis. It is a set of regulatory mechanisms which are involved in
maintaining organism’s internal environment within suitable limits.
➢ The word environment refers to the condition in which an organism lives.
➢ The important aspects of internal environment that must be kept constant are osmoregulation (regulation of osmotic pressure
of cell determined by the relative concentration of solutes and water); excretion (removal of excess substances, unwanted or
toxic metabolic by-products); and thermoregulation (regulation of temperature up to a tolerable limit).
Feed Back System

➢ Homeostasis requires a check and balance mechanism operating in the body.
➢ This check and balance mechanism is termed as feedback system.
➢ As soon as any change in any substance of internal environment takes place, it is detected usually by special organs called
receptors and immediately reported to a control centre, which decides about appropriate response and consequently it
sends its instructions accordingly to some other organs called effectors.
➢ Negative feedback refers to opposite effect produced in relation to any change in the body fluids.
➢ Positive feedback refers to the series of similar effects produced which lead tothe enhancement of the change under consideration.
Osmoregulation
➢ Osmoregulation involves maintaining a balance between water and solute content of cells.
➢ It is a special kind of diffusion in which water molecules move from higher concentration toward lower concentration across
the plasma membrane.
➢ Thermodynamically speaking the potential energy of water in the region of its higher concentration is greater than its
potential energy in the regions of lower concentration.
➢ The potential energy of water molecules can be termed as water potential.
➢ General it can be defined as the capacity of a living system to lose water.
➢ The concentration of a solution is expressed either as water potential (in case of plant) or osmotic pressure (in case of animals)
which shows relative amount of water and solutes in a cell.
➢ In case of plants cells, the water potential of cell sap (solution in vacuole) is termed as solute potential.
➢ If a plant cell is placed in pure water or solution of higher water potential than the solution in its vacuole, the water moves from outside to
inside the cell (endosmosis) and ultimately into the vacuole. As a result the cell swells or becomes turgid.
➢ Suchan externalsolution is calledhypotonic (solutionofhigherwater potentialor lower osmotic potential or lowersolutepotential).
➢ Within the bodies of higher animals the tissue fluid is maintained at the same water potential called isotonic as the cell solution.
➢ When a cell is placed in concentrated solution or hypertonic solution, there is a net movement of water out of the cell. As a
result the cell becomes flaccid under such condition, the cytoplasm with its plasma membrane of plant cell shrinks from the
cell wall. This condition is called plasmolysis.
Osmoregulation in Plants
➢ Depending upon the availability of water to flowering plants in their natural habitat, they are grouped into
categories i.e. Hydrophytes, Halophytes, Mesophytes and Xerophytes.
➢ The plants such as water lily, which are found in fresh water habitat either partly or completely submerged,
are termed as hydrophytes.
➢ They do not have any difficult in obtaining water.
➢ The stems and leaves of hydrophytes generally lack cuticle.
➢ They stomata are large and present on the upper surfaces of leaves.
➢ The plants growing in salt marshes close to sea are termed as halophytes. They have to absorb water from
such a soil, which has higher salt concentration and therefore lower water potential (higher osmotic pressure).
➢ Halophytes cope with this situation by actively absorbing salts into their roots. The excess salt can be stored
in cells or excreted out from salt glands on the leaves. The salt thus secreted by some species help them to
trap water vapours from the air.
➢ Mesophytes are most of the land plants of temperate zones, which grow in well watered soil. To prevent
excessive transpiration they have developed a water proof external covering called cuticle.
➢ Plants living in dry places, xerophytes have developed following adaptations to conserve water and to survive
during drought condition. The protoplasm of these structures are quite concentrated and usually protected
externally by hard coats and thus these structures remain viable for a considerable period of time.
➢ Development of very deept vertical roots superficial, horizontal root which can absorb water before it
evaporates from the soil.
➢ Reduction in number of stomata in desert some plants store water in large parencymatous cells present in
stem or leaves. Such plants are termed as succulents.
Osmoregulation in Animals
Prof. Muhammad Saleem Mughal 32
➢ Animal cells when placed in hypotonic solution burst due continuous absorption of water.
➢ They would shrink and die if constantly placed in hypertonic solution.
➢ Among various animal groups only arthropods and vertebrates became the most successful land dwellers.
They have developed number of strategies such as cuticle, keratinized external surface, storing and excreting
wastes, etc to maintain osmoregulation of their body fluid.
➢ Fresh water protoctists have higher osmotic pressure than their surrounding water so the water constantly
comes in by osmosis. If it is not regulated, the organism would burst. Therefore the excess water is stored in
contractile vacuole.
➢ Marine bony fishes have hypotonic internal environment so they are liable to lose water. Thus in order to
conserve water, they constantly drink water.
➢ The salts taken in along with water are actively excreted by special excretory cells in the gills.
➢ Unlike marine bony fishes, sharks and rays maintain relatively slightly hypertonic osmotic pressure of body
fluids than their surrounding by storing high concentration of urea in the bodies. Thus they do not have
problem of water loss.
➢ Excess salts are removed by special glands in their rectum.
Excretion
➢ The process of removal of metabolic wastes; excess substances such as salts, water and toxic substances such as drugs from the
body. In a restricted sense it is the process of removal of nitrogenous metabolic wastes.
Excretion in Plants
➢ Green plans do not excrete nitrogenous wastes; on the contrary they cycle breakdown products of nitrogen metabolic.
➢ The metabolism of plants is mostly carbohydrate based plants do not possess any organ exclusively meant for excretion.
➢ Certain substance which accumulates to levels in excess of plants needs, such as water, carbon dioxide, oxygen and certain ions, are
to be eliminated.
➢ Plants get rid ofsurplus water bylosing it in vapour from which diffuse out through stomata. This process is known as transpiration.
➢ Some land plants exude water from points called hydathodes found at the margins and tip of leaves. This loss of water in liquid
form is known as guttation.
➢ Ions present in excessive concentration combine with organic compounds and are deposited in dead cells.
Excretion in Animals
➢ In different groups of animals, different nitrogenous substances such as ammonia, urea, uric acid, creatinine
or trimethylamine oxide, hypoxanthine etc are produced as a consequence of proteins and nucleic acid
metabolism.
➢ Ammonia is a small gaseous molecule and is highly soluble in water. It can diffuse very rapidly across the
plasma membrane even when dissolved in water.
➢ This nitrogenous waste is highly toxic if remains in the organism. Its toxicity is reduced when diluted with
large quantities of water. However, its removal requires a lot of water for its dilution.
➢ Ammonia is typically associated with aquatic animals particularly fresh water habitat.
➢ In fish most of the ammonia is excreted through gills as ammonium ions with kidneys playing a minor role
in the excretion of nitrogenous wastes.
➢ Terrestrial animals such as mammals who cannot afford to lose lot of water during the excretion of
nitrogenous wastes switched over from ammonia to urea.
➢ Conversion of ammonia to urea requires ATP.
➢ Urea is produced in the liver by a metabolic cycle that combines NH3 to CO2.
➢ Formation of uric acid requires ATP.
➢ Uric acid is excreted by terrestrial animals such as birds, many reptiles, insects gastropods who need to
minimize loss of water and have eggs enclosed in shells.
➢ In hydra, nitrogenous waste is in the form of ammonia. It is removed by simple diffusion from the external
surface as well as internal surface.
Excretion in Planaria
➢ Free living flaworms like planaria have developed a tubular excretory system.
➢ In planaria the excretory system consist of two longitudinal branching tubules or excretory canals lying or
either lateral side and extending along the entire length of the animal.
➢ Each tubule opens to the external surface of the animals by many excretory pores.
➢ Internally in the mesencyme, each tubule gives out numerous blind bulb-like cells called flame cells or protonephridia. Each
flame cell is hollow inside and bears a tuft to cilia which beat in manner like flickering flame.
➢ It seems that flame cell functions mainly in osmoregulation and most metabolic wastes are removed from
body surface or excreted in the gut where in some parasitic flatworms which are isotonic to the body fluids
of their hosts, the flame cell perform excretion of nitrogenous wastes.
Excretion in Earthworm
➢ Earthworms have combined excretory and osmoregulatory organs called metanephridia.
➢ Each metanephridium is a highly coiled tubule immersed in coelomic fluid.
➢ It is opened at both the ends. Its internal opening called nephrostome.
Excretion in Cockroach
➢ Cockroach and other insects have excretory system which consists of long, thin, blind tubules called
malpighian tubules which arise from the junction of midgut and hindgut.
➢ Malpighian tubules are immersed in the haemolymph (fluid of body cavity).
➢ Rectum stores uric acid for the reabsorption of salts and water so the uric acid becomes almost dry and pass
out along with faeces.
Excretion in Man
➢ Excretory organs in man as well as other mammals are comprised of kidney, liver and the skin; these organs
play extremely important role in maintaining homeostasis in the body.
➢ Kidneys maintain osmoregulation and eliminate nitrogenous wastes, excess salts and excess water .
Liver
➢ Liver excretes nitrogenous wastes bile pigments etc skin excretes salts and some other substances along with
sweat during perspiration.
➢ Liver is a large radish brown glandular organ located in the abdomen.
➢ It is a metabolic center.
➢ A sac like gall bladder is attached with it for the storage of bile secreted by liver.
➢ Bile is poured into the duodenum by a bile duct. Rest of its products is released into the blood through hepatic vein.
➢ It maintains concentration of glucose in the blood.
➢ Glycogen is broken down into glucose in the liver and supplied to the body.
➢ If glycogen store is depleted then amino acids may converted into glucose.
➢ The liver removes lipids from the blood either by oxidation or by modification and subsequently stores as fat.
➢ It can also synthesize non-essential amino acids as well as plasma proteins.
➢ The body cannot store excess proteins or amino acid so any excess amount of amino acid is broken down.
➢ Amino group (-NH2) is converted into ammonia while rest of the residual of amino group is supplied to
carbohydrates metabolism for respiration.
➢ Ammonia is converted to a less toxic substance urea.
➢ It is a yellowish green alkaline fluid containing bile pigment (such as bilirubin) salts (such as sodium
glycocholate, sodium taurocholate), cholesterol phospholipids and mucous.
➢ Bile pigments are the excretory products of heme part of the broken haemoglobin of worn out R.B.Cs.
➢ Bile salts are involved in the emulsification of fats in small intestine.
➢ It can modify the structure of many drugs and poison to make hydrogen peroxide a by product of many pathways
highly toxic substance. It is broken down to hydrogen and oxygen by an enzyme catalase.
➢ Cholesterol is chiefly synthesized here and if in excess it is removed in bile. Its excess amount in gall bladder
can precipitate to form gall stone which may lead to jaundice.
➢ Due to its efficient blood supply large size and high metabolic rate, liver plays important role in maintaining body temperature.
➢ Liver stores a number of vitamins such as A, B, D, E, K.
Urinary system of Man

➢ Urinary system of man consist of a pair of bean shaped organs called kidneys, a pair of ducts called ureters which arise
from each kidney, a muscular sac-like organ the urinary bladder and a tube called urethra.
➢ Each kidney is a bean shaped organ which is about 10cm long.
➢ Each kidney is enclosed by a thin membranous covering called peritoneum located on the top of each kidney
is adrenal gland.
➢ The kidneys receive blood through paired renal arteries.
➢ Both renal arteries enter and renal veins leave kidney at the site called hilus.
➢ A longitudinal section of kidney shows that it consists of two distinct regions, an outer darker region, the
cortex; and an inner lighter region the medulla.
➢ The Medulla consists of many cone shaped structures called pyramids.
Nephron
➢ Each kidney is composed of about a million microscopic tubules or nephrons.
➢ Nephron is regarded as structural and functional unit of kidney.
➢ Each nephron begins with a spherical structure called malpighian body. It lies in the cortex of kidney.
➢ Malpighian body is composed of cup like Bowman’s capsule. Inside this cup lies a dense network of
capillaries known as glomerulus.
➢ Blood supply to the glomerulus begins as an afferent arteriole.
➢ From the glomerulus, blood is carried by the efferent arteriole to two capillary networks.
➢ One of the network called peritubular capillaries is associated with proximal and distal convoluted tubules
while the other one called vasa recta runs parallel to the loop of Henle’s.
➢ Them kidney performs regulatory functions by different process viz. filtration, reabsorption, tubular secretion
and counter current exchanges.
➢ It has been calculated that about 1100 to 2000 litres of blood flows through the kidney each day. The nephrons
and collecting ducts process about 180 liters of filtrate.
➢ Ultra filtration in the first stage in the non-selective ultra filtration.
➢ Both the capillary walls of glomerulus and the walls of Bowman’s capsule are sieve like in nature which
permits all the molecules except plasma protein and blood cells to pass through them.
➢ Active reabsorption of the glomerular filtrate occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule. Here glucose amino
acids water, salts are reabsorbed.
➢ Reabsorption of water also occurs when the filtrate passes from the proximal convoluted tubule.
➢ The descending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to water and sodium but almost impermeable to any other solutes.
➢ The ascending limb is impermeable towater. Here reabsorption ofsodium and chloride ions takes place through active transport.
➢ The fluid that leaves the ascending limb and collected by distal convoluted tubule is slightly hypotonic to the blood plasma.
➢ In the distal convoluted tubule concentration of various salts is adjusted under the influence of hormones.
➢ At the level of both proximal as well as distal convoluted tubules, some poisonous substances as well as
nitrogenous substances such as ammonia, urea, uric acid, creatinine are secreted from the blood directly into
the filtrate by active transport.
➢ Hydrogen and Ammonium ions secretion from the interstitial fluid into the distal convoluted tubule plays
important role in the maintenance of acid base balance in the blood.
➢ One of the counter current as counter current multiplier in the loop of Henle.
➢ This counter current multiplier is involved in developing concentration of ions across the medulla.
➢ The sodium and chloride ions removed from the ascending limb slowly diffuse back in the descending limb.
This maintains highest concentration of solutes (Na, urea) in the inner medulla. Due to the hypertonic
environment almost 90% of water of the filtrate is reabsorbed.
➢ Urine passes outside the body is hypertonic to the body fluids.
➢ The other counter current system is composed of vasa recta, the blood vessels that run parallel to the loop of Henle.
➢ The blood supply to vasa recta provides sufficient nourishment and oxygen to the cells of medulla and also takes away the
water absorbed from the filtrate without affecting the concentration gradient of medulla.
➢ The degree of concentration of urine is determined by the length of the loop of Henle.
➢ Generally longer length of the loop of Henle’s causes higher concentration of salts in the medulla which is
ultimately related to the higher rate of exosmosis of water from the collecting duct thereby more
concentrating the urine.
➢ Cortical nephrons have short loop of Henle with a slight extension into the medulla.
➢ Juxtamedullary nephrons have longer loop of Henle extending deep into the modulla. Thus greater the demand of
conserving water, the greater would be number of juxta medullary nephrons in the kidney.
➢ The permeability of the walls of the collecting ducts to water is regulated by antidiuretic hormone or vasopressin. It is
secreted by posterior pituitary gland in response to increased osmotic pressure of the blood.
➢ The concentration of sodium ions in the body fluids is controlled by another hormone called aldosterone secreted by
adrenal cortex. It increases the reabsorption of sodium ions in the nephrons.
➢ Similarly the concentration of calcium ions in the blood is controlled by Parathormone secreted by
parathyroid gland which increases the reabsorption of calcium ions in nephrons.
➢ Urine contains about 95% water and 5% solids.
➢ The analysis of composition of urine sample is an important medical procedure in diagnosis of various
metabolic disorders infections, pregnancy and kidney diseases.
Kidney Problems
➢ Kidney stones or calculi are termed as infective stone.
➢ Such calculi consist of combination of calcium magnesium and ammonium phosphate.
➢ Some stones (about 5%) are formed by uric acid.
➢ Lithotripsy is a recent method for removing kidney and ureteral stones.
➢ There is a reduction in the ability of the kidney to filter waste products form the blood and excrete them in urine.
➢ Dialysis is technique used to remove waste products from the blood and excess fluids from the body as a
treatment for renal failure.
➢ There are two methods of a dialysis i.e. haemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.
Thermoregulation
➢ It is maintenance of body temperature within a range that enables the body to function efficiently.
➢ The normal temperature range for active life is 100C to 350C for most of the organisms.
Thermoregulation in Plants
➢ The temperature influences directly upon membrane properties as well as metabolism of cells.
➢ Low temperature affects the fluid nature of plasma membrane of plant cell. Under such conditions the plants
cells increase the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids which prevent crystal formation.
➢ The low temperature at the level of freezing point causes ice crystal formation in cell.
➢ This is avoided by the plants inhibiting cold regions by developing freezing tolerance in which composition of solutes of
cells is altered in the way that ice crystals are formed in the cell wall rather than the cytosol.
➢ AT 400C or above most of the plant cells synthesize heat shock proteins that protect enzymes and other
proteins from denaturing due to higher temperature.
➢ In addition to these mechanisms plants have some other ways of avoiding overheating such as shiny cuticle,
a small leaf surface, wilting etc.
Thermoregulation in Animals
➢ Externally heat is obtained either directly from solar radiation or indirectly by radiation, convection and
conduction from the environment which in metabolism and muscular contractions.
➢ Organisms lose heat by radiation conduction and convection from their surfaces and through evaporation of water.
➢ Animals can be divided into two categories on the basis of their thermal characteristics Poikilotherms (cold
blooded) and Homoiotherms (warm blooded).
➢ Poikilotherm are those animals whose body temperature changes in accordance with the fluctuation of the
environmental temperature.
➢ Homoiotherms are those animals who have constant body temperature which is independent of the environment.
➢ Under the circumstances the terms poikilotherm and homoiotherm have been replaced by ectotherm and
endotherm, respectively.
➢ Ectotherms are those animals which absorb heat energy from their environment.
➢ They have behavioral means of thermogulation.
➢ Endotherms are those that generate their own heat energy. They have physiological as well as behavioural
means of thermoregulation.
➢ Another category is heterotherms that generate heat of varying degrees so their body temperature is kept in
a wider range. Bats humming birds fall into this group.
Means of thermoregulation
➢ This regulation involves some behavioral means exhibited by animals.
➢ It involves the regulation of the body temperature by some physiological means.
➢ The basal metabolism of the body generates heat in endotherms including birds and mammals that maintain
high body temperature within the range of 36/43C.
➢ In maintaining the body temperature they have to regulate the heat loss/heat conservation also.
➢ In some mammals yet there is another unique way of thermogeneiss due to a specialized tissue called brown fat found in
the neck and between the shoulders that is specialized for rapid heat production.
Non-shivering Thermogenesis
➢ The physiological mechanism of non-shivering thermoregulation involves erection of hair, reduction in blood
flow towards skin and sub-cutaneous fat accumulation.
Shivering Thermogenesis
➢ Shivering thermogenesis involves increase in muscle tone, initially under nervous control.
➢ If the cold continues shivering beings which generates heat in muscles.
➢ Behavioral mechanisms include moving to a warmer location huddling close together with other individual,
in human putting on additional clothes.
Thermoregulation in hot temperature

➢ The physiological mechanisms involve lowering the hairs which reduces the insulating effect. Also there is
reduction in subcutaneous fat.
➢ In case excessive secreting seat from the sweat glands in the skin.
➢ To promote heat loss, vasodilation of arterioles of skin occurs so more blood flows towards the body surface.
➢ Hypothalamus is the part of brain, which has thermoregulatory centre. It is commonly called as thermostat of the body.
Fever
➢ Fever or pyrexia is defined as body temperature above normal set point.
➢ The fever in case of infection is a consequence of the activity of macrophage, which release pyrogens to
raise the body temperature to inhibit the growth of pathogenic microorganisms.
UNIT 16
Support and Movement
SUPPORT IN PLANTS
➢ Plants require some tissues and some materials for support.
➢ Young stems are provided support through turgidity of parenchymal cells, thick walled living collenchyma
cells, dead tissues sclerenchyma and stele.
➢ PARENCHYMA: Simple kind of unspecialized vegetative cells present in epidermis, cortex and pith.
➢ Whole body of Bryophyte consists of Parenchyma.
➢ Parenchyma cells do not have secondary cell walls. They have support through turgidity.
➢ COLLENCHYMA:Living cells with irregular thickened walls, they support in young plants in the stems of
non-woody plants and leaves
➢ SCLERENCHYMA: Dead cells with lignified secondary walls. Fibers and sclereids are two types of
sclerenchyma.
➢ Fibers are elongated cells with tapered end
➢ Sclereids are irregular in shape and strongest in support. Common in hard parts of the seeds.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SECONDARY TISSUES:
➢ Tissues which are formed by the activity of vascular cambium and cork cambium are secondary tissues
➢ It is responsible for secondary growth
➢ Vascular cambium produces secondary xylem and secondary phloem
➢ Cork cambium produces tough and thick covering for stem
➢ Vascular cambium produces secondary xylem towards inside and secondary phloem towards the outside of
vascular cambium
➢ WOOD: Secondary xylem forms wood which mainly consists of tracheids, vessels ( in angiosperms) and
fibers.
➢ ANNUAL RINGS: The concentric layers of secondary xylem. Each annual ring consists of two zones, an
inner of SPRING WOOD and an outer zone of SUMMER WOOD. The annual rings provide estimation of
the age of a tree.
➢ CORK CAMBIUM (Phellogen): Appears in the cortex. The inner cells are parenchymatous while the outer
cells are phelloderm secrete a waxy material, SUBERIN and then die. The waxy nature prevents loss of water
from the stem. These are cork tissues.
➢ LENTICELS: Intercellular spaces formed by loosely arranged cells for the exchange of gases and water
vapours.
➢ CALLUS: Cambium forms callus around the wound in stem or root.
MOVEMENT IN PLANTS:
➢ Any action taken by the living organism in relation to stimuli.
➢ On the basis of stimuli, there are two types of movements in plants; Autonomic (spontaneous) and Induced
(paratonic)
➢ AUTONOMIC MOVEMENTS are due to internal stimuli. PARATONIC MOVEMENTS are due to external
stimuli
AUTONOMIC MOVEMENTS are Growth and Curvature Movements: Nutation and Nastic Movements
➢ Autonomic Movements are advantageous changes in the form and shape of plants or plant organs due to the
differences in the ratio of growth of different parts. These movements are due to unequal growth on two sides
of plant organs.
o NUTATION: The growth in the apex of young stem takes place in zig zag manner. It helps plant
in climbing around structure like ropes.
o NASTIC: Movement that occur due to differences in the rate of growth on two opposite sides of
plant organ, e.g. opening of the petals.
o TURGOR MOVEMENTS: Movements due to the changes in turgidity, e.g. Movement of touch
me not leaves
PARATONIC MOVEMENTS: Tropic and Nastic movements
o TROPIC: Growth responses that result in curvature of whole plant organs towards or away from
stimuli.
o PHOTOTROPISM (light stimulus), GEOTROPISM (Gravity), CHEMOTROPISM (Chemicals),
HYDROTROPISM (water), THIGMOTROPISM (touch)
o NASTIC: Movement is unrelated to the direction of stimuli. This is observed in leaves and petals
▪ Photonastic (light)
▪ Haptonastic (touch) in insectivores plants
➢ Movement in plants is mainly controlled by Phytohormones
SUPPORT & LOCOMOTION IN ANIMALS

➢ A support came with the development of various type of skeleton.
➢ A skeleton cannot move without muscles.
➢ The nervous system coordinates these skeletal and muscular systems together.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
➢ A skeletal system usually consists of a single or a set of hard structures which provide the body with shape,
support, protection and the power of movement.
➢ An exoskeleton is a hard rigid support which completely surrounds the body like a protective encasement.
➢ An endoskeleton forms a hard rigid frame work inside the body.
➢ In some soft bodied animals, (e.g. cnidarians, helminthes and annelids) with no hard outer or inner skeletal
support, there is a liquid hydrostatic skeleton.
➢ The skeleton with no hard structure is the simplest type of skeleton found in soft bodied invertebrates.
➢ Contraction of circular muscles put a pressure on the body fluids and as a result body becomes elongated and stiff.
➢ When the longitudinal muscles contract the body becomes short and thick.
➢ In an earthworm the alternate contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles exert enough
pressure on the body fluid to lengthen and to shorten, respectively.
➢ An exoskeleton is a hardnonliving external covering thatis secreted theouter epidermal layer ofthe animalbodyitself.
➢ Another type of exoskeleton is a cuticle which is a hard non-living outer covering. It is made up of a
carbohydrate-protein complex called chitin. This is the most complex type of exoskeleton and is found in
arthropods. As the animal grows, it has to shed its exoskeleton and makes a new but larger one. This process
is called moulting (ecdysis).
ENDOSKELETON
➢ Endoskeleton lies inside the body. Although found in a few invertebrates like the spicules of sponges and
calcareous plates of star fishes.
➢ It is only the complex skeleton of vertebrates, which is true endoskeleton.
➢ The endoskeleton in the vertebrates is an internal framework of the body being composed of two types of
living rigid connective tissues) materials, bones and cartilages.
➢ An adult human endoskeleton consists of 206 bones and is divided into an axial skeleton which includes the
skull the sternum the ribs and the vertebrae and an appendicular skeleton which includes the pectoral and
pelvic girdles and the bones of arms and legs.
➢ The axial skeleton is more of a protective nature.
➢ Cranium is made up of eight bones to form a brain box to protect the brain.
➢ The rest of the bones of the skull are called facial bones.
➢ Lower jaw is supported by a single bone called dentary.
➢ It consists of 33 bones (after fusion 26) called vertebrae arranged in curved line and cushioned from one
another by cartilaginous discs preventing the grinding of these bones.
➢ The moveable limbs attached to the axial skeleton constitute the appendicular skeleton.
➢ Each of the human forelimbs contains 30 bones a humerus; two long parallel bones, the radius and ulna at its
distal end; 8 small carpal (wrist) bones; 5 metacarpals (palm bones);14 small bones called phalanges (fingure
bones).
➢ Each pelvic girdle called innominate bone is formed by the fusion of three bones.
➢ The bones of leg include a femur in the thigh connecting the leg with pelvic gridle by a ball and socket join two long parallel
bones, the tibia and fibula in the shank with a small patella bone at the knee.
➢ There are 7 small tarsal bones in the ankle, 5 long slender bones in the sole metatarslas and 14 bones phalanges.
➢ Femur, the bone of the upper leg (thigh) is the longest and strongest bone.
➢ Auditory ossicles are the smallest bones of the body present in the middle ear.
➢ The important functions of endoskeleton are framework of the body, giving a shape to the body, provides surface for the
attachment of muscles and synthesizes new blood cells in its bone marrow.
➢ The endoskeleton of vertebrates is made up of two types of connective tissues, cartilages and bones.
➢ Cells of cartilages called chondrocytes.
➢ The main protein is the matrix is collagen whose fibers give the cartilage strength and elasticity.
➢ In all other vertebrates, embryonic endoskeleton is made up of cartilages.
➢ Cells of bones are called osteocytes. Bone also contains a network of collagen fibers but unlike cartilages it is hardened
by the deposition of osteoblasts and crystals of calcium phosphate. This process, called ossification or calcification, takes
place in the presence of vitamin ‘D’.
➢ Without calcium they remain soft and are hence easily deformed.
JOINTS
➢ The points at which bones connect each other are called joints.
➢ Hip and shoulder joints are examples of ball and socket joint (synovial joints).
➢ The joints of elbow and knee are hinge joints (synovial joints).
➢ Elbow also has a pivot joint which allows a twisting.
➢ Sliding joints connect the bones that meet at your ankle or wrist.
➢ Vertebrae are linked by gliding joints.
➢ The joints described above are the examples of freely moveable joints.
➢ Some joints fit together tightly. These are called fixed joints.
➢ At movable joints, the joining bones are held in place by strong straps of connective tissues called ligaments.
➢ A watery synovial fluid reduces the friction and keeps the joint moving freely.
DEFORMATIES OF ENDOSKELETON
➢ The deformities of skeleton are genetic, hormonal or nutritional.
➢ Genetic disorders of human skeleton include cleft palate and microcephaly.
➢Microcephaly or many types of arthritis, in particularly, arthritis of joints called osteoarthritis.
➢Among the hormonal disorders, the most common is the osteoporosis being far more common in elderly
women because level of their estrogen secretion falls. The bones become porus, thin and weak so
consequently break easily.
➢ Nutritional deficiency or malnutrition in general and deficiency of vitamin ‘D’ in particular decreases the
absorption of calcium which results in softening of the bones and hence the distortion of skeleton. This
disease is called rickets.
➢ Vertebrae of our body are provided with intervertebral discs which act as shock absorbers. Due to a physical
trauma, the cartilaginous ring of a disc ruptures and displaces, it is called a disc slip. This protrusion presses
upon a spinal nerve, emerging from the spinal cord in between the vertebrae causing serve pain and inability
to move.
➢ Spondylosis is a deformity of the joint of two vertebrae particularly of the neck where the space between the two adjacent
vertebrae narrows. This results in pressing upon the nerves emerging from the spinal cord and results in severe pain in neck,
shoulder and upper limbs, etc.
➢ Arthritis is a condition in which a joint becomes swollen, painful and immovable. It may be hereditary or due to a viral
infection or to an injury of sometime only due to aging. In this disease, the smooth and flexible cartilage between the bones
of a joint is denatured by the deposits of calcium.
➢ Sciatica is the severe pain of the hind limb, which occurs when a nerve of the sciatic plexus is being pressed either due to a disc slip in
the lower abdomen or trauma or due to a damage to a branch of sciatic nerve.
➢ Bones are dynamic living tissue and whenever broken start healing like any other damaged tissue ofthe bodydoes.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
➢ Muscles (organ) are made up of muscular tissue.
➢ A muscular tissue is a group of muscle cells (muscle fibers).
➢ The muscle cells are specialized to generate a pulling force that shortens (contracts) the muscle.
➢ Muscles are present in all animals except sponges and cnidarians.
➢ Among the invertebrates, the bodies are composed of muscles.
➢ Only the vertebrates and arthropods have specialized striated muscles and thus can move quickly.
➢ There are more than 600 muscles in human body and almost half of your body weight is due to muscles.
➢ Therearethreetypes ofmuscles invertebratebody. Theyareskeletalmuscles,smoothmuscles and cardiacmuscles.
SMOOTH MUSCLES
➢ Smooth muscles are structurally the simplest of all muscle types.
➢ They are non-striated.
➢ They consist of long spindle shaped uni-nucleated cells that are usually arranged in sheets that surround the
body hollow organs.
➢ Smooth muscles are involuntary.
➢ They are automatic being controlled by autonomic nervous system.
CARDIAC MUSCLES
➢ Cardiacmusclesaresocalledbecausetheyonlyformthemuscularwalls oftheheart ofmanandmostofthevertebrates.
➢ Like smooth muscles, cardiac muscles are involuntaryand branched to create a meshwork of contractile tissue.
➢ They contract and relax continuously in a rhythmic pattern.
➢ This rhythmic contraction, called heart beat is initiated in a specialized area of heart called sino-atrial node
or pace-maker.
➢ This autonomic nervous system can only modify the rate of pace maker.
SKELETAL MUSCLES
➢ These are the muscles associated with bones. They are voluntary and striated.
➢ Some skeletal muscles are directly attached to the outer coving of the bones whereas a few terminate into a tough non-elastic tissue
called tendon, which connects these muscles to the bones.
➢ Muscles must attach at two points for movement to occur.
➢ The attachment to the stationary part is called origin.
➢ The attachment to the moveable part is called insertion.
➢ Each skeletal muscle is actually a bundle of long and parallel closely packed thread like multinucleated cells
called muscle fibers.
➢ Each fiber is covered by plasma membrane, the sarcolemma.
➢ Each of these cylindrical fibers is itself composed of many individual ultramicroscopic contractile, myofibrils. These are made up of a linear
series ofsarcomeres which are separated from one another bydark ‘Z’ lines.
➢ Between the ‘Z’ lines are dark and light zones.
➢ Each of the myofibril is composed of smaller parts, the microfilaments more simply called filaments which
are of two types, thick and thin.
➢ The thicker filaments are made up of protein myosin.
➢ Each myosin filament is surrounded by six thin filaments which are made up of proteins called actin
tropomycin and troponin.
➢ The dark and light bands of the fibers result from a regular over lapping pattern of these thin and thick filaments.
➢ Each sarcomere has a pair of light staining I-bands.
➢ A-bands are located between the outer I-banks and a lightlystaining H-zone is located in the centre of A-band.
➢ I-band contains only the thin filaments, the H-zone has only thick filaments and the part of A-bank on either
side of H-zone represents the region of overlapping and contains both thin and thick filaments and hence
looks darker.
➢ The most widely accepted hypothesis has been proposed by Huxley.
➢ Whenever a muscle contracts, the sarcomere shorten and width of dark and light bands changes. This important clue led Huxley
to present his sliding filament theory of muscle. According to his explanation, thin and thick filaments of a muscle fiber move
together by sliding over each other.
➢ The bulbous heads projecting from the ends of myosin filament, which act like cross bridges to hook into special sites on act
in filaments.
➢ The filaments do not contract themselves but slide over each other to shorten the muscle fiber.
➢ A fully contracted sarcomere can shorten by 35% of its total length.
➢ Each cross bridge repeats its bending movement 50-100 times within a fraction of second or several hundred
times each second.
➢ Once an impulse reaches a muscle fiber there is an all or not response either the muscle contract fully or it does not
contract at all. There is no partial contraction for a given fiber.
➢ The strength of contraction depends on how may motor units are contracting motor unit is a set of all the muscle fibers innervated
by the branches of a single neuron and a single muscles is made up of many motor units.
➢ The contraction of a muscle depends upon three factor nerve impulse, energy and calcium ions.
➢ Muscles are stimulated to contract by nerve impulses message from the brain the travel along the motor
nerves from brain or spinal cord.
➢ The muscles are if their stimulant nerve damages or is cut away, as the case is with polio infection.
➢ Energy required for muscle contraction comes from food through some intermediate compounds.
➢ Creatine phosphate serves as muscle reserve of high energy phosphate continually replenishing ATPs
consumed during muscular activity.
➢ Calcium ions are stored in abundance in sarcoplasmic reticulum.
➢ These calcium ions bind to troponin moleculets attached at regular intervals with tropomycin.
➢ After contraction has occurs and impulse stopped, the free calcium ions flow back into sarcoplasmic reticulum.
➢ During a heavy or prolonged exercise when enough oxygen is not available, muscle cells receive supply of
ATP through fermentation also called anaerobic respiration. During fermentation, glucose is converted into
lactic acid.
➢ The accumulation of lactic acid in the muscle produces a tiring condition of the muscle known as fatigue.
ABNORMAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION
➢ Tetany and muscle cramps are the common abnormal muscle contractions.
➢ Tetany is a sudden involuntary contraction of striated muscle which is caused by low level of calcium in the
blood. It usually occurs in a limb muscles.
➢ Cramp occurs due to dehydration, electrolyte imbalance or a low blood sugar level, particularly after a heavy
exercise. Sportsmen are more prone to it.
ARRANGEMENT OF MUSCLES
➢ When one muscle of a pair contracts to bend a joint, the other muscle of the pair contracts to straighten the
join. Such a set of muscles is called antagonistic muscles.
➢ When biceps (flexor) contract, your arm bends at elbow joint.
➢ Muscles that bend the joints are called flexors whereas the muscles which open or straighten a joint are called
extensors.
➢ Protractor and retractor muscles move the arm in forward and backward direction; abductor and adductor
muscles allow the arm to move away from the body and towards the body; and rotator muscles help the arm
to rotate in all the direction even in a circle.
LOCOMOTION IN PROTOZOA
➢ Locomotion in Protozoa is usually carried out by appendages like outgrowths of the cell. They are of three types; i.e.,
pseudopodia in Amoeba, Cilia in Paramecium and flagella in Euglena.
➢ Locomotion in Amoeba is called amoeboid movement.
➢ Pseudopodia are temporarily formed finger like projections of cytoplasm.
➢ Amoeboid movement depends upon alternate changes of cytoplasm into a fluid like sol and a jelly like gel form.
➢ The body of Paramecium is covered all over by a large number of short threads like extensions of plasma
membrane called cilia.
➢ The locomotion in Paramecium takes place by the beating of cilia and hence is called ciliary movement. Locomotion
is brought about by alternate power strokes and recovery strokes.
➢ The locomotory organelles in Euglena are flagella and the movement brought about byflagella is called flagellarymovement.
➢ The flagella are structurally and functionally similar to the cilia with the difference that the flagella are very few if not
single relatively larger in size and beat in a whip like fashion.
LOCOMOTION IN JELLY FISH
➢ In jet propulsion, the jelly fish moves in jerks in the direction opposite to the expelled water.
LOCOMOTION IN EARTH WORM
➢ Their movement is brought about the contraction of two sets of muscles and their body fluid serving as a
hydrostatic skeleton.
➢ Longitudinal muscles shorten body and contraction of circular muscles lengthens the body.
➢ Setae extend from the body wall in each segment. They grasp the soil as hold fast to take the grip of the soil.
LOCOMOTION IN SNAIL
➢ Locomotion in snail takes place by a specialized organ, the foot.
➢ The hydrostatic pressure of the body fluid plays very important role in the contraction of the body.
➢ This movement is made easy by slimy secretion of the mucuos gland poured in front of the foot and animal
virtually slips forward.
LOCOMOTION IN STAR FISH
➢ In a star fish locomotion is controlled by special water vascular system.
➢ Along each of radial canals, a large number of hollow muscular tube feet are present.
➢ Theupper part of a tube foot is connected with thecanal. It is a bulb shaped ampulla whereas its bottom part is a sucker.
LOCOMOTION IN COCKROACH
➢ Locomotion in arthropods is brought about by the interaction of the muscular and exoskeletal system.
➢ Contraction of these flexor and extensor muscles moves the appendages and the animal.
LOCOMOTION IN VERTEBRATES
➢ Fishes living in water swim freely by the undulating movement of their body and tail.
➢ Amphibians, the first land vertebrates are thought to have evolved from the ancient lobed fin fishes.
➢ Birds and anthropoids became bipedal and started walking and running on their hind limbs keeping their
forelimbs free.
EVOLUTION OF SKELETO-MUSCULAR SYSTEM
➢ The skeleton within our body can be traced through a series of fossil to the skeleton of primitive fishes that
live some 400 million years ago.
➢ The bones of these limbs were derived from the bones of the fins of lobed fin fishes.
➢ Actin and myosin the major proteins of the vertebrates muscle tissue are found virtuallyin all the eukaryotes including protoctists, hence
they might have appeared very early in the course of animal evolution.
UNIT - 17
COORDINATION
 Two major types of control mechanisms are found in living organisms, i.e. chemical control and nervous
control.
CONTROL IN PLANTS
 Plants have chemical control through PHYTOHORMONES or GROWTH REGULATORS
 Phytohormones control and coordinate the plant responses in two ways; by showing movements and
regulating various metabolic functions; by controlling growth.
PLANTMOVEMENTS:
 Movement in plants is in the form of bending, twisting and elongation of certain parts
 TROPISM: Responses related to the direction of stimulus.
BIOLOGICAL CLOCK AND CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS:
 When living organisms repeat their activities at regular intervals, this is called circadian rhythms.
 CIRCADIAN RHYTHM: Biorhythms occur with a frequency of about 24 Hours.
PHOTOPERIODISM:
 The phenomenon in which the influence of day length on plants is studied is called PHOTOPERIODISM.
RESPONSES TO ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS:
 The environmental factors that cause adverse effects on growth, reproduction and survival of an organism
are called STRESS.
 The common stresses are water shortage, less oxygen supply, high concentration of salt in the soil, high
temperature, low/cold temperature and Herbivory or over-grazing.
 RESPONSE TO DROUGHT: Reduce the rate of transpiration by closing stomata through producing
abscissic acid, deeper roots, etc
 RESPONSE TO OXYGEN DEFICIENCY: Aerial roots in marshy plants; air tubes
 RESPONSE TO SALT STRESS: Salt glands in the leaves of halophytes
 RESPONSE TO HEAT STRESS: Transpiration to cool plant; heat shock proteins at above 40 0 C to guard
enzymes
 RESPONSE TO COLD STRESS: Alteration in lipid composition of plasma membrane; producing fructans
to allow super cooling of cytosol.
 PRESONSE TO HERBIVORY: Produce distasteful or toxic compounds; development of thorns
DEFENCE AGAINST PATHOGENS:
 Epidermis = first line of defence
 Phytoalexins (antibiotic) = second line of defence
PLANT HORMONES:
 Plant hormones exert their effect either by altering gene expression, activating or inhibiting enzymes or
changing properties of membrane.
 Produced by young embryonic tissues
 Five kinds: Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins, Abscisic acid and Ethene or Ethylene
 AUXINS: Indole acetic acid (IAA) synthesized at the apical meristem. It causes cell division and cell
elongation at tips; also at cambium; development of adventitious roots, abscission in leaves and fruits; fruit
growth; parthenocarpy; growth of apical buds; as well as weedicide
 GIBBERELLINS: Promotes growth (inhibits genetical dwarfism) by stimulating cell division and growth;
stimulates flowering, fruit development, bud sprouting, growth of pollen tube and parthenocarpy.
 CYTOKININS: Works with auxin to promote rapid cell division; delay senescence (old age).
 Originally obtained from coconut milk, immature corn grain (i.e. Zeatin)
 ABSCISSIC ACID: Growth inhibitor produced during adverse drought conditions and at onset of winter
 It induces dormancy in buds and seeds, causes stomata to close, turns leaf primordial into scale to protect
buds and promotes senescence.
 ETHENE: Gas for ripening of fruits. It helps in destroying chloroplast. It contributes to leaves abscission
and initiates flowering.
COORDINATION & CONTROL IN ANIMALS

Nervous coordination
❖ It is the quickest way of communication.
❖ In this method, communication takes place by electro-chemical messages called nerve impulse.
❖ The nervous system consists of two types of tissue called neurons and neuroglia (glial cells).
❖ Neurons receive information about any change (stimulus) in external or internal environment of the body through
sensory cells or organs called receptors.
❖ The control centre sends command for an appropriate response to the effector organs (muscles, glands).
❖ Informations from the receptors to the control centre are taken by the afferent nerve pathway. While back from the
control centre to the effector by another pathway called efferent nerve pathway.
Nervous Tissue
❖ A neuron is a special kind of animal cells, which can generate and conduct electric current.
❖ Neurons differ considerably in size and shape but generally differentiated into following three regions soma, dendrite
and axon.
❖ The some is also called as cell body.
❖ In addition to typical cell organelles, it contains Nissl substance which consists of ribosomes.
❖ From the soma arises a number of thread like processes the dendrites, which receive stimuli and convey it to the soma.
❖ Axon is a long cytoplasmic process which usually arises opposite to dendrites. It is conducting end of a neuron. It ends
in knob like structures, the axon terminals. It originates from pyramid like area of soma called axon-hillock.
❖ The axons of some neurons are covered by a myelin sheath.
❖ Functionally, neurons can be differentiated into the following three types. Sensory neuron, Motor neuron and Inter
neuron.
❖ Depending upon the presence or absence of myelin sheath, neurons are called myelinated and unmyelinated neuron,
respectively.
❖ These smaller cells separate neurons from one another, form myelin sheath and are also involved in trophic and
phagocytic functions.
Nerve Impulse
❖ The electrochemical signal developed by a neuron for communication is called nerve impulse.
❖ Most of the neurons develop an impulse in the following ways: resting membrane potential, action potential, propagation of
impulse and synapse.
❖ Unstimulated, inactive neurolemma maintains a charge of -65mv variable between -40mv to -90mv. This electrical potential
is called resting membrane potential. This polarity is due to the unequal distribution of ions across the neurolemma.
❖ There is a greater concentration of sodium ion outside than inside the membrane. Similarly potassium ions are concentrated
much inside than outside the membrane. This is attributed to the activity of ATP driven sodium potassium pump in the
neurolemma.
❖ Action potential is a temporary and local reversal of the polarity of the neurolemma.
❖ During the action potential, the polarity of neurolemma first changes to +40mv (i.e. Depolarization) and then restores to -
65mv again (i.e. repolarization).
❖ Upon stimulation, the sodium channels open to allow the rushing in of Na+ ions inside the cell, so the membrane potential
changes from negative to zero and then proceeds upon +40mv.
❖ The action potential developed locally spread along the entire neurolemma is called propagation of the nerve impulse.
❖ The region where the impulse moves from one neuron to another is called synapse.
❖ It consists of three components; a pre-synaptic membrane of the (the axon terminal), a narrow space called synaptic cleft
and post synaptic membrane (the dendrite) of other neuron).
❖ It is only the axon terminal where impulse is transmitted from pre-synaptic to post-synaptic cell because it contains vesicles
containing a chemical, the neurotransmitter which is involved in the transmission of the impulse.
❖ The neurotransmitters bind to the receptors on the post synaptic membrane which generate action potential in the post
synaptic cell.
❖ The neurotransmitters are then reabsorbed by the pre-synaptic cells for reuse.
❖ Various neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), glycine, gaba, serotonin, dopamine, etc
have been identified.
Reflex Action
❖ Reflex actions are automatic, involuntary responses which occur either due to internal or external stimuli.
For instance, hand withdrawl on a painful stimuli, knee-jerk, blinking of eyes, etc.
❖ A reflex involves usually two neurons, a sensory and a motor neuron. The pathway of such transmission is
called reflex arc. Knee jerk is an example of mono-synaptic reflex.
Diffused Nervous System
❖ This is found in Cnidaria and echinoderms. The nervous system consists of a net work.
❖ The flow of information through this nervenet is not highly directional.
❖ This kind of nerve-net the transmission of impulse is slow.
Centralized Nervous System
❖ It is the characteristic of bilaterally symmetrical animals.
❖ Flatworms such as Planaria are among the simplest animals having a centralized nervous system.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
❖ It consists of an anterior brain (a concentration of neurons), which is connected with the sensory organs.
❖ The CNS consists of a brain and a spinal cord (hollow nerve cord). Both consists of upto 100 billion inter neurons. Both
brain and spinal and spinal cord are protected in bony armour, the skull and the vertebral column, respectively.
❖ Inside the bony armour, another protection is offered by three tough connective tissue covers called meanings.
❖ A plasma like fluid, the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bathing the neurons of CNS is yet another protection to CNS.
❖ The CNS of a vertebrate develops in the embryo from the dorsal hollow nerve cord.
❖ In the initial stage, nerve cord is simply a tube filled with CSF.
Brain
❖ Fore-brain can be divided into two regions, the telencephalon and the diencephalon.
❖ The telencephalon is the largest part of fore-brain.
❖ It is differentiated in two cerebral hemispheres or cerebrum.
❖ Each hemisphere consists of an outer grey matter or cerebral cortex and an inner white matter.
❖ Cerebral cortex is the largest and most complex part of human brain.
❖ Cortex is the seat of all conscious activities.
❖ Functionally, it can be differentiated into an anterior frontal lobe, a lower central temporal lobe, a parietal lobe and a dorsal
occipital lobe.
❖ The activity of the two cerebral hemispheres is coordinated by Corpus callosum.
❖ The diencephalons consist of thalamus and limbic system.
❖ The thalamus is a clearing house for sensory impulses as it receives them from different parts of brain and relays them to the
appropriate part of the motor cortex.
❖ It is also involved in the perception of pleasure and pain.
❖ The limbic system consists of hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus.
❖ It regulates pituitary gland.
❖ It is also involved in regulation of body temperature, blood pressure, hunger, thirst, aggression, pleasure and pain.
❖ The amygdala produces sensation of pleasure punishment or sexual arousal upon stimulation.
❖ The hippocampus is involved in long term memory.
❖ In man, mid brain is relatively very small.
❖ It receives and integrates sensory information of vision, odor as well as sensory information from the spinal cord and relays
them to fore-brain.
❖ The hind brain consists of medulla oblongata, cerebellum, pons and reticular formation.
❖ Medulla oblongata has reflex center from vital tasks like breathing, heart beat, blood pressure, coughing, swallowing,
hiccupping, sneezing, vomiting, digestion etc.
❖ It is involved in precision in muscular coordination, balance and position of the body in space.
❖ Pons regulates activities like muscular coordination, facial expressions, breathing and sleeping.
❖ Reticular formation lies in medulla, pons and mid brain.
❖ It monitors the messages to which the nervous system should react and to which it should ignore.
❖ The brain stem consists of mid brain medulla oblongata and pons.
❖ It is involved in the control of sleep and wakening.
❖ From the evolutionary point of view, it is the oldest tissue.
Spinal Cord
❖ It is thick, whitish nerve cord that lies below the medulla and extends down through the neural canal of
vertebrae upto the hips.
❖ Between the vertebrae, nerves called dorsal root carrying axons of sensory neurons and ventral roots carrying axons of motor
neurons arise from the spinal cord. Both of these merge to form peripheral nerves.
❖ In cross section, the spinal cord is differentiated into two areas; an outer white called white matter and an inner gray called gray
matter. Their somas in each spinal nerve are located in one of the swellings; the dorsal root ganglia located near but back of the
spinal cord.
❖ Spinal cord serves as an express way for signals between autonomic nervous system and brain. It is also the control centre for
many reflexes.
Peripheral Nervous System
❖ In man the 12 pairs of cranial nerves which arise from the brain and 31 pairs of spinal nerves, which arise from the spinal cord
constitute the PNS.
❖ The PNS transmits signals between CNS and the rest of the body.
❖ The nerves that are related to the skeletal muscles (voluntary activity) constitute the somatic nervous system while the other that
deals with smooth muscle (involuntary activity) heart and glands constitute the autonomic nervous system.
❖ Autonomic nervous system is further divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems.
❖ Parasympathetic nervous system is formed by some of the cranial nerves, vagus nerve and the spinal nerves arising from the
sacral vertebrae. It promotes all the internal responses we associate with a relaxed state. It also affects the visceral organs but its
nerves arise from the thoracic and lumber regions of spinal nerves.
❖ It prepares the body for highly energetic activity such as fight or flight response.
❖ It increases the heart beat, increases the breathing rate, slows digestion, dilates pupils, etc. by directing the release of epinephrine.
Receptors
❖ Receptors are either modified neurons or epithelial cells which occur either singly or in groups with other cell types
for example in eyes.
❖ In the control centre of the nervous system, the impulses are converted into perception.
❖ Depending upon the type of energy detected by receptors, they can be classified into following groups.
❖ In mammals including man, the skin contains receptors for at least five different sensations of touch, pressure, cold,
warmth and pain.
❖ They are simplest type, which lie in epidermis or dermis.
❖ All of these receptors adapt very slowly to stimulation.
❖ The nerve endings of these receptors are enclosed in capsule of connective tissues.
❖ Following capsulated receptors lie in the skin;Meissner’s corpuscle and Pacinian corpuscle.
❖ Abundant in hair less areas of skin such as finger tips.
❖ In this corpuscle, the sensory nerve ending is surrounded in concentric, onion like layers of membranes alternating
with fluid filled spaces.
❖ Pacinian corpuscles respond to rapid change in pressure associated with touch and vibrations.
❖ Carotid arteries and aortic arch are very important in a sense that both contain the most sensory mechanoreceptor
and the baroreceptors, which detect changes in the arterial mean pressure and pulse pressure and report any change
of medulla oblongata for proper regulation of blood pressure.
Drug
❖ A drug is a chemical substance that provokes a specific physiological response in the body.
❖ They act as stimulants, depressants, hypnotics, analgesics, hallucinogens.
❖ Nicotine is a drug found in tobacco. It acts as stimulant and is responsible for dependence on
tobacco. It mimics the acetylcholine and directly stimulates a variety of sensory receptors.
Parkinson’s Disease
❖ It is a brain disorder caused either by degeneration or damage to nerve tissue within the basal ganglia of the brain.
❖ The disease begins as a slight tremor of one hand, arm or leg.
❖ Leopoda, which the body converts into dopamine is usually the most effective drug.
Alzheimer’s Disease
❖ It is progressive degeneration of neurons of brain (especially cerebral cortex and hippocampus). It
causes dementia (loss of memory).
❖ Hallucinations (hearing voices or seeing face when no one is there) and paranoid delusions (a fixed,
irrational idea not shared by others and not responding to reasoned arguments).
Epilepsy
❖ Epilepsy is a tendency of recurrent seizures or temporary alteration in one or more functions. The Seizures
are transient neurological abnormalities caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain.
CHEMICAL COORDINATION
❖ Chemical coordination between different cells or organs within the body of multicellular animals
is more primitive than nervous coordination.
❖ In this type of coordination, a group of cells releases specific chemicals, which regulate the
activities of other cells of the body.
❖ In the body of vertebrates various types of signaling chemicals such as neurotrasmitters,
pheromones and hormones are recognized.
Hormone
❖ Hormone is a secretary product of special group of cells or organs, which is released directly in the
blood stream to carry it to other parts of the body where it affects particular targets cells.
❖ Hormones are organic molecules which can be divided chemically into following types; peptide
hormones, modified amino acid hormone and steroid hormone.
❖ They occur as short chain of amino acids as well as long chain of amino acid.
❖ Steroid hormones are lipid in nature. Examples are estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, aldosterone etc.
Hormone Action
❖ The target cells have specific receptors in their plasma membrane.
❖ Thus a cell will respond to a hormone only if it possesses the appropriate receptor.
❖ The next stage the signal transduction pathway differs in both models.
❖ The receptor molecule is linked with an enzyme, adenylate cyclase on the inner side of the plasma
membrane.
❖ The hormone receptor binding turns slow, adenylate cayclase into active form which converts ATP
into cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (Cyclic AMP) in the cytoplasm.
❖ They cyclic AMP serves as second messenger.
❖ Several other second messenger molecules have been discovered.
❖ They do not require second messenger.
❖ In the cytoplasm, they find specific receptors which carry them into the nucleus where the hormone
receptor complex directly activates the appropriate genes.
❖ Thus under the instructions of gene, enzymes are synthesized to bring about specific response.
❖ The feedback is said to be negative feedback if further secretion of hormone is inhibited.
❖ In positive feedback, an increase in the concentration of a secreted hormone facilitates the process
of its further secretion.
Endocrine System
❖ Mammalian endocrine system consists of pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland,
pancreas, adrenal gland, thymus gland, pineal gland, gonad and patches of tissue in stomach, small
intestine, liver, kidneys, heart, placenta, skin etc.
Hypothalamus
❖ Hypothalamus a part of brain, which also serves as endocrine organ which acts as a connecting link
between nervous and endocrine systems.
❖ Its neurosecretroy cells produce hormones called releasing and inhibiting hormones (factors).
❖ Some of its cells secrete antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin which are actually stored in their nerve
endings located in posterior pituitary gland.
Pituitary Gland
❖ It is small pea-size structure that hands from base of the brain.
❖ The pituitary gland of most the vertebrates including man consists of two discrete lobes a anterior
pituitary or adenohypophysis and a posterior pituitary or neurohypophysis. In many vertebrates, it
has an intermediate or median lobe also.
❖ Under the influence of hypothalamus, it produces it s own hormones which are tropic as well as others.
❖ Tropic hormones regulate other endocrine organs.
❖ Among the tropic hormones are thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone
and follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, which regulate thyroid gland, adrenal cortex
and gonads, respectively.
❖ The other important hormones of anterior lobe are somatotropin and prolactin.
❖ The median lobe secretes melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) which controls darkening of the
skin in many vertebrates.
❖ Antidiuretic hormone increases reabsorption of water into the blood by the kidneys and therefore
decreases urine output.
❖ Oxytocin stimulates contraction of the uterus during labour and release of milk from the mammary
glands during breast feeding.
❖ It occurs due to excessive secretion of STH during childhood or adolescence. The affected
individual attains an immense height. The over production of STH occurs after adult hood. As a
consequence, the bones cartilage and other soft tissues in hands feet and jaws thicken abnormally.
❖ Dwarfism in the condition the height of person remains very short due to insufficient production of
STH during child hood.
Thyroid Gland
❖ The human thyroid gland is located at the base of the neck in front of trachea. It secretes thyroxine
(tetraiodothyronine or T4) Triiodothyronine (T3) and calcitonin hormones.
❖ Both T3 and T4 play an important role in controlling the metabolism of the body.
❖ They are essential for normal physical growth and mental development.
❖ Low levels of these hormones in the blood results myxedema in elder which is characterized by over
weight, sluggish, dry skinned, hair loss, intolerant of cold, confused and depressed individual.
❖ Often thyroid is enlarged due to low intake of iodine in diet. This condition is called goiter.
❖ If hypothyroidism occurs in early age, it cause cretinism characterized by stunted growth, mental
retardation and coarse facial features.
❖ In case of higher levels of thyroid hormones in the blood, hyperthyroidism is produced. It is
characterized by protrusion of eye ball, increased hearth beat, heat intolerance, high blood pressure,
profuse sweating, and weight loss.
❖ Raised blood calcium stimulates calicitonin secretion, which causes the excess calcium to be deposited in bones.
Parathyroid Glands
❖ They released parathyroid hormone (PTH) in response to low level of calcium in the blood.
❖ PTH increases reabsorption of calcium in the kidney as well as it induces demineralization of
osteoclasts cells of bone to release calcium in the blood.
Pancreas
❖ There are patches of pancreatic cells known as islets of langerhan’s, which are endocrine gland. The islets consist of
two distinct types of cell alpha cells and beta cells which secrete hormones glucagons and isulin, respectively.
❖ Glucagon is secreted in response to the decrease in blood glucose in the blood.
❖ It also stimulates liver and muscles to convert glucose into glycogen.
❖ Deficiency of insulin may lead to a fairly common diseases diabetes mellitus in which there is a
persistently high blood glucose level.
❖ The frequency of urination increases disrupting the water- solute balance. As a consequence
dehydration develops and victim feels abnormally thirsty.
❖ Due to the break down of fats, ketone bodies accumulate in the blood, which trun it acidic.
❖ There are two forms of diabetes type-I and type-II.
❖ In type I diabetes, the beta cells are destroyed by the lymphocytes.
❖ In type II diabetes, a more common type, the level of insulin is close to or above normal but eh
target cells lose insulin receptors so gradually do not take glucose.
Adrenal Gland
❖ Each adrenal gland consists of two parts; an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
❖ It works under the influence of ACTH of the pituitary gland.
❖ They are involved in glucose metabolism and are produced during anxiety, fever and diseases.
❖ Cortisol promotes the hydrolysis of muscle proteins to amino acids.
❖ Over production of cortisol results in crushing syndrome characterized by obesity, muscle wasting, hypertension and
diabetes. Deficient production of hormone production by adrenal gland occurs due to the destruction of adrenal gland. It is
known as addison’s disease. It is characterized by weakness, weight loss, low blood sugar and reduced blood pressure.
❖ In increases the reabsorption of Na and Cl ions by the kidney maintaining blood volume and blood pressure.
❖ The level of sodium plays important role in maintaining the blood pressure.
❖ The adrenal cortex also produces another group of corticosteroid hormones called androgens
similar to testosterone. Androgens cause development of secondary male characteristics such as
growth of facial hair, deepening of the voice and increase in muscle bulk. Progessive secretion of
androgens in female lead to masculinization in ladies.
❖ The adrenal medulla is under the influence of sympathetic nervous system.
❖ It secretes adrenaline and nor adrenaline under condition of stress to bring about fight or flight
response. They are also termed as emergency hormones.
❖ Epinephrine increases heart beat, blood glucose, breathing rate and metabolic rate.
Thymus
❖ It secretes several hormones including thymosin that stimulates the development and differentiation
of T lymphocytes.
Pineal Gland
❖ It is tiny cone shaped body within the brain. It secretes melatonin at night. The variation influences
the growth and development or gonads.
Testes
❖ The male gonads or testes secrete androgens, the most important of which is testosterone.
❖ It stimulates bone and muscles growth and development of secondary sexual characteristics such
as appearance of bread, moustache etc.
Ovaries
❖ The ovaries secrete estrogen and progestrone. Estrogen (e.g., estradiol) maintains female
reproductive system and development of secondary sexual characteristics in female.
❖ Progesterone is primarily involved in preparation and maintenance of the uterus which support the
growth and development of an embryo.
ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR
❖ The response of an animal in relation to its internal or external environment is called animal behaviour.
❖ The scientific study of the nature of behaviour and its ecological an evolutionary significance in its
natural setting is called ethology.
INNATE BEHAVIOUR
❖ Innate behaviours are automatic, pre-programmed, genetically determined, stereotype activities,
which do not involve any learning.
❖ These behaviours are performed in reasonably complete form when an animal is exposed to the proper stimuli.
❖ Innate behaviour can be categorized into following types; Kinases, Taxes, Reflexes, and fixed action patterns.
Kinases
❖ It is orientation behaviour in which animal exhibits random movement to a particular stimulus.
❖ In this kind, the rate of movement is related to the intensity of the stimulus rather than its direction.
Taxes
❖ It is another orientation behaviour which is related to the direction of stimulus.
❖ The movement towards the stimulus is called positive taxis, while away from the stimulus is negative taxis.
❖ It is the movement of a body part, such as knee-jerk blinking of eye or with drawl of hand from a hot object, etc.
Reflexes
❖ These are stereotyped, short lived, rapid responses mediated by nervous system.
Fixed Action Patterns
❖ This kind of highly stereotyped innate behaviour is triggered or released by an external sensory
stimulus known as sign stimulus or releaser.
❖ It refers to a more or less permanent change in behaviour, which occurs as a result of experience.
LEARNING BEHAVIOUR
❖ It differs from the innate behaviour in being acquired or modified from experience.
❖ There are different types of learning behaviours such as habituation, imprinting, classic
conditioning (operant) latent learning and insight learning.
Habituation
❖ It is the type of learned behaviour in which animal stops responding to a repeated stimulus which
is neither beneficial nor harmful.
Imprinting
❖ It is the simplest type of learned behaviour. It occurs during very early stage in the life of birds and
mammals. During this period called sensitive period, the animal is primed to learn specific
information which is then incorporated into an innate behaviour.
Classic conditioning
❖ In classic conditioning or association conditioning an animal learns to give response to an irrelevant
stimulus. It is associated with reward or punishment.
Operant conditioning
❖ In this kind of learning an animal learns to associate one of its behaviour (such as pushing a lever
etc) to receive an award or punishment.
Latent Learning
❖ The ability of rats to find their way in underground tunnels is very remarkable.
❖ This type of learning which is not associated with a particular stimulus and is not normally rewarded
or punished, but is utilized in different situation at a later time is called latent learning.
Insight Learning
❖ Solving a problem without trial and error learning is called insight learning.
❖ It is the most developed form of learning behaviour.
BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS
❖ Some organisms do some activities at regular intervals irrespective of the season or day-length.
❖ This kind of behaviour is called time biology or biological rhythms.
❖ The exogenous rhythms are controlled by external changes such as 24 hours cycle of light and dark.
❖ The endogenous rhythms are controlled by biochemical and physiological changes within the organism.
❖ Breeding seasons many animals do not breed all the year round.
❖ They produce young ones in season favourable for rearing and feeding.
❖ Salmons and eels migrate between sea water and fresh water more than once in their life cycles.
❖ A number of birds also have migratory life cycle.
❖ Animals are active for only part of the 24 hour cycle.
UNIT 18
REPRODUCTION
KEY POINTS
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
 Plants exhibit asexual as well as sexual reproduction.
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Spores, vegetative propagation, apomixes, tissue culture or
cloning
 SPORULATION: Spores are haploid cells produced by meiosis
 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION: Growing complete plant from any part of plant organ. In some
plants, perennating organs remain in the soil over the winter and upon return of favourable condition
develop into plant.
 BY CUTTINGS: The cuttings of roots or shoots develop a mass of dividing undifferentiated cells,
CALLUS and develops adventitious roots. If the cutting contains a node then adventitious roots forms
without a callus. A single leaf can be used (e.g. Bryophyllum) can be used also. Eye of the potato is
also another example.
 APOMIXIS: Producing seeds without their flowers being fertilized. A diploid cell of the ovule
gives rise to the embryo and ovules mature into the seeds, e.g. in Dandelion.
 TISSUE CULTURE: Through this technique whole plant can be grown by culturing small ex-
plants or even single parenchymal cells to develop callus on culture medium.
 Plant tissue culture also facilitates genetic engineering in plants.
 A hybrid of potato and black night shade (herbicide resistant).
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS:
 Fusion of two dissimilar sex cells called male and female gametes as a result of fertilization.
 ISOGAMY: Fusion of morphologically and physiologically same gametes. Simplest type
 HETEROGAMY or ANISOGAMY: Fusion of one larger female gamete with one smaller gamete
male gamete.
 OOGAMY: Fusion of very large, non motile female gamete, egg or oogonium with a very small
flagellated male gamete or sperm.
 The gametes of two types fuse to produce a new plant called SPOROPHYTE.
 Sporophyte produces haploid, single cells SPORES through meiosis
 HOMOSPORY: Early forms of plants produce only one type of spores
 HETEROSPORY: Advance forms of plants produce two different kinds of spores, smaller
microspores or male spores while larger megaspores of female spores.
LIFE CYCLE OF GYMNOSPERMS & ANGIOSPERMS:
 Main plant is diploid, sporophyte
 Heterosporous plant
 Megaspore produce small female gametophyte which is permanently lodged within
megasporangium (ovule)
 Each microspore develops into small male gametophyte (pollen)
 Fertilization takes place within sporophyte to produce megasoprangium which gives rise seed
 Seeds of gymnosperms show epigeal germination
 DOUBLE FERTILIZATION: One of the sperm fuses with egg to form zygote while the other fuses
with two polar nuclei to form a triploid nucleus in the embryo sac
 Double fertilization ensures the formation of endosperm
SEED:
 Embryonic plant enclosed in seed coat (covering)
 Embryo consists of plumule (seed shoot), radicle (seed root) and cotyledons (seed leaves)
 HYPOCOTYL: The axis below the cotyledon is hypocotyl
 EPICOTYL: The axis above the cotyledon is epicotyl
 SCUTELLUM: A specialized shield like cotyledon in some monocots
 CHOLEORHIZA: A sheath that covers the radicle of grass family
 COLEOPTILE: A sheath that covers the plumule of grass family
INFLORESCENCE:
 It is the mode of branching of floral axis having a group of flowers.
 Two types; Resemose and Cymose
 RACEMOSE: Main axis or PEDUNCLE continues to grow; flowers develop in acropetal
seccession and opening is centripetal
 CYMOSE: Main axis soon stops growing; flowers develop in basipetal succession and opening is
centrifugal.
SEED DORMANCY:
 Sleeping or resting of seed before germination
 Breaking dormancy requires some external factors.
PARTHENOCARPY:
 Formation of fruit with fertilization so such fruits are always seedless
 Treating unpollinated flowers with some phytohormone like Indole acetic acid can induce
parthenocarpy.
GERMINATION::
 Breaking of dormancy to produce seedling.
 Three types: epigeal, hypogeal and vivipary
 EPIGEAL: Cotyledons come up above the soil due to rapid growth of hypocotyls. E.g. castor seed
 HYPOGEAL: Cotyledons remain in the soil. It is due to the rapid growth of epicotyl. E.g. pea,
gram. Maize
 VIVIPARY: Seeds germinates inside the fruit while still attached to the parent plant. E.g.
Rhizophora, coconut, palms, etc
VERNALIZATION:
 Promotion of flowering by a cold treatment given to the imbibed seeds or young plants.
 It shortens the vegetative period and hastens flowering
PHOTOPERIODISM:
 The response of plants to the relative lengths of day and night
 LONG DAY PLANTS: Require long day and short nights, e.g. Petunias, spinach, radish, lettuce
 SHORT DAY PLANTS: Require short day and long nights, e.g. chrysanthemims,
 DAY NEUTRAL PLANTS: Indifferent to the day length, e.g. tomato, cotton
 FLORIGEN: A hormone synthesized in the leaves and transferred to the buds for flowering
 PHYTOCHROMES: Light detecting pigments abundant at growing tips; P660 absorbs red light,
P730 absorbs light in the far red region.
Reproduction in animals
❖ The process by which living things produce more of their own kind is called reproduction.
❖ There are two main ways of reproducing; asexual and sexual reproductions.
❖ Asexual reproduction which requires only one parent give rise new individual by mitotic division.
❖ The sexual reproduction which requires two parents give rise new individual by fusion of
specialized cells called gametes. As a result of which variable offspring are produced.
Asexual reproduction in animals
❖ An advantage of asexual reproduction is that the organisms increases in number very rapidly which
are morphologically and genetically alike to their parent.
❖ Mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction.
❖ Asexual reproduction occurs in many ways.
❖ The common types in animals are, however, fission, budding, regeneration and parthenogenesis.
Fission
❖ Fission is the simplest method of asexual reproduction in which the parent body divides into two
or more parts and each of which develop into a new individual.
❖ The process is called binary fission if parent body divides into two and multiple fission if it divides
into more than two daughter organisms.
Budding
❖ In this process, a small outgrowth develops on some part of the parent body and is called a bud.
❖ This bud starts growing and when all the specialized cells and tissues are formed, the bud which
now looks like a small individual breaks off, starts an independent life and grows to adult size.
❖ Budding is common in sponges, hydras and corals being more common in species, which form
large colonies.
Regeneration
❖ This is the process of re-growing the missing parts, which have been lost by accident or when the
animal is cut in laboratory.
❖ It is common in worms.
❖ Sponges sometimes undergo a similar process called fragmentation.
❖ In this process pieces of parent body split off and grow into new complete sponges.
Parthenogenesis
❖ This is the type of reproduction, which is neither strictly asexual nor sexual.
❖ Although like sexual reproduction gametes are produced but like asexual reproduction it requires
only one parent, a female who produces eggs that develop into adult without fertilization.
❖ Parthenogenesis is common in some insects like honeybees, ants and wasps.
Clonning
❖ Technically this is an asexual type of reproduction because formation of the new individual requires
only one unfertilized egg whose nucleus is replaced by diploid nucleus of a somatic cell.
❖ This egg lodged in the uterus of a female where it behaves like a fertilized egg and develops into
organisms which is an exact copy of the parent who donated the nucleus.
Twins
❖ Twins are the two children which develop and are born together.
❖ Twins are of two types, i.e. Identical twins and fraternal twins.
❖ Identical twins are exactly alike and of the same sex because both of them develop from just one
zygote (monozygotic) which somehow divides mitotically into two separate blastomeres.
❖ Fraternal twins on the other hand are the children which develop from two independent eggs. As
each egg is fertilized by a separate sperm they are dizygotic and thus the genotype of each zygote
is different hence they are not identical and are said to be the product of sexual reproduction.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
❖ It is the type of reproduction which involves sex cells, the gametes.
❖ A male gamete, the sperm, fuses with a female gamete, the ovum, to form a zygote which undergoes
development and a new individual is formed.
❖ Sexual reproduction is important to avoid genetic monotony.
❖ Sexual reproduction produces an endless variety of organisms.
❖ The chances of survival of a species are far much brighter in an unfavourable environment or during
the outbreak of disease.
Necessities of sexual reproduction
❖ Sexual reproduction requires (i) gametogenesis (ii) mating and (iii) fertilization.
❖ Gametogenesis is the process of formation of sex cells, the gametes.
❖ Male gametes are called sperms and female gametes are called ova or eggs.
❖ Gametes are derived from the special type of cells called germ cells lodged in the gonads.
❖ Gametogenesis is of two types, spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
Spermatogenesis
❖ Germ cells present in testes first transform mitotically into spermatogonia and then into primary
spermatocytes.
❖ Each primary spermatocyte divides meiotically into two secondary spermatocytes which on their
turn further divide to form four genetically different haploid spermatids each of which ultimately
develops into a sperm oogenesis.
Oogenesis
❖ It is process of cell division by which ova (eggs) are formed from germ cells present in the female
gonads, the ovaries.
❖ Germs cells in ovary divide mitotically to form oogonia which develop into primary oocytes and
smaller polar body; each of which bodies remain small and non-functional and disintegrate.
Mating
❖ Mating is the process in which male and female contribute their gametes for the process of
fertilization.
Fertilization
❖ Formation of a diploid zygote, fertilization may be external or internal.
❖ It is more common in lower animals and especially those that are sessile.
❖ The eggs are fertilized inside the body of the female.
❖ Internal fertilization is a rule in all terrestrial animals.
❖ As the eggs are protected inside the body of the female and chances of fertilization are much
brighter, the number of eggs produced in such animals is far less than those who lay their eggs in
water.
❖ Most of the animals have distinct sex; they are either male or female having testes or ovaries,
respectively.
❖ Such animals which have only one type of gonads are said to be unisexual or dioecious or
heterophrodite.
❖ Hermaphrodite animals have both the gonads i.e. testes and ovaries which not only develop but
also are functional in each of these individuals. Hence, they produce both sperms and ova.
❖ Such animals are said to be hermaphrodite or bisexual or monoecious.
❖ The female gametes called eggs or ova are produced in the ovaries located inside the body of a
female.
Ovaiparous & Viviparous
❖ In most of the animals the eggs are laid in their environment. Such animals are called oviparous.
❖ In terrestrial animals, the eggs are always protected by tough water proof shells.
❖ The eggs of aquatic oviparous animals being laid in water are however covered over simply by
gelatinous membranes.
❖ The eggs of oviparous animals are also large in size because they contain enough stored nutrients
or yolk for the embryo.
❖ The animals which don’t lay eggs but retain them inside their body where they are fertilized and
develop are called viviparous. These animals giver birth to live young ones.
❖ Placenta is the connection, which helps in exchanging the materials between the embryo and its
mother.
❖ The viviparous animals produce less number of eggs.
Reproductive organs of human male
❖ The testes develop inside the abdomen but come to lie, before birth, in scrotum a pouch of skin
located outside of the abdomen between the thighs.
❖ The testes apart from sperms produce testosterone hormone, which controls the development of
secondary sex character.
❖ The tests are small, solid, oval bodies which are packed with tightly coiled seminiferous tubules.
❖ The sperms thus formed are stored in an about 6 meters long, thin tube, the epididymis where they
undergo complete development and become motile.
❖ Epididymis forms a coiled compact mass, which lies attached to the testis.
❖ The sperms leave epididymis through a duct called the vas deferens, which opens into urethra.
❖ The urethra is a tube, which comes from the bladder runs through and opens at the tip of a
copulatory organ, the penis.
❖ The penis and scrotum constitute the external genitalia.
❖ The male reproductive organs also include three types of glands whose secretion mixes with sperms
to form the male genital fluid called the seminal fluid or simply the semen.
Female reproductive organs of human female
❖ The female gonads are a pair of oval, solid structures the ovaries.
❖ During ovulation, the egg is released from the ovary into the body cavity, which is immediately
sucked up into an oviduct.
❖ Oviducts are a pair of tubes, each opening on one side into the body cavity near the ovary of its
own side by a ciliated fallopian funnel.
❖ Both the oviducts open at their other end into a small pear shaped muscular but distensible sac, the
uterus.
❖ At the bottom of uterus is a narrow opening the cervix that leads into a muscular tube called vagina.
Female reproductive cycles
❖ In animals having breeding season, when the eggs mature, the hormonal secretion in female
initiates certain behavioural changes. This is called estrous cycle, which may occur only once a
year in some mammals and in others twice a year and in some more often.
❖ However, in human female, the reproductive cycle is brought about by the ovarian cycle followed
by menstrual cycle.
Ovarian cycle
❖ A human female has around 200,000 oocytes in each of her ovary.
❖ During a female’s fertile years only about 450 of these oocytes develop into mature eggs.
❖ When female is about 50 years old, reaches menopause, the end of fertility.
❖ Human females do not undergo a seasonal oestrous cycle as lower mammals do, instead one egg is
released from an ovary about once every 28 days. This is often called ovarian cycle. This is
correlated with certain uterine changes so this is often called uterine cycle.
❖ This monthly egg maturation and uterine preparation is collectively called menstrual cycle.
❖ Menstrual cycle is the preparation of uterus for a possible pregnancy.
❖ It occurs in four distinct phases (i) menstrution or ‘M’ phase (ii) follicle or ‘F’ phase (iii) ovulation
of ‘O’ phase and (iv) corpus luteum or ‘L’ phase.
❖ Menstruation is the onsent of bleeding that is discharge of blood and discarded tissue of the uterus
through vagina.
❖ The progesterone secretion is stopped by corpus luteum and as a result, the soft spongy vascular
internal lining of uterus called endometruim breaks off and starts flowing alongwith blood, out of
vagina.
❖ The first day of menstrual flow is taken as the beginning of menstrual cycle.
❖ The stage lasts about five days and extends from day 1 to day 5.
❖ Follicular phase lasts about 7 days (day 6 to 12). During this phase the egg-producing follicle is
sometimes called graffian follicle.
❖ The rest of the follicles do not develop and ultimately degenerate.
❖ This process is initiated by the FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) secreted in blood from pituitary
gland.
❖ FSH stimulates the ovary to produce a hormone, of its own, called oestrogen.
❖ Oestrogen affects pituitary on one hand to inhibit the secretion of FSH and on the other hand
initiates the thickening of uterine wall.
❖ Low FSH level and high oestrogen level in the blood initiate the secretion of another hormone LH
from pituitary gland.
❖ This short phase of Ovulation lasts not more than three days.
❖ During this period, the graffian follicle of the ovary ruptures and the mature ovum is released.
❖ This stage is initiated by the increase of LH level.
❖ Corpus luteum phase is the longest period of menstrual cycle and lasts about 12-14 days. It is so
called because LH causes the ruptured follicle to change into a yellowish body, the corpus luteum,
which starts producing another hormone, the progesterone.
❖ Progesterone maintains and enhances the growth of the mucous lining (endometrium) of the uterus.
Hormonal control of reproductive cycles
❖ At puberty, anterior lobe of pituitary gland under the influence of hypothalamus starts releasing
gonadotropin hormones (FSH & LH).
❖ FSH initiates follicle maturation and also stimulates the secretion of oestrogen from ovary.
Conception & Pregnancy
❖ Fertilization in human being is more commonly called conception, i.e. to conceive a baby.
❖ After fertilization has taken place in oviduct, the zygote begins to divide and forms a ball of cells
called balstocyst, which travel down the oviduct and reaches the uterus to be embedded in its wall.
❖ This process is called implantation and it marks the start of pregnancy.
❖ The period starting from conception upto the birth of a baby is called gestation.
Placenta
❖ The tissue attaching the embryo to the wall of uterus is called the placenta.
❖ The placenta looks like a flat pie shaped structure.
❖ Placenta also secrete progesterone hormone for maintaining pregnancy.
❖ In reptiles, birds and mammals when the embryo becomes implanted in the uterine wall, a clear
extra embryonic membrane, the amnion develops which surrounds the embryo.
❖ As its cavity becomes fluid filled it is called amnion sac or amniotic sac.
❖ The amniotic fluid keeps the embryo moist and by acting like a fluid cushion protects the embryo
from any injury.
❖ Chorion and allantois are two other membranous sacs associated with most of the amniotic embryos.
❖ These membranous often called extra embryonic coats protect the embryo and assist it in nutrition
and excretion.
Umbilical cord
❖ A rope like structure formed from an extra embryonic membrane, the allantois is called umbilical
cord. It connects the embryo to placenta.
❖ The umbilical cord serves as a supply line between the embryo and its mother.
Birth
❖ After the gestation period which in human beings, lasts about nine months.
❖ These strong contractions of the muscles of uterus called labour are the result of increased secretion
of oxytocin hormone from pituitary gland.
Lactation
❖ Soon after the delivery, prolactin hormone of pituitary gland becomes active and triggers the
mammary glands to start producing milk.
❖ Release of milk from the breast is brought about by the contraction of its muscle under the influence
of oxytocin hormone which is immediately secreted whenever a breast is stimulated by suckling of
the baby.
TEST TUBE BABIES
❖ Infertility is overcome by a technique called in vitro fertilization.
❖ In this procedure some of the oocytes are sucked up from the ovary of that woman before ovulation.
❖ These eggs are fertilized, outside her body in a laboratory dish with the sperm taken from her husband.
❖ Eggs thus ferlized in vitro are allowed to develop for a few days in the laboratory and one is then
transferred to her uterus for implantation where it undergoes normal development and is born then
natural way.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES
Gonorrhea
❖ It is a disease caused by a bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
❖ If untreated it can cause infertility in both males and females.
❖ These babies more often suffer eye infections.
❖ The disease is characterized by wounds in genital tubes and infected males experience burning
sensation during urination with discharge of thick white pus from urethra. If untreated, it can cause
infertility in both sexes.
Syphilis
❖ Syphilis is caused by a spirochaete bacterium Treponema pallidum.
❖ These bacteria not only damage the reproductive organs but also affect nervous system and skeletal
system in addition to causing a large number of lesions.
Genital Herpes
❖ It is characterized by painful blisters and ulcers on and around external genital organs. It is caused
by virus, Herpes simplex.
AIDS
❖ Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome is a fatal disease of the recent times caused by HIV
(Human Immuno Deficiency Virus).
❖ HIV infection destroys the patient’s immune system and exposes the infected person to all of infections.
UNIT – 19
GRWOTH & DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT:
The process of series of changes through the zygote passes to become a multicellular adult is
called development
GROWTH:
The process of progressive changes in the miniature adult-like individual to become an adult.
➢ Study of development is called EMBRYOLOGY or DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY
GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT IN PLANTS

➢ In higher plants, the growth is confined to certain regions called growing points, MERISTEMS.
➢ Meristems are group of cells, which are capable of division and giving rise to new cells
➢ Three types of meristem,
i) Apical meristem
ii) Intercalary meristem
iii) Lateral meristem
APICAL MERISTEM:
➢ Present at the apices of the shoot and root. Their activity results in primary growth which is
responsible for the increase in length of the plant axis at both root and stem. Also responsible for
the production of lateral appendages such as leaves and floral parts
LATERAL MERISTEM:
➢ It is in the form of cylindrical sheaths in the vascular bundle or between them, and beneath the
epidermis. These are cambium and phellogen of cork. They are responsible for secondary growth
which as consequence of increase in the diameter of radial organs of the plant.
INTERCALARY MERISTEM:
➢ Parts of the apical meristem which are separated from the apex by permanent tissues an dleft
behind, as the apical meristem moves on during growth.
➢ They occur at eh base of inter nodes in many grasses, below the nodes in some mints and at the
base of the leaves in many plants
PHASES OF GROWTH
➢ Primary growth can be recognized in three regions. Formative Phase; Elongation Phase; Maturation
Phase
⚫ The Formative Phase: Restricted to the tips of the roots and shoot where cells constantly
divide and thus increase in number.
⚫ Elongation Phase: This phase occurs immediately behind formative region. The cells here
do not divide but on account of their turgid condition they enlarge and elongate until they
reach their maximum size.
⚫ Maturation Phase or Differentiation Phase: It lies after the elongation phase. The cells
become permanent ones and differentiate into specialize cells.
SECONDARY GROWTH
➢ Occurs in the maturation phase
➢ Increase in the diameter of stem and roots due to the activity of secondary meristem, cambium.
➢ Cambium divides radially first towards the inner side towards xylem and them from the outer sides
towards the phloem.
Conditions necessary for growth
➢ External factors: Temperature, Light, Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, Nutrients
➢ Internal factors: Relative quantity of growth hormones, Genetic constitution
GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT IN ANIMALS

 Stages in the life cycle of an animal
 Gametes formation; Fertilization; Cleavage; Gastrulation; Organogenesis; Growth
Egg of Hen
 Polylecithal type
 Released from the ovary as Oocyte
 In oviduct, it undergoes first meiotic division to become secondary oocyte
FERTILIZATION
 The process of fusion of male and female gametes nuclei to form a diploid cell or zygote.
 Fertilization is internal
 The ovum during its way through the oviduct is covered by albumen.
 Outside albumen, there are two shell membranes and hard, porous proteinaceous calcareous shell
 The fertilized egg is laid 24 hours after fertilization
INCUBATION
 Keeping the fertilized egg at 360C – 380C
 Complete development takes place in about 21 days
CLEAVAGE
 Series of repeated mitotic divisions that turn zygote into a ball of cells stage
 Cleavage in chick is DISCOIDAL type because it occurs at the blastodisc only
 The purpose of cleavage is “cytoplasmic localization”
MORULA
 The embryo as rounded mass of closely packed cells
BLASTULA
 The embryo containing a fluid filled cavity, the blastocoele. It appears when the blastoderm splits
into two layers, the upper layer, EPIBLAST and the lower layer, HYPOBLAST.
 The marginal cells of blastoderm lie unseparated from the yolk and form the zone of junction or
AREA OPACA, while the central region is called the AREA PELLUCIDA.
 The egg is laid at this stage
GASTRULA
 The stratified (layered) embryo
 The process is called gastrulation
 Cellular rearrangement occurs to form gastrula
 Three cell layers are formed
Notochord formation and differentiation of mesoderm

 Notochord is formed from migrated mesodermal cells
 The rest of the mesoderm splits into three regions;
 Epimere, Mesomere and Hypomere
 EPIMERE: It gives rise metamerically arranged somites which later give rise muscles, axial
skeleton and connective tissues
 MESOMERE: It gives rise future kidneys
 HYPOMERE: It is also called lateral plate. It splits into outer SOMATIC and inner SPLANCHNIC
layers. In between these two layers, the space is formed which is termed as COELOM
 The somatic layer fuses with ectoderm to form SOMATOPLEURE
 The inner layer fuses with endoderm to form SPLANCHNOPLEURE
NEURULA:
 The embryo containing nerve cord is called Neurula
 It takes about 24 hours after incubation of the egg.
CELL DIFFERENTIATION AND ITS MECHANISM

 Classical experiment performed by John Gurdon on Frog.
 The process of selection of activation of some genes by a cell is called cell differentiation
 Cells do not lose any genetic information even after differentiation and remain totipotent.
Mechanism of differentiation
 The differentiation process is influenced by the cytoplasmic chemical composition during the
cleavage
 Cytoplasm has heterogenous organization
Embryonic Induction
 Hans Spemann & Hilde Mangold performed an experiment to investigate the embryonic induction
 One embryonic tissue influences upon the other embryonic tissue through transmitting some
chemical stimulus, the Primary organizer.
AGING
 The process of progressive deterioration of the normal structure and function of tissues.
 In human, the signs of aging are loss of hair pigmentation, wrinkles in skin particularly face,
development of small pigmented areas in the skin, general weakness, increase fat deposition, poor
vision, gradual loss of memory, increased susceptibility to diseases, development of degenrative
diseases like osteoporosis, arthritis, etc
GENETIC ORIGIN:
 Leonard Hayflick & Paul Moor Head indicated that we are genetically programmed to age.
 The cultured normal embryonic human cells and found that all the cell lines proceeded to divide
fifty times, then stopped and then the entire population died off.
GENE MUTATION:
 During the passage of time due to the accumulation of gene mutations, the capacity of self repair
of DNA during its replication is lost. Thus the DNA is attacked and gradually denatured by some free
radicals. This results in progressively inadequately functioning cells that cause the aging.
ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT
 The study of abnormal development is called TERATOLOGY
 Several factors like mutations, UV radiation, some drugs during pregnancy, abnormal secretion of
some glands, etc are responsible for this.
o Microcephaly
o Cleft Lip and Palate
o Polydactyly
o Dextrocardia
o Down’s Syndrome
UNIT – 20
CHROMOSOMES & DNA
 (Gr. Chroma=coloured; Soma= body)
 Named by Walter Fleming (1882) while examining rapidly dividing cells of salamender
larvae after treating with Perkin’s Aniline dyes
 Thread like structures present inside the nucleus and bearer of hereditary characters in the
form of genes
 They are present in pair and their number remains constant from generation after
generation in a given species.
 Number of chromosomes varies from species to species
 Pecicilium 2 (1 Pair)
 Mosquito 6 (3 Pairs)
 Drosophila 8 (4 Pairs)
 Garden Pea 14 (7 Pairs)
 Frog 26 (13 Pairs)
 Human 46 (23 Pairs)
 Sugar cand 80 (40 Pairs)
 Fern 1000 (500 Pairs)
 Visible during cell division only
CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE:
 Each chromosome consists of two very long, thin threads chromatids, both attached with
each other at a common point, centromere
 Each centromere has a disc like structure, kinetochore to which spindle fibers are
attached
 Centromere is related to the movement of chromosomes
 During meiosis, the chromosomes appear a very thin threads called chromonema having
deeply staining areas, chromeres so it looks like a string of beads
Accroding to the position of centromere:

 Metacentric; Sub-metacentric; Acrocentric & Telocentric
According to the origin:
 Homologous: Both the chromosomes of a pair a alike morphologically but one is
maternal while the other is paternal in origin
 Sex chromosomes & autosomes
 Autosomes: Members of a pair of chromosomes which are similar in both male and
female of a species
 Sex chromosomes: Members of a particular pair of chromosomes different in male and
female of a species
 Normally each individual possesses a pair of sex chromosomes, which are designated as
X&Y
 Male = XY ; Female = XX
 In moth, birds and some fishes, the female is XY and male is XX
 In them, X is designated as Z so male is ZZ(=XX) while Y is W so female is ZW(=XY)
KARYOTYPE:
 The particular array of chromosome that an individual possesses is called karyotype
 Karyotype of individuals are often examined to detect genetic abnormalities, such as
those arising from extra of lost chromosomes.
ULTRA STRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOME:
 CHROMATIN: Eukaryotic chromosomes are made up of DNA & Protein
 The DNA exists in the form of DUPLEX which is a very long double stranded fiber
 One strand of DNA a single chromosome would be 7 feet (2 meter) long
 Under E.M. DNA fiber resembles a string of beads.
 Every 200 nucleotides, the negatively charged DNA duplex is coiled about a complex of
positively charged HISTONES (protein)
 Eight of the histones form the core of an assembly, NUCELOSOME
 Nucleosomes wrap up into higher order coils called SUPER COILS.
 Highly condensed portions of the chromatin are called HETERO-CHROMATIN
 Some of the chromatin remain condensed permanently so the remainder expressed is
called EUCHROMATIN
CHROMOSOME AS CARRIER OF GENES:
 Genes are the unit of heredity located on chromosomes in a linear fashion a specific
places called LOCI
 Genes are so small that they cannot be seen through microscope
CHROMOSOME THEORY OF HEREDITY:

 Proposed by Walter Sutton (1902)
 Karl Correns (1900) provided the basis for this theory by assuming that chromosomes
were the vehicles for the heredity information.
 It states that Mendelian factors or genes are located on chromosomes
EVIDENCE OF DNA AS GENETIC MATERIAL:
 Classic experiment on Streptococcus pneumoniae, a bacterium associated with
pneumonia by Fred Griffith (1928) discovered that non virulent heat killed R type was
converted into virulent S type through absorbing the pieces of DNA from its outside; a
principle termed as TRANSFORMATION
 Avery, Mcleod and McCarty (1944) discovered the identity of the transforming
substance, DNA
 Avery, Mcleod and McCarty (1944) discovered the identity of the transforming
substance, DNA
 Hershey and Chase through their use of radio-
labelleled isotope P32 and S35 confirmed that
DNA is the genetic material in Phage.
DNA STRUCTURE:
 NUCELOTIDE: DNA is a polymer of
nucleotdes
 Each nucleotide is made up of three
molecules:
 Deoxyribose sugar (C5H10O4)
 Phosphoric Acid (H3PO4)
 Organic Base (Nitrogenous bases)
 Purines: Adenine & Guanine
 Pyrimidines: Cytosine & Thymine
WATSON & CRICK MODEL OF DNA:

 Each molecule of DNA is a made up of
two polynucleotide chains, which are twisted around each other to form a double helix
 The uprights of the ladder are made up of sugar and phosphate molecules and rungs are
made up of paired nitrogenous bases
 Adenine always pairs with thymine with a double covalent bond
 Guanine always pairs with cytosine with a triple covalent bond
 The coiling of double helix is RIGHT HANDED and complete turn occurs after 3.4A0
 10 nucleotide occur per complete turn
CHARAGAFF’S RULE:
 Adenine always pairs with Thymine with a double covalent bond
 Guanine always pairs with Cytosine with a triple covalent bond
 Therefore, the amount of T always equals with A while G with C
REPLICATION OF DNA:
SEMICONSERVATIVE MODEL:
 It was suggested by Watson and Crick
 Process:
 Unzipping of the two strands
 Complimentary base pairing of new nucleotides with the exposed bases of the original
strands
 Thus newly formed DNA molecules contains one original strand while one newly formed
strand
 This was proved by Mathew Meselson and Frank Stahl (1958)
MESELSON’S & STAHL EXPERIMENT:
 They grew bacteria for several generations in culture medium containing heavy isotope of
N15
 Then they transferred the growing cells to a new medium containing lighter isotope N14
and harvested the DNA at various intervals
 After one round of DNA replication, the density of the bacterial DNA decreased to value
intermediate between all light isotope and all heavy isotope
GENE:
 Units of heredity
 Chemical nature = DNA
 Role = to instruct the cell to synthesize a particular enzyme (protein)
 Studied first by Archbald Garrod (1902)
 He noted that some disorders (e.g. Alkaptonuria) were due to the absence of enzyme.
 In alkaptonuria, the patient passes urine that rapidly turned black on exposure to air
 Such urine contains homogentisic acid (alkapton) which is oxidized when exposed to air
ONE GENE ONE ENZYME HYPOTHESIS:
 Proposed by George Beadle and Edward Tatum (1941)
 Classic experiment on bread mold, Neurospora in which they induced mutations in spores
to develop different mutants or strains
 PROCEDURE:
 Mutant 1 would grow if O, C or A were added to the minimal medium of salt,
sugar & biotin
 Mutant 2 would grow if C or A was added to the minimal medium
 Mutant 3 would grow only if A was added to the minimal medium
 CONCLUSION:
 Each Mutation alters a single gene that control one step in the synthesis of a particular
kind of molecule
 BY SPECIFYING ENZYMES, DNA SPECIFIES YOU!
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS:
 3 KINDS OF RNAs: mRNA, rRNA, tRNA
 mRNA: single stranded RNA present in cytoplasm as well as in nucleus. It brings DNA
instructions to the ribosomes in cytoplasm
 rRNA: Provides the site on ribosomes where polypeptide is assembled
 tRNA: Smallest; they transport amino acids to the ribosomes where polypeptide chain is
elongating
GENE EXPRESSION:
 It occurs in two phases:transcription & translation
 TRANSCRIPTION: Copying of one of the DNA strand by mRNA
 It is initiated by RNA polymerase which binds to the promoter region of the gene on one
of the DNA strand
 RNA polymerase proceeds on the DNA strand synthesizing a complementary RNA
strand
 It stops transcribing DNA at stop code
The newly synthesized RNA is called RNA transcript
TRANSLATION: The process of mRNA directed polypeptide synthesis by ribosomes
rRNA within ribosome binds to one end of mRNA transcript
Ribosome proceeds to move along the mRNA molecule in increments of three
nucleotides
 At each step, it adds an amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain
 It continues to do this until it encounters a “stop” signal
 It then disengages from the mRNA and releases the newly assembled polypeptide
GENETIC CODE:
 A three nucleotide sequence or triplet/codon is called genetic code
 The tRNA carrying a particular amino acid at its one end recognizes this codon with the
complementary base pairing rule through its anticodon
MUTATION:
 Mutation is any change in the amount, organizations or content of genetic material
CHROMOSOMAL ABBERATIONS:
 Visible changes in the structure of chromosome
AFFECTING SINGLE CHROMOSOME:
 DELETION: A small segment is missing. Deletion in one chromosome of a pair may be
harmful but may be lethal if occurs on both members.
 DUPLICATION: A part of the chromosome is present in excess to the normal
chromosome. It produces abnormalities of form and function
 INVERSION: The reversal in sequence of gene. It reduces crossing over.

AFFECTING TWO CHROMOSOMES
 TRANSLOCATION: The transfer of segments of chromosome to a non homologous
chromosome.
 It may give rise to new varieties within species
GENE MUTATION:
 Also termed as Point mutations
 Gene may move from one place on the chromosome to another by a process called
TRANSPOSITION. It causes alteration in expression or in that of neighboring genes.
 Point mutation may involve one or more nucleotides.
DNA DAMAGE:
Major factors affecting DNA structure are IONIZING RADIATION, ULTRAVIOLET
RADIATION & MUTAGENS
IONIZING RADIATION: The ionizing radiation (X-Rays, Gamma Rays) being very high
energy when hit atoms of any cell, it causes release of their valence electron to be ejected leaving
behind ionized atom with unpaired electrons, each called FREE RADICAL
 Most of the free radicals come formed by water.
 The free radicals break phosphodiester bonds of DNA helix. Such kind of damage is
difficult to fix by repair enzymes of DNA.
 In prokaryotes there is no such repair mechanism
 Eukaryotes, due to the multiple copies of their chromosomes, are able to position the two
fragments together, immobilize and then heal (re-seal) them together.
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION: The component of sunlight that leads to suntan (sun burn) is
much lower in energy than are X-Rays.
 It does not produce free radicals
 It affects certain organic ring compounds
CHEMICAL MUTAGENS: Some chemicals cause modification of DNA.
GENE MUTATION IN MAN:
SICKLE CELL ANEMIA:
 Due to the defective Haemoglobin, the oxygen carrying capacity of blood is redueced
 The RBCs become sickle shaped and stiff. Thus the defective RBCs stuck in blood
capillaries forming clot.
 The allele is especially prevalent in African people.
PHENYLKETONURIA (PKU):
 Infrequent recessive genetic disorder
 Only the homozygous people develop this disorder
 The affected individuals are unable to break down the amino acid, Phenylaniline (PA)
into tyrosine so it accumulates in the blood stream.
 Harmful for the infants because PA interferes with the development of brain cells.
 Affected individuals have blond hair and blue eyes; short stature, small head and flat feet
but unpleasant, musty, mousy smell in sweat and urine; Some may develop eczema.
 Mental retardation and affected individual rarely live more than 30 years
 Special diet without phenylaniline or very low proteins; vegetarians
 Mental retardation and affected individual rarely live more than 30 years
 Special diet without phenylaniline or very low proteins; vegetarians
UNIT – 21
CELL CYCLE
▪ The events occuring from the completion of one division until the beginning of the next
division constitute cell cycle.
▪ This cycle is repeated at each cell generation, but the length of the cycle varies
considerably in different types of cells.
▪ Cell division is a way to keep ac constant amount of cytoplasm and nucleus.
▪ Growth and development of the every living organism depends on the growth and
multiplication of its cells.
▪ The cell cycle consists of
▪ Inter phase: Non
dividing Phase
▪ Cell Division:
Dividing Phase
INTERPHASE:
▪ Cell is metabolically active
▪ Grows
▪ Increases its mass
▪ Multiplies its DNA
▪ Prepares for the next cell
division
▪ Chromosomes are usually
invisible, appear as irregular
granular looking mass of
chromatic material
SUB STAGES OF
INTERPHASE:
▪ G1 = Gap One
▪ S = Synthesis Phase
▪ G2 = Gap Two Phase
G1 Phase: Most variable duration; about 25% to 50% of interphase
▪ Synthesis and organization of substrate (RNA) and formation of enzymes required for
DNA synthesis occur.
▪ No synthesis of DNA
▪ Chromosomes appear as single strand
S Phase: Synthesis of DNA occurs so the nuclear contents are doubled
▪ This phase of constant duration
G2 Phase:
▪ The volume of the cell is doubled
▪ Each chromosome bears two chromatids
M OR MITOTIC PHASE:
▪ Dynamic period
▪ Mature cells splits into two daughter cells
▪ It consists of Karyokinesis: Division of nucleus, & Cytokinesis: Division of Cytoplasm
▪ It is comprised of four Phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase & telophase
PROPHASE:
Changes in Nucleus:
▪ Chromosomes appear as fine threads called Chromatids
▪ The two chromatids of each chromosomes are held together at centromere which is
visible as a circular zone in each chromosome
▪ Chromosomes move towards the periphery of nucleus
▪ Disintegration of nuclear membrane
▪ Disintegration o f nucleolus
Changes in Cytoplasm:
▪ Appearance of one or two rod like Centrioles close to the nucleus
▪ Division of centrioles
▪ Moving apart of centrioles from each other
▪ Appearance of spindle fibers in between the two sets of centrioles
▪ Higher plants and insects lack centrioles
▪ In them, spindle appears without centrioles
METAPHASE:
▪ The chromosome alongwith their centromere attached with spindle fiber arrange
themselves at the equitorial plane
▪ The two chromatids of each chromosome are still attached with each other
▪ The nuclear membrane and nucelolus completely disappear
ANAPHASE:
▪ Separation Phase
▪ The centromere of each chromosome divides separating the two chromatids from each
other
▪ The chromosome is now termed as MONAD
▪ Due to the pulling movement of discontinuous spindle fibers, the chromosomes
(monads) move towards their respective poles
TELOPHASE:
▪ The chromatids of each dyad chromosomes reach at the opposite poles
▪ The spindle fibers start disappearing
▪ Nuclear membrane and nucleolus re-appears
▪ The process of karyokinesis divides the nucleus into two daughter nuclei
▪ Karyokinesis is followed by cytokinesis
CYTOKINESIS
▪ Division of cytoplasm followed by karyokinesis
▪ A constriction appears in the cytoplams and increases towards inside to divide the cell
into two daughter cells
MITOSIS IN ANIMALS & PLANTS:

▪ AMPHIASTRAL: In takes place in animals where an aster is formed at each pole of the
spindle
▪ ANASTRAL: It takes place in plants in which no aster is formed.
SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS:
▪ New cells are formed for growth
▪ Old and worn out cells are replaced. E.g. blood corpuscles, etc
▪ It results in equal quantitative and qualitative distribution of the chromosomes to the
daughter cells
CELL DEATH:
▪ NECROSIS: Cell death due to the tissue injury
▪ APOPTOSIS: (Gr. Dropping of or falling off) Programmed cell death. For example,
during embryonic development, the growth of the cells in the spaces between the fingers
that are no longer needed undergo apoptosis.
▪ Appoptosis appears to be mediated primarily by the release of Ca++ and the activation of
certain proteins, kinases and required activation of a specific set of gene.
AMITOSIS:
▪ Direct cell division
▪ Characteristic of Prokaryotes; In old tissues, abnormal and diseased tissues such as
cancer and tumor in Eukaryotes
▪ No appearance of spindle
▪ No appearance of chromosomes
▪ No disintegration of nuclear membrane and nucleolus
▪ Nucleus simply breaks up into two or more nuclei
▪ NUCLEAR BUDDING: When two unequal nuclei are formed
▪ NUCLEAR FRAGMENTATION: More than two nuclei are formed
CANCER:
▪ Rapid proliferation of tissues at a very high rate
▪ Cancer cells show less adhesion among themselves with pronounced motility (Cancer
cells in a sense are wandering cells)
▪ Consequence of amitotic cell division
▪ The cancer cells are developed by mutation of cellular genes that control cell growth and
cell mitosis.
CAUSES OF CANCER:
▪ Exposure to ionizing radiation such as X-Rays, etc
▪ Radioactive substances & ultra-violet light
▪ Certain viruses
▪ Repeated injury to specific tissues
WHY CANCER KILLS?
▪ Cancer cells compete for the nutrients and oxygen with the normal cells of the body.
MEIOSIS:
▪ Reduction Division
▪ It reduces the number of chromosomes to half in the daughter cells
▪ It takes place in germ cells in animals and spore mother cells in plants
▪ A single diploid parent cells divides into four haploid daughter cells
▪ The daughter cells are called gametes in animals and spores in plants
▪ Meiosis consists of two meiotic divisions: First meiotic division or HETEROTYPIC and
Second Meiotic division or HOMOTYPIC with a brief interphase
FIRST MEIOTIC OR HETEROTYPIC DIVISION:
▪ I consists of four phases: Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I & Telophase I
PROPHASE I: It consists of sub stages: Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene and
Diakinesis
LEPTOTENE:
▪ Prophase is of the longest duration
▪ Chromonemata are thin, long threads and longitudinally single rather than double
▪ Chromosomes in beaded appearance
ZYGOTENE:
▪ Each member of homologous chromosomes attracted and move towards each other to
form a pair called BIVALENT
▪ The pairing of homologous chromosome is called SYNAPSIS
▪ The nucleus appears to have half the number of chromosomes
PACHYTENE:
▪ Each bivalent get shortened and thickened
▪ The homologous chromosomes twine around each other and each starts splitting into
sister chromatids by longitudinal splitting so each pair forms four chromatids called
TETRADS
DIPLOTENE:
▪ Synaptic forces lapse so the chromosomes of each bivalent start separating from each
other
▪ The non sister chromatids of each bivalent touch each other at several points called
CHIASMA
▪ Exchange of chromatids parts takes place between paired chromosomes due to the
breakage and rejoining of segments of chromatids at chiasmata. This is known as
CROSSING OVER
DIAKINESIS:
▪ Each member of homologous chromosomes attracted and move towards each other to
form a pair called BIVALENT
▪ The pairing of homologous chromosome is called SYNAPSIS
▪ The nucleus appears to have half the number of chromosomes
METAPHASE I:
▪ The bivalents line up on equitorial plane
▪ Each tetrad is attached with the spindle fiber at their centromere
▪ Shortest phase
ANAPHASE I:
▪ Separation Phase
▪ Each chromosome of the bivalent starts separating from other homologous counter part
▪ They move apart till reach at their respective pole
▪ Each tetrad become Dyad
TELOPHASE I:
▪ Just opposite to the Prophase I
▪ Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear
▪ Chromosomes still double threads start uncoiling
▪ The karyokinesis is followed by cytokinesis which divides the single diploid parent cell
into two haploid daughter cells
SECOND MEIOTIC OR HOMOTYPIC DIVISION:
PROPHASE II:
▪ No replication of chromosomes in pre inter phase
▪ Disintegration of nuclear envelope and nucleolus
METAPHASE II
▪ Rearrangement of dyads at the equitorial plane
▪ Each dyad attaches its centromere with discontinuous spindle fiber on its each side
ANAPHASE II
▪ Chromatids of each dyad move apart from each other and start moving in opposite
direction towards their respective poles
▪ In this phase, chromosome are in the form of MONADS
TELOPHASE II
▪ The monads reach at their respective poles
▪ The nuclear envelope and nucleolus reappear
▪ The chromosomes start uncoiling
▪ Karyokinesis is followed by Cytokinesis which divides each parent haploid cells into two
haploid daughter cells
SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS:
▪ It maintains a constant number of chromosomes in species generation after generation
▪ Due to crossing over new combination of alleles make the evolution of new varieties
possible
MEIOTIC ERRORS:
▪ NON-DISJUNCTION: The failure in the separation of the homologous chromosomes
from each other
▪ This results in the formation of daughter cells with unequal number of chromosomes
▪ HETEROPLOIDY: A change in the normal number of chromosomes
▪ POLYPLOIDY: A condition in which organism has more than two of every
homologous chromosome.
▪ Polyploidy is common in plants but rare in animals
▪ ANEUPLOID: One chromosome is less or more (2n-1 or 2n+1)
DOWN’S SYNDROME:
▪ TRISOMY 21 (2n+1)
▪ Commonly known as Mongolisms
▪ Aneuploid
▪ Autosomal chromosome 21 is extra
▪ Genetic defect related with the mother’s age
▪ Manifestations: Mental retardation with very low I.Q., broad flat face, eyes with folds,
short stature, short hands and large tongue
▪ Female may be fertile but male never reproduce
KLINEFELTER’S SYNDROME:
▪ Trisomic condition (2n+1) XXY
▪ One out of thousand birth show klinefelter’s syndrome
▪ Male sexual defect
▪ Immature Testes with the development of breast
TURNER’S SYNDROME:
▪ Monosomy (2n-1), i.e. XO condition in which individual has 45 chromosomes
▪ Female sexual defect
▪ One out of every 5000 births show Turner’s Syndrome
▪ Individual is sterile female
▪ Short stature; fold of skin around neck and shoulder
UNIT – 22
VARIATION AND GENETICS
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY:
 GENETICS: Brach of Science which deals with the study of inheritance of characters from the
parents to the offspring.
 HEREDITY: Resemblance of the offspring with their parents.
 VARIATION: Differences of offspring with their parents.
 GENE: A unit of heredity. It is a segment of DNA having complete instructions for the synthesis
of an Enzyme.
 ALLELE: Alternative form of a gene.
 GENE POOL: The total aggregate of genes in a population at any one time.
 HOMOZYGOUS: Individual having both same alleles for a particular gene.
 HETEROZYGOUS: Individual having two different alleles for a particular gene
 DOMINANT: A character expressed in hybrid offspring when the true breeding parents are
crossed with each other.
 RECESSIVE: A parental character whose expression is masked/suppressed in the offsprings.
GEORGOR MENDEL
 Austrian monk born in 1822 in monastery known for research and teaching after his death (1884)
acknowledgment of his discoveries in 1900
 Experiments with Pea Plants
1. Seed coat colour (gray or white)
2. Seed shape (round or wrinkled)
3. Seed colour (yellow or green)
4. Pod colour (green or yellow)
5. Flower position (axial or terminal)
6. Pod shape (inflated or constricted)
7. Stem length (tall or dwarf)
MONOHYBRID CROSSES AND THE PRINCIPLE OF SEGREGATION

 A cross between individuals differing in single character is a monohybrid cross.
 Genes come in pairs that separate in the formation of sex cells (and these sex cells unite randomly
at fertilization).
 No matter what the character, Mendel observed a 3:1 ratio of characters in the F2.
Mendel‘s Generalization
1. Alternative versions of genes account for variations in inherited characters
▪ concept of alleles (G=green, g=yellow)
2. For each character, an organism inherits two genes, one from each parent
▪ two gametes form somatic cells
▪ one allele comes from the mother,
▪ one from the father
3. If the two alleles differ, then:
o dominant allele is fully expressed in the organism's appearance (phenotype)
o recessive allele has no noticeable effect on the organism's appearance (genotype)
4. The two genes for each character segregate during gamete production
 ensures variation
LAW OF SEGREGATION
 the pair of alleles of each parent separate and only one allele passes from each parent on to an
offspring
 which allele in a parent's pair of alleles is inherited is a matter of chance
 segregation of alleles occurs during the process of gamete formation (meiosis)
 randomly unite at fertilization
THE DIHYBRID CROSS

 Studying the inheritance of two characters simultaneously
THE LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

 It appears that the inheritance of seed shape has no influence over the inheritance of seed colour
 The two characters are inherited INDEPENDENTLY
 The pairs of alleles that control these two characters assort themselves independently
DIHYBRID TEST CROSS

 In monohybrid crosses, to know if a dominant trait is homozygous (RR) or heterozygous (Rr) it
is necessary to carry out a test cross
 This is done with a homozygous recessive (rr) individual
 The same is true for a dihybrid cross where the test cross is made with an individual which is
homozygous recessive for both characters (rryy)
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
 Dominance relationships may differ, but the Principle of Segregation remains the same.
 CODOMINANCE
 Some genes have alleles that are both expressed in the heterozygote individuals
 Inheritance in which both alleles of a contrasting character are dominant and express themselves
in heterozygous condition
MULTIPLE ALLELES
 Genes which have more than two alleles
Genes and their alleles
 About 30% of the genes in humans are di-allelic, that is they exist in two forms, (they
have two alleles)
 About 70% are mono-allelic, they only exist in one form and they show no variation
 A very few are poly-allelic having more than two forms
The ABO blood system
 This is a controlled by a tri-allelic gene
 It can generate 6 genotypes
 The alleles control the production of antigens on the surface of the red blood cells
 Two of the alleles are codominant to one another and both are dominant over the third
 Allele IA produces antigen A
 Allele IB produces antigen B
 Allele i produces no antigen
Genotypes Phenotypes (Blood types)
IA IA A
IA IB AB
IAi A
IB IB B
IBi B
ii O
Blood types and transfusions

 Blood types vary and your immune system recognises your own blood type as being self
 Other blood types are recognised as non-self
 If a blood which is incompatible with your body is transfused it will result in the agglutination of
the foreign red blood cells
 People who are Type A blood produce antibodies to agglutinate cells which carry Type B
antigens
They recognise them as non-self
 The opposite is true for people who are Type B
 Neither of these people will agglutinate blood cells which are Type O
Type O cells do not carry any antigens for the ABO system
PLEIOTROPY – When One Allele Influences Many Traits

POLYGENIC INHERITANCE – When a Single Trait is Influenced by Many Genes
EPISTASIS
 Coined by Bateson in 1910
 One gene is influenced by the other gene for its expression.
 E.g. Fur colour in mice in which more than one pair of alleles is known to influence
pigmentation.
CONTINUOUSLY VARYING TRAITS

 Sex linkage
 The case of the white-eyed mutant
 Morgan tried the cross the other way round, white-eyed female x red-eyed male
 Result: All red-eyed females and all white-eyed males
 This confirmed what Morgan suspected
 The gene for eye colour is linked to the X chromosome
X-LINKED GENES
 In sex linked characteristics the reciprocal crosses do not give the same results
 For X-linked genes fathers do not pass the mutant allele onto their sons
 For X-linked genes fathers pass the mutant allele onto their daughters who are carriers
 Carrier mothers may pass the allele onto their sons (50% chance)
 Females showing the trait for an X-linked mutant allele can exist but they are rare
 Female carriers may show patches of cells with either trait due to X chromosome
inactivation
SEX CHROMOSOMES
 The sex of many animals is determined by genes but on chromosomes called sex
chromosomes
 The other chromosomes are called autosomes
 One sex is homogametic
 The other sex is heterogametic
SEX DETERMINATION IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS
HOMOGAMETIC HETEROGAMETIC SEX

SEX SEX DETERMINATION
Female XX Male XY Presence of Y-
chromosome =
maleness (mammals
and fish)
Presence of second
X-chromosome =
femaleness
(Drosophila, the fruit
fly)
Male ZZ Female ZW Birds, amphibians,
reptiles, butterflies,
moths.
Female XX Male Xo Grasshoppers
HEAMOPHILIA
 About 85% of haemophiliacs suffer from classic haemophilia (1 male in 10 000)
 They cannot produce factor VIII
 The rest show Christmas disease where they cannot make factor IX
 The genes for both forms of haemophilia are sex linked
 Haemophiliacs do clot their blood slowly because there is an alternative pathway via
thromboplastin
UNIT – 23
BIOTECHNOLOGY
BIOTECHNOLOGY:
 Applications of biological phenomena to the field of technology
RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

 The use of genetically engineered microorganisms to produce valuable products which are not
naturally synthesized by them
GENETIC ENGINEERING
 Intentional alteration in the genetic material of an organism by inserting into it foreign genes
 Genetic Engineering usually utilizes bacterial cells and their plasmids, which are small, circular,
extra-chromosomal DNA
Basic steps in rDNA technology
 Preparation of rDNA molecule
 Insertion of rDNA into host cell
 Manipulation and production of numerous copies of host with Rdnaa in it
 Selection of bacteria with required gene
Recombinant DNA
 The ability to combine the DNA of one organism with the DNA of another organism.
 Recombinant DNA technology was first used in the 1970’s with bacteria.
Recombinant Bacteria
1) Remove bacterial DNA (plasmid).
2) Cut the Bacterial DNA with “restriction enzymes”.
3) Cut the DNA from another organism with “restriction enzymes”.
4) Combine the cut pieces of DNA together with another enzyme and insert them into
bacteria.
5) Reproduce the recombinant bacteria.
6) The foreign genes will be expressed in the bacteria.
RESTRICTION ENZYMES
 Discovered in the early 1970’s
 Used as a defense mechanism by bacteria to break down the DNA of attacking viruses.
 They cut the DNA into small fragments.
 Can also be used to cut the DNA of organisms.
 This allows the DNA sequence to be in a more manageable bite-size pieces.
 It is then possible using standard purification techniques to single out certain fragments and
duplicate them to macroscopic quantities.
 Different restriction enzymes have different recognition sequences.
 This makes it possible to create a wide variety of different gene fragments.
 Pasting DNA
 Two pieces of DNA can be fused together by adding chemical bonds
 Hybridization – complementary base-pairing
 Ligation – fixing bonds with single strands
APPLICATIONS OF GENETICALLY ENGINEERED BACTERIA

 TRANSGENIC PLANTS: A plant having foreign gene inserted into it.
 TRANSGENIC ANIMALS: An animal having foreign gene inserted into it.
ISOLATION OF EUKARYOTIC GENES

 Eukaryotic genes cannot be cloned directly from its genome because it often contains long
non-coding region (i.e.INTRON) and bacterial cells cannot express it.
DNA FINGERPRINTING
 Each DNA profile is unique!
 30% of human DNA does not code for proteins and repeated frequently in genome of
individual
 These repetitive units are 30-40 base pairs long
 The differences in DNA electrophoresis pattern are called RESTRICTION FRAGMENTS
LENGTH POLYMORPHISM (RFLPs)
 RFLPs are analogous to Finger Prints so RFLPs are also called DNA Fingerprints
 Regions of chromosomes that code for proteins are called exons
 Other regions that are non-coding are called introns.
 Inrons contain blocks of repeated nucleotides called short tandem repeats (STRs)
 It is the number of times that these STRs are repeated that produces the variations in
individuals.
HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (HGP)

 1990-2003
 # of genes=30000-35000
 To determine the complete sequence of 3 billion nucleotides!!!
 99.9% of all human DNA is same!!!
 0.1% (about 3,200,000 base pairs) is different and account for all the genetic differences or
variation among human population!!!
GENETIC DISEASES
CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
 Down’s Syndrome
UNIFACTORIAL DEFECTS
 Huntington’s Disease: Autosomal dominant allele on chromosome 4. Progressive
mental retardation accompanied by involuntary muscle movement. No treatment
 Cystic Fibrosis: Autosomal recessive allele. Tendency of chronic lung infection and
inability of absorb fats and other nutrients.
MULTIFACTORIAL DEFECTS: caused by additive effects of many genes
 Asthma; Type II diabetes
GENE THERAPY
 SEVERE COMBINED IMMUNO DEFECIENCY SYNDROME (SCID)
o Very poor immune system
o Cells of bone marrow cannot produce an enzyme ADENOSINE
DEAMINASE (ADA)
o Possible treatment: Remove defective bone marrow cells from patient, insert
normal gene of ADA into these cells and return the transplanted cells into
bone marrow of the patient
AMNIOCENTESIS
 Diagnostic procedure in which a small amount of amniotic fluid is withdrawn from the
amniotic sac which is analyzed to detect fetal abnormalities
TISSUE CULTURE
 Whole plant can be grown by culturing small pieces of tissues from the parent or from a
single parenchyma cell.
 TOTIPOTENT CELL: A cell with full genetic potential of organism.
UNIT – 24
EVOLUTION
 Gradual development of something, i.e. evolution of earth, evolution of man, etc
 Evolution with reference to living organisms is referred to as ORGANIC EVOLUTION
 It can be defined as “the development of an entity in the course of time through gradual sequence
of changes from simple to complex state.”
THEORY OF SPECIAL CREATION:

 God created all animals and plants i.e. All living things came into existence in their present forms
especially and superficially created by Nature an no change has occurred since then because each
species is fixed and immutable, propagating its own kind through generations by reproduction in
between its own members.
THEORY OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION:

 The earth has been evolved not created. It has arisen slowly from a small beginning and increased
through the activities of elementary forces contained in it. So life is considered to have grown
rather than to come into existence suddenly.
NATURE OF EARLY ORGANISMS

 Life may have begun deep in the water especially in hot spring called “Hydrothermal vents”.
 The vents could have supplied the energy and raw material for the origin and survival of early life
forms. (A group of bacteria (Archeabacteria) tolerate temperature up to 1200C
 Their metabolism was mostly catabolic nature.
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
 Gradually due to reduction of the supply of high energy compound in the environment
the necessity of evolving a new kind of metabolism became evident.
 Thus many types of respiratory mechanism correlated with the nutritive system exploited
by bacteria came into existence.
 Heterotrophic bacteria evolved first than autotrophic bacteria.
 The autotrophic bacteria obtained energy from chemical reactions in which simple
inorganic compounds are involved, such as Sulphur and Iron but the yield of energy was much
lower.
 The evolution of photosynthetic mechanism may be the real basis for the evolution of all
green plants.
 The oxygen liberated during photosynthesis began to accumulate in the atmosphere.
 The Eukaryotic cell might have evolved when a large anaerobic amoeboid prokaryote
ingested small aerobic bacteria and stabilized them instead of digesting them.
 Prokaryotic cell membrane folded inward to enclose copies of its genetic material. This
invagination resulted in the formation of membrane bound organelles in a single cell.
 Development of Eukaryotic cell led to increase in the complexity and diversity of life-
forms on the earth.
 Earlier Eukaryotes were solitary but later colonial forms arose which became
multicellular organisms in which various cells organized to form tissues.
INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS OR LAMARCKISM

 Proposed by Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829)
 He wrote a book “Philophie Zoologique”
 His theory is based upon three postulates:
1. Effects of environment
2. Use and disuse of organs
3. Inheritance of acquired characters
 OBJECTIONS:
1. Mutilations as a result of accidents or diseases are not inherited
2. Boring of holes in ears and nose in not inherited
3. Circumcision is not inherited
4. No inheritance through somatic cells (Germinal continuity theory of August
Weismann’s)
THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION

 Proposed by Charles Darwin (1859)
 He wrote a book “On the origin of species”
 Postulates of Theory of Natural Selection
Over reproduction, Struggle for existence, Variations and Heredity, Natural selection or
survival of the fittest, Formation of new species
1. OVER REPRODUCTION: Each organism tries to over-produce its offspring number
2. STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE: There is a struggle for resources such food, shelter, better living
conditions, mates, etc among members of the different species as well as members of the same
species.
i) Intra-specific struggle,
ii) Inter-specific struggle, and
iii) Environmental struggle
3. VARIATIONS & HEREDITY: The differences of an individual with its parents are called
“variations” while the resemblances are called “heredity”. Constant structural differences among
the members of a species are called “minor variations”.
Organisms with variations that better equip them to survive in a particular environment will be
favoured over the others that are less well adapted.
4. NATURAL SELECTION or SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST: Nature selects the fittest individual
to survive and reproduce.
The fittest individuals means those who have developed the best variations and then able to
inherit those changes through genes into their offspring.
 Darwin was of the opinion when humans through artificial selection are able to develop
new species so why the Nature could form new species through its selection.
5. FORMATION OF NEW SPECIES: Most evolution occurs in small adaptive steps, i.e., evolution
proceeds gradually.
 Continuation and gradual accumulation of these divergences or variations gradually
produce new and different types and in time leads to the creation of large groups/new species.
Objections to Darwin’s theory

1. Darwin did not clearly differentiate between heritable and non heritable variations.
2. He was silent about mutations
3. He could not tell the cause of variations
4. He could not provide the appearance of neutral variations
5. He could not account for presence of vestigial organs
6. He could not account for the arrival of the fittest
Mutation Theory (De Vraies 1848-1935)

 New races and species originate discontinuously and non gradually.
 He called mutation to discontinuous variations
 Mutations are sudden, unpredictable heritable changes. They are not necessarily adaptive.
Evidences in favour or organic evolution
 Evidences from Fossil records: Archaeopteryx fossil discovered in Bavaria, Germany is a
Connecting link between reptiles and birds
 Partly reptile and partly bird
 Toothed beak, tail containing 20 vertebrae, wings containing moveable fingers with
claws
 Evidences from classification: Based upon resemblances among the organisms
 Presence of notochord, nerve cord and pharyngeal gill slits suggests that chordates share
a common ancestor
 Evidences from homology: Organs which are different in structure and function but
common in origin are called homologous organs.
 Evidences from vestigial organs: Organs which are present in reduced non function form.
E.g. wings of kiwi, appendix, coccyx in man, etc
 Evidences from biochemistry: The blood sera have shown the relationship between man
and apes to old world monkey and new world monkey.
Natural selection and population genetics

▪ The forces of natural selection do not merely act on individual gene but on population
▪ DEME: A more or less genetically isolated unit of population
▪ GENE POOL: The sum total of all the different genes in a population
GENE FREQUENCY
▪The relative proportions of different alleles for a particular trait
▪For example, in a population of 100 pea plants, the gene pool for flower color would consist of
200 alleles. Among 100 individuals, 70 have purple while 30 have white flowers. So the
frequency of purple and white would be
▪ Purple=70*2=140/200=0.7 or 70%
▪ White=30*2=60/200=0.3 or 30%
ROLE OF GENE FREQUENCY IN EVOLUTION
▪ Suppose a cow eats all purple flowers before they produce seeds. (suppose purple is dominant
over white)
▪ In the next generation, the gene frequency of purple will be 0% while for white flower will rise to
100%
HARDY-WEINBERG LAW
▪ The frequencies of dominant and recessive alleles in a population will remain constant from
generation to generation provided certain conditions exists.
▪ P2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
▪ Allele “a” has a frequency of 0.9 and allele “b” has a frequency of 0.1 then
▪ P2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
▪ (0.9)(0.9)+2(0.9)(0.1)+(0.1)2=1
▪ 0.81+0.18+0.01=1
▪ This stability is called GENETIC EQUILIBRIUM
▪ Genetic equilibrium is upset due to mutation, environmental change and natural selection
ENDANGERED SPECIES
▪ G.F.Gause formulated the PRINCIPLE OF COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION
▪ If the two species are competing with one another for the same limited resource, then one of the
species will be able to use that resource more efficiently the other and the former will therefore
eventually eliminate the latter locally. The former populations which are in a threat of elimination
are called endangered species.
UNIT – 25
ECOSYSTEM
WHAT IS ECOLOGY?
✓ Ecology is the study of relationships between living things and between living things and
their environment.
✓ The term was coined by Earnst Hackel in 1869
✓ Begins with a group of organisms and ends on ecosystem
✓ POPULATION: Members of a species which live in together in the same area at the
same time.
✓ COMMUNITY: Populations of a particular area
✓ ECOSYSTEM: Interaction of community with its non living environment.
✓ BIOSPHERE: all the different ecosystems linked together to constitute a giant ecosystem
or biosphere
✓ ENVIRONMENT: surrounding of an organism
✓ HABITAT: Natural place of living of organism
✓ ECOLOGICAL NICHE: The functional status of an organism in its environment
✓ SPECIES: A group of organisms that can breed to produce fully fertile offspring
✓ POPULATION: A group of organisms of the same species which live in the same habitat
at the same time where they can freely interbreed
✓ COMMUNITY: All the populations of the different species living and inter-acting in the
same ecosystem
APPROACHES TO ECOLOGY
 POPULATION APPROACH (AUTOECOLOGY)
 COMMUNITY APPROACH (SYNECOLOCY)
 ECOSYSTEM APPROACH
 HABITAT APPROACH
 EVOLUTIONARY APPROACH
 HISTORICAL APPROACH
 POPULATION APPROACH: Based upon study of individual species.

 COMMUNITY APPROACH/BIOCOENOTICS: Based upon the individual species, whole
community and environment.
 ECOSYSTEM APPROACH: The most recent approach. This approach is based upon flow of
energy and cycling of matter between living and non living components.
 HABITAT APPROACH: It is based upon the study of the habitat of organism.
 TERRESTRIAL HABITAT
 MARINE WATER HABITAT
 FRESH WATER HABITAT
 EUSTRINE
 EVOLUTIONARY APPROACH: Study of the origin of life and living organisms and their
evolution into new forms
 HISTORICAL APPROACH: Changes associated with the development of tools in man’s
history.
ECOSYSTEM
➢ Community + Abiotic environment, interacting
➢ The term was coined by Tansley in 1935
➢ An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of a community, which shows relationship
between flow of energy and cycling of matter in between biotic and abiotic components
➢ An ecosystem consists of two factors: Abiotic & Biotic
➢ ABIOTIC FACTORS: Non living; 3 factors: climatic, topographic, edaphic
➢ BIOTIC FACTORS: Living; 2 types: autotrophs, heterotrophs
ABIOTIC FACTORS:
Climatic factors:
 LIGHT: Essential for green plants for the process of photosysnthesis.
 3 % of total sunlight is utilized by the plants
 Light affects in three ways:
◼ Light intensity
◼ Light duration
◼ Light quality
 TEMPERATURE: Life mainly exists in the range of 00C to 500C
 WATER: Distribution of vegetation depends upon water. Limiting factor for terrestrial
organisms. The precipitation (rain fall) is the main source of water.
 ATMOSPHERE & WIND: The major part of biosphere is atmosphere which is linked with
biogeochemical cycles. Wind brings about atomospheric circulation of water vapours and gases,
dispersal of seeds & fruits, distribution of microorganisms, rate of transpiration, etc.
 FIRE: Several causes of fire such as lightning, volcanic activity, mutual friction, etc
 It recycles various nutrients and brings about changes in environmental factors like light,
rainfall, etc.
Topographic fators
 The study of earth surface is topography.
 3 main factors of topography affect organisms.
 ALTITUDE
 SLOPE
 EXPOSURE
EDAPHIC FACTORS
 Factors pertaining to condition and composition of soil are called edaphic factors.
 PEDOLOGY: Study of edaphic factors
 SOIL: Link between living and non living
BIOTIC COMPONENTS
 AUTOTROPHS or PRODUCERS: e.g. Plants
 HETEROTROPHS
◼ CONSUMERS: animals
 Primary consumers: Herbivores
 Secondary consumers: Carnivores
 Tertiary consumers: Carnivores
◼ DECOMPOSERS or SAPROTROPHS: bacteria and fungi
AUTOTROPHS: Organisms which can synthesise their own complex, energy rich, organic molecules
from simple inorganic molecules (e.g. green plants synthesis sugars from CO2 and H2O)
HETEROTROPHS: Organisms who must obtain complex, energy rich, organic compounds form the
bodies of other organisms (dead or alive)
Detritivores: Heterotrophic organisms who ingest dead organic matter. (e.g. earthworms, woodlice,
millipedes)
Saprotrophs: Heterotrophic organisms who secrete digestive enzymes onto dead organism matter and
absorb the digested material. (e.g. fungi, bacteria)
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
❖ The recycling of matter from environment to the protoplasm of the organisms and back to the
environment is called biogeochemical cycles. Such as phosphorus, nitrogen (independent cycle),
oxygen, carbon cyles etc.
NITROGEN CYCLE
❖ Nitrates are essential for plant growth
❖ Nitrates are recycled via microbes
Ammonification
❖ Nitrogen enters the soil through the decomposition of protein in dead organic matter
Amino acids + 11/2O2 → CO2 + H2O + NH3+ 736kJ
❖ This process liberates a lot of energy which can be used by the saprotrophic microbes
Nitrification
❖ This involves two oxidation processes
❖ The ammonia produced by ammonification is an energy rich substrate for Nitrosomas bacteria.
They oxidise it to nitrite:
❖ This in turn provides a substrate for Nitrobacter bacteria oxidise the nitrite to nitrate:
NO3- + 1/2O2 → NO3- + 73 kJ
❖ This energy is the only source of energy for these prokaryotes
❖ They are chemoautotrophs
Atmospheric nitrogen fixation

❖ Electrical storms
❖ Lightning provides sufficient energy to split the nitrogen atoms of nitrogen gas,
❖ Forming oxides of nitrogen NOx and NO2
Atmospheric Pollution
❖ This also happens inside the internal combustion engines of cars
❖ The exhaust emissions of cars contribute a lot to atmospheric pollution in the form of NOx
❖ These compounds form photochemical smog
❖ They are green house gases
❖ They dissolve in rain to contribute to acid rain in the form of nitric acid
❖ The rain falling on soil and running into rivers
❖ They contribute to the eutrophication of water bodies
The nitrogen fixers

❖ Cyanobacteria are nitrogen fixers that also fix carbon (these are photosynthetic)
❖ Rhizobium bacteria are mutualistic with certain plant species e.g. Legumes
❖ They grow in root nodules
❖ Azotobacter are bacteria associated with the rooting zone (the rhizosphere) of plants in grasslands
Eutrophication
❖ Nutrient enrichment of water bodies
❖ Nitrates and ammonia are very soluble in water
❖ They are easily washed (leached) from free draining soils
❖ These soils tend to be deficient in nitrogen
❖ When fertiliser is added to these soils it too will be washed out into water bodies
❖ There algae benefit from the extra nitrogen
❖ This leads to a serious form of water pollution
INTERDEPENDENCE
❖ positive interaction and negative interaction
Positive Interaction: Organisms benefit each other or it may be one way
Negative interaction: One species is harmed
PARASITISM
❖ Association in which one organism, the PARASITE, gets the benefits while the other, the HOST,
is harmed.
❖ ECTOPARASITES: Parasites that live on the body surface of their hosts. E.g. Lice,
❖ ENDOPARASITES: Parasites that live inside the body of their hosts. E.g. Plasmodium.
SYMBIOSIS
❖ Association in which none of the partner is harmed.
❖ MUTUALISM: Both partners provide mutual benefits to each other. E.g. Nitrogen fixing
bacteria and the leguminous plants
❖ COMMENSALISM: In this relationship, one of the partners is benefits while the other one
is neither benefitted nor harmed. E.g. epiphytic plants on the trunk of other plants.
PREDATION
❖ Animals which hunt and kill their prey. It is either secondary or tertiary level of consumer. It
influences upon population size.
GRAZING
❖ The grazers are herbivore animals. They cause substantial loss to the leaves and aerial parts
of the plants.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
❖ The process of orderly change in a community.
❖ It is due to the change in the environment.
CLIMAX COMMUNITY:
❖ A The stable community developed during the course of time.
❖ Hult (1885) first time used the term succession for orderly changes in a community.
❖ There are two types of successions in a community
◼ PRIMARY SUCCESSION
◼ SECONDAARY SUCCESSION
PRIMARY SUCCESSION
❖ The development of life activity in completely new areas leading to community is called
PRIMARY SUCCESSION.
❖ Such new areas are formed due to many reasons like land slides, erosion.
❖ The initially establishing plants in such areas are referred to as PIONEERS or primary
community.
SECONDARY SUCCESSION
❖ Succession occurs on places which were previously occupied by living things but late
destroyed by fire or any other climatic or biotic changes.
❖ Due to build up substratum, the succession is more rapid and climax communities develop
which are different from previous communities.
❖ On the basis of habitat, primary and secondary succession are further divided into three types:
❖ HYDROSERE: Occur in water
❖ MESOSERE (Mesarch): Occur in area where adequate moisture is present
❖ XEROSERE: Occur on dry, terrestrial places like rocks.
HYDROSERE
The seral stage of hydrosere
i) PHYTOPLANKTON STAGE: Unicellular & colonial planktonic forms are the first invaders.
They are the pioneer community. E.g. Cyanobacteria, spirogyra, amoeba, paramecium,
ii) SUBMERGED STAGE: The death of the phytoplankton as well as zooplankton make the soil
softer for the growth of rooted hydrophytes. E.g. Hydrilla, Vallisnaria, Daphnia,
iii) FLOATING STAGE: The death and decay of submerged hydrophytes with the accumulation of
sediments washed into the pond from the surrounding area decrease water level upto several feet.
It promotes soil rooted plants whose leaves float on water. E.g. Nymphea, Eichornia, Nelumbium,
Hydra, snails, frog.
iv) REED SWAMP STAGE: Amphibious stage. Plants though rooted but most their parts are above
the water table. E.g. Typha, Polygonum, Lymnea, insects
v) SEDGE MEDOW STAGE: Due to continuous decrease in water table of pond, plants develop
much branched rhizome system. E.g. Junesis, Cyperus, snails,
vi) WOOD LAND STAGE: The soil becomes more drier. Thus the marshy vegetation disappears
and area becomes rich by terrestrial plants like Salix (shrub), zebra
vii) CLIMAX STAGE: The wood land is finally invaded by trees. In case of heavy rainfall. Tropical
rain forest while moderate rainfall produces mixed forest
XEROSERE
❖ It occurs on bare rocks or land where there is lack of water and organic matter
❖ These stages are designated on the basis of dominant plant types.
i) CRUSTOSE STAGE: Lichens can survive in extreme temp.
ii) FOLIOSE & FRUCIOSE LICHEN STAGE: Lichens with large leafy structures.
They have ability to absorb moisture and retain it. Animals are mites, ants, spiders
iii) MOSS STAGE: Thin soil layer favours mosses which require little water. Animals
are spiders, mites increase in number
iv) HERBS STAGE: Development of annual and perennial herbs. Due to enough
accumulation of soil, shallow rooted grasses develop. Animals are nematodes,
v) SHRUB STAGE: The soil becomes rich with moisture and minerals. The shrubs
over shadow the grasses. Animals are slugs, snails, squirrel, shrew
vi) CLIMAX STAGE: Xerophytic trees develop which convert cliamte to mesophytic
form.
UNIT – 26
SOME MAJOR ECOSYSTEMS
LIFE IN MARINE WATER
• Water covers about 70% of the earth surface
• Salinity of sea is about 3.5%
• Average temp. about 320C
• The coming up of the sea water at the surface is UP WELLING
• Horizontally sea can be differentiated into two parts:
– NERITIC: Shallow water upto 180m deep.
– OCEANIC: i) euphotic, & ii) aphotic zones
• Oceanic region: The aphotic zone consists of bathyal and lower abyssal zones.
• The bathyal zone consists of continental slope reaching upto 2000 meters. Animals are filter
feeders
• The abyssal zone has no plant life but rich in decomposers and scavengers.
• Vertically sea can be divided into three zones:
– EUPHOTIC ZONE: Light penetrates very well. Rich in phytoplankton and zooplankton.
– APHOTIC ZONE: Dark zone.
o BATHYAL ZONE: continental slope reaching upto 2000 meters. Filter feeder animals.
o ABYSSAL ZONE: Rich in organic matter. Plant life is absent. Decomposers are abundant.
Animals with luminescent organs.
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS (BIOMES)

BIOME: large recognizable biogeographical unit with distinct climate and biotic factors
1. FOREST ECOSYSTEMS
2. GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
3. DESERT ECOSYSTEM
4. TUNDRA
FOREST
Roughly occupy 35%-40% of the land surface.
Pakistan has 6% forest land
i. TROPICAL RAIN FOREST
ii. CONIFEROUS FOREST
iii. TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST
TROPICAL RAIN FOREST

❖ Grow in equatorial region; rain fall is very high; average temp. 28 0C
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS: Dead organic debris of leaves and twigs of the flora which undergo
rapid decomposition
BIOTIC COMPONENTS:
❖ Producers: Three storied. Great source of timber.
o Upper canopy of very tall trees. This dense canopy allow less light to pass through it.
o Intermediate canopy consists of medium trees.
o Lower storey consists of small trees.
❖ Primary Consumers: Herbivores
❖ Secondary Consumers: Carnivores
❖ Tertiary Consumers: Carnivores
❖ Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi
CONIFEROUS FOREST
• Confined to the northern hemisphere where summer is short and winter is long
• Main plants are gymnosperms which occur at high altitude and high latitude.
• Decomposition is very slow
• In Pakistan, Kaghan, Swat, Muree are examples.
TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST
• Deciduous Plants: Those which shed off their leaves during winter.
• They may be dry, moonsonal and moist deciduous.
• Average rainfall is 100 cm
• Used for cultivation
• Ground flora is much richer because light can penetrate.
GRASS LAND ECOSYSTEM
• Covers about 19% of earth’s surface
• Grass land occur where the rain fall is too low to support forest life.
• Rain fall 30-75 cm
• Occur interior of the continent.
• Producers: mainly grasses. That’s why called BREAD BASKET OF THE WORLD
• Consumers: Variety
• Decomposers: bacteria and fungi
SAVANNAH
• Tropical grass land
• Rain fall is 125cm per year
• Relatively long dry season.
• Variety of plants and animals
• Full of plenty of grasses, good for grazers
• World’s largest grazers
DESERT: Lands where evaporation exceeds rain fall
• Average rain fall below 25 cm per year
• Occupy about 17% of land surface of the earth
• Sahara is the largest desert
• Three deserts of Pakistan are Thar, Cholistan and thull.
• Plants are mostly xerophytic
• Animals are nocturnal
• Decomposers few; thermophilic bacteria and fungi
TUNDRA
• Cool desert
• Arctic tundra is the largest
• The environmental conditions are not very much favourable for producers as well as consumers.
• Low temp. and wind velocity are limiting factors
• The sub-soil below 10-20 cms is permanently frozen and is called PERMA FROST
• The precipitation is very low
• The productivity is very low
UNIT – 27
MAN & HIS ENVIRONMENT
Renewable & Non-Renewable resources

 Renewebale resources:.
These resources can be replenished by physical or biological means, e.g. air, water, soil, wildlife,
forests, agriculture products, fish and livestock, etc.
 Non-Renewable resources:
These are once used or exhausted cannot be re-used such as fossil fuel (oil, coal and natural gas),
metals and industrial material obtained from earth.
Renewable Resources
AIR
 Composition of air is 78% Nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide, small amount of other
gases (inert gases), dust particles, and water vapours.
 Except inert gases all these components serve as raw material for living organisms.
 Nitrogen is the source of building of protoplasm by plants.
WATER
 Universal biological solvent.
 We use 10% while industries about 90% of f.w.
 Ground water is the rain water that percolates in groung.
 Water that accumulates around soil in the form of thin film is called soil water.
LAND:
 Land consists of both organic and inorganic resources.
 One of the most striking resource of land is its plants
WILD LIFE:
 Wild animals and plants are the most valuable resource.
 They play an important role in the balance of nature
ENERGY
 Energy forms the basis of life-support systems on the planet earth.
 The energy may be
NON-RENEWABLE (e.g. coal, petroleum, natural gas, tar, oil shales and nuclear fuels) or
RENEWABLE (e.g. solar energy, falling water, wind, wave, ocean currents, tides, temperature
gradients and plant materials.
FOSSIL FUEL:
 Coal, Petroleum and natural gas are fossil fuels.
 They are formed by the fossilization of plants
NUCLEAR ENERGY:
 It is obtained from the nuclear fission of certain heavy elements into lighter ones, resulting into
the conversion of small mass of the element into energy.
 Nuclear fission has environmental hazards in the form of radiation
 Non renewable
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY:
 Heat produced by radioactive material deep beneath the surface of the each is geothermal energy.
 It is manifested in the form of volcanic activity, super heated water or steam escaping from under
the ground.
 Non renewable
SOLAR ENERGY:
 Energy obtained from sunlight
 Renewable resource
 The problem is that it is received with breaks
SOLID WASTES:
 Refused in lanes, litter on roadsides, discarded cartons, tins, polythene material, cracked bottles,
agricultural and industrial wastes, etc
 It caused pollution of air and water
 Some of the solid wastes like farm and animal manure, crop residues and sewage can be
converted into fuel called “Bio-gas”.
WIND, WAVE & OCEAN THERMAL GRADIENTS:
 Indirect source of solar energy
 Ocean thermal energy is based on the difference in temperature between surface and deep waters.
TIDAL POWER:
 Source of power for operating small mills.
 It can be used in generating electricity.
HYDROELECTRIC POWER:
 Electricity generated from falling water
MAN’S IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT

DEFORESTATION AND AFFORESTATION
 Cutting of forest is called deforestation
 New plantation is afforestation
POLLUTION
o Pollution is undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics
of air, land and water that may harmfully affect human life or that of desirable
species.
• Air pollution
• Water pollution
• Land pollution
AIR POLLUTION
 Whenever, due to some natural processes or human activities the amount of solid waste
or concentration of gases other than oxygen increase in the air, which normally has
constant percentage of different gases in it, it is called air pollution
 Burning of fossil fuel is the major source of air pollution
 Particulate pollutants includes large number of things such as carbon smoke, road dust,
particles of metals, soot tars, mineral dust resins, pollens, aerosols, oxygen compounds,
halogen compounds and radioactive substance.
 Combustion of fossil fuel produce nitrogen oxide (NO 2) which during sunlight combines
with gasous hydrocarbons to form a variety of secondary pollutants called
PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS.
 These oxidants together with solid and liquid particles in the air are very effective in the
scattering of light that causes the milky-gray haze characteristic of the
PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG. It causes irritation of lungs and eyes.
 Other gaseous pollutants are CO and SO2
ACID RAINS:
❖ Burning of coal emits CO2, SO2 and NO2 into the air which combine with moisture in the
air to form dilute Carbonic acid, Sulphuric acid & Nitrous acid, respectively.
❖ Such acids return to the earth with rain water and such rain is called “acid rain”.
❖ Acid rain is harmful for health of man, animals, crops & structures like metals, buildings,
etc
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT or GLOBAL WARMING:
❖ The gradually increasing amount of CO2 in the air due to burning of fossil fuel is developing
green house effect or rise in temperature or the atmospheres
❖ CO2 allows sun rays to pass through the atmosphere but prevents the long wave radiation
reflected by the earth from escaping into outer space and redirect heat back towards earth
DEPLETION OF OZONE LAYER:
❖ The layer of O3 in the upper atmosphere prevents living organisms from the harmful
effect of UV radiation of sun.
❖ The release of Cl atoms (from CFC) under the intense UV at high altitude converts O 3
into O2, thus this depletion allows UV radiation to reach the earth surface and may cause
skin cancer and many other lethal effects.
WATER POLLUTION
❖ Any type of water contamination is called water pollution
❖ The major sources of water pollution are:
1) Domestic
2) Industrial
3) Agricultural
❖ Sewage, industrial wastes, oil spills, mine drains, insectisides, fertilizers, are some of the
pollutants.
❖ Release of phosphorus from fertilizers, promote the algal growth called ALGAL BLOOM,
which deplete oxygen and cause death of aquatic animals.
LAND POLLUTION
❖ It is
caused by solid
wastes, which
include
household
trash, sewage,
sludge,
garbage,
agriculture
residues and
industrial
wastes.
❖ Hazardous wastes include Mercury, Cadmium, and Beryllium which accumulate in various
organs interfering with normal enzymatic actions and cause various illness such as cancer.
❖ Another source of land pollution is nuclear wastes
NON MATERIAL POLLUTION

i) Radiation pollution:
• UV rays from sun, X-Rays, Radio-isotopes release energy which is ionized and can
disrupt biological molecules.
ii) Noise pollution:
❖ Unwanted sound.
❖ Sound more than 80 decibel is considered as loud, uncomfortable and dangerous.
❖ Factories, vehicles, machines, loud speakers, super sonic aeroplanes, etc are some sources of
noise pollution
Health & Diseases

HEALTH:
A condition of physical and mental well being.
DISEASE (Discomfort feeling):
An abnormal condition in which an organ or part of an organ does not perform its normal
function.
Diseases can be roughly categorized as:
❖ Infectious diseases
❖ Parasitic Diseases
❖ Genetic (congenital & non congenital) disorders
❖ Nutritional diseases
❖ Aging Associated diseases

Keypoints Xii Bio RO Watermark

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Keypoints Xii Bio RO Watermark

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Keypoints Xii Bio RO Watermark

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Prof.

Muhammad Saleem Mughal 31

Feed Back System

Urinary system of Man

Thermoregulation in hot temperature

SUPPORT & LOCOMOTION IN ANIMALS

COORDINATION & CONTROL IN ANIMALS

GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT IN PLANTS

GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT IN ANIMALS

Notochord formation and differentiation of mesoderm

CELL DIFFERENTIATION AND ITS MECHANISM

Accroding to the position of centromere:

CHROMOSOME THEORY OF HEREDITY:

WATSON & CRICK MODEL OF DNA:

 INVERSION: The reversal in sequence of gene. It reduces crossing over.

MITOSIS IN ANIMALS & PLANTS:

MONOHYBRID CROSSES AND THE PRINCIPLE OF SEGREGATION

THE DIHYBRID CROSS

THE LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

DIHYBRID TEST CROSS

Blood types and transfusions

PLEIOTROPY – When One Allele Influences Many Traits

CONTINUOUSLY VARYING TRAITS

SEX DETERMINATION IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS

HOMOGAMETIC HETEROGAMETIC SEX

RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

APPLICATIONS OF GENETICALLY ENGINEERED BACTERIA

ISOLATION OF EUKARYOTIC GENES

HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (HGP)

THEORY OF SPECIAL CREATION:

THEORY OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION:

NATURE OF EARLY ORGANISMS

INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS OR LAMARCKISM

THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION

Objections to Darwin’s theory

Mutation Theory (De Vraies 1848-1935)

Natural selection and population genetics

 POPULATION APPROACH: Based upon study of individual species.

Atmospheric nitrogen fixation

The nitrogen fixers

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS (BIOMES)

TROPICAL RAIN FOREST

Renewable & Non-Renewable resources

MAN’S IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT

NON MATERIAL POLLUTION

Health & Diseases

You might also like