TERRACOTTA

A type of earthenware, is a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic, where the fired

body is porous. Its uses include vessels (notably flower pots), water and waste water
pipes, bricks, and surface embellishment in building construction, along with
sculptures. The term is also used to refer to items made out of this material and to its
natural, brownish orange color.
Terracotta had the advantage of being cheap and light. It was adaptable to mass-
production techniques for stock shapes, although the plaster moulds had a limited
capability for re-use. Additionally it could be freely worked by craftsmen. It had a
manufacture time of about eight weeks and each piece had to be made over-size
to allow for shrinkage as the clay body dried. To avoid cracking the pieces had to
be quite thin.
The disadvantage of terracotta, apart from its rather uniform colour in a given
district, was that it was not easy to keep clean. Town smoke made it blacken..
Characteristics of Terra cotta
 Fired clay
 Typically, hollow, formed by pressing clay into a mould, by hollowing out
portions of a solid, or by extruding it.
 Usually low-fired
 Typically, a reddish, unglazed ceramic material. It may also be a hard-fired
glazed or unglazed ceramic material.
 Durable (dependent upon the degree of firing)
 Fireproof
 Strong
Types of Terra cotta:
 Brownstone terra cotta
 Fireproof construction terra cotta
 Ceramic veneer terra cotta
 Glazed architectural terra cotta

Typical Uses
Sculpture
Unglazed units used for structural purposes
Glazed units for building exteriors
Terracotta tiles are traditionally fired at lower temperatures and have more natural
variation in the individual tiles. Modern terracotta tiles can be finished with a glaze,
or can require a surface treatment to seal them once installed. They tend to give a
more rustic, less formal effect.

MUD
Mud has been the most essential building materials. Mud is a building material which
has already being tested and tried for thousands of years. It is used in modern day
construction and the method of using it is very different. Mud has its own limitations
which can be overcome by certain techniques.

The main advantage of mud is

we do not need lot of energy to manufacture it unlike other materials. Mud
construction is mainly found in places which are relatively dry and have mud in
abundance. The mud – house uses minimal energy, is comfortable year round.The
mud – house construction uses only simple natural materials, which are any digging
soil from the earth mixed with water and added up with paddy or hay or any dried
fiber or even recycling garbage. Mud house construction is durable and can be
easily rebuilt . Mud construction also provide natural air conditioning which provide
cool air from the massive walls.
Various construction methods are:

 Stacked earth (COB)

 Pise or rammed earth
 Adobe
 Wattle & daub method
 Formed earth (Straw Clay)
 Earth filled in
 Compressed earth blocks
 Extruded earth
 Cut earth
STACKED EARTH (COB)
A very stiff mud is prepared by mixing mud and water in the proportion of 1:3 and it
is moulded into huge elongated egg shape. The elongated egg shape mud is 12 to
18- inches, (30 to 40-cm) long and about 6- inches (15-cm) in diameter. For making a
wall,a row of cob is placed in proper line and is pressed to avoid gaps and crack. In
this way two to three layers of cobs are placed one above the other and the sides
are smoothed to avoid cracks and gap. Door wooden frame or kerosene tins are
used to make the openings. COB is good for anything except height. It is particularly
good for curved or round walls.

RAMMED EARTH: This is a method in which the strength of the wall can be increased
by increasing the thickness of the wall. Two parallel planks are held firmly apart by
metal rods and clips or bolts, or by small crosspieces of wood. Stiff mud is thrown in
between these two planks and rammed down with either a wooden or metal
ramrod. When one section is completed and hard, the two planks are then raised
up and a second course of rammed earth is repeated over the first.

ADOBE: Adobe as a building material has been used since ages all over the world
and especially in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Blocks are kept covered with air tight
polythene sheets for first 48 hrs with relative humidity up to 100. Polythene sheets shall
be removed after 48 hrs and the blocks shall be kept in shaded area like having
enough air circulation. Sprinkle water over blocks daily, as many times needed,
during 28 days. Write date of production on block corner. Cover stacks top with
coconut leaves or any other cover to avoid direct sunlight. Principle is that blocks
shall not dry for 4weeks.

CUT EARTH: In areas where the soils was cohesive and contained concretions of
carbonates the soil was cut in the shape of blocks and used like bricks or stones.
Such examples are found typically in tropical areas where lateritic soils give a
wonderful building material.
Soft soils- which will harden when exposed to air due to chemical reaction of the soil
constituent with the air (carbonation reaction). This natural reaction is called
induration. Such soils can be found on the west coast of India, from Kerala to Goa.
Hard crust- which was long ago a soil and has already hardened (indured) through
the ages. Orissa in India show wonderful examples of such soils and blocks. In areas
where the soil is not cohesive enough, people have used topsoil and grass to create
blocks.

EARTH FILLED-IN : Humid soil was traditionally poured into wooden lattice works. Thus,
it gave some thermal mass to light structures as well as some acoustic insulation. In
recent times, dry soil has been poured into synthetic textiles which are hold outside
by wooden poles driven into the ground. Dry soil is also being poured into long
synthetic tubes, which are staked upon each other

EXTRUDED EARTH : The earth extrusion technique has been used since a long while in
the fired brick industry. Stabilised earth, at a plastic state, is as well extruded through
a machine which gives the desired shape. The blocks are often hollow and are cut
to the desired length. This technique of stabilised extruded earth was developed in
the 20th century.
Compared to the brick extrusion in the fired brick industry, stabilised extruded earth
bricks show a major inconvenient. The soil required for stabilised earth is much
sandier than the one for fired earth. Thus the soil is more abrasive and the machines
get damaged at a much faster rate.

FORMED EARTH (Straw Clay): Very clayey soil, in a liquid state, is poured on straw,
which has been chopped to the desired length. The mix is generally tampered
afterwards into forms. These walls are not load-bearing. they are
light, have a very high thermal insulation value and must be built
in a wooden structure.

WATTLE AND DAUB: Wattle and daub method is an old and

common method of building mud structures. Bamboo and cane
frame structure that supports the roof. Mud is plastered over this mesh of bamboo
cane and straws. Due to excessive rainfall the Wattle and Daub structures gets
washed off. However, the mesh of cane or split bamboo remains intact and after
the heavy rain is over the mud is plastered on again.
Advantages of Mud:
Environmental impact:
• To save natural resources.
• Using neither cement nor rock (Save our mountains).
To save building materials:
• Main materials are soil and water, mixed to be mud, if the mud is too sticky, we
can add up with paddy husky or rice straw or local fiber weed or bamboo.
Energy use :
• To save energy.
• Cool in summer (Inside building temperature is about 24°c to 26°c.
• Warm in Winter (Automatic control temperature by passive cooling system) •
Capital Expenditure:
• To save money .
• No air – conditioning, no electricity bills.
Disadvantage
Humidity is the crucial factor, mud-house will easily catch fungus.
The brand- new mud-house may have foul odour of crushed green leaves.
Erodes easily by water.
Low tensile and shear strength , hence , roofs difficult.
Susceptible to mechanical damage, rodents and burgles.
Grip between earth and wood is very weak , hence, framed doors and windows are
not possible. 
Requires regular maintenance.
Not fire proof and not termite proof.

SAND-LIME BRICK

is a product that uses lime instead of cement. It is usually a white brick made of lime
and selected sands, cast in molds and cured.
Calcium silicate bricks are made of sand and lime and popularly known as sand
lime bricks. These bricks are used for several purposes in construction industries such
as ornamental works in buildings, masonry works etc.
Materials Used for Sand Lime Bricks
The materials listed below are used for the production of calcium silicate bricks.
o Sand
o Lime
o Water
o Pigment
Sand
Calcium silicate bricks contains high amount of sand is about 88 – 92%. It means the
properties of these bricks depends upon the characteristics of sand used.
So, the sand used shall be well graded and should not contain any impurities like
organic matter, soluble slats etc. the finely divided clay may be present but it is up to
4% only which helps the brick in pressing and provides smoother texture
Lime
Lime content in calcium silicate bricks varies from 8 to 12%. The lime used shall be of
good quality and high calcium lime.
Water
Clean water should be used for preparing calcium silicate bricks. Sea water or water
containing soluble salts or organic matter more than 0.25% are not suitable.
Pigment
Pigments are generally used to give color to the bricks. They are added to the sand
and lime while mixing.
Total weight of brick contains 0.2 to 3 % of pigment quantity. Different pigments used
to get different colors are tabulated below:

Pigment Color

Carbon black Black, grey

Iron oxide Red, brown

Chromium oxide Green

Ochre yellow

Manufacturing of Calcium Silicate Bricks

In the first step, suitable proportions of sand, lime and pigment are taken and mixed
thoroughly with 3 to 5 % of water. Then paste with moldable density obtains.
The mixture is molded into bricks using rotary table press which uses mechanical
pressure to press the bricks. The pressure of pressing varies from 31.5 to 63 N/mm2.
 In the final stage, bricks are placed in autoclave. Autoclave is nothing but a steel
cylinder with tightly sealed ends. The diameter of autoclave is bout 2m and length is
about 20m.
After placing bricks in this closed chamber saturated steam pressure is released
which is about 0.85 to 1.6 N/mm2. The temperature inside the chamber is raised and
the reaction process begins.
Silica content in sand and calcium content in lime reacts and forms crystal like
compound called calcium hypo silicate. This process is done for 6 to 12 hours. Finally,
the obtained bricks are transported to work place.

Advantages of Calcium Silicate Bricks

There are many advantages of calcium silicate bricks when used in masonry
construction, and they are:

o Mortar required for providing plaster on calcium silicate bricks is very less.
o Color and texture of these bricks is uniform.
o Compressive strength of sand lime bricks is about 10N/mm2. So, they are well suitable
for multi storied buildings.
o For constructions in clay soils, these bricks are more preferable.
o Trouble of Efflorescence does not arise in the case of sand lime bricks.
o Not only bricks, blocks and tiles can also be made using calcium silicate.
o Sand lime bricks provides more comfort and accessibility for architects to attain
desired shape and designs.
o These bricks have accurate shape and size with straight edges.
o Solar heat effect is reduced on exposed walls made of calcium silicate bricks.
o Colored sand lime bricks do not need any finish to the wall, so, cost reduces.
o These bricks have great fire resistance and water repellant properties.
o Calcium silicate brick walls resists noise from outside.
o Cost of construction gets reduced about 40% of total cost due to following factors.

i. Wastage of calcium silicate products is very less.

ii. Less quantity of mortar is needed.
iii. Thickness of wall can be reduced when constructed using these bricks because of
high compressive strength.
 Disadvantages of Calcium Silicate Bricks
In some conditions, calcium silicate bricks are not suitable and their disadvantages
are:

o If clay is available in plenty, clay bricks are more economical than calcium silicate
bricks.
o These are not suitable for laying foundation, because they cannot provide
resistance to water for longer period.
o They cannot also resist fire for longer periods so, they are not suitable for building
furnaces etc.
o Abrasion resistance of these bricks are very less so, they cannot be used as paving
materials.
 BRICK ARCHES
Arch: A form of construction in which masonry units span an opening by transferring
vertical loads laterally to adjacent voussoirs and, thus, to the abutments.
Some common arch types are as follows:
Blind -An arch whose opening is filled with masonry.
Bullseye -An arch whose intrados is a full circle. Also known as a Circular arch.
Elliptical -An arch with two centers and continually changing radii.
Fixed -An arch whose skewback is fixed in position and inclination. Masonry arches
are fixed arches by nature of their construction.
Gauged -An arch formed with tapered voussoirs and thin mortar joints.
Gothic -An arch with relatively large rise-to-span ratio, whose sides consist of arcs of
circles, the centers of which are at the level of the spring line. Also referred to as a
Drop, Equilateral or Lancet arch, depending upon whether the spacings of the
centers are respectively less than, equal to or more than the clear span.
Horseshoe -An arch whose intrados is greater than a semicircle and less than a full
circle. Also known as an Arabic or Moorish arch.
Jack -A flat arch with zero or little rise.
Multicentered -An arch whose curve consists of several arcs of circles which are
normally tangent at their intersections. Relieving -An arch built over a lintel, jack arch
or smaller arch to divert loads, thus relieving the lower arch or lintel from excessive
loading. Also known as a Discharging or Safety arch. Segmental -An arch whose
intrados is circular but less than a semicircle.
Semicircular -An arch whose intrados is a semicircle (half circle).
Slanted -A flat arch which is constructed with a keystone whose sides are sloped at
the same angle as the skewback and uniform width brick and mortar joints.
Triangular -An arch formed by two straight, inclined sides.
Tudor -A pointed, four-centered arch of medium rise-to-span ratio whose four
centers are all beneath the extrados of the arch. Venetian -An arch formed by a
combination of jack arch at the ends and semicircular arch at the middle. Also
known as a Queen Anne arch.

Camber: The relatively small rise of a jack arch.

Centering: Temporary shoring used to support an arch until the arch becomes self-
supporting. Crown: The apex of the arch's extrados. In symmetrical arches, the
crown is at the midspan.
Depth: The dimension of the arch at the skewback which is perpendicular to the
arch axis, except that the depth of a jack arch is taken to be the vertical dimension
of the arch at the springing.
Extrados: The curve which bounds the upper edge of the arch.
Intrados: The curve which bounds the lower edge of the arch. The distinction
between soffit and intrados is that the intrados is a line, while the soffit is a surface.
Keystone: The voussoir located at the crown of the arch. Also called the key.
Label Course: A ring of projecting brickwork that forms the extrados of the arch.
Rise: The maximum height of the arch soffit above the level of its spring line.
Skewback: The surface on which the arch joins the supporting abutment.
Skewback Angle: The angle made by the
skewback from horizontal. Soffit: The
surface of an arch or vault at the intrados.
Span: The horizontal clear dimension
between abutments.
Spandrel: The masonry contained
between a horizontal line drawn through
the crown and a vertical line drawn
through the upper most point of the
skewback.
Springing: The point where the skewback intersects the intrados.
Springer: The first voussoir from a skewback.
Spring Line: A horizontal line which intersects the springing.
Voussoir: One masonry unit of an arch.

VAULT

is an architectural term for an arched form used to provide a space with a ceiling or
roof. The parts of a vault exert lateral thrust that requires a counter resistance. When
vaults are built underground, the ground gives all the resistance required. However,
when the vault is built above ground, various replacements are employed to supply the
needed resistance. An example is the thicker walls used in the case of barrel or
continuous vaults. Buttresses are used to supply resistance when intersecting vaults are
employed.
The simplest kind of vault is the barrel vault (also called a wagon or tunnel vault), which is
generally semicircular in shape. The barrel vault is a continuous arch, the length being
greater than its diameter. As in building an arch, a temporary support is needed while
rings of voussoirs are constructed and the rings placed in position. Until the topmost
voussoir, the keystone, is positioned, the vault is not self-supporting. Where timber is easily
obtained, this temporary support is provided by centering consisting of a
framed truss with a semicircular or segmental head, which supports the voussoirs until the
ring of the whole arch is completed. With a barrel vault, the centering can then be
shifted on to support the next rings

1.Barrel vault, tunnel vault, wagon vault, cradle vault

2.Pointed barrel vault, pointed vault, Gothic vault
3.Rampant vault
4.Conical vault, expanding vault
5.Cloister vault, domical vault
6.Pointed cloister vault, domical vault
7.Groin vault, cross vault, intersecting barrel vault
8.Pointed groin vault, pointed cross vault
9.Dormer vault
10.Trough vault
11.Coved vault
12.Segmental vault, segmental barrel vault
 BRICK PIERS

Are vertical structures that typically act as supports for walls that they are built into,
or for construction built on top of them. A freestanding brick pier can be used for
many things, such as a light post, a support for a gate or mailbox, or as a decorative
element at the end of a Brick piers can be constructed in a number of ways. The
bricks are often laid so that a hollow is formed in the center of the pier. This can then
be filled with concrete, and, sometimes — at intervals — steel reinforcing rods, to
strengthen the pier. A pier can also be constructed entirely from bricks and mortar in
various bonds driveway.
If brick piers are utilized to strengthen a wall, they generally occur at regular intervals
throughout the length of it.

MORTAR

The term mortar is used to indicate a paste prepared by adding required quantity of water
to a mixture of binding material like cement or Lime and fine aggregates like sand. The two
components of mortar namely the binding material and fine aggregates are some times
referred to as matrix the durability, quality and strength of mortar will mainly depends on
quantity and quality of the matrix. The combined effect of the two components of mortar is
that the mass is able to bind the bricks or stones firmly

Properties – Uses:
The important properties of a good mortar mix are mobility, placeability and water retention.
The mobility is used to indicate the consistency of mortar mix, which may range from stiff to
fluid. The mobility of mortar depends upon composition of mortar and mortar mixes to be
used for masonry work, finishing works, etc are made sufficiently mobile. The placeability or
the ease with which the mortar mix can be placed with minimum cost in a thin and uniform
layer over the surface depends on the mobility of mortar. The placeablity of mortar mix
should be such that a strong bond is developed with the surface of the bed.
A good mortar mix should posses the ability if retaining adequate humidity during the
transportation and laying over the porous bed. If water retention power of mortar mix is low it
separates into layers during transportation and when it comes contact with the porous bed
like brick, wood, etc, it gives away its water to that surface. Thus the mortar becomes poor in
amount of water and remaining water proves to be insufficient for its hardening. Hence
required strength of mortar will not be achieved with such a mortar mix will.
Properties of good mortar
1. It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the building units such as bricks,
stones etc.
2. It should be capable of developing the designed stresses.
3. It should be capable of resisting penetration of rainwater.
4. It should be cheap.
5. It should be durable.
6. It should be easily workable.
7. It should not affect the durability of materials with which it comes into contact.
Uses:
1. To bind the building units such as bricks, stones etc.
2. To carry out painting and plaster works on exposed surfaces of masonry
3. To form an even bedding layer for building units
4. To form joints of pipes 5. To improve the appearance of structure.

Types of Mortar
The mortar are classified on the bases of the following
1. Bulk density 2. Kinds of binding material 3. Nature of application 4. Special mortars
Bulk density:
According to bulk density of mortar in dry state, the mortars are two types
a. Heavy mortars bulk density is more than 1500kg/m3 and prepared from heavy quartz
b. Lightweight mortars – bulk density is less than 1500/mg3 and prepared from light porous
sands.
Kinds of binding Material
According to the kinds of binding material, several factors such as expected working
conditions, hardening temperature, moisture conditions, etc should be considered. The
mortars are classified into four categories.
a. Lime Mortar - in this motor, lime is used as binding material. Lime may be fate lime or
Hydraulic lime. Fat lime mortar 1:2 to 1:3 and hydraulic lime mortarmay be1:2 by VOLUME.
b. Cement mortar: In this mortar, cement is used as binding material. Depending upon the
strength required and importance of work, the proportion of cement to sand varies from 1:2
to 1:6 or more.
c. Gauged Mortar or composite mortar:
The process of adding cement to lime mortar to improve the quality of lime mortar is known
as gauging. It makes lime mortar economical, strong and dense. The usual proportion of
cement to lime by volume is about 1:6 to 1:8
d. Gypsum mortar:
These mortars are prepared from gypsum binding material such as building gypsum and
anhydrite binding materials.
Nature of Application: According to the nature of application, the mortars are classified into
two categories.
A.Brick laying mortars: Mortars for brick laying are intended to be used for brick works and
walls. Depending up on the working conditions and type of construction, the composition of
masonry mortars with respect to the kind of binding materials is decided.
B. Finishing Mortars: these mortars include common plastering work and mortars for
developing architectural or ornamental effects. Generally cement or lime is used as binding
material.
Preparation of cement mortar
For preparing mortar, water is added to intimate mixtures of binding material and sand. The
water to be used for this purpose should be free from clay, earth and other impurities. Water
which is fit for drinking should only be used for preparing mortar.
Cement mortar may be prepared by manual mixing or by mechanical mixing. Mechanical
mixing is preferred when mortar is required in large quantities to be used in continuous order.
a. Mixing in mechanical mixer: In this case, cement and sand in desired proportion are fed in
the mixer and mixed dry. Water is then added gradually and the wet mixing a continued for
at least one minute to obtain the mortar of desired consistency. It is necessary to ensure that
only the quantity of mortar which can be used within half an hour of its mixing should be
prepared at a time. This is essential as after 30 minutes the mortar begins to set.
b. Manual mixing: In this case, specified quantity of sand is spread and leveled on clean dry
masonry platform. Required quantity of cement bags are emptied over the sand layer. The
ingredients are then mixed thoroughly by turning them over the sand layer. The ingredients
are then mixed thoroughly by turning them over and over. Backward and forward several
times with the help of spade. Dry mixing is continued till the mix have attains a uniform colour.
A batch of dry mix is then put in the shallow masonry tank and just sufficient quantity of water
is added to bring the mortar to the consistency of a paste. The quantity of dry mix taken in
each batch should be such the mortar formed each time is consumed within half an hour.
Precautions in using mortar
1. Consumption of mortar – the consumption of mortar should be as early as possible Line
mortar – with in 36 hours after its preparation Cement mortar – within 30 minutes Gaged
mortar – within 2 hours.
2. Frost action - Setting action of mortar is affected by the presence of frost and not
advisable in frosty weather.
3. Soaking of building units: Building units should not be soaked before application of mortar.
If this precaution is not taken, water of mortar will be absorbed by the building units and
mortar will become weak.
4. Sprinkling of water: The construction work carried out by mortar should be kept dam or wet
by sprinkling water for about 7 to 10 days to avoid rapid drying of mortar.
5. Workability: Mortar should not contain excess water and it should be stiff as can be
conveniently used. Joints should be well formed and excess mortar from joints should be
neatly taken off by a trowel. Surface formed by mortar for building units to rest should be
even.
Mud mortar
Soil is mixed with water and used as mortar for various types of masonry construction.
It is characterized by earthen colour, and it can be easily scratched (removed) from
the wall using a sharp object (like a key).This type of mortar can be found mostly in
adobe , and stone masonry housing construction in remote rural areas where
cement and/or lime are either unavailable or too expensive . Mud mortar is a low-
strength mortar, and it is the weakest of all mortar types.
preparation technique
5 parts earth
2.5 parts straw
1 part clay
Plus sand and lime (depending on your climatic conditions)
Water
1. Mix the earth, clay, water and straw together on a sheet of plastic. Stomp it or churn it well.
2.Leave the mixture to percolate for at least a week.
3.Now take 5 parts of this mud/straw mix, add 2 parts lime and 4 parts sand.
4.Shovel ingredients onto an old sheet of plastic and stomp stomp stomp.
5.Now stomp some more. The more it’s mixed the better it is.
6.Now slap your mortar in between layers of stones.
Mud mortar isn't as water resistant as Portland Cement, and needs a roof over it to protect if
from heavy rain. It may also need touching up every now and again.
Advantages of using Mud Mortar for Construction of brick Wall.
(1) Brick wall constructed with Mud Mortar will reduce the heat inside the building in
Summer Season .
(2) Cost of construction can be reduced by 22%.
(3) Cement is a Heat generating material. So reducing the consumption of Cement
will make the building Eco friendly.
(4) If Skilled Mason are doing this brick work no water seepage will occur . If packing
of gap between bricks are not filled properly , chances are there for leakage of
water during rainy season .