Gautama Buddha

Siddhārtha Gautama (Sanskrit: िस ाथ गौतम Siddhārtha Gautama, c. 563/480 – c. 483/400 BCE) or

Gautama Buddha
Siddhattha Gotama in Pali,[note 4] also called the Gautama Buddha,[note 5][note 1] the Shakyamuni
Buddha (Brahmi script: 𑀥 𑀲𑀓
𑁆 𑀬 𑀦𑀻 Bu-dha Sa-kya-mu-nī, "Buddha, Sage of the Shakyas")
,[4][5][note 6] or simply the Buddha, after the title of Buddha, was a monk (śramaṇa),[6][7] mendicant,
sage,[5] philosopher, teacher and religious leader on whose teachings Buddhism was founded.[8] He is
believed to have lived and taught mostly in the northeastern part of ancient India sometime between the
6th and 4th centuries BCE.[9][note 7]

Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the
śramaṇa movement[10] common in his region. He later taught throughout other regions of eastern India
such as Magadha and Kosala.[9][11]

Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism. He is believed by Buddhists to be an enlightened teacher

who attained full Buddhahood and shared his insights to help sentient beings end rebirth and suffering.
Accounts of his life, discourses and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarised
after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were
passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later. A statue of the Buddha from
Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India, 4th
century CE. The Buddha is depicted
teaching in the lotus position, while
Contents making the Dharmacakra mudrā.
Historical Siddhārtha Gautama Other names Siddhartha
Historical context
Gautama,
Earliest sources
Siddhattha Gotama,
Traditional biographies Shakyamuni
Biographical sources
Nature of traditional depictions Personal

Biography Born Siddhartha Gautama

Conception and birth c. 563 or c. 480
Early life and marriage BCE[1][2][note 1]
Renunciation and ascetic life Lumbini, Shakya
Awakening
Republic (according
Formation of the sangha
to Buddhist
Travels and teaching
tradition)[note 2]
Mahaparinirvana (death)
Relics Died c. 483 or c. 400 BCE
Physical characteristics (aged 80)[note 1]
Nine virtues
Kushinagar, Malla
Republic (according
Teachings
Use of Brahmanical motifs to Buddhist
Tracing the oldest teachings tradition)[note 3]
Dhyana and insight Religion Buddhism
Earliest Buddhism
Spouse Yasodharā
Later developments
Other religions
Children Rāhula

Depiction in arts and media Parents Śuddhodana (father)

Painting Maya Devi (mother)
See also
Known for Founder of
Notes
Buddhism
References
Other names Siddhartha
Sources
Gautama,
 Further reading Siddhattha Gotama,
External links Shakyamuni
Senior posting
Predecessor Kassapa Buddha
Historical Siddhārtha Gautama
Successor Maitreya
Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most
people accept that the Buddha lived, taught, and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era during the reign of Bimbisara (c. 558 –
c. 491 BCE, or c. 400 BCE),[12][13][14] the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajatasatru, who was the successor
of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain tirthankara.[15][16] While the general sequence of "birth, maturity,
renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" is widely accepted,[17] there is less consensus on the veracity of many details contained
in traditional biographies.[18][19]

The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as c. 563 BCE to 483 BCE.[1][20] More
recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988,[21][22][23] the majority of those who
presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death.[1][24][note 7] These alternative chronologies,
however, have not been accepted by all historians.[29][30][note 8]

Historical context
The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a
community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the eastern Indian
subcontinent in the 5th century BCE.[35] One of his usual names was "Sakamuni" or "Sakyamunī"
("Sage of the Shakyas"). It was either a small republic, or an oligarchy, and his father was an
elected chieftain, or oligarch.[35] According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in
Lumbini, now in modern-day Nepal, and raised in the Shakya capital of Kapilvastu, which may
have been either in what is present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India.[note 2] According to
Buddhist tradition, he obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath,
and died in Kushinagar.
Ancient kingdoms and cities of India
Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, the Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of influential
during the time of the Buddha (circa 500
Śramaṇa schools of thought like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jainism, and Ajñana.[52] Brahmajala Sutta
BCE).
records sixty-two such schools of thought. In this context, a śramaṇa refers to one who labors,
toils, or exerts themselves (for some higher or religious purpose). It was also the age of influential
thinkers like Mahavira,[53] Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, as recorded in
Samaññaphala Sutta, whose viewpoints the Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with.[54][55][note 10] Indeed, Sariputta and Moggallāna, two
of the foremost disciples of the Buddha, were formerly the foremost disciples of Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, the sceptic;[57] and the Pali canon frequently
depicts Buddha engaging in debate with the adherents of rival schools of thought. There is also philological evidence to suggest that the two masters,
Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative
techniques.[58] Thus, Buddha was just one of the many śramaṇa philosophers of that time.[59] In an era where holiness of person was judged by their
level of asceticism,[60] Buddha was a reformist within the śramaṇa movement, rather than a reactionary against Vedic Brahminism.[61]

Historically, the life of the Buddha also coincided with the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley during the rule of Darius I from about 517/516
BCE.[62] This Achaemenid occupation of the areas of Gandhara and Sindh, which was to last for about two centuries, was accompanied by the
introduction of Achaemenid religions, reformed Mazdaism or early Zoroastrianism, to which Buddhism might have in part reacted.[62] In particular, the
ideas of the Buddha may have partly consisted of a rejection of the "absolutist" or "perfectionist" ideas contained in these Achaemenid religions.[62]

Earliest sources
No written records about Gautama were found from his lifetime or from the one or two centuries thereafter. But from the middle of the 3rd century BCE,
several Edicts of Ashoka (reigned c. 269–232 BCE) mention the Buddha, and particularly Ashoka's Rummindei Minor Pillar Edict commemorates the
Emperor's pilgrimage to Lumbini as the Buddha's birthplace, calling him the Buddha Shakyamuni (Brahmi script: 𑀥 𑀲𑀓
𑁆 𑀬 𑀦𑀻 Bu-dha Sa-kya-mu-nī,
"Buddha, Sage of the Shakyas").[4] Another one of his edicts (Minor Rock Edict No. 3) mentions the titles of several Dhamma texts, establishing the
existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Maurya era. These texts may be the precursor of the Pāli Canon.[63][64] [note 11]

"Sakamuni" in also mentioned in the reliefs of Bharhut, dated to circa 100 BCE, in relation with his illumination and the Bodhi tree, with the inscription
Bhagavato Sakamunino Bodho ("The illumination of the Blessed Sakamuni").[65]
 The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the
Gandhāran Buddhist texts, reported to have been found
in or around Haḍḍa near Jalalabad in eastern
Afghanistan and now preserved in the British Library.
The words "Bu-dhe" ( 𑀥𑁂, the They are written in the Gāndhārī language using the
Buddha) and "Sa-kya-mu-nī " ( Bharhut inscription: Bhagavato
Kharosthi script on twenty-seven birch bark
𑀲𑀓𑁆 𑀬 𑀦𑀻, "Sage of the Shakyas") in Sakamunino Bodho (𑀪𑀕𑀯𑀢 𑁄 𑀲𑀓 𑀦𑀺𑀦𑁄
manuscripts and date from the first century BCE to the "The illumination of the Blessed
Brahmi script, on Ashoka's
Rummindei Minor Pillar Edict (circa third century CE.[66] Sakamuni"), circa 100 BCE.[65]
250 BCE).
On the basis of philological evidence, Indologist and
Pali expert Oskar von Hinüber says that some of the Pali suttas have retained very archaic place-names,
syntax, and historical data from close to the Buddha's lifetime, including the Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta which contains a detailed account of the Buddha's
final days. Hinüber proposes a composition date of no later than 350–320 BCE for this text, which would allow for a "true historical memory" of the
events approximately 60 years prior if the Short Chronology for the Buddha's lifetime is accepted (but also reminds that such a text was originally
intended more as hagiography than as an exact historical record of events).[67][68]

Traditional biographies

Biographical sources
The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting,
traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the
Nidānakathā.[71] Of these, the Buddhacarita[72][73][74] is the earliest full biography, an epic poem
written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa in the first century CE.[75] The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest
biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE.[76] The Mahāvastu from
the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until
perhaps the 4th century CE.[76] The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive,
and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra,[77] and various Chinese translations of this date between the
3rd and 6th century CE. The Nidānakathā is from the Theravada tradition in Sri Lanka and was
composed in the 5th century by Buddhaghoṣa.[78]

From canonical sources come the Jataka tales, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta The first known anthropomorphic
Sutta (MN 123), which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The representation of the Buddha, here
Jātakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated surrounded by Brahma (left) and
among the earliest Buddhist texts.[79] The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount Śakra (right). Bimaran Casket, mid-
miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from the Tuṣita 1st century CE, British
Museum.[69][70]
Heaven into his mother's womb.

Nature of traditional depictions

In the earliest Buddhist texts, the nikāyas and āgamas, the Buddha is not depicted as possessing
omniscience (sabbaññu)[80] nor is he depicted as being an eternal transcendent (lokottara) being.
According to Bhikkhu Analayo, ideas of the Buddha's omniscience (along with an increasing tendency
to deify him and his biography) are found only later, in the Mahayana sutras and later Pali commentaries
or texts such as the Mahāvastu.[80] In the Sandaka Sutta, the Buddha's disciple Ananda outlines an
argument against the claims of teachers who say they are all knowing [81] while in the
Tevijjavacchagotta Sutta the Buddha himself states that he has never made a claim to being omniscient,
instead he claimed to have the "higher knowledges" (abhijñā).[82] The earliest biographical material Māyā miraculously giving birth to
Siddhārtha. Sanskrit, palm-leaf
from the Pali Nikayas focuses on the Buddha's life as a śramaṇa, his search for enlightenment under
manuscript. Nālandā, Bihar, India.
various teachers such as Alara Kalama and his forty-five-year career as a teacher.[83] Pāla period

Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural
events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is
unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supramundane abilities
including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with
the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma".[84] Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from
these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the
traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.

Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human:

It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never
seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a
mahāpuruṣa, "superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta he states that
he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.[85]

The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a
clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of
ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant
accounts exist.[86] British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can
be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure.[87] Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general
outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.[88]

Biography

Conception and birth

The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, in present-day Nepal to be the birthplace of the
Buddha.[90][note 2] He grew up in Kapilavastu.[note 2] The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is
unknown.[91] It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, in present-day India,[47] or Tilaurakot, in
present-day Nepal.[92] Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles
(24 km) apart.[92]

Gautama was born to a Hindu Kshatriya family,[93][note 13] the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected chief of
the Shakya clan",[9] whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing
Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Maya Maya's dream of the Birth of
(Māyādevī), Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was Gautama Siddhartha.
conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side,[95][96]
and ten months later[97] Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen
Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilavastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is
said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.

The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak.[98] Buddha's
Birthday is called Buddha Purnima in Nepal, Bangladesh, and India as he is believed to have been born
on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven
days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his
aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and
announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great sadhu.[99] By
traditional account, this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the
birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to
read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy Birthplace of Gautama Buddha in
Lumbini, Nepal,[note 2][89] a holy
man.[99] Kondañña, the youngest, and later to be the first arhat other than the Buddha, was reputed to be
shrine also for many non-
the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.[100]
Buddhists.[note 12]
While later tradition and legend characterised Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of
the Suryavansha (Solar dynasty) of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was
the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.

Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to
have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition.[101] The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy and seems to have been
structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic.[102] The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the
strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the śramanic Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic
Brahmanism.[103]

Birth and childhood of the Buddha

Maya's dream, Maya's dream, Birth of the Buddha. The Infant Buddha Taking A The infant Buddha taking the
Bharhut, c. 150 Gandhara, 2nd century Bath, Gandhara 2nd century Seven Steps. Greco-
BCE. CE. CE. Buddhist art of Gandhara.

Early life and marriage

Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati.[104] By tradition, he is said to have been
destined by birth to the life of a prince and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. His father,
said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious
teachings and from knowledge of human suffering. While Śuddhodana has traditionally been depicted as a king,
and Siddhartha as his prince, more recent scholarship suggests the Shakya were in-fact organised as a semi-
republican oligarchy rather than a monarchy.[105]

When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named
Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the early Buddhist Texts of several schools, and numerous post-
canonical accounts, she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula.[106] Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a
prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or
need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.[104]

Departure of Prince
Renunciation and ascetic life Siddhartha

At the age of 29, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his father's efforts to hide from
him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer
Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On
these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he
initially strove to overcome ageing, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic.[107]

Accompanied by Channa and riding his horse Kanthaka, Gautama quit his palace for the life of a
mendicant. It's said that "the horse's hooves were muffled by the gods"[108] to prevent guards from
knowing of his departure.

Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. After
King Bimbisara's men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his quest, Bimbisara offered
Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first,
upon attaining enlightenment.

He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers of yogic meditation.[109][110][111] After
mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. Ārāḍa Kālāma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him.
However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practice, and moved on to become a student of yoga with
Udaka Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka Rāmaputra).[112] With him, he achieved high levels of meditative The Victory of Buddha

consciousness and was again asked to succeed his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied, and
again moved on.[113]

Awakening
According to the early Buddhist texts,[114] after realising that meditative dhyana was the right path to
awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists know as being,
the Middle Way[114]—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-
mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as described in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, which is
The "Great Departure" of Siddhartha
regarded as the first discourse of the Buddha.[114] In a famous incident, after becoming starved and Gautama, surrounded by a halo, he
weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.[115] Such is accompanied by numerous
was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a guards, maithuna loving couples, and
wish.[115] devata who have come to pay
homage; Gandhara, Kushan period
Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree—now known as the Bodhi tree
—in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth.[116] Kaundinya and
four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, ceased to
stay with him, and went to somewhere else. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is
said to have attained Enlightenment,[116][117] and became known as the Buddha or "Awakened One"
("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One").

According to some sutras of the Pali canon, at the time of his awakening he realised complete insight
into the Four Noble Truths, thereby attaining liberation from samsara, the endless cycle of rebirth, Prince Siddhartha shaves his hair
suffering and dying again.[118][119][120] According to scholars, this story of the awakening and the stress and becomes an ascetic. Borobudur,
on "liberating insight" is a later development in the Buddhist tradition, where the Buddha may have 8th century
regarded the practice of dhyana as leading to nirvana and moksha.[121][122][118][note 14]

Nirvana is the extinguishing of the "fires" of desire, hatred, and ignorance, that keep the cycle of
suffering and rebirth going.[123] Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal
identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten
Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.

According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1)—a scripture found in the Pāli and
other canons—immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the
Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed, and hatred The Buddha surrounded by the
that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, demons of Māra. Sanskrit palm leaf
Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented manuscript. Nālandā, Bihar, India.
and agreed to teach. Pāla period

Formation of the sangha

After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhallika—two merchant brothers from the city of
Balkh in what is currently Afghanistan—who became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given
hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in
Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka
Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.

He then traveled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what
Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he
had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist
monks.

All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty-four of
his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers
named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the
Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya,
sangha to more than 1,000. India, where Gautama Buddha
attained nirvana under the Bodhi
Tree (left)
Travels and teaching
For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what
is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and
cannibals such as Alavaka.[124] Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related
Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardisation.
The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the
year, except during the four months of the Vassa rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely
traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this
time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come
to them.

The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a
promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta The gilded "Emaciated Buddha
and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to statue" in an Ubosoth in Bangkok
representing the stage of his
become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana
asceticism
Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, the capital of Magadha.

Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to
return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message and instead
joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of
Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.

Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot
to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal,
but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son,
the Buddha, saying: Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath, India, site
of the first teaching of the Buddha in
Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking which he taught the Four Noble
alms. Truths to his first five disciples

The Buddha is said to have replied:

That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage.
Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms.

Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a
dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the
royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five
chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief Mulagandhakuti, Remains of
Buddha's hut in Jetavana Monastery,
disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.
Shravasti, India, Where the Buddha
Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are delivered majority of his discourses
believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the
quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and
Punna.

In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near

Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father.
He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma,
after which his father became an arahant.

The king's death and cremation were to inspire the creation of an

A view of Vulture Peak, Rajgir, India order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was
where the Atanatiya Sutta was held reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for
example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he
refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of
awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey
Buddha with his protector
to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five
Vajrapani, Gandhāra, 2nd
years after the formation of the sangha agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and century CE, Ostasiatisches
females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow. Kunst-Museum
Mahaparinirvana (death)
According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that
he would soon reach parinirvana, or the final deathless state, and abandon his earthly body. After this,
the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda.
Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ānanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at
his place had nothing to do with his death and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it
provided the last meal for a Buddha.[125] Mettanando and von Hinüber argue that the Buddha died of
mesenteric infarction, a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning.[126][127] The last days of Buddha teachings

The precise contents of the Buddha's final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and
ambiguity over the translation of certain significant terms; the Theravada tradition generally believes that
the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha
consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on
Buddhist vegetarianism and the precepts for monks and nuns.

Waley suggests that Theravadins would take

suukaramaddava (the contents of the Buddha's last
meal), which can translate literally as pig-soft, to mean
The Buddha's entry into parinirvana.
"soft flesh of a pig" or "pig's soft-food", that is, after Sanskrit palm leaf manuscript.
Neumann, a soft food favoured by pigs, assumed to be a Nālandā, Bihar, India. Pāla period
truffle. He argues (also after Neumann) that as "plant
names tend to be local and dialectical", as there are
several plants known to have suukara- (pig) as part of their names,[note 15] and as Pali Buddhism
developed in an area remote from the Buddha's death, suukaramaddava could easily have been a type of
Buddha's cremation stupa,
plant whose local name was unknown to those in Pali regions. Specifically, local writers writing soon
Kushinagar (Kushinara).
after the Buddha's death knew more about their flora than Theravadin commentator Buddhaghosa who
lived hundreds of years and hundreds of kilometers remote in time and space from the events described.
Unaware that it may have been a local plant name and with no Theravadin prohibition against eating animal flesh, Theravadins would not have
questioned the Buddha eating meat and interpreted the term accordingly.[128]

According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha died at Kuśināra (present-day Kushinagar, India), which
became a pilgrimage centre.[129] Ananda protested the Buddha's decision to enter parinirvana in the
abandoned jungles of Kuśināra of the Malla kingdom. The Buddha, however, is said to have reminded
Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king and the appropriate
place for him to die.[130]

The Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikkhus to clarify any doubts or questions they had and
cleared them all in a way which others could not do. They had none. According to Buddhist scriptures, The sharing of the relics of the
he then finally entered parinirvana. The Buddha's final words are reported to have been: "All composite Buddha, Zenyōmitsu-Temple
things (Saṅkhāra) are perishable. Strive for your own liberation with diligence" (Pali: 'vayadhammā Museum, Tokyo
saṅkhārā appamādena sampādethā'). His body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or
stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, the Temple of the
Tooth or "Dalada Maligawa" in Sri Lanka is the place where what some believe to be the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present.

According to the Pāli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Dīpavaṃsa and Mahāvaṃsa, the
coronation of Emperor Aśoka (Pāli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of the Buddha. According to two
textual records in Chinese (十八部論 and 部執異論), the coronation of Emperor Aśoka is 116 years
after the death of the Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddha's passing is either 486 BCE according to
Theravāda record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally
accepted as the date of the Buddha's death in Theravāda countries is 544 or 545 BCE, because the reign
of Emperor Aśoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates. In
Burmese Buddhist tradition, the date of the Buddha's death is 13 May 544 BCE.[131] whereas in Thai
Life scenes of Buddha, sandstone:
tradition it is 11 March 545 BCE.[132]
Birth, Enlightenment, Descent from
Heaven, First Sermon, Passing At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told his disciples to follow no leader.
Away, c. 2nd century CE,
Mahakasyapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the First Buddhist Council, with the two
Government Museum, Mathura.
chief disciples Maudgalyayana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha.
While in the Buddha's days he was addressed by the very respected titles Buddha, Shākyamuni,
Shākyasimha, Bhante and Bho, he was known after his parinirvana nirvana as Arihant,
Bhagavā/Bhagavat/Bhagwān, Mahāvira,[133] Jina/Jinendra, Sāstr, Sugata, and most popularly in
scriptures as Tathāgata.

Relics
After his death, Buddha's cremation relics were divided amongst 8 royal families and his disciples;
centuries later they would be enshrined by King Ashoka into 84,000 stupas.[134][135] Many supernatural Hair Relics of Buddha on display at
Gangaramaya Temple (Colombo).
legends surround the history of alleged relics as they accompanied the spread of Buddhism and gave
legitimacy to rulers.

War over the Buddha's Relics held by the city of Kushinagar, South Gate, Stupa no. 1, Sanchi.[136]

Physical characteristics
An extensive and colourful physical description of the Buddha has been laid down in scriptures. A kshatriya by
birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to
demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of
the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have "the 32 Signs of
the Great Man".

The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as "handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most
beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means unattractive." (D, I:115)

"It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotama's appearance, how clear and radiant his
complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from
the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly
beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotama's senses are calmed, his
complexion is clear and radiant." (A, I:181)
Gandhāran depiction of the
A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an arahant, was so obsessed by the Buddha's physical presence that Buddha from Hadda,
Afghanistan; Victoria and
the Buddha is said to have felt impelled to tell him to desist, and to have reminded him that he should know the
Albert Museum, London.
Buddha through the Dhamma and not through physical appearances.

Although there are no extant representations of the Buddha in human form until around the 1st century CE (see
Buddhist art), descriptions of the physical characteristics of fully enlightened buddhas are attributed to the Buddha in the Digha Nikaya's Lakkhaṇa Sutta
(D, I:142).[137] In addition, the Buddha's physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon the Buddha's first post-Enlightenment
return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional hymn, Narasīha Gāthā ("The Lion of Men").[138]

Among the 32 main characteristics it is mentioned that Buddha has blue eyes.[139]

Nine virtues
Recollection of nine virtues attributed to the Buddha is a common Buddhist meditation and devotional practice called Buddhānusmṛti. The nine virtues
are also among the 40 Buddhist meditation subjects. The nine virtues of the Buddha appear throughout the Tipitaka,[140] and include:
 Buddho – Awakened
Sammasambuddho – Perfectly self-awakened
Vijja-carana-sampano – Endowed with higher knowledge and ideal conduct.
Sugato – Well-gone or Well-spoken.
Lokavidu – Wise in the knowledge of the many worlds.
Anuttaro Purisa-damma-sarathi – Unexcelled trainer of untrained people.
Satthadeva-Manussanam – Teacher of gods and humans.
Bhagavathi – The Blessed one
Araham – Worthy of homage. An Arahant is "one with taints destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done
what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached the true goal, destroyed the fetters of being, and is
completely liberated through final knowledge."

Teachings

Use of Brahmanical motifs

In the Pali Canon, the Buddha uses many Brahmanical devices. For example, in Samyutta Nikaya 111, Majjhima
Nikaya 92 and Vinaya i 246 of the Pali Canon, the Buddha praises the Agnihotra as the foremost sacrifice and the
Gayatri mantra as the foremost meter:
Lord Buddha at
Pandavleni Caves,
aggihuttamukhā yaññā sāvittī chandaso mukham.
Nashik.
Sacrifices have the Agnihotra as foremost; of meter, the foremost is the Sāvitrī.[141]

Tracing the oldest teachings

One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest versions of the Pali Canon and other texts, such as the
surviving portions of Sarvastivada, Mulasarvastivada, Mahisasaka, Dharmaguptaka,[142][143] and the Chinese Agamas. The reliability of these sources,
and the possibility of drawing out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter of dispute.[144][145][146][147] According to Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and
other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies.[142][note 16]

According to Schmithausen, there are three positions held by scholars of Buddhism:[150]

1. "Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials."[note 17]
2. "Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism."[note 18][note 19]
3. "Cautious optimism in this respect."[note 20]

Dhyana and insight

A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight.[145][144][147] Schmithausen notes that the mention of the four
noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya
36.[148][144][145]

Earliest Buddhism
According to Tilmann Vetter, the core of earliest Buddhism is the practice of dhyāna,[155] as a workable alternative to painful ascetic
practices.[156][note 21] Bronkhorst agrees that Dhyāna was a Buddhist invention,[144] whereas Norman notes that "the Buddha's way to release [...] was by
means of meditative practices."[158] Discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development.[159][160]

According to the Mahāsaccakasutta,[note 22] from the fourth jhana the Buddha gained bodhi. Yet, it is not clear what he was awakened to.[158][144]
According to Schmithausen and Bronkhorst, "liberating insight" is a later addition to this text, and reflects a later development and understanding in early
Buddhism.[148][144] The mentioning of the four truths as constituting "liberating insight" introduces a logical problem, since the four truths depict a linear
path of practice, the knowledge of which is in itself not depicted as being liberating:[161]

[T]hey do not teach that one is released by knowing the four noble truths, but by practicing the fourth noble truth, the eightfold path,
which culminates in right samadhi.[161]
Although "Nibbāna" (Sanskrit: Nirvāna) is the common term for the desired goal of this practice, many
other terms can be found throughout the Nikayas, which are not specified.[162][note 23]

According to Vetter, the description of the Buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term
"the middle way". In time, this short description was elaborated, resulting in the description of the
eightfold path.[163]

According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson, the four truths became a substitution for prajna, or
"liberating insight", in the suttas[122][118] in those texts where "liberating insight" was preceded by the
four jhanas.[164] According to Bronkhorst, the four truths may not have been formulated in earliest
Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of "liberating insight".[165] Gotama's
teachings may have been personal, "adjusted to the need of each person."[164]

The three marks of existence[note 24] may reflect Upanishadic or other influences. K.R. Norman supposes
that these terms were already in use at the Buddha's time, and were familiar to his listeners.[166]

The Brahma-vihara was in origin probably a brahmanic term;[167] but its usage may have been common
to the Sramana traditions.[144]

The Buddha on a coin of Kanishka I,

Later developments
c. 130 CE.
In time, "liberating insight" became an essential feature of the Buddhist tradition. The following
teachings, which are commonly seen as essential to Buddhism, are later formulations which form part of
the explanatory framework of this "liberating insight":[145][144]

The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an ingrained part of existence; that the origin of suffering is craving for sensuality, acquisition of
identity, and fear of annihilation; that suffering can be ended; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path is the means to accomplish
this;
The Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right
concentration;
Dependent origination: the mind creates suffering as a natural product of a complex process.

Other religions
Some Hindus regard Gautama as the 9th avatar of Vishnu.[note 12][168] However, Buddha's teachings
deny the authority of the Vedas and the concepts of Brahman-Atman.[169][170][171] Consequently
Buddhism is generally classified as a nāstika school (heterodox, literally "It is not so"[note 25]) in contrast
to the six orthodox schools of Hinduism.[174][175][176]

Classical Sunni scholar Tabari reports that Buddhist idols were brought from Afghanistan to Baghdad in
the ninth century. Such idols had been sold in Buddhist temples next to a mosque in Bukhara, but he
does not further discuss the role of Buddha. According to the works on Buddhism by Al-Biruni (973–
after 1050), views regarding the exact identity of Buddha was diverse. Accordingly some regarded him Buddha depicted as the 9th avatar of
as the divine incarnate, others as an apostle of the angels or as an Ifrit and others as an apostle of God god Vishnu in a traditional Hindu
sent to human race. By 12th century, al-Shahrastani even compared Buddha to Khidr, described as an representation
ideal human. Ibn Nadim, who was also familiar with Manichean teachings, even identifies Buddha as a
prophet, who taught a religion to "banish Satan", although not mention it explicitly. However, most
Classical scholars described Buddha in theistic terms, that is apart from Islamic teachings.[177]

Nevertheless the Buddha is regarded as a prophet by the minority Ahmadiyya[178] sect of Muslims—a sect, but considered deviant and rejected as
apostate by mainstream Islam.[179][180] Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of Laozi.[181]

Disciples of the Cao Đài religion worship the Buddha as a major religious teacher.[182] His image can be found in both their Holy See and on the home
altar. He is revealed during communication with Divine Beings as son of their Supreme Being (God the Father) together with other major religious
teachers and founders like Jesus, Laozi, and Confucius.[183]

The Christian Saint Josaphat is based on the Buddha. The name comes from the Sanskrit Bodhisattva via Arabic Būdhasaf and Georgian Iodasaph.[184]
The only story in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and Josaphat, is based on the life of the Buddha.[185] Josaphat was included in earlier editions of
the Roman Martyrology (feast day 27 November)—though not in the Roman Missal—and in the Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar (26
August).
In the ancient Gnostic sect of Manichaeism, the Buddha is listed among the prophets who preached the
word of God before Mani.[186]

In Sikhism, Buddha is mentioned as the 23rd avatar of Vishnu in the Chaubis Avtar, a composition in
Dasam Granth traditionally and historically attributed to Guru Gobind Singh.[187]

In the Bahá'í Faith, Buddha is regarded as one of the Manifestations of God.

Depiction in arts and media

Films

Little Buddha, a 1994 film by Bernardo Bertolucci

Prem Sanyas, a 1925 silent film, directed by Franz Osten and Himansu Rai

Television

Buddha, a 2013 mythological drama on Zee TV Buddha as an avatar at Dwaraka

The Buddha (http://www.pbs.org/thebuddha/) 2010 PBS documentary by award-winning Tirumala temple, Andhra Pradesh.
filmmaker David Grubin and narrated by Richard Gere

Literature

The Light of Asia, an 1879 epic poem by Edwin Arnold

Buddha, a manga series that ran from 1972 to 1983 by Osamu Tezuka
Siddhartha novel by Hermann Hesse, written in German in 1922
Lord of Light, a novel by Roger Zelazny depicts a man in a far future Earth Colony who takes on the name and teachings of the
Buddha
Creation, a 1981 novel by Gore Vidal, includes the Buddha as one of the religious figures that the main character encounters

Music

Karuna Nadee, a 2010 oratorio by Dinesh Subasinghe

The Light of Asia, an 1886 oratorio by Dudley Buck

Painting
Shussan Shaka, a Zen painting motif

A panorama of scenes from the Buddha's life, from a Burmese parabaik or picture book.

See also
List of founders of religious traditions

Notes
1. Adherents of Theravada Buddhism, especially India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia and Laos. cf Sixth Buddhist Council,
take these dates to be 624 – 544 BCE; in Thailand it is 623 – 543 BCE. Besides monastic acceptance of these dates, the above
mentioned governments also accept these dates as shown by their issuance of commemorative stamps for the 2500 Jayanthi of
Buddha's Parinibbana in 1956 and subsequent commemorative issuances for later Jayanthi celebrations.
 2. According to the Buddhist tradition, following the Nidanakatha,[36] the introductory to the Jataka tales, the stories of the former lives of
the Buddha, Gautama was born in Lumbini, present-day Nepal.[37][38] In the mid-3rd century BCE the Emperor Ashoka determined
that Lumbini was Gautama's birthplace and thus installed a pillar there with the inscription: "...this is where the Buddha, sage of the
Śākyas (Śākyamuni), was born."[39]

Based on stone inscriptions, there is also speculation that Lumbei, Kapileswar village, Odisha, at the east coast of India, was the site of
ancient Lumbini.[40][41][42] Hartmann discusses the hypothesis and states, "The inscription has generally been considered spurious
(...)"[43] He quotes Sircar: "There can hardly be any doubt that the people responsible for the Kapilesvara inscription copied it from the
said facsimile not much earlier than 1928."

Kapilavastu was the place where he grew up:[44][note 9]

Warder: "The Buddha [...] was born in the Sakya Republic, which was the city state of Kapilavastu, a very small state just inside the
modern state boundary of Nepal against the Northern Indian frontier.[9]
Walshe: "He belonged to the Sakya clan dwelling on the edge of the Himalayas, his actual birthplace being a few miles north of the
present-day Northern Indian border, in Nepal. His father was, in fact, an elected chief of the clan rather than the king he was later
made out to be, though his title was raja—a term which only partly corresponds to our word 'king'. Some of the states of North India
at that time were kingdoms and others republics, and the Sakyan republic was subject to the powerful king of neighbouring Kosala,
which lay to the south".[46]
The exact location of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown.[44] It may have been either Piprahwa in Uttar Pradesh, northern
India,[47][48][49] or Tilaurakot,[50] present-day Nepal.[51][44] The two cities are located only fifteen miles from each other.[51]
See also Conception and birth and Birthplace Sources
3. According to Mahaparinibbana Sutta,[3] Gautama died in Kushinagar, which is located in present-day Uttar Pradesh, India.
4. /sɪˈdɑːrtə, -θə/; Sanskrit: [sɪddʱaːɽtʰ ɐ ɡautɐmɐ]; Gautama namely Gotama in Pali
5. /ˈɡɔːtəmə, ˈɡaʊ- ˈbuːdə, ˈbʊdə/
6. Sanskrit: [ɕaːkjɐmʊnɪ bʊddʱɐ]
7. 411–400: Dundas 2002, p. 24: "...as is now almost universally accepted by informed Indological scholarship, a re-examination of
early Buddhist historical material, [...], necessitates a redating of the Buddha's death to between 411 and 400 BCE..."
405: Richard Gombrich[25][23][26][27]
Around 400: See the consensus in the essays by leading scholars in Narain, Awadh Kishore, ed. (2003). The Date of the Historical
Śākyamuni Buddha. New Delhi: BR Publishing. ISBN 8176463531..
According to Pali scholar K. R. Norman, a life span for the Buddha of c. 480 to 400 BCE (and his teaching period roughly from c.
445 to 400 BCE) "fits the archaeological evidence better".[28] See also Notes on the Dates of the Buddha Íåkyamuni (http://isites.ha
rvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic138396.files/Buddha-Dates.pdf).
8. In 2013, archaeologist Robert Coningham found the remains of a Bodhigara, a tree shrine, dated to 550 BCE at the Maya Devi Temple,
Lumbini, speculating that it may possible be a Buddhist shrine. If so, this may push back the Buddha's birth date.[31] Archaeologists
caution that the shrine may represent pre-Buddhist tree worship, and that further research is needed.[31]
Richard Gombrich has dismissed Coningham's speculations as "a fantasy", noting that Coningham lacks the necessary expertise on
the history of early Buddhism.[32]
Geoffrey Samuel notes that several locations of both early Buddhism and Jainism are closely related to Yaksha-worship, that several
Yakshas were "converted" to Buddhism, a well-known example being Vajrapani,[33] and that several Yaksha-shrines, where trees were
worshipped, were converted into Buddhist holy places.[34]
9. Some sources mention Kapilavastu as the birthplace of the Buddha. Gethin states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future
Buddha was born Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftain—a rājan—in Kapilavastu (Pali
Kapilavatthu) what is now the Indian–Nepalese border."[45] Gethin does not give references for this statement.
10. According to Alexander Berzin, "Buddhism developed as a shramana school that accepted rebirth under the force of karma, while
rejecting the existence of the type of soul that other schools asserted. In addition, the Buddha accepted as parts of the path to
liberation the use of logic and reasoning, as well as ethical behavior, but not to the degree of Jain asceticism. In this way, Buddhism
avoided the extremes of the previous four shramana schools."[56]
11. Minor Rock Edict Nb3: "These Dhamma texts – Extracts from the Discipline, the Noble Way of Life, the Fears to Come, the Poem on
the Silent Sage, the Discourse on the Pure Life, Upatisa's Questions, and the Advice to Rahula which was spoken by the Buddha
concerning false speech – these Dhamma texts, reverend sirs, I desire that all the monks and nuns may constantly listen to and
remember. Likewise the laymen and laywomen."[63]

Dhammika:"There is disagreement amongst scholars concerning which Pali suttas correspond to some of the text. Vinaya samukose:
probably the Atthavasa Vagga, Anguttara Nikaya, 1:98–100. Aliya vasani: either the Ariyavasa Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, V:29, or the
Ariyavamsa Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, II: 27–28. Anagata bhayani: probably the Anagata Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, III:100. Muni gatha:
Muni Sutta, Sutta Nipata 207–21. Upatisa pasine: Sariputta Sutta, Sutta Nipata 955–75. Laghulavade: Rahulavada Sutta, Majjhima
Nikaya, I:421."[63]
12. Kumar Singh, Nagendra (1997). "Buddha as depicted in the Purāṇas" (https://books.google.com/?id=UG9-HZ5icQ4C&pg=PA260).
Encyclopaedia of Hinduism. 7. Anmol Publications. pp. 260–75. ISBN 978-81-7488-168-7. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
13. According to Geoffrey Samuel, the Buddha was born as a Kshatriya,[93] in a moderate Vedic culture at the central Ganges Plain area,
where the shramana-traditions developed. This area had a moderate Vedic culture, where the Kshatriyas were the highest varna, in
contrast to the Brahmanic ideology of Kuru–Panchala, where the Brahmins had become the highest varna.[93] Both the Vedic culture
and the shramana tradition contributed to the emergence of the so-called "Hindu-synthesis" around the start of the Common Era.[94][93]
14. Scholars have noted inconsistencies in the presentations of the Buddha's enlightenment, and the Buddhist path to liberation, in the
oldest sutras. These inconsistencies show that the Buddhist teachings evolved, either during the lifetime of the Buddha, or thereafter.
See:
* Andre Bareau (1963), Recherches sur la biographie du Buddha dans les Sutrapitaka et les Vinayapitaka anciens, Ecole Francaise
d'Extreme-Orient
* Schmithausen, On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism
* K.R. Norman, Four Noble Truths
* Tilman Vetter, The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism
* Richard F. Gombrich (2006). "4". How Buddhism Began: The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings (https://books.google.com/
books?id=hQOAAgAAQBAJ). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-19639-5.
* Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993), "7", The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
* Anderson, Carol (1999), Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist Canon, Routledge
15. Waley notes: suukara-kanda, "pig-bulb"; suukara-paadika, "pig's foot" and sukaresh.ta "sought-out by pigs". He cites Neumann's
suggestion that if a plant called "sought-out by pigs" exists then suukaramaddava can mean "pig's delight".
16. Exemplary studies are the study on descriptions of "liberating insight" by Lambert Schmithausen,[148] the overview of early Buddhism
by Tilmann Vetter,[145] the philological work on the four truths by K.R. Norman,[149] the textual studies by Richard Gombrich,[147] and
the research on early meditation methods by Johannes Bronkhorst.[144]
17. Two well-known proponent of this position are A.K. Warder and Richard Gombrich.
* According to A.K. Warder, in his 1970 publication "Indian Buddhism},"from the oldest extant texts a common kernel can be drawn
out.[151] According to Warder, c.q. his publisher: "This kernel of doctrine is presumably common Buddhism of the period before the
great schisms of the fourth and third centuries BC. It may be substantially the Buddhism of the Buddha himself, although this cannot be
proved: at any rate it is a Buddhism presupposed by the schools as existing about a hundred years after the parinirvana of the Buddha,
and there is no evidence to suggest that it was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers".[151]
* Richard Gombrich: "I have the greatest difficulty in accepting that the main edifice is not the work of a single genius. By "the main
edifice" I mean the collections of the main body of sermons, the four Nikāyas, and of the main body of monastic rules."[147]
18. A proponent of the second position is Ronald Davidson.
19. Ronald Davidson: "While most scholars agree that there was a rough body of sacred literature (disputed)(sic) that a relatively early
community (disputed)(sic) maintained and transmitted, we have little confidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scripture is
actually the word of the historical Buddha."[152]
20. Well-known proponents of the third position are:
* J.W. de Jong: "It would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Buddhism [...] the basic ideas
of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by
his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas."[153]
* Johannes Bronkhorst: "This position is to be preferred to (ii) for purely methodological reasons: only those who seek may find, even if
no success is guaranteed."[150]
* Donald Lopez: "The original teachings of the historical Buddha are extremely difficult, if not impossible, to recover or reconstruct."[154]
21. Vetter: "However, if we look at the last, and in my opinion the most important, component of this list [the noble eightfold path], we are
still dealing with what according to me is the real content of the middle way, dhyana-meditation, at least the stages two to four, which
are said to be free of contemplation and reflection. Everything preceding the eighth part, i.e. right samadhi, apparently has the function
of preparing for the right samadhi."[157]
22. Majjhima Nikaya 36
23. Vetter: "I am especially thinking here of MN 26 (I p.163,32; 165,15;166,35) kimkusalagavesi anuttaram santivarapadam pariyesamano
(searching for that which is beneficial, seeking the unsurpassable, best place of peace) and again MN 26 (passim),
anuttaramyagakkhemam nibbiinam pariyesati (he seeks the unsurpassable safe place, the nirvana). Anuppatta-sadattho (one who has
reached the right goal) is also a vague positive expression in the Arhatformula in MN 35 (I p, 235), see chapter 2, footnote 3,
Furthermore, satthi (welfare) is important in e.g. SN 2.12 or 2.17 or Sn 269; and sukha and rati (happiness), in contrast to other places,
as used in Sn 439 and 956. The oldest term was perhaps amata (immortal, immortality) [...] but one could say here that it is a negative
term."[162]
24. Understanding of these marks helps in the development of detachment:
Anicca (Sanskrit: anitya): That all things that come to have an end;
Dukkha (Sanskrit: duḥkha): That nothing which comes to be is ultimately satisfying;
Anattā (Sanskrit: anātman): That nothing in the realm of experience can really be said to be "I" or "mine".
25. "in Sanskrit philosophical literature, 'āstika' means 'one who believes in the authority of the Vedas', 'soul', 'Brahman'. ('nāstika' means
the opposite of these).[172][173]

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Further reading
The Buddha

Bechert, Heinz, ed. (1996). When Did the Buddha Live? The Controversy on the Dating of the Historical Buddha. Delhi: Sri Satguru.
Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku (1992). The Life of the Buddha According to the Pali Canon (3rd ed.). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication
Society.
 Wagle, Narendra K (1995). Society at the Time of the Buddha (https://books.google.com/books?id=glFCjTkhNlYC) (2nd ed.). Popular
Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-7154-553-7.
Weise, Kai (2013). The Sacred Garden of Lumbini: Perceptions of Buddha's birthplace (https://books.google.com/books?id=naohAgAA
QBAJ). UNESCO. ISBN 978-92-3-001208-3.
Early Buddhism

Rahula, Walpola (1974). What the Buddha Taught (2nd ed.). New York: Grove Press.
Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, Brill
Buddhism general

Kalupahana, David J. (1994), A history of Buddhist philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass

Robinson, Richard H.; Johnson, Willard L; Wawrytko, Sandra A; DeGraff, Geoffrey (1996). The Buddhist Religion: A Historical
Introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

External links
Works by Buddha (https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Buddha) at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Buddha (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Buddha%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22B
uddha%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Buddha%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Buddha%22%29%20OR%20%28%22563-century%2
2%20AND%20Buddha%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet Archive
Works by or about Siddhārtha Gautama (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Gautama%2C%20Siddhārth
a%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Siddhārtha%20Gautama%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Gautama%2C%20Siddhārtha%22%20O
R%20creator%3A%22Siddhārtha%20Gautama%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Gautama%2C%20S%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%2
2Siddhārtha%20Gautama%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Gautama%2C%20Siddhārtha%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Sidd
hārtha%20Gautama%22%29%20OR%20%28%22563-century%22%20AND%20Gautama%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:softw
are%29) at Internet Archive
Works by or about Shakyamuni (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Shakyamuni%22%20OR%20creator%
3A%22Shakyamuni%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Shakyamuni%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Shakyamuni%22%29%20OR%2
0%28%22563-century%22%20AND%20Shakyamuni%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet Archive
Works by Gautama Buddha (https://librivox.org/author/1081) at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Buddha (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548br) on In Our Time at the BBC
A sketch of the Buddha's Life (http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/buddha.html)
What Was The Buddha Like? (http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/disciples05.htm) by Ven S. Dhammika

Buddhist titles
Preceded by Succeeded by
Buddhist Patriarch
Kassapa Buddha Maitreya Buddha

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