Galan, Moralles, Montuya

EGOISM
theory that one's self is, or should be, the motivation and the goal of one's own action.

Psychology Egoism
- Claims that individuals always act selfishly
- “We DO act in our own self-interest”
- By nature, human beings do, as a matter of fact, tend to behave in whatever way they
perceive as best promoting their own self-interest.

Ethical Egoism
- The morally right action is the one that best promotes the agent’s own interests (where
“agent” refers to the individual performing the action)
- Claims that everyone ought to act selfishly
- “We SHOULD act in our own self-interest”

PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM
3 MAIN THEORIES
Hedonistic
- accounts identify self-interest with the satisfaction of one’s desires. Often, and most
plausibly, these desires are restricted to self-regarding desires.
Example:
What makes a desire self-regarding is controversial, but there are clear cases and
counter-cases: a desire for my own pleasure is self-regarding; a desire for the welfare of
others is not.
Eating when you are very hungry. Perhaps sometimes we eat in order to cause
pleasurable taste sensations; but surely this is not the case every time we eat.

Objective
- accounts identify self-interest with the possession of states (such as virtue or
knowledge) that are valuable independently of whether they are desired.
 Example:
I must desire things other than my own welfare in order to get welfare. Say I derive welfare
from playing hockey. Unless I desired, for its own sake, to play hockey, I would not derive
welfare from playing. Or say I derive welfare from helping others. Unless I desired, for its
own sake, that others do well, I would not derive welfare from helping them. Welfare
results from my action, but cannot be the only aim of my action.

Hybrid
- accounts give a role to both desires (or pleasure) and states that are valuable
independently of whether they are desired.
- Hedonism, which identifies self-interest with pleasure, is either a preference or an
objective account, according to whether what counts as pleasure is determined by one’s
desires.
Example:
Perhaps the increase to my well-being brought about by a satisfied desire (or a pleasure)
itself increases insofar as it is a desire for (or pleasure in) knowledge. Or perhaps the
increase to my well-being brought about by a piece of knowledge itself increases insofar as I
desire (or take pleasure in) it.
“no creature could ever evolve the ability to help its species at the expense of itself.” This
is because the fact that a given creature evolved via natural selection does not imply that
every trait of that creature is one that it has because that trait was selected for by natural
selection. So showing that it is impossible for evolution to select for a trait does not show
that no evolved creature could have that trait.

Psychological egoism is supported by our frequent observation of self-interested behavior.

Apparently altruistic action is often revealed to be self-interested. And we typically motivate
people by appealing to their self-interest (through, for example, punishments and rewards).

“No man giveth but with intention of good to himself, because gift is voluntary; the object is to
every man his own good ; of which; if men see they shall be frustrated, there will be no
beginning of benevolence or trust, nor consequently of mutual help” - Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes
Hobbes characterized human life as solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short. (p.206) Hobbes makes the
following 3 points:

1. Humans choose to live in a society with rules because they are concerned with their own safety and
for no other reason

2. Humans are by nature self-interested and any show of concern for others hides a true concern for
ourselves

3. We would be fools if we didn’t look after ourselves. (p.170)

For Hobbes, pity is really just a reflection of one’s ability to personalize an event and identify with the
victim – we have no pity except for ourselves.

Some Problems with Psychological Egoism:

1. No guarantee of happiness

Plato argues in the Republic that the unjust life will lead not to happiness & getting what one
wants but instead to unhappiness.

2. Falsification is not possible

Psychological egoism “begs the question” as it merely assumes motives in order to prove the
theory

3. Doing what we want may not always be selfish – or even self-interested

We cannot confuse self interest with selfishness not every action is done either from self
interest or from other-regarding motives - false dichotomy - sometimes we act neither in our
own nor in anyone else's best interest (e.g. gluttony, smoking, etc....)

4. Fallacy of suppressed correlative

Problem of Language – even if the psychological egoist is prepared to admit certain actions as
less selfish than others which may be seen to be more selfish – the correlative to selfish is
unselfish and the psychological egoist denies such acts as even possible. Without the correlative,
then selfish becomes meaningless.

ETHICAL EGOISM

2 Grounds of Ethical Egoism:

a) Human person by nature is not purely egoistic
 b) Ethical egoism tends to violate objective moral principles

ETHICAL EGOISM
“ The correct moral action is the one that meets the self interest of an individual”

“ The achievement of his own happiness is man’s highest moral purpose”

- Ayn Rand

“Money is not the tool of the moochers, who claim your product by tears or of the looters, who
take it from you by force. Money is made possible only by the men who produce. Is this what
you consider evil?” - Ayn Rand

Her argument:
a) The perfection of one's abilities in a state of happiness is the highest goal for humans.
b) The ethics of altruism prescribes that we sacrifice our interests and lives for the good of others.
c) Ethical egoism prescribes that we seek our own happiness exclusively, and as such it is consistent
with the happiness goal.

RATIONAL EGOISM

People should do what they want to do

- They should pursue the satisfaction of their wants

ANIMAL RIGHTS
Advocates:
The rights of animals, claimed on ethical grounds, to the same humane treatment and
protection from exploitation and abuse.

Critics:
Animals do not have the capacity to make moral choices

Animal Welfare
A human responsibility that encompasses all aspects of animal well-being.
ANIMAL RIGHTS IN LAW
- Rights against cruelty to animals
- Regulate the keeping of animals
- Regulate the transit of animals internationally
- Offer no civil rights to animals
Speciesism
Discrimination against animals
All pleasure or pain/preferences should count equally whether they are preferences of
humans or animals.

HISTORY
Pythagoras – the first animal rights philosopher transmigration of souls
Aristotle – non-human animals rank far below humans
Theophrastus – against eating meat
Rene Descartes – animals have no souls or mind

ORGANIZATIONS
1824 Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals(BRITAIN)
1892 Henry Salt: Humanitarian League

Republic Act No. 8485

AN ACT TO PROMOTE ANIMAL WELFARE IN THE PHILIPPINES, OTHERWISE KNOWN AS "THE
ANIMAL WELFARE ACT OF 1998"

Section 1. Protect and promote the welfare of all animals in the Philippines by supervising and
regulating all facilities utilized for breeding, maintaining, keeping, treating or training of all
animals.

Section 7. It shall be the duty of every person to protect the natural habitat of the wildlife. The
destruction of said habitat shall be considered as a form of cruelty to animals and its
preservation is a way of protecting the animals.

Section 4. It shall be the duty of any owner or operator of any land, air or water public utility
transporting pet, wildlife and all other animals to provide in all cases adequate, clean and
sanitary facilities for the safe conveyance.

Section 6. It shall be unlawful for any person to torture any animal, to neglect to provide
adequate care, sustenance or shelter, or maltreat any animal or to subject any dog or horse to
dogfights or horsefights.
How are animals viewed in Industry?
Fashion
Animals for fur
Synthetic fibres

Medical/ Scientific Research

Use of animals for the development of vaccines and cures for diseases

DIRECT DUTY
duties owed to the animals themselves
INDIRECT DUTY
duties to act in certain ways towards animals for the sake of ourselves

INDIRECT DUTIES TOWARDS ANIMALS

DUTY TO RESPECT
DUTY TO AVOID CRUELTY
DUTY NOT TO HURT
DUTY TO MAINTAIN THE HEALTH
DUTY TO PRESERVE
DUTY TO PRESERVE SPECIES