Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 14 (2017) 1–9

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Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ejrh

Floodplain hydrodynamic modelling of the Lower Volta River in

T
Ghana
⁎
Frederick Yaw Logah , Akurugu Barnabas Amisigo, Emmanuel Obuobie,
Kwabena Kankam-Yeboah
CSIR Water Research Institute, P. O. Box M. 32, Accra, Ghana

AR TI CLE I NF O AB S T R A CT

Keywords: The impacts of dam releases from re-operation scenarios of the Akosombo and Kpong hydro-
Geomorphology power facilities on downstream communities along the Lower Volta River were examined
HEC-RAS model through hydrodynamic modelling using the HEC-RAS hydraulic model. The model was used to
Dam release simulate surface water elevation along the river reach for specified discharge hydrographs from
Floodplain
proposed re-operation dam release scenarios. The morphology of the river and its flood plains
Lower Volta River
together with cross-sectional profiles at selected river sections were mapped and used in the
Ghana
hydrodynamic modelling. In addition, both suspended and bed-load sediment were sampled and
analysed to determine the current sediment load of the river and its potential to carry more
sediment. The modelling results indicate that large areas downstream of the dam including its
flood plains would be inundated if dam releases came close to or exceeded 2300 m3/s. It is
therefore recommended to relocate communities along the banks and in the flood plains of the
Lower Volta River when dam releases are to exceed 2300 m3/s. Suspended sediment transport
was found to be very low in the Lower Volta River and the predominant soil type in the river
banks and bed is sandy soil. Thus, the geomorphology of the river can be expected to change
considerably with time, particularly for sustained high releases from the Akosombo and Kpong
dams. The results obtained from this study form a basis for assessing future sedimentation pro-
blems in the Lower Volta River and for underpinning the development of sediment control and
management strategies for river basins in Ghana.

1. Background

The construction of the Akosombo dam (1965) and the operation of the hydropower facilities at Akosombo and Kpong (con-
structed 1982) have brought immense socio-economic benefits to the country. They have also had severe adverse impacts on many
communities, particularly those downstream of the two power facilities. The Akosombo dam is about 660 m long and has a base
width of 366 m. The reservoir created by the dam, Lake Volta, have a surface area of 8502 km2, storage capacity of 148 × 109 m3 and
operate a maximum and minimum levels of 84.73 m and 73.15 m, respectively (VRA, 2017). The development of the dam has
drastically changed the flow regime of the Lower Volta River. Flow peaks downstream of the two facilities have been greatly reduced
whilst low flows have increased. Thus, the natural seasonal high and low flows of the river have been replaced by an almost constant
flow throughout the year. In addition, the trapping of sediments in the lake behind the dam has meant little sediment load in the
Lower Volta River and discharge to the sea. The overall effects of these negative impacts are the loss of livelihoods and increased

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (F.Y. Logah).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2017.09.002
Received 8 May 2017; Received in revised form 20 September 2017; Accepted 21 September 2017
Available online 04 October 2017
2214-5818/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
F.Y. Logah et al. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 14 (2017) 1–9

health risks of communities in the Lower Volta Basin through the loss of agriculture and fishing activities and an increase in cases of
malaria and urinary schistosomiasis, as well as an appearance of intestinal schistosomiasis (WRC, 2007). This has created intense
poverty and led to a dramatic shift in income generating activities in the affected communities. An estimated 80,000 people are
directly adversely affected by the changed conditions in the Lower Volta Basin.
In this study, the freely available Hydrological Engineering Centre River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) version 5.0 hydraulic model
(U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2016) was used for the hydrodynamic modelling of the Lower Volta River and its flood plains in order
to ascertain the extent of flooding of communities that could occur from dam releases under various dam reoperation scenarios.
Hydrodynamic models are tools that can be used for solving the continuity of flow across various temporal and spatial scales.
They can be used for the simulation of flood events and flooding for engineering, planning and risk assessment studies (Nicholas and
Mitchell, 2003; Karim et al., 2011; Brush and Harris, 2010, 2015). Numerical models of estuarine hydrodynamics have expanded
from tidally averaged one-dimensional models to fully three-dimensional (3D) models that can resolve wetting and drying, wave-
current interaction, and sediment transport (Warner et al., 2005; Zhao et al., 2010; Olabarrieta et al., 2011). Depending on the
modelling objectives and availability of data and resources, 1-dimensional, 2-dimensional or even coupled 1- and 2-dimensional
models can be selected. A combination of hydrological and hydraulic models integrated with GIS is an invaluable tool for flood
analysis and management in drainage basins where limited hydro-meteorological data exist (Ewusi et al., 2015). Hydrodynamic
models can also be used to establish baseline conditions of water levels and velocities in port development, and then applied to
quantify the potential impacts of proposed dredging and reclamation works on key characteristics including tidal water levels,
current velocities and bed shear stresses, flushing characteristics, suspended sediment concentration and sediment deposition. In a
related study, the LISFFLOOD-FP hydrodynamic model (2D) was used to assess the extent of the floodplain in the Oti river basin in
West Africa (Komi et al., 2017). Rajib et al. (2016) also evaluated flood inundation of the entire Ohio River Basin in America by using
the hydrologic model Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) coupled with a 1D/2D coupled hydrodynamic model LISFLOOD-FP.
Results from both study showed that hydrodynamic model can be used to assess impacts of climate change and land use changes on
flood risks in river basins. Hydrodynamic models needs to be calibrated in order to be useful. Calibration of these models can be done
by comparing instream water heights and/or floodplain inundation. The major constraint on the use of hydrodynamic modelling is
the difficulty associated with collecting field data in remote and data sparse areas to sufficiently calibrate the model (Karim et al.,
2011). The 1-D modelling is less detailed and can experience numerical instability problems during unsteady flow analysis, especially
in steep and/or highly dynamic rivers and streams. The model can also be unstable when too low Manning’s n value is used especially
in steep stream, where the velocities are high. Users should therefore be careful and check closely when choosing these values to
enhance model stability (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 2016; Ndolo and Julien, 2014; Djokic and Maidment, 2012).

2. Objectives

The specific objectives of this study are

i To acquire river cross-sectional and floodplain geometry (fluvial geomorphology) and fluvial sediment data of the Lower Volta
River for hydrodynamic modelling through appropriate measurements in the field.
ii To determine the levels of flood plain inundation that could result from any reoperation dam release scenarios through hydraulic
and hydrodynamic modelling of the river and its flood plains.
iii Ascertain the sediment load of the Lower Volta River

3. Method and data

3.1. Study area

The project area (about 9000 km2) covers the area downstream of the Akosombo and Kpong dams, down to the estuary of the
Volta River with relief below 100 m (Fig. 1). The entire Volta Basin covers a surface area of 409,000 km2 (William et al., 2016). The
Akosombo dam formed the Lake Volta, one of the largest water storage reservoirs in the world. The Kpong dam which operates as a
run-of-the-river facility with little storage is located about 25 km downstream the Akosombo dam. The Lower Volta Basin is within
the Southern Savannah climatic zone of Ghana. Like most part of the coastal basin system, the Lower Volta experiences two rainy
seasons from March to November with peaks in May/June and October. The number of rainy days in the basin ranges between 60 and
120 (MWH, 1998). The basin has a mean annual rainfall of about 870.4 mm and mean annual potential evapotranspiration of about
1600 mm. Thus, the annual potential evapotranspiration exceeds the mean annual rainfall in the basin. The mean annual temperature
is around 27.9 °C and annual relative humidity falls between 74% and 94%. Streamflows and groundwater are the main water sources
in the basin. The Lower Volta streamflow is derived mainly from turbine outflow from Akosombo and the Kpong hydropower
facilities. The mean annual flow of the river ranges from 35.6 × 109 m3 (Johnston and McCartney, 2010) to 38.2 × 109 m3, de-
pending on the period covered by the dataset used in the flow estimation (whether the period is dry or wet). As streamflow in the
river is controlled by reservoir operations at Akosombo, the seasonal variation in flows as observed in most of the Volta Basin is
absent in the Lower Volta River.
The main geological formation in the study area is the Dahomian (Okra et al., 2016) with gneiss as the major rock type. This rock
type weathers to form sand and clay with portions of it being massive with only micro-fractures. Dapaah-Siakwan and Gyau-Boakye
(2000), report very low groundwater potential in this formation with success rate of drilling wet wells being 36% and yields ranging

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Fig. 1. Longitudinal river reach showing locations where data were collected on the lower Volta River.

between 1 and 3 m3/h. The predominant vegetation is grassland and shrub or thicket but strand and scrubby mangrove vegetation
occur along the coastal fringe and in the Volta Delta. The whole length of the Lower Volta below Kpong Dam is infested with aquatic
weeds. Nutrient concentration of the Volta Lake is low compared to other tropical lakes but higher concentrations occur during flood
conditions or strong mixing (MWH, 1998).

3.2. Livelihood activities along the Lower Volta River

The livelihood activities along the river reach are mainly fishing and crop farming. Activities in the hospitality industry are also
present in the area. Irrigated rice, sugar cane, vegetables, maize and cassava are the major crops cultivated along the immediate
banks of the river. Animal grazing is common along the river where the animals can easily have access to drinking water. The shores
of the river are extensively settled by fishing families. Sand mining is one of the major activities taking place in the river especially at
Asutuary and Mepe on a large scale. On a small scale, these activities were also observed at Battor, Adidome and Musikope. As a
result of their livelihood activities most of the communities settled at the immediate banks of the river. Properties ranging from
shelter to business centers (hotels, guest houses), schools and recreational centers have been put up right within the floodplains.

3.3. Data collection

3.3.1. Flood plain geometric and elevation data

Flood plain geometry of the Lower Volta River was collected and information solicited from stakeholders to determine the extent
of the flood plains, flooding areas and flood impacts. Geometric information of the floodplains were collected using a GPS (Trimble
GeoXH Explorer 6000 series deferential GPS) with an accuracy level of ± 0.10 m. The specific data collected were the altitudes and
width of the floodplains (left and right banks of the river) and islands and distances between cross-sections.

3.3.2. Profiling the cross-section of the Lower Volta River bed

The cross-sectional profiling of the Lower Volta River was carried out using the Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP). The
instrument was rigidly attached in a vertical position on a boat with the transducers submerged at least 8 cm below the water surface
in order to ensure that the head stayed submerged during the entire period of measurement. The boat was accelerated slowly away
from a starting to a stopping point at each section of the river in order to obtain accurate profile of the cross-section and to prevent the
boat from overshooting the edge of the bank. The cross-sectional profiling data and the geometric data of the floodplains were
combined at corresponding transects to obtain a set of complete geometric data of the river.

3.3.3. Fluvial sediment data

Both suspended and bed-load materials were sampled to obtain information about sediment in the water column and composition

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of the river bed. For sample collection, a bed-load grabber for bed-load and an integrated sampler for suspended sediment samples
were used. In all, thirty (30) suspended sediment samples and ten (10) bed-load materials were sampled at 10 sections spread out
along the entire length of the river at an average interval of 10 km.
Suspended and bed-load analyses were done at the sediment laboratory of the CSIR Water Research Institute using the oven dry
protocol (Tilrem, 1979; Akrasi and Amisigo, 1993; Opoku et al., 2007). Suspended sediment loads in the river were estimated based
on the sediment profiles across transects and along the length of the river. The suspended sediment discharge from each section of the
river was estimated using the relation:
Qs = 0.0864Cs Q w (1)
3
where Qs is the total suspended sediment discharge in tonnes/day, Qw is the river discharge in m /s and Cs is the total suspended
sediment concentration in mg/l (Ofori et al., 2015).
Standard test method for particle-size analysis using the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) was used to classify bed load
material.

3.4. HEC-RAS model

The Hydrological Engineering Centre River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) version 5.0 is a one dimensional steady and unsteady flow
hydraulic model developed and designed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to aid hydraulic engineers in channel flow analysis and
floodplain modelling. The results from the model can be applied in floodplain management and flood insurance studies. This one
dimensional hydraulic model was selected for the study due to its extensive application for floodplain analysis, particularly in the
USA (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 2016; Mashriqui et al., 2014), and free accessibility on the internet. The HEC-RAS model solves
the Saint Venant equations formulated for natural channels (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2016):
∂A ∂Q
+ = ql
∂t ∂x (2)

∂Q ∂ (Q2/ A) ∂H
+ = gA + gASf = 0
∂t ∂x ∂x (3)

where A is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the flow (Q), ql is the lateral inflow due to tributary, g is the acceleration due to
gravity, H is the stage or elevation of the water surface above a specified datum, Sf is the longitudinal boundary friction slope; t and x
are the temporal and longitudinal coordinates, respectively.

3.5. Model set-up and calibration

The lower Volta river network connectivity was created, taking into account the direction of the flow. Information on cross-
sections was entered at sections throughout the reach of the river where this information was obtained in the field and in locations
where changes in discharge and river shape occur. The distances between the cross-sections were entered for each section. Manning’s
n is the only calibration parameter required by the hydraulic model. Typical Manning’s n values for natural river beds, 0.06 m−1/3 s
and 0.033 m−1/3 s were chosen to define the roughness of the banks and main channel of the river reach respectively based on the
predominant soil type (sandy) and classifications based on Chow (1959). Suggested values for Manning’s n, tabulated according to
factors that affect roughness are found in Fischenich (2000), Phillips and Tadayon (2006) and Khayyun (2008). The main bank
stations of the river channel at each cross-section were defined to complete the geometric characteristics of the lower Volta River
channel. Normal depth boundary condition was chosen to define the starting water level at the end of the river. The normal depth was
approximated using the channel slope (Hicks and Peacock, 2005) to be 0.0002 m/m. Peak discharge values from the reoperation
scenarios were used to define the upstream boundary condition in the model. These input data were used by the HEC-RAS model to
simulate surface water levels along the entire river reach.

3.5.1. Modelling impact of dam releases on downstream communities

Fig. 2 depicts the four (4) scenario hydrographs in the Lower Volta River considered by Mul et al. (2016). The study examined the
impact of dam releases on downstream communities using peak flows from these scenarios, described as:
Scenario 1: maximizing hydropower generation by maintaining the current flow,
Scenario 2: reinstating the current flow dynamics up to the 2010 spillway levels,
Scenario 3: maximizing irrigation by introducing near natural flow and
Scenario 4: maximizing ecosystem services by introducing natural flow
Detailed description of the scenarios can be found in Mul et al. (2016).

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Geomorphology of the Lower Volta River

There were challenges in accessing the whole cross-section of the river at areas which are heavily infested by weeds on the surface

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F.Y. Logah et al. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 14 (2017) 1–9

Fig. 2. Flow Scenarios in the lower Volta River (Source: Mul et al., 2016).

of the water during field data collection. In all, 60 sets of complete geometry data were collected at an average interval of 1.50 km
between cross-sections. The total distance covered from the first point at Akuse (200 m from the dam) to the estuary at Ekedzi (300 m
from the sea) is approximately 90.0 km. Seven (7) out of the 60 river profiles data collected have elevations below the mean sea level
(Table 1). A number of islands were observed along the river reach at Agordorme, Daffor, Golikope, Ghanakope and Bakpa. Fig. 3
depict the cross-sectional profile and flood plains of the Lower Volta River at Agordorme located about 22 km from the sea having
some section below mean sea level (−3.17 m) and an island.

4.2. Suspended sediment and bed load

Observation in the area suggest that, sediment build up in the reach may be due to direct erosion from the banks of the river.
Fig. 4 depicts the erodibility nature at the banks of the Lower Volta River reach at various sections. Analysis of sediment con-
centration in the river reach ranged from 4.5 mg/l at Akuse to 20 mg/l at Azizanya (Fig. 5). These values are low compared to those
of other rivers such as the Pra and Ankobra with values in thousands of mg/L (Akrasi, 2011). The higher sediment concentrations
downstream of Akuse can be attributed to sand mining activities at various sections of the river and sediment input from tributaries.
The relatively high sediment concentration at Azizanya also suggests that sea water intrusion may also be a contributor to sediment
load in that section of the river.
Bed load analsis also revealed that the predominant soil type of the Lower Volta River reach is sandy soil (Fig. 6). As noted by
Eyankware et al. (2015) sandy soils have low structural stability and are highly erodible. Therefore, taking into consideration the
predominant soil type that formed the bedload of the river, the evidence of sand mining in the river reach, the rather small sediment
transport in the river reach and the extent of erosion of its banks, it is evident that further erosion of the river bed, banks and flood
plains could occur, especially at high streamflows, to cause further changes in the river’s morphology. Morphological adjustments to
altered hydrological regimes would be expected because the combination of increased stream power and low internal cohesion would
lead to the conclusion that the lower Volta would be geomorphically sensitive to such changes.

4.3. Impact of flow release on downstream communities from flow scenarios

Figs. 7 and 8 (a–c) illustrate the longitudinal surface water profiles and cross-sectional profiles at selected sections, respectively of
the Lower Volta River reach from Ekeddzi (0 km) to Akuse (89.4 km) with peak dam releases as specified in the re-operation scenarios
of Mul et al. (2016). The elevations of the main channels on the right bank and left bank above which flooding will occur are also
depicted on the figures as ROB and LOB, respectively.
Results showed that, reoperation of the Akosombo dam to maximise hydropower generation with a constant flow release of
approximately 1000 m3/s (scenarion 1) will have no negative impact in terms of flooding and destruction of properties in the
communities along the river reach throughout the year as the highest water surface (WS) elevation is well within the main river

Table 1
Sections of the Lower Volta River with elevations below mean sea level.

No. Sections Lowest elevation (m) Distance (km) of location from sea

1. Battor −2.66 52.98

2. Musikope −0.73 37.28
3. Agordome −3.17 21.98
4. Kurnanikope −0.63 21.88
5. Wortorkor −0.10 18.04
6. Gedzekpota −0.83 17.14
7. Tsatsukope −2.45 10.64

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Fig. 3. Cross-sectional profiles of the Lower Volta River and its flood plains at Agordorme.

Fig. 4. Evidence of the erodibile nature of the Lower Volta River banks.

Fig. 5. Suspended sediment concentration in the Lower Volta River.

channels on the right and left banks. However, about 6 and 10 communities (including Musikope, Mepe and Doffor) are likely to be
flooded in the months of September and October when peak flow values of 2300 m3/s (scenario 2) and 3000 m3/s (scenario 3) are
introduced to reinstate flow dynamics up to the 2010 spillway levels and to maximize irrigation water, respectively (Fig. 8).
Figs. 7 and 8 also depicts the water surface elevation rising above both banks of the main river channel (at least 25 communities to
be affected) when dam releases reaches or exceeds 5000 m3/s. This implies that, introducing natural flow to maximise ecosystem
services (scenario 4) will result in flooding, displacement and destruction of properties including farms in most of the communities
along the river reach for at least two months starting from September.
The Volta River Authority (VRA) is responsible for the operations of the flow releases from the Akosombo dam. In the event of
reoperating the dam according to the flows as depicted in the scenarios 2, 3 and 4, VRA who is the main respnsible body will
collaborate with other important organs of government such as National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO) and national
security to plan resettlement for communities in the area to be affected.

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Fig. 6. Bedload distribution and soil type along the Lover Volta River Reach.

Fig. 7. Longitudinal surface water profile of the lower Volta River using peak flow from reoperation scenarios of Mul et al. (2016).

4.4. Conclusions and recommendations

4.4.1. Conclusions
The geomorphology of the Lower Volta River and its flood plains were successfully mapped during this study. The results show
non-uniform river cross-sections and flood plain geometries. Both the cross-sectional and longitudinal profiles showed that certain
sections of the river are below sea-level. Very low flows at these sections could result in sea water intrusion upstream.
The hydrodynamic model was successfully set-up for the Lower Volta River reach and used to examine the impact of dam releases
on communities downstream in the flood plains of the river. The results of the study indicate that flood level forecasting can be
performed for the Lower Volta River using the HEC-RAS model. For the re-operation dam release scenarios considered in Mul et al.
(2016), flow release hydrographs for the 2010 spillage and others with higher flows will result in much of the flood plains being
inundated. This results are in agreement with work done by CAW-WRC (2013) and reports from VRA (2010) and the Wikipedia
(2017). Sandy soil was found to be the predominant soil type in the banks and bed of the entire river reach. The very low sediment
transport values obtained for the river indicates the potential of scouring of the river bed and banks and that changes to the mor-
phology of the river, particularly for sustained high stream flows, are very likely.

4.4.2. Recommendations
The ADCP tool was not able to provide accurate profiles in areas infested with weeds submerged in the water. It is therefore
recommended the Volta River Authority (VRA) removes aquatic weeds (both submerged and surface) from the river to ensure
instrument integrity and accurate river cross sectional and profile measurements in future campaigns.

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Fig. 8. Cross-sectional profiles at areas where water levels exceed bank heights.

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It is also recommended to relocate communities settling along the immediate banks of the river should dam operation scenarios
that release flows well above the current flow regime of the river be undertaken.
In addition, river bank protection or stabilization measures should be seriously considered if higher flow releases are to be
implemented. This is because the current sediment load of the river is very low so it has the capacity to erode and transport much
more sediment, thereby posing high threat to the stability of the river banks.

Conflict of interest

None.

Acknowledgements

The authors are pleased to acknowledge the Africa Water Facility of the African Development Bank who provided the funds
needed to undertake this project which is part of the Re-operation and Re-optimization of the Akosombo and Kpong hydropower
Dams project. The authors are also pleased to acknowledge the support and facilities provided by Water Resources Commission
(WRC) of Ghana and the CSIR-Water Research Institute. We also thank staff of the CSIR Water Research Institute for their con-
tribution to making this a success.

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