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Types of Resistor
Resistors are the most fundamental and commonly used of all the electronic
components, to the point where they are almost taken for granted but they play a vital
role within a circuit

There are many different Types of Resistor available for the electronics
constructor to choose from, from very small surface mount chip resistors up to
large wirewound power resistors.
The principal job of a resistor within an electrical or electronic circuit is to
“resist” (hence the name Resistor), regulate or to set the flow of electrons
(current) through them by using the type of conductive material from which
they are composed. Resistors can also be connected together in various
series and parallel combinations to form resistor networks which can act as
voltage droppers, voltage dividers or current limiters within a circuit.

A Typical Resistor
Resistors are what are called “Passive Devices”, that is they contain no
source of power or amplification but only attenuate or reduce the voltage or
current signal passing through them. This attenuation results in electrical
energy being lost in the form of heat as the resistor resists the flow of
electrons through it.
Then a potential difference is required between the two terminals of a resistor
for current to flow. This potential difference balances out the energy lost.
 When used in DC circuits the potential difference, also known as a resistors
voltage drop, is measured across the terminals as the circuit current flows
through the resistor.
Most types of resistor are linear devices that produce a voltage drop across
themselves when an electrical current flows through them because they obey
Ohm’s Law, and different values of resistance produces different values of
current or voltage. This can be very useful in Electronic circuits by controlling
or reducing either the current flow or voltage produced across them we can
produce a voltage-to-current and current-to-voltage converter.
There are many thousands of different Types of Resistor and are produced
in a variety of forms because their particular characteristics and accuracy suit
certain areas of application, such as High Stability, High Voltage, High Current
etc, or are used as general purpose resistors where their characteristics are
less of a problem.
Some of the common characteristics associated with the humble resistor
are; Temperature Coefficient, Voltage Coefficient, Noise, Frequency
Response, Power as well as a resistors Temperature Rating, Physical
Size and Reliability.
In all Electrical and Electronic circuit diagrams and schematics, the most
commonly used symbol for a fixed value resistor is that of a “zig-zag” type line
with the value of its resistance given in Ohms, Ω. Resistors have fixed
resistance values from less than one ohm, ( <1Ω ) to well over tens of millions
of ohms, ( >10MΩ ) in value.
Fixed resistors have only one single value of resistance, for example 100Ω,
but variable resistors (potentiometers) can provide an infinite number of
resistance values between zero and their maximum value.

Standard Resistor Symbols

The symbol commonly used in schematic and electrical drawings for a

Resistor can either be a “zig-zag” type line or a rectangular box.
All modern fixed value resistors can be classified into four broad groups:
 Carbon Composition Resistor – Made of carbon dust or graphite paste, low
wattage values
 Film or Cermet Resistor – Made from conductive metal oxide paste, very
low wattage values
 Wire-wound Resistor – Metallic bodies for heatsink mounting, very high
wattage ratings
 Semiconductor Resistor – High frequency/precision surface mount thin film
technology
There are a large variety of fixed and variable resistor types with different
construction styles available for each group, with each one having its own
particular characteristics, advantages and disadvantages compared to the
others. To include all types would make this section very large so I shall limit it
to the most commonly used, and readily available general purpose types of
resistors.

Composition Types of Resistor

Carbon Resistors are the most common type of Composition Resistors.
Carbon resistors are a cheap general purpose resistor used in electrical and
electronic circuits. Their resistive element is manufactured from a mixture of
finely ground carbon dust or graphite (similar to pencil lead) and a non-
conducting ceramic (clay) powder to bind it all together.

Carbon Resistor
The ratio of carbon dust to ceramic (conductor to insulator) determines the
overall resistive value of the mixture and the higher the ratio of carbon, the
lower the overall resistance. The mixture is moulded into a cylindrical shape
with metal wires or leads are attached to each end to provide the electrical
connection as shown, before being coated with an outer insulating material
and colour coded markings to denote its resistive value.

Carbon Resistor
The Carbon Composite Resistor is a low to medium type power resistor
which has a low inductance making them ideal for high frequency applications
but they can also suffer from noise and stability when hot. Carbon composite
resistors are generally prefixed with a “CR” notation (eg, CR10kΩ ) and are
available in E6 ( ± 20% tolerance (accuracy) ), E12 ( ± 10% tolerance)
and E24 ( ± 5% tolerance) packages with power ratings from 0.250 or 1/4 of a
Watt up to 5 Watts.
Carbon composite resistor types are very cheap to make and are therefore
commonly used in electrical circuits. However, due to their manufacturing
process carbon type resistors have very large tolerances so for more
precision and high value resistances, film type resistors are used instead.

Film Type Resistors

The generic term “Film Resistor” consist of Metal Film, Carbon
Film and Metal Oxide Filmresistor types, which are generally made by
depositing pure metals, such as nickel, or an oxide film, such as tin-oxide,
onto an insulating ceramic rod or substrate.

Film Resistor
The resistive value of the resistor is controlled by increasing the desired
thickness of the deposited film giving them the names of either “thick-film
resistors” or “thin-film resistors”.
Once deposited, a laser is used to cut a high precision spiral helix groove type
pattern into this film. The cutting of the film has the effect of increasing the
conductive or resistive path, a bit like taking a long length of straight wire and
forming it into a coil.
This method of manufacture allows for much closer tolerance resistors (1% or
less) as compared to the simpler carbon composition types. The tolerance of
a resistor is the difference between the preferred value (i.e, 100 ohms) and its
actual manufactured value i.e, 103.6 ohms, and is expressed as a
percentage, for example 5%, 10% etc, and in our example the actual
tolerance is 3.6%. Film type resistors also achieve a much higher maximum
ohmic value compared to other types and values in excess of 10MΩ (10
Million Ohms) are available.

Film Resistor

Metal Film Resistors have much better temperature stability than their
carbon equivalents, lower noise and are generally better for high frequency or
radio frequency applications. Metal Oxide Resistors have better high surge
current capability with a much higher temperature rating than the equivalent
metal film resistors.
Another type of film resistor commonly known as a Thick Film Resistor is
manufactured by depositing a much thicker conductive paste of CERamic
and METal, called Cermet, onto an alumina ceramic substrate. Cermet
resistors have similar properties to metal film resistors and are generally used
for making small surface mount chip type resistors, multi-resistor networks in
one package for pcb’s and high frequency resistors. They have good
temperature stability, low noise, and good voltage ratings but low surge
current properties.
Metal Film Resistors are prefixed with a “MFR” notation (eg, MFR100kΩ)
and a CF for Carbon Film types. Metal film resistors are available in E24 (±5%
& ±2% tolerances), E96(±1% tolerance) and E192 (±0.5%, ±0.25% & ±0.1%
tolerances) packages with power ratings of 0.05 (1/20th) of a Watt up to 1/2
Watt. Generally speaking Film resistors and especially metal film resistors are
precision low power components.
Wirewound Types of Resistor
Another type of resistor, called a Wirewound Resistor, is made by winding a
thin metal alloy wire (Nichrome) or similar wire onto an insulating ceramic
former in the form of a spiral helix similar to the film resistor above.

Wirewound Resistor
These types of resistor are generally only available in very low ohmic high
precision values (from 0.01Ω to 100kΩ) due to the gauge of the wire and
number of turns possible on the former making them ideal for use in
measuring circuits and Wheatstone bridge type applications.
They are also able to handle much higher electrical currents than other
resistors of the same ohmic value with power ratings in excess of 300 Watts.
These high power resistors are moulded or pressed into an aluminium heat
sink body with fins attached to increase their overall surface area to promote
heat loss and cooling.
These special types of resistor are called “Chassis Mounted Resistors”
because they are designed to be physically mounted onto heatsinks or metal
plates to further dissipate the generated heat. The mounting of the resistor
onto a heatsink increases their current carrying capabilities even further.
Another type of wirewound resistor is the Power Wirewound Resistor. These
are high temperature, high power non-inductive resistor types generally
coated with a vitreous or glass epoxy enamel for use in resistance banks or
DC motor/servo control and dynamic braking applications. They can even be
used as low wattage space or cabinet heaters.
The non-inductive resistance wire is wound around a ceramic or porcelain
tube covered with mica to prevent the alloy wires from moving when hot.
Wirewound resistors are available in a variety of resistance and power ratings
with one main use of power wirewound resistor is in the electrical heating
elements of an electric fire which converts the electrical current flowing
through it into heat with each element dissipating up to 1000 Watts, (1kW) of
energy.
Because the wire of standard wire wound resistors is wound into a coil inside
the resistors body, it acts like an inductor causing them to have inductance as
well as resistance. This affects the way the resistor behaves in AC circuits by
producing a phase shift at high frequencies especially in the larger size
resistors. The length of the actual resistance path in the resistor and the leads
contributes inductance in series with the “apparent” DC resistance resulting in
an overall impedance path of Z Ohms.
Impedance ( Z ) is the combined effect of resistance ( R ) and inductance
( X ), measured in ohms and for a series AC circuit is given as, Z2 = R2 + X2.
When used in AC circuits this inductance value changes with frequency
(inductive reactance, XL = 2πƒL) and therefore, the overall value of the
resistor changes. Inductive reactance increases with frequency but is zero at
DC (zero frequency). Then, wirewound resistors must not be designed or
used in AC or amplifier type circuits where the frequency across the resistor
changes. However, special non-inductive wirewound resistors are also
available.

Wirewound Resistor

Wirewound resistor types are prefixed with a “WH” or “W” notation

(eg WH10Ω) and are available in the WH aluminium clad package (±1%, ±2%,
±5% and ±10% tolerance) or the W vitreous enamelled package (±1%, ±2%
and ±5% tolerance) with power ratings from 1W to 300W or more.

Resistor Types Summary

Then to summarise, there are many different types of resistor available from
low cost, large tolerance, general purpose carbon type resistors through to
low tolerance, high cost, precision film resistors as well as high power,
wirewound ceramic resistors. A resistor regulates, impedes or sets the flow of
current through a particular path or it can impose a voltage reduction in an
electrical circuit.
The resistive value of a resistor, its ability to limit current flow is measured in
Ohm’s ( Ω ) ranging from less than one Ohm each to many millions of Ohm’s,
(Mega-Ohm’s). Resistors can be of a fixed value, for example: 100 Ohms,
(100Ω) or variable as in 0 to 100Ω.
A resistor will always have the same resistance value no matter what the
frequency of the supply from DC to very high frequencies and all resistors
have one thing in common, their resistive value in Ohm’s in a circuit will
ALWAYS be positive in nature and never negative.
The uses and applications of a resistor within an electrical or electronic circuit
are vast and varied with virtually every electronic circuit ever designed using
one or more types of resistor. Resistors are commonly used for purposes
such as current limiting, providing appropriate control voltages to
semiconductor devices, such as bipolar transistors, protecting LEDs or other
semiconductor devices from over current damage, as well as adjusting or
limiting the frequency response in an audio or filter circuit.
In digital circuits different types of resistors can be used for pulling up or
pulling down the voltage at the input pin of a digital logic chip or by controlling
a voltage at a point in a circuit by placing two resistors in series to create a
voltage divider network, the list is endless!.
In the next tutorial about Resistors, we will look at the different ways of
identifying the resistive value of the different types of fixed resistors with the
most common method of identification being the use of Colour Codes and
colour bands around the body of the resistor.
Home / Resistors / Resistor Colour Code

Resistor Colour Code

Resistor Colour Coding uses coloured bands to easily identify a resistors resistive value
and its percentage tolerance

There are many different types of Resistor available which can be used in
both electrical and electronic circuits to control the flow of current or to
produce a voltage drop in many different ways. But in order to do this the
actual resistor needs to have some form of “resistive” or “resistance” value.
Resistors are available in a range of different resistance values from fractions
of an Ohm ( Ω ) to millions of Ohms.
Obviously, it would be impractical to have available resistors of every possible
value for example, 1Ω, 2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω etc, because literally tens of hundreds of
thousands, if not tens of millions of different resistors would need to exist to
cover all the possible values. Instead, resistors are manufactured in what are
called “preferred values” with their resistance value printed onto their body in
coloured ink.

4 Coloured Bands
The resistance value, tolerance, and wattage rating are generally printed onto
the body of the resistor as numbers or letters when the resistors body is big
enough to read the print, such as large power resistors. But when the resistor
is small such as a 1/4 watt carbon or film type, these specifications must be
shown in some other manner as the print would be too small to read.
So to overcome this, small resistors use coloured painted bands to indicate
both their resistive value and their tolerance with the physical size of the
resistor indicating its wattage rating. These coloured painted bands produce a
system of identification generally known as a Resistors Colour Code.
An international and universally accepted resistor colour code scheme was
developed many years ago as a simple and quick way of identifying a
resistors ohmic value no matter what its size or condition. It consists of a set
of individual coloured rings or bands in spectral order representing each digit
of the resistors value.
The resistor colour code markings are always read one band at a time starting
from the left to the right, with the larger width tolerance band oriented to the
right side indicating its tolerance. By matching the colour of the first band with
its associated number in the digit column of the colour chart below the first
digit is identified and this represents the first digit of the resistance value.
Again, by matching the colour of the second band with its associated number
in the digit column of the colour chart we get the second digit of the resistance
value and so on. Then the resistor colour code is read from left to right as
illustrated below:

The Standard Resistor Colour Code Chart

The Resistor Colour Code Table
Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 1

Brown 1 10 ± 1%

Red 2 100 ± 2%

Orange 3 1,000

Yellow 4 10,000

Green 5 100,000 ± 0.5%

Blue 6 1,000,000 ± 0.25%

Violet 7 10,000,000 ± 0.1%

Grey 8 ± 0.05%

White 9
 Gold 0.1 ± 5%

Silver 0.01 ± 10%

None ± 20%

Calculating Resistor Values

The Resistor Colour Code system is all well and good but we need to
understand how to apply it in order to get the correct value of the resistor. The
“left-hand” or the most significant coloured band is the band which is nearest
to a connecting lead with the colour coded bands being read from left-to-right
as follows:
Digit, Digit, Multiplier = Colour, Colour x 10 colour in Ohm’s (Ω)
For example, a resistor has the following coloured markings;
Yellow Violet Red = 4 7 2 = 4 7 x 102 = 4700Ω or 4k7 Ohm.
The fourth and fifth bands are used to determine the percentage tolerance of
the resistor. Resistor tolerance is a measure of the resistors variation from the
specified resistive value and is a consequence of the manufacturing process
and is expressed as a percentage of its “nominal” or preferred value.
Typical resistor tolerances for film resistors range from 1% to 10% while
carbon resistors have tolerances up to 20%. Resistors with tolerances lower
than 2% are called precision resistors with the or lower tolerance resistors
being more expensive.
Most five band resistors are precision resistors with tolerances of either 1% or
2% while most of the four band resistors have tolerances of 5%, 10% and
20%. The colour code used to denote the tolerance rating of a resistor is given
as:
Brown = 1%, Red = 2%, Gold = 5%, Silver = 10 %
If resistor has no fourth tolerance band then the default tolerance would be
at 20%.
 It is sometimes easier to remember the resistor colour code by using
mnemonics or phrases that have a separate word in the phrase to represent
each of the Ten + Two colours in the code. However, these sayings are often
very crude but never the less effective for remembering the resistor colours.
Here are just a few of the more “cleaner” versions but many more exist:
 Bad Booze Rots Our Young Guts But Vodka Goes Well
 Bad Boys Ring Our Young Girls But Vicky Goes Without
 Bad Boys Ring Our Young Girls But Vicky Gives Willingly
— Get Some Now (This one is only slightly better because it includes the
tolerance bands of Gold, Silver, and None).
As an added bonus, why not download and make our handy DIY Resistor
Colour Code Wheel as a free and handy reference guide to help work out
those resistor colour codes.

The British Standard (BS 1852) Code.

Generally on larger power resistors, the resistor colour code systems is not
required as the resistance value, tolerance, and even the power (wattage)
rating are printed onto the actual body of the resistor instead of using the
resistor colour code system. Because it is very easy to “misread” the position
of a decimal point or comma especially when the component is discoloured or
dirty. An easier system for writing and printing the resistance values of the
individual resistance was developed.
This system conforms to the British Standard BS 1852 Standard and its
replacement, BS EN 60062, coding method were the decimal point position is
replaced by the suffix letters “K” for thousands or kilohms, the letter “M” for
millions or megaohms both of which denotes the multiplier value with the
letter “R” used where the multiplier is equal to, or less than one, with any
number coming after these letters meaning it’s equivalent to a decimal point.

The BS 1852 Letter Coding for Resistors

BS 1852 Codes for Resistor Values

0.47Ω = R47 or 0R47

 1.0Ω = 1R0

4.7Ω = 4R7

47Ω = 47R

470Ω = 470R or 0K47

1.0KΩ = 1K0

4.7KΩ = 4K7

47KΩ = 47K

470KΩ = 470K or 0M47

1MΩ = 1M0

Sometimes depending upon the manufacturer, after the written resistance

value there is an additional letter which represents the resistors tolerance
value such as 4k7 J and these suffix letters are given as:

Tolerance Letter Coding for Resistors

 Tolerance Codes for Resistors (±)

B = 0.1%

C = 0.25%

D = 0.5%

F = 1%

G = 2%

J = 5%

K = 10%

M = 20%

Also, when reading these written codes be careful not to confuse the
resistance letter kfor kilohms with the tolerance letter K for 10% tolerance or
the resistance letter M for Megaohms with the tolerance letter M for 20%
tolerance.

Resistor Tolerance, E-series & Preferred Values

Hopefully by now we understand that resistors come in a variety of sizes and
resistance values but to have a resistor available of every possible resistance
value, literally hundreds of thousands, if not millions of individual resistors
would need to exist. Instead, resistors are manufactured in what are
commonly known as Preferred values.
Instead of sequential values of resistance from 1Ω and upwards, certain
values of resistors exist within certain tolerance limits. The tolerance of a
resistor is the maximum difference between its actual value and the required
value and is generally expressed as a plus or minus percentage value. For
example, a 1kΩ ±20% tolerance resistor may have a maximum and minimum
resistive value of:
Maximum Resistance Value
1kΩ or 1000Ω + 20% = 1,200Ω
Minimum Resistance Value
1kΩ or 1000Ω – 20% = 800Ω
Then using our example above, a 1kΩ ±20% tolerance resistor may have a
maximum value of 1200Ω and a minimum value of 800Ω resulting in a
difference of some 400Ω!! for the same value resistor.
In most electrical or electronic circuits this large 20% tolerance of the same
resistor is generally not a problem, but when close tolerance resistors are
specified for high accuracy circuits such as filters, oscillators or amplifiers etc,
then the correct tolerance resistor needs to be used as a 20% tolerance
resistor cannot generally be used to replace 2% or even a 1% tolerance type.
The five and six band resistor colour code is more commonly associated with
the high precision 1% and 2% film types while the common garden variety 5%
and 10% general purpose types tend to use the four band resistor colour
code. Resistors come in a range of tolerances but the two most common are
the E12 and the E24 series.
The E12 series comes in twelve resistance values per decade, (A decade
representing multiples of 10, i.e. 10, 100, 1000 etc), while the E24 series
comes in twenty four values per decade and the E96 series ninety six values
per decade. A very high precision E192series is now available with tolerances
as low as ± 0.1% giving a massive 192 separate resistor values per decade.

Resistor Tolerance and E-series Table

 E6 Series at ±20% Tolerance – Resistors values in Ω

1.0, 1.5, 2.2, 3.3, 4.7, 6.8

E12 Series at ±10% Tolerance – Resistors values in Ω

1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3, 3.9, 4.7, 5.6, 6.8, 8.2

E24 Series at ±5% Tolerance – Resistors values in Ω

1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.7, 3.0,
3.3, 3.6, 3.9, 4.3, 4.7, 5.1, 5.6, 6.2, 6.8, 7.2, 8.2, 9.1

E96 Series at ±1% Tolerance – Resistors values in Ω

1.00, 1.02, 1.05, 1.07, 1.10, 1.13, 1.15, 1.18, 1.21, 1.24, 1.27, 1.30, 1.33, 1.37, 1.40,
1.43, 1.47, 1.50, 1.54, 1.58, 1.62, 1.65, 1.69, 1.74, 1.78, 1.82, 1.87, 1.91, 1.96, 2.00,
2.05, 2.10, 2.15, 2.21, 2.26, 2.32, 2.37, 2.43, 2.49, 2.55, 2.61, 2.67, 2.74, 2.80, 2.87,
2.94, 3.01, 3.09, 3.16, 3.24, 3.32, 3.40, 3.48, 3.57, 3.65, 3.74, 3.83, 3.92, 4.02, 4.12,
4.22, 4.32, 4.42, 4.53, 4.64, 4.75, 4.87, 4.99, 5.11, 5.23, 5.36, 5.49, 5.62, 5.76, 5.90,
6.04, 6.19, 6.34, 6.49, 6.65, 6.81, 6.98, 7.15, 7.32, 7.50, 7.68, 7.87, 8.06, 8.25, 8.45,
8.66, 8.87, 9.09, 9.31, 9.53, 9.76

Then by using the appropriate E-series value for the percentage tolerance
required for the resistor, adding a multiplication factor to it, any ohmic value of
resistance within that series can be found. For example, take an E-12 series
resistor, 10% tolerance with a preferred value of 3.3, then the values of
resistance for this range are:
Value x Multiplier = Resistance
3.3 x 1 = 3.3Ω
3.3 x 10 = 33Ω
3.3 x 100 = 330Ω
3.3 x 1,000 = 3.3kΩ
3.3 x 10,000 = 33kΩ
3.3 x 100,000 = 330kΩ
3.3 x 1,000,000 = 3.3MΩ
The mathematical basis behind these preferred values comes from the square
root value of the actual series being used. For example, for the E6 20% series
there are six individual resistors or steps (1.0 to 6.8) and is given as the sixth
root of ten ( 6√10 ), so for the E12 10% series there are twelve individual
resistors or steps (1.0 to 8.2) and is therefore given as the twelfth root of ten
( 12√10 ) and so on for the remaining E-series values.
The tolerance series of Preferred Values shown above are manufactured to
conform to the British Standard BS 2488 and are ranges of resistor values
chosen so that at maximum or minimum tolerance any one resistor overlaps
with its neighbouring value. For example, take the E24 range of resistors with
a 5% tolerance. It’s neighbouring resistor values are 47 and 51Ω respectively.
47Ω + 5% = 49.35Ω, and 51Ω – 5% = 48.45Ω, an overlap of just 0.9Ω.

Surface Mount Resistors

4.7kΩ SMD Resistor

Surface Mount Resistors or SMD Resistors, are very small rectangular
shaped metal oxide film resistors designed to be soldered directly onto the
surface, hence their name, of a circuit board. Surface mount resistors
generally have a ceramic substrate body onto which is deposited a thick layer
of metal oxide resistance.
The resistive value of the resistor is controlled by increasing the desired
thickness, length or type of deposited film being used and highly accurate low
tolerance resistors, down to 0.1% can be produced. They also have metal
terminals or caps at either end of the body which allows them to be soldered
directly onto printed circuit boards.
Surface Mount Resistors are printed with either a 3 or 4-digit numerical code
which is similar to that used on the more common axial type resistors to
denote their resistive value. Standard SMD resistors are marked with a three-
digit code, in which the first two digits represent the first two numbers of the
resistance value with the third digit being the multiplier, either x1, x10, x100
etc. For example:
“103” = 10 × 1,000 ohms = 10 kiloΩ
“392” = 39 × 100 ohms = 3.9 kiloΩ
“563” = 56 × 1,000 ohms = 56 kiloΩ
“105” = 10 × 100,000 ohms = 1 MegaΩ
Surface mount resistors that have a value of less than 100Ω are usually
written as: “390”, “470”, “560” with the final zero representing a 10
xo multiplier, which is equivalent to 1. For example:
“390” = 39 × 1Ω = 39Ω or 39RΩ
“470” = 47 × 1Ω = 47Ω or 47RΩ
Resistance values below ten have a letter “R” to denote the position of the
decimal point as seen previously in the BS1852 form, so that 4R7 = 4.7Ω.
Surface mount resistors that have a “000” or “0000” markings are zero-Ohm
(0Ω) resistors or in other words shorting links, since these components have
zero resistance.
Then we have seen that the resistor colour code system is used to identify the
resistive value of a resistor. Don’t forget to download and make our handy
DIY Resistor Colour Code Wheel as a free and handy reference guide to help
work out those resistor colour codes.
In the next tutorial about Resistors, we will look at connecting resistors
together in a series chain and prove that the total resistance is the sum of all
the resistors added together and that the current is common to a series circuit.
Home / Resistors / Resistors in Series

Resistors in Series
Resistors are said to be connected in series when they are daisy chained together in a
single line resulting in a common current flowing through them

Individual resistors can be connected together in either a series connection, a

parallel connection or combinations of both series and parallel, to produce
more complex resistor networks whose equivalent resistance is the
mathematical combination of the individual resistors connected together.
A resistor is not only a fundamental electronic component that can be used to
convert a voltage to a current or a current to a voltage, but by correctly
adjusting its value a different weighting can be placed onto the converted
current and/or the voltage allowing it to be used in voltage reference circuits
and applications.
Resistors in series or complicated resistor networks can be replaced by one
single equivalent resistor, REQ or impedance, ZEQ and no matter what the
combination or complexity of the resistor network is, all resistors obey the
same basic rules as defined by Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws.

Resistors in Series
Resistors are said to be connected in “Series”, when they are daisy chained
together in a single line. Since all the current flowing through the first resistor
has no other way to go it must also pass through the second resistor and the
third and so on. Then, resistors in series have a Common Current flowing
through them as the current that flows through one resistor must also flow
through the others as it can only take one path.
Then the amount of current that flows through a set of resistors in series will
be the same at all points in a series resistor network. For example:

In the following example the resistors R1, R2 and R3 are all connected together
in series between points A and B with a common current, I flowing through
them.

Series Resistor Circuit

As the resistors are connected together in series the same current passes
through each resistor in the chain and the total resistance, RT of the circuit
must be equal to the sum of all the individual resistors added together. That is

and by taking the individual values of the resistors in our simple example
above, the total equivalent resistance, REQ is therefore given as:
REQ = R1 + R2 + R3 = 1kΩ + 2kΩ + 6kΩ = 9kΩ
So we see that we can replace all three individual resistors above with just
one single “equivalent” resistor which will have a value of 9kΩ.
Where four, five or even more resistors are all connected together in a series
circuit, the total or equivalent resistance of the circuit, RT would still be the sum
of all the individual resistors connected together and the more resistors added
to the series, the greater the equivalent resistance (no matter what their
value).
This total resistance is generally known as the Equivalent Resistance and
can be defined as; “a single value of resistance that can replace any number
of resistors in series without altering the values of the current or the voltage in
the circuit“. Then the equation given for calculating total resistance of the
circuit when connecting together resistors in series is given as:

Series Resistor Equation

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + ….. Rn etc.
Note then that the total or equivalent resistance, RT has the same effect on the
circuit as the original combination of resistors as it is the algebraic sum of the
individual resistances.

If two resistances or impedances in series are equal and

of the same value, then the total or equivalent
resistance, RT is equal to twice the value of one resistor.
That is equal to 2R and for three equal resistors in
series, 3R, etc.
 If two resistors or impedances in series are unequal and
of different values, then the total or equivalent
resistance, RT is equal to the mathematical sum of the
two resistances. That is equal to R1 + R2. If three or more
unequal (or equal) resistors are connected in series then
the equivalent resistance is: R1 + R2 + R3 +…, etc.

One important point to remember about resistors in series networks to check

that your maths is correct. The total resistance ( RT ) of any two or more
resistors connected together in series will always be GREATER than the
value of the largest resistor in the chain. In our example
above RT = 9kΩ where as the largest value resistor is only 6kΩ.

Series Resistor Voltage

The voltage across each resistor connected in series follows different rules to
that of the series current. We know from the above circuit that the total supply
voltage across the resistors is equal to the sum of the potential differences
across R1 , R2 and R3 , VAB = VR1 + VR2 + VR3 = 9V.
Using Ohm’s Law, the voltage across the individual resistors can be
calculated as:
Voltage across R1 = IR1 = 1mA x 1kΩ = 1V
Voltage across R2 = IR2 = 1mA x 2kΩ = 2V
Voltage across R3 = IR3 = 1mA x 6kΩ = 6V

giving a total voltage VAB of ( 1V + 2V + 6V ) = 9V which is equal to the value

of the supply voltage. Then the sum of the potential differences across the
resistors is equal to the total potential difference across the combination and
in our example this is 9V.
The equation given for calculating the total voltage in a series circuit which is
the sum of all the individual voltages added together is given as:
Then series resistor networks can also be thought of as “voltage dividers” and
a series resistor circuit having N resistive components will have N-different
voltages across it while maintaining a common current.
By using Ohm’s Law, either the voltage, current or resistance of any series
connected circuit can easily be found and resistor of a series circuit can be
interchanged without affecting the total resistance, current, or power to each
resistor.

Resistors in Series Example No1

Using Ohms Law, calculate the equivalent series resistance, the series
current, voltage drop and power for each resistor in the following resistors in
series circuit.

All the data can be found by using Ohm’s Law, and to make life a little easier
we can present this data in tabular form.

Resistance Current Voltage Power

R1 = 10Ω I1 = 200mA V1 = 2V P1 = 0.4W

 R2 = 20Ω I2 = 200mA V2 = 4V P2 = 0.8W

R3 = 30Ω I3 = 200mA V3 = 6V P3 = 1.2W

RT = 60Ω IT = 200mA VS = 12V PT = 2.4W

Then for the circuit above, RT = 60Ω, IT = 200mA, VS = 12V and PT = 2.4W

The Voltage Divider Circuit

We can see from the above example, that although the supply voltage is given
as 12 volts, different voltages, or voltage drops, appear across each resistor
within the series network. Connecting resistors in series like this across a
single DC supply has one major advantage, different voltages appear across
each resistor producing a very handy circuit called a Voltage Divider
Network.
This simple circuit splits the supply voltage proportionally across each resistor
in the series chain with the amount of voltage drop being determined by the
resistors value and as we now know, the current through a series resistor
circuit is common to all resistors. So a larger resistance will have a larger
voltage drop across it, while a smaller resistance will have a smaller voltage
drop across it.
The series resistive circuit shown above forms a simple voltage divider
network were three voltages 2V, 4V and 6V are produced from a single 12V
supply. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that “the supply voltage in a closed
circuit is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops (I*R) around the circuit” and
this can be used to good effect.
The Voltage Division Rule, allows us to use the effects of resistance
proportionality to calculate the potential difference across each resistance
regardless of the current flowing through the series circuit. A typical “voltage
divider circuit” is shown below.

Voltage Divider Network

The circuit shown consists of just two resistors, R1 and R2 connected together
in series across the supply voltage Vin. One side of the power supply voltage is
connected to resistor, R1, and the voltage output, Vout is taken from across
resistor R2. The value of this output voltage is given by the corresponding
formula.
If more resistors are connected in series to the circuit then different voltages
will appear across each resistor in turn with regards to their individual
resistance R (Ohms Law I*R) values providing different but smaller voltage
points from one single supply.
So if we had three or more resistances in the series chain, we can still use our
now familiar potential divider formula to find the voltage drop across each one.
Consider the circuit below.

The potential divider circuit above shows four resistances connected together
is series. The voltage drop across points A and B can be calculated using the
potential divider formula as follows:
We can also apply the same idea to a group of resistors in the series chain.
For example if we wanted to find the voltage drop across
both R2 and R3 together we would substitute their values in the top numerator
of the formula and in this case the resulting answer would give us 5 volts (2V
+ 3V).
In this very simple example the voltages work out very neatly as the voltage
drop across a resistor is proportional to the total resistance, and as the total
resistance, (RT) in this example is equal to 100Ω or 100%, resistor R1 is 10%
of RT, so 10% of the source voltage VS will appear across it, 20% of VS across
resistor R2, 30% across resistor R3, and 40% of the supply voltage VS across
resistor R4. Application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) around the closed
loop path confirms this.
Now lets suppose that we want to use our two resistor potential divider circuit
above to produce a smaller voltage from a larger supply voltage to power an
external electronic circuit. Suppose we have a 12V DC supply and our circuit
which has an impedance of 50Ω requires only a 6V supply, half the voltage.
Connecting two equal value resistors, of say 50Ω each, together as a potential
divider network across the 12V will do this very nicely until we connect the
load circuit to the network. This is because the loading effect of
resistor RL connected in parallel across R2changes the ratio of the two series
resistances altering their voltage drop and this is demonstrated below.

Resistors in Series Example No2

Calculate the voltage drops across X and Y
a) Without RL connected
b) With RL connected
As you can see from above, the output voltage Vout without the load resistor
connected gives us the required output voltage of 6V but the same output
voltage at Vout when the load is connected drops to only 4V, (Resistors in
Parallel).
Then we can see that a loaded voltage divider network changes its output
voltage as a result of this loading effect, since the output voltage Vout is
determined by the ratio of R1to R2. However, as the load
resistance, RL increases towards infinity (∞) this loading effect reduces and
the voltage ratio of Vout/Vs becomes unaffected by the addition of the load on
the output. Then the higher the load impedance the less is the loading effect
on the output.
The effect of reducing a signal or voltage level is known as Attenuation so
care must be taken when using a voltage divider network. This loading effect
could be compensated for by using a potentiometer instead of fixed value
resistors and adjusted accordingly. This method also compensates the
potential divider for varying tolerances in the resistors construction.
A variable resistor, potentiometer or pot as it is more commonly called, is a
good example of a multi-resistor voltage divider within a single package as it
can be thought of as thousands of mini-resistors in series. Here a fixed
voltage is applied across the two outer fixed connections and the variable
output voltage is taken from the wiper terminal. Multi-turn pots allow for a
more accurate output voltage control.
The Voltage Divider Circuit is the simplest way of producing a lower voltage
from a higher voltage, and is the basic operating mechanism of the
potentiometer.
As well as being used to calculate a lower supply voltage, the voltage divider
formula can also be used in the analysis of more complex resistive circuits
containing both series and parallel branches. The voltage or potential divider
formula can be used to determine the voltage drops around a closed DC
network or as part of a various circuit analysis laws such as Kirchhoff’s or
Thevenin’s theorems.

Applications of Resistors in Series

We have seen that Resistors in Series can be used to produce different
voltages across themselves and this type of resistor network is very useful for
producing a voltage divider network. If we replace one of the resistors in the
voltage divider circuit above with a Sensor such as a thermistor, light
dependant resistor (LDR) or even a switch, we can convert an analogue
quantity being sensed into a suitable electrical signal which is capable of
being measured.
For example, the following thermistor circuit has a resistance of 10KΩ at 25°C
and a resistance of 100Ω at 100°C. Calculate the output voltage (Vout) for
both temperatures.

Thermistor Circuit
At 25°C

At 100°C

So by changing the fixed 1KΩ resistor, R2 in our simple circuit above to a

variable resistor or potentiometer, a particular output voltage set point can be
obtained over a wider temperature range.

Resistors in Series Summary

So to summarise. When two or more resistors are connected together end-to-
end in a single branch, the resistors are said to be connected together in
series. Resistors in Seriescarry the same current, but the voltage drop
across them is not the same as their individual resistance values will create
different voltage drops across each resistor as determined by Ohm’s Law
( V = I*R ). Then series circuits are voltage dividers.
In a series resistor network the individual resistors add together to give an
equivalent resistance, ( RT ) of the series combination. The resistors in a
series circuit can be interchanged without affecting the total resistance,
current, or power to each resistor or the circuit.
In the next tutorial about Resistors, we will look at connecting resistors
together in parallel and show that the total resistance is the reciprocal sum of
all the resistors added together and that the voltage is common to a parallel
circuit.
Home / Resistors / Resistors in Parallel

Resistors in Parallel
Resistors are said to be connected together in parallel when both of their terminals are
respectively connected to each terminal of the other resistor or resistors

Unlike the previous series resistor circuit, in a parallel resistor network the
circuit current can take more than one path as there are multiple paths for the
current. Then parallel circuits are classed as current dividers.
Since there are multiple paths for the supply current to flow through, the
current may not be the same through all the branches in the parallel network.
However, the voltage drop across all of the resistors in a parallel resistive
network IS the same. Then, Resistors in Parallel have a Common
Voltage across them and this is true for all parallel connected elements.
So we can define a parallel resistive circuit as one where the resistors are
connected to the same two points (or nodes) and is identified by the fact that it
has more than one current path connected to a common voltage source. Then
in our parallel resistor example below the voltage across resistor R1 equals the
voltage across resistor R2 which equals the voltage across R3 and which
equals the supply voltage. Therefore, for a parallel resistor network this is
given as:
In the following resistors in parallel circuit the resistors R1, R2 and R3 are all
connected together in parallel between the two points A and B as shown.

Parallel Resistor Circuit

In the previous series resistor network we saw that the total resistance, RT of
the circuit was equal to the sum of all the individual resistors added together.
For resistors in parallel the equivalent circuit resistance RT is calculated
differently.
Here, the reciprocal ( 1/R ) value of the individual resistances are all added
together instead of the resistances themselves with the inverse of the
algebraic sum giving the equivalent resistance as shown.

Parallel Resistor Equation

Then the inverse of the equivalent resistance of two or more resistors

connected in parallel is the algebraic sum of the inverses of the individual
resistances.
If the two resistances or impedances in parallel are equal and of the same
value, then the total or equivalent resistance, RT is equal to half the value of
one resistor. That is equal to R/2 and for three equal resistors in parallel, R/3,
etc.
Note that the equivalent resistance is always less than the smallest resistor in
the parallel network so the total resistance, RT will always decrease as
additional parallel resistors are added.
Parallel resistance gives us a value known as Conductance, symbol G with
the units of conductance being the Siemens, symbol S. Conductance is the
reciprocal or the inverse of resistance, ( G = 1/R ). To convert conductance
back into a resistance value we need to take the reciprocal of the
conductance giving us then the total resistance, RT of the resistors in parallel.
We now know that resistors that are connected between the same two points
are said to be in parallel. But a parallel resistive circuit can take many forms
other than the obvious one given above and here are a few examples of how
resistors can be connected together in parallel.

Various Parallel Resistor Networks

The five resistive networks above may look different to each other, but they
are all arranged as Resistors in Parallel and as such the same conditions
and equations apply.

Resistors in Parallel Example No1

Find the total resistance, RT of the following resistors connected in a parallel
network.

The total resistance RT across the two terminals A and B is calculated as:

This method of reciprocal calculation can be used for calculating any number
of individual resistances connected together within a single parallel network.
If however, there are only two individual resistors in parallel then we can use a
much simpler and quicker formula to find the total or equivalent resistance
value, RTand help reduce the reciprocal maths a little.
This much quicker product-over-sum method of calculating two resistor in
parallel, either having equal or unequal values is given as:

Resistors in Parallel Example No2

Consider the following circuit which has only two resistors in a parallel
combination.

Using our formula above for two resistors connected together in parallel we
can calculate the total circuit resistance, RT as:

One important point to remember about resistors in parallel, is that the total
circuit resistance ( RT ) of any two resistors connected together in parallel will
always be LESSthan the value of the smallest resistor in that combination.
In our example above, the value of the combination was calculated
as: RT = 15kΩ, where as the value of the smallest resistor is 22kΩ, much
higher. In other words, the equivalent resistance of a parallel network will
always be less than the smallest individual resistor in the combination.
Also, in the case of R1 being equal to the value of R2, that is R1 = R2, the total
resistance of the network will be exactly half the value of one of the
resistors, R/2.
Likewise, if three or more resistors each with the same value are connected in
parallel, then the equivalent resistance will be equal to R/n where R is the
value of the resistor and n is the number of individual resistances in the
combination.
For example, six 100Ω resistors are connected together in a parallel
combination. The equivalent resistance will therefore
be: RT = R/n = 100/6 = 16.7Ω. But note that this ONLY works for equivalent
resistors. That is resistors all having the same value.

Currents in a Parallel Resistor Circuit

The total current, IT entering a parallel resistive circuit is the sum of all the
individual currents flowing in all the parallel branches. But the amount of
current flowing through each parallel branch may not necessarily be the same,
as the resistive value of each branch determines the amount of current flowing
within that branch.
For example, although the parallel combination has the same voltage across
it, the resistances could be different therefore the current flowing through each
resistor would definitely be different as determined by Ohms Law.
Consider the two resistors in parallel above. The current that flows through
each of the resistors ( IR1 and IR2 ) connected together in parallel is not
necessarily the same value as it depends upon the resistive value of the
resistor. However, we do know that the current that enters the circuit at
point A must also exit the circuit at point B.
Kirchhoff’s Current Laws states that: “the total current leaving a circuit is equal
to that entering the circuit – no current is lost“. Thus, the total current flowing
in the circuit is given as:
IT = IR1 + IR2
Then by using Ohm’s Law, the current flowing through each resistor of
Example No2 above can be calculated as:
Current flowing in R1 = VS ÷ R1 = 12V ÷ 22kΩ = 0.545mA or 545μA
Current flowing in R2 = VS ÷ R2 = 12V ÷ 47kΩ = 0.255mA or 255μA
thus giving us a total current IT flowing around the circuit as:
IT = 0.545mA + 0.255mA = 0.8mA or 800μA
and this can also be verified directly using Ohm’s Law as:
 IT = VS ÷ RT = 12 ÷ 15kΩ = 0.8mA or 800μA (the same)
The equation given for calculating the total current flowing in a parallel resistor
circuit which is the sum of all the individual currents added together is given
as:
Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3 ….. + In
Then parallel resistor networks can also be thought of as “current dividers”
because the supply current splits or divides between the various parallel
branches. So a parallel resistor circuit having N resistive networks will have N-
different current paths while maintaining a common voltage across itself.
Parallel resistors can also be interchanged with each other without changing
the total resistance or the total circuit current.

Resistors in Parallel Example No3

Calculate the individual branch currents and total current drawn from the
power supply for the following set of resistors connected together in a parallel
combination.

As the supply voltage is common to all the resistors in a parallel circuit, we

can use Ohms Law to calculate the individual branch current as follows.
Then the total circuit current, IT flowing into the parallel resistor combination
will be:

This total circuit current value of 5 amperes can also be found and verified by
finding the equivalent circuit resistance, RT of the parallel branch and dividing
it into the supply voltage, VS as follows.
Equivalent circuit resistance:
Then the current flowing in the circuit will be:

Resistors in Parallel Summary

So to summarise. When two or more resistors are connected so that both of
their terminals are respectively connected to each terminal of the other
resistor or resistors, they are said to be connected together in parallel. The
voltage across each resistor within a parallel combination is exactly the same
but the currents flowing through them are not the same as this is determined
by their resistance value and Ohms Law. Then parallel circuits are current
dividers.
The equivalent or total resistance, RT of a parallel combination is found
through reciprocal addition and the total resistance value will always be less
than the smallest individual resistor in the combination. Parallel resistor
networks can be interchanged within the same combination without changing
the total resistance or total circuit current. Resistors connected together in a
parallel circuit will continue to operate even though one resistor may be open-
circuited.
Thus far we have seen resistor networks connected in either a series or a
parallel combination. In the next tutorial about Resistors, we will look at
connecting resistors together in both a series and parallel combination at the
same time producing a mixed or combinational resistor circuit.
Home / Resistors / Resistors in Series and Parallel

Resistors in Series and Parallel

Resistors can be connected together in an unlimited number of series and parallel
combinations to form complex resistive circuits

In the previous tutorials we have learnt how to connect individual resistors

together to form either a Series Resistor Network or a Parallel Resistor
Network and we used Ohms Law to find the various currents flowing in and
voltages across each resistor combination.
But what if we want to connect various resistors together in “BOTH” parallel
and series combinations within the same circuit to produce more complex
resistive networks, how do we calculate the combined or total circuit
resistance, currents and voltages for these resistive combinations.
Resistor circuits that combine series and parallel resistors networks together
are generally known as Resistor Combination or mixed resistor circuits. The
method of calculating the circuits equivalent resistance is the same as that for
any individual series or parallel circuit and hopefully we now know that
resistors in series carry exactly the same current and that resistors in parallel
have exactly the same voltage across them.
For example, in the following circuit calculate the total current ( IT ) taken from
the 12v supply.

At first glance this may seem a difficult task, but if we look a little closer we
can see that the two resistors, R2 and R3 are actually both connected together
in a “SERIES” combination so we can add them together to produce an
equivalent resistance the same as we did in the series resistor tutorial. The
resultant resistance for this combination would therefore be:
R2 + R3 = 8Ω + 4Ω = 12Ω
So we can replace both resistor R2 and R3 above with a single resistor of
resistance value 12Ω

So our circuit now has a single resistor RA in “PARALLEL” with the resistor R4.
Using our resistors in parallel equation we can reduce this parallel
combination to a single equivalent resistor value of R(combination) using the formula
for two parallel connected resistors as follows.
The resultant resistive circuit now looks something like this:

We can see that the two remaining resistances, R1 and R(comb) are connected
together in a “SERIES” combination and again they can be added together
(resistors in series) so that the total circuit resistance between
points A and B is therefore given as:
R<sub(ab)< sub="" style="box-sizing: border-
box;"> = Rcomb + R1 = 6Ω + 6Ω = 12Ω</sub(ab)<>

and a single resistance of just 12Ω can be used to replace the original four
resistors connected together in the original circuit.
Now by using Ohm´s Law, the value of the circuit current ( I) is simply
calculated as:

So any complicated resistive circuit consisting of several resistors can be

reduced to a simple single circuit with only one equivalent resistor by
replacing all the resistors connected together in series or in parallel using the
steps above.
We can take this one step further by using Ohms Law to find the two branch
currents, I1and I2 as shown.
V(R1) = I*R1 = 1*6 = 6 volts
V(RA) = VR4 = (12 – VR1) = 6 volts
Thus:
I1 = 6V ÷ RA = 6 ÷ 12 = 0.5A or 500mA
I2 = 6V ÷ R4 = 6 ÷ 12 = 0.5A or 500mA
Since the resistive values of the two branches are the same at 12Ω, the two
branch currents of I1 and I2 are also equal at 0.5A (or 500mA) each. This
therefore gives a total supply current, IT of: 0.5 + 0.5 = 1.0 amperes as
calculated above.
It is sometimes easier with complex resistor combinations and resistive
networks to sketch or redraw the new circuit after these changes have been
made, as this helps as a visual aid to the maths. Then continue to replace any
series or parallel combinations until one equivalent resistance, REQ is found.
Lets try another more complex resistor combination circuit.

Resistors in Series and Parallel Example No2

Find the equivalent resistance, REQ for the following resistor combination
circuit.

Again, at first glance this resistor ladder network may seem a complicated
task, but as before it is just a combination of series and parallel resistors
connected together. Starting from the right hand side and using the simplified
equation for two parallel resistors, we can find the equivalent resistance of
the R8 to R10 combination and call it RA.
RA is in series with R7 therefore the total resistance will be RA + R7 = 4 + 8 =
12Ω as shown.

This resistive value of 12Ω is now in parallel with R6 and can be calculated
as RB.

RB is in series with R5 therefore the total resistance will be RB + R5 = 4 + 4 =

8Ω as shown.
This resistive value of 8Ω is now in parallel with R4 and can be calculated
as RC as shown.

RC is in series with R3 therefore the total resistance will be RC + R3 = 8Ω as

shown.

This resistive value of 8Ω is now in parallel with R2 from which we can

calculated RD as:

RD is in series with R1 therefore the total resistance will be RD + R1 = 4 + 6 =

10Ω as shown.
Then the complex combinational resistive network above comprising of ten
individual resistors connected together in series and parallel combinations can
be replaced with just one single equivalent resistance ( REQ ) of value 10Ω.
When solving any combinational resistor circuit that is made up of resistors in
series and parallel branches, the first step we need to take is to identify the
simple series and parallel resistor branches and replace them with equivalent
resistors.
This step will allow us to reduce the complexity of the circuit and help us
transform a complex combinational resistive circuit into a single equivalent
resistance remembering that series circuits are voltage dividers and parallel
circuits are current dividers.
However, calculations of more complex T-pad Attenuator and resistive bridge
networks which cannot be reduced to a simple parallel or series circuit using
equivalent resistances require a different approach. These more complex
circuits need to be solved using Kirchhoff’s Current Law, and Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law which will be dealt with in another tutorial.
In the next tutorial about Resistors, we will look at the electrical potential
difference (voltage) across two points including a resistor.
Home / Resistors / Potential Difference

Potential Difference
The voltage difference between any two points in a circuit is known as Potential
Difference and it is this potential difference which makes current flow

Unlike current which flows around a closed electrical circuit in the form of
electrical charge, potential difference does not move or flow it is applied.
The unit of potential difference generated between two points is called
the Volt and is generally defined as being the potential difference dropped
across a fixed resistance of one ohm with a current of one ampere flowing
through it.
In other words, 1 Volt equals 1 Ampere times 1 Ohm, or commonly V = I*R.
Ohm’s Law states that for a linear circuit the current flowing through it is
proportional to the potential difference across it so the greater the potential
difference across any two points the bigger will be the current flowing through
it.
For example, if the voltage at one side of a 10Ω resistor measures 8V and at
the other side of the resistor it measures 5V, then the potential difference
across the resistor would be 3V ( 8 – 5 ) causing a current of 0.3A to flow.
If however, the voltage on one side was increased from 8V to say 40V, the
potential difference across the resistor would now be 40V – 5V = 35V causing
a current of 3.5A to flow. The voltage at any point in a circuit is always
measured with respect to a common point, generally 0V.
For electrical circuits, the earth or ground potential is usually taken to be at
zero volts ( 0V ) and everything is referenced to that common point in a circuit.
This is similar in theory to measuring height. We measure the height of hills in
a similar way by saying that the sea level is at zero feet and then compare
other points of the hill or mountain to that level.
In a very similar way we can call the common point in a circuit zero volts and
give it the name of ground, zero volts or earth, then all other voltage points in
the circuit are compared or referenced to that ground point. The use of a
common ground or reference point in electrical schematic drawings allows the
circuit to be drawn more simply as it is understood that all connections to this
point have the same potential. For example:

Potential Difference

As the units of measure for Potential Difference are volts, potential

difference is mainly called voltage. Individual voltages connected in series
can be added together to give us a “total voltage” sum of the circuit as seen in
the resistors in series tutorial. Voltages across components that are
connected in parallel will always be of the same value as seen in the resistors
in parallel tutorial, for example.
For series connected voltages:

For parallel connected voltages:

Potential Difference Example No1

By using Ohm’s Law, the current flowing through a resistor can be calculated
as follows:
Calculate the current flowing through a 100Ω resistor that has one of its
terminals connected to 50 volts and the other terminal connected to 30 volts.
Voltage at terminal A is equal to 50v and the voltage at terminal B is equal to
30v. Therefore, the voltage across the resistor is given as:
VA = 50v, VB = 30v, therefore, VA – VB = 50 – 30 = 20v
The voltage across the resistor is 20v, then the current flowing through the
resistor is given as:
I = VAB ÷ R = 20V ÷ 100Ω = 200mA

Voltage Divider Network

We know from the previous tutorials that by connecting together resistors in
series across a potential difference we can produce a voltage divider circuit
which will give the ratios of voltages across each resistor with respect to the
supply voltage across the total combination.
This produces what is generally called a Voltage Divider Network and one
which only applies to resistors connected together in series, because as we
saw in the Resistors in Parallel tutorial, resistors connected together in parallel
produce what is called a current divider network. Consider the series circuit
below.

Voltage Division
The circuit shows the principle of a voltage divider circuit where the output
voltage drops across each resistor within the series chain, with
resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4 being referenced to some common reference
point (usually zero volts).
So for any number of resistors connected together in series, dividing the
supply voltage VSby the total resistance, RT will give the current flowing
through the series branch as: I = VS/RT, (Ohm’s Law). Then the individual
voltage drops across each resistor can be simply calculated as: V =
I*R where R represents the resistance value.
The voltage at each point, P1, P2, P3 etc. increases according to the sum of
the voltages at each point up to the supply voltage, Vs and we can also
calculate the individual voltage drops at any point without firstly calculating the
circuit current by using the following formula.

Voltage Divider Formula

Where, V(x) is the voltage to be found, R(x) is the resistance producing the
voltage, RT is the total series resistance and VS is the supply voltage.

Potential Difference Example No2

In the circuit above, four resistors of
values, R1 = 10Ω, R2 = 20Ω, R3 = 30Ω and R4 = 40Ωare connected across a
100 volts DC supply. Using the formula above, calculated the voltage drops at
points P1, P2, P3 and P4 and also the individual voltage drops across each
resistor within the series chain.
1. The voltages at the various points are calculated as:

2. The individual voltage drops across each resistor are calculated as:

Then by using this equation we can say that the voltage dropped across any
resistor in a series circuit is proportional to the magnitude of the resistor and
the total voltage dropped across all the resistors must equal the voltage
source as defined by Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law. So by using the Voltage
Divider Equation, for any number of series resistors the voltage drop across
any individual resistor can be found.
Thus far we have seen that voltage is applied to a resistor or circuit and that
current flows through and around a circuit. But there is a third variable we can
also apply to resistors and resistor networks. Power is a product of voltage
and current and the basic unit of measurement of power is the watt.
In the next tutorial about Resistors, we will examine the power dissipated
(consumed) by resistance in the form of heat and that the total power
dissipated by a resistive circuit, whether it is series, parallel, or a combination
of the two, we simply add the powers dissipated by each resistor.
Home / Resistors / Resistor Power Rating

Resistor Power Rating

Electrical Power is absorbed by a resistance as it is the product of voltage and current
with some resistances converting this power into heat

When an electrical current passes through a resistor due to the presence of a

voltage across it, electrical energy is lost by the resistor in the form of heat
and the greater this current flow the hotter the resistor will get. This is known
as the Resistor Power Rating.
Resistors are rated by the value of their resistance and the electrical power
given in watts, (W) that they can safely dissipate based mainly upon their size.
Every resistor has a maximum power rating which is determined by its
physical size as generally, the greater its surface area the more power it can
dissipate safely into the ambient air or into a heatsink.
A resistor can be used at any combination of voltage (within reason) and
current so long as its “Dissipating Power Rating” is not exceeded with the
resistor power rating indicating how much power the resistor can convert into
heat or absorb without any damage to itself. The Resistor Power Rating is
sometimes called the Resistors Wattage Rating and is defined as the amount
of heat that a resistive element can dissipate for an indefinite period of time
without degrading its performance.
The power rating of resistors can vary a lot from less than one tenth of a watt
to many hundreds of watts depending upon its size, construction and ambient
operating temperature. Most resistors have their maximum resistive power
rating given for an ambient temperature of +70oC or below.
Electrical power is the rate in time at which energy is used or consumed
(converted into heat). The standard unit of electrical power is the Watt,
symbol W and a resistors power rating is also given in Watts. As with other
electrical quantities, prefixes are attached to the word “Watt” when expressing
very large or very small amounts of resistor power. Some of the more
common of these are:

Electrical Power Units

Unit Symbol Value Abbreviation

milliwatt mW 1/1,000th watt 10-3 W

kilowatt kW 1,000 watts 103 W

megawatt MW 1,000,000 watts 106 W

Resistor Power (P)

We know from Ohm’s Law that when a current flows through a resistance, a
voltage is dropped across it producing a product which relates to power.
In other words, if a resistance is subjected to a voltage, or if it conducts a
current, then it will always consume electrical power and we can superimpose
these three quantities of power, voltage and current into a triangle called
a Power Triangle with the power, which would be dissipated as heat in the
resistor at the top, with the current consumed and the voltage across it at the
bottom as shown.
 The Resistor Power Triangle

The above power triangle is great for calculating the power dissipated in a
resistor if we know the values of the voltage across it and the current flowing
through it. But we can also calculate the power dissipated by a resistance by
using Ohm’s Law.
Ohms law allows us to calculate the power dissipation given the resistance
value of the resistor. By using Ohms Law it is possible to obtain two
alternative variations of the above expression for the resistor power if we
know the values of only two, the voltage, the current or the resistance as
follows:
[P=VxI] Power = Volts x Amps
[ P = I2 x R ] Power = Current2 x Ohms
[ P = V2 ÷ R ] Power = Volts2 ÷ Ohms
The electrical power dissipation of any resistor in a DC circuit can be
calculated using one of the following three standard formulas:

 Where:
 V is the voltage across the resistor in Volts
 I is in current flowing through the resistor in Amperes
 R is the resistance of the resistor in Ohm’s (Ω)
As the dissipated resistor power rating is linked to their physical size, a 1/4
(0.250)W resistor is physically smaller than a 1W resistor, and resistors that
are of the same ohmic value are also available in different power or wattage
ratings. Carbon resistors, for example, are commonly made in wattage ratings
of 1/8 (0.125)W, 1/4 (0.250)W, 1/2 (0.5)W, 1W, and 2 Watts.
Generally speaking the larger their physical size the higher its wattage rating.
However, it is always better to select a particular size resistor that is capable
of dissipating two or more times the calculated power. When resistors with
higher wattage ratings are required, wirewound resistors are generally used to
dissipate the excessive heat.

Type Power Rating Stability

Metal Film Very low at less than 3 Watts High 1%

Carbon Low at less than 5 Watts Low 20%

Wirewound High up to 500 Watts High 1%

Power Resistors
Wirewound power resistors come in a variety of designs and types, from the
standard smaller heatsink mounted aluminium body 25 Watt types as we have
seen previously, to the larger tubular 1000 Watt ceramic or porcelain power
resistors used for heating elements.
 Typical Power Resistor
The resistance value of wirewound resistors is very low (low ohmic values)
compared to the carbon or metal film types. The resistive range of a power
resistor ranges from less than 1Ω (R005) up to only 100kΩ as larger
resistance values would require fine gauge wire that would easily fail.
Low ohmic, low power value resistors are generally used for current sensing
applications were, using ohm’s law the current flowing through the resistance
gives rise to a voltage drop across it.
This voltage can be measured to determine the value of the current flowing in
the circuit. This type of resistor is used in test measuring equipment and
controlled power supplies.
The larger wirewound power resistors are made of corrosion resistant wire
wound onto a porcelain or ceramic core type former and are generally used to
dissipate high inrush currents such as those generated in motor control,
electromagnet or elevator/crane control and motor braking circuits.
Generally these types of resistors have standard power ratings up to 500
Watts and are generally connected together to form what are called
“resistance banks”.
Another useful feature of wirewound power resistors is in the use of heating
elements like the ones used for electric fires, toaster, irons etc. In this type of
application the wattage value of the resistance is used to produce heat and
the type of alloy resistance wire used is generally made of Nickel-Chrome
(Nichrome) allowing temperatures up to 1200oC.
All resistors whether carbon, metal film or wirewound obey Ohm´s Law when
calculating their maximum power (wattage) value. It is also worth noting that
when two resistors are connected in parallel then their overall power rating is
increased. If both resistors are of the same value and of the same power
rating, then the total power rating is doubled.

Resistor Power Rating Example No1

What is the maximum power rating in watts of a fixed resistor which has a
voltage of 12 volts across its terminals and a current of 50 milliamperes
flowing through it.
Given that we know the values of the voltage and current above, we can
substitute these values into the following equation: P = V*I.

Resistor Power Rating Example No2

Calculate the maximum safe current that can pass through a 1.8KΩ resistor
rated at 0.5 Watts.
Again, as we know the resistors power rating and its resistance, we can now
substitute these values into the standard power equation of: P = I2R.

All resistors have a Maximum Dissipated Power Rating, which is the

maximum amount of power it can safely dissipate without damage to itself.
Resistors which exceed their maximum power rating tend to go up in smoke,
usually quite quickly, and damage the circuit they are connected to. If a
resistor is to be used near to its maximum power rating then some form of
heatsink or cooling is required.
Resistor power rating is an important parameter to consider when choosing a
resistor for a particular application. The job of a resistor is to resist current flow
through a circuit and it does this by dissipating the unwanted power as heat.
Selecting a small wattage value resistor when high power dissipation is
expected will cause the resistor to over heat, destroying both the resistor and
the circuit.
Thus far we have considered resistors connected to a steady DC supply, but
in the next tutorial about Resistors, we will look at the behaviour of resistors
that are connected to a sinusoidal AC supply, and show that the voltage,
current and therefore the power consumed by a resistor used in an AC circuit
are all in-phase with each other.
Home / Resistors / Resistors in AC Circuits

Resistors in AC Circuits
Resistors can also be used in Alternating Current supplies where the voltages, currents
and power being consumed is given in rms values

In the previous tutorials we have looked at resistors, their connections and

used Ohm’s Law to calculate the voltage, current and power associated with
them. In all cases both the voltage and current has been assumed to be of a
constant polarity, flow and direction, in other words Direct Current or DC.
But there is another type of supply known as alternating current or AC whose
voltage switches polarity from positive to negative and back again over time
and also whose current with respect to the voltage oscillates back and forth.
The oscillating shape of an AC supply follows that of the mathematical form of
a “sine wave” which is commonly called a Sinusoidal Waveform. Therefore,
a sinusoidal voltage can be defined as V(t) = Vmax sin ωt.
When using pure resistors in AC circuits that have negligible values of
inductance or capacitance, the same principals of Ohm’s Law, circuit rules for
voltage, current and power (and even Kirchhoff’s Laws) apply as they do for
DC resistive circuits the only difference this time is in the use of the
instantaneous “peak-to-peak” or “rms” quantities.
When working with AC alternating voltages and currents it is usual to use only
“rms” values to avoid confusion. The rms or “root mean squared” value of an
AC waveform is the effective or DC value equivalent for an AC waveform.
Also the schematic symbol used for defining an AC voltage source is that of a
“wavy” line as opposed to a battery symbol for DC and this is shown below.
Symbol Representation of DC and AC Supplies

Resistors are “passive” devices, that is they do not produce or consume any
electrical energy, but convert electrical energy into heat. In DC circuits the
linear ratio of voltage to current in a resistor is called its resistance. However,
in AC circuits this ratio of voltage to current depends upon the frequency and
phase difference or phase angle ( φ ) of the supply. So when using resistors in
AC circuits the term Impedance, symbol Z is the generally used and we can
say that DC resistance = AC impedance, R = Z.
It is important to note, that when used in AC circuits, a resistor will always
have the same resistive value no matter what the supply frequency from DC
to very high frequencies, unlike capacitor and inductors.
For resistors in AC circuits the direction of the current flowing through them
has no effect on the behaviour of the resistor so will rise and fall as the
voltage rises and falls. The current and voltage reach maximum, fall through
zero and reach minimum at exactly the same time. i.e, they rise and fall
simultaneously and are said to be “in-phase” as shown below.

V-I Phase Relationship and Vector Diagram

We can see that at any point along the horizontal axis that the instantaneous
voltage and current are in-phase because the current and the voltage reach
their maximum values at the same time, that is their phase angle θ is 0o. Then
these instantaneous values of voltage and current can be compared to give
the ohmic value of the resistance simply by using ohms law. Consider below
the circuit consisting of an AC source and a resistor.

The instantaneous voltage across the resistor, VR is equal to the supply

voltage, Vt and is given as:

The instantaneous current flowing in the resistor will therefore be:

As the voltage across a resistor is given as VR = I.R, the instantaneous voltage

across the resistor above can also be given as:

In purely resistive series AC circuits, all the voltage drops across the resistors
can be added together to find the total circuit voltage as all the voltages are in-
phase with each other. Likewise, in a purely resistive parallel AC circuit, all the
individual branch currents can be added together to find the total circuit
current because all the branch currents are in-phase with each other.
Since for resistors in AC circuits the phase angle φ between the voltage and
the current is zero, then the power factor of the circuit is given as cos 0o = 1.0.
The power in the circuit at any instant in time can be found by multiplying the
voltage and current at that instant.
 Then the power (P), consumed by the circuit is given as P = Vrms Ι cos Φ in
watts. But since cos(Φ) = 1 in a purely resistive circuit, the power consumed is
simply given as, P = Vrms Ιthe same as for Ohm’s Law.
This then gives us the “Power” waveform and which is shown below as a
series of positive pulses because when the voltage and current are both in
their positive half of the cycle the resultant power is positive. When the voltage
and current are both negative, the product of the two negative values gives a
positive power pulse.

Power Waveform in a Pure Resistance

Then the power dissipated in a purely resistive load fed from an AC rms
supply is the same as that for a resistor connected to a DC supply and is
given as:

 Where:
 P is the average power in Watts
 Vrms is the rms supply voltage in Volts
 Irms is the rms supply current in Amps
 R is the resistance of the resistor in Ohm’s (Ω) – should really be Z to indicate
impedance

The heating effect produced by an alternating current with a maximum value

of Imax is not the same as that of a DC current of the same value. To
compare the AC heating effect to an equivalent DC the rms values must be
used. Any resistive heating element such as Electric Fires, Toasters, Kettles,
Irons, Water Heaters etc can be classed as a resistive AC circuit and we use
resistors in AC circuits to heat our homes and water.

Resistors in AC Circuits Example No1

A 1000 Watt (1kW) heating element is connected to a 250v AC supply
voltage. Calculate the impedance (AC resistance) of the element when it is
hot and the amount of current taken from the supply.

Resistors in AC Circuits Example No2

Calculate the power being consumed by a 100Ω resistive element connected
across a 240v supply.
As there is only one component connected to the supply, the resistor,
then VR = VS

Then to summarise, in a pure ohmic AC Resistance, the current and voltage

are both said to be “in-phase” as there is no phase difference between them.
The current flowing through the resistor is directly proportional to the voltage
across it with this linear relationship in an AC circuit being called Impedance.
As with DC circuits, Ohm’s Law can be used when working with resistors in
AC circuits to calculate the resistors voltages, currents and power.
 Home / Resistors / Resistor Tutorial Summary

Resistor Tutorial Summary

We can summarise this Electronics Tutorials section about resistors and resistance and
what we have learnt as follows:

 The job of a Resistor is to limit the current flowing through an electrical circuit.
 Resistance is measured in Ohm’s and is given the symbol Ω
 Carbon, Film and Wirewound are all types of resistors.
 Resistor colour codes are used to identify the resistance and tolerance rating of
small resistors.
 The BS1852 Standard uses letters and is used to identify large size resistors.
 Tolerance is the percentage measure of the accuracy of a resistor from its
preferred value with the E6 (20%), E12 (10%), E24 (5%) and E96 (1%) series
of tolerance values available.

Series Resistor Tutorial

 Resistors that are daisy chained together in a single line are said to be
connected in SERIES.
 Series connected resistors have a common Current flowing through them.
 Itotal = I1 = I2 = I3 …. etc
 The total circuit resistance of series resistors is equal to:
 Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + ….. Rn etc.
 Total circuit voltage is equal to the sum of all the individual voltage drops.
 Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3 …. etc
 The total resistance of a series connected circuit will always be greater than the
highest value resistor.

Parallel Resistor Tutorial

 Resistors that have both of their respective terminals connected to each
terminal of another resistor or resistors are said to be connected in PARALLEL.
 Parallel resistors have a common Voltage across them.
 VS = V1 = V2 = V3 …. etc
 Total resistance of a parallel circuit is equal to:

 Total circuit current flow is equal to the sum of all the individual branch currents
added together.
 Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3 …. etc
 The total resistance of a parallel circuit will always be less than the value of the
smallest resistor.

Resistor Power Rating

 The larger the power rating, the greater the physical size of the resistor to
dissipate the heat.
 All resistors have a maximum power rating and if exceeded will result in the
resistor overheating and becoming damaged.
 Standard resistor power rating sizes are 1/8 W, 1/4 W, 1/2 W, 1 W, and 2 W.
 Low ohmic value power resistors are generally used for current sensing or
power supply applications.
 The power rating of resistors can be calculated using the formula:


 In AC Circuits the voltage and current flowing in a pure resistor are always “in-
phase” producing 0o phase shift.
 When used in AC Circuits the AC impedance of a resistor is equal to its DC
Resistance.
 The AC circuit impedance for resistors is given the symbol Z.
Home / Resistors / Varistor Tutorial

Varistor Tutorial
The Varistor is a passive two-terminal solid state semiconductor device that is used to
provide protection to electrical and electronic circuits

Unlike the fuse or circuit breaker which offers over-current protection, the
varistor provides over-voltage protection by means of voltage-clamping in a
similar way to the zener diode.
The word “Varistor” is a combination of the words VARI-able resi-STOR used
to describe their mode of operation way back in their early days of
development which is a little misleading since a varistor can not be manually
varied like a potentiometer or rheostat.
 A Varistor
But unlike a variable resistor whose resistance value can be manually varied
between its minimum and maximum values, the varistor changes its
resistance value automatically with the change in voltage across it making it a
voltage-dependant, non-linear resistor or VDR for short.
Nowadays the resistive body of a varistor is made from semiconductor
material making it a type of semiconductor resistor with a non-ohmic
symmetrical voltage and current characteristics suitable for both AC and DC
voltage applications.
In many ways the varistor looks similar in size and design to a capacitor and is
often confused as being one. However, a capacitor cannot suppress voltage
surges in the same way a varistor can. When a high voltage surge is applied
to a circuit, the outcome is usually catastrophic to the circuit, therefore the
varistor plays an important role in the protection of delicate electronic circuits
from switching spikes and over voltage transients.
Transient surges originate from a variety of electrical circuits and sources
regardless of whether they operate from an AC or DC supply as they are often
generated within the circuit itself or transmitted into the circuit from external
sources. Transients within a circuit can rise rapidly increasing the voltage to
several thousand volts, and it is these voltage spikes which must be
prevented from appearing across delicate electronic circuits and components.
One of the most common sources of voltage transients is the L(di/dt) effect
caused by the switching of inductive coils and transformer magnetizing
currents, DC motor switching applications and surges from the switching-on of
fluorescent lighting circuits or other supply surges.

AC Waveform Transients
Varistors are connected in circuits across a mains supply either phase-to-
neutral, phase-to-phase for AC operation, or positive-to-negative for DC
operation and have a voltage rating to suit their application. A varistor can
also be used for DC voltage stabilization and especially for electronic circuit
protection against over voltage pulses.

Varistor Static Resistance

Under normal operation the varistor has a very high resistance, hence part of
its name, operating in a similar way to the zener diode by allowing lower
threshold voltages to pass unaffected.
However, when the voltage across the varistor (either polarity) exceeds the
varistors rated value, its effective resistance decreases strongly with an
increasing voltage as shown.
We know from Ohm’s Law that the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of a
fixed resistor is a straight line provided that R is kept constant. Then the
current is directly proportional to the potential difference across the ends of
the resistor.
But the I-V curves of a varistor is not a straight line as a small change of
voltage causes a significant change of current. A typical normalised voltage
versus current characteristics curve for a standard varistor is given below.

Varistor Characteristics Curve

We can see from above, that the varistor has symmetrical bi-directional
characteristics, that is the varistor operates in both directions (quadrant Ι and
ΙΙΙ) of a sinusoidal waveform behaving in a similar way to two zener diodes
connected back-to-back. When not conducting, the I-V curve shows a linear
relationship as the current flowing through the varistor remains constant and
low at only a few micro-amperes of “leakage” current. This is due to its high
resistance acting as an open circuit and remains constant until the voltage
across the varistor (either polarity) reaches a particular “rated voltage”.
This rated or clamping voltage is the voltage across the varistor measured
with the specified DC current of 1mA. That is, the DC voltage level applied
across its terminals that allows a current of 1mA to flow through the varistors
resistive body which itself is dependant upon the materials used in its
construction. At this voltage level, the varistor begins to change from its
insulating state into its conducting state.
When the transient voltage across the varistor is equal to or greater than the
rated value, the resistance of the device suddenly becomes very small turning
the varistor into a conductor due to the avalanche effect of its semiconductor
material. The small leakage current flowing through the varistor rapidly rises
but the voltage across it is limited to a level just above the varistor voltage.
In other words, the varistor self-regulates the transient voltage across it by
allowing more current to flow through it and because of its steep non-linear I-V
curve it can pass widely varying currents over a narrow voltage range
clipping-off any voltage spikes.

Varistor Capacitance Values

Since the main conducting region of a varistor between its two terminals
behaves like a dielectric, below its clamping voltage the varistor acts like a
capacitor rather than resistor. Every semiconductor varistor has a capacitance
value that depends directly on its area and varies inversely with its thickness.
When used in DC circuits, the capacitance of the varistor remains more or
less constant provided that the applied voltage does not increase above the
clamping voltage level, and drops off abruptly near towards its maximum rated
continuous DC voltage.
However, in AC circuits, this capacitance can affect the body resistance of the
device in the non-conducting leakage region of its I-V characteristics. As they
are normally connected in parallel with an electric device to protect it against
over voltages, the varistors leakage resistance drops rapidly with an increase
in frequency.
This relationship is approximately linear with the frequency and the resulting
parallel resistance, its AC reactance, Xc can be calculated using the
usual 1/(2πƒC) as for a normal capacitor. Then as the frequency increases so
to does its leakage current.
But as well as the silicon semiconductor based varistor, metal oxide varistors
have been developed to overcome some of the limitations associated with
their silicon carbide cousins.

Metal Oxide Varistor

The Metal Oxide Varistor or MOV for short, is a voltage dependant resistor in
which the resistance material is a metallic oxide, primarily zinc oxide (ZnO)
pressed into a ceramic like material. Metal oxide varistors consist of
approximately 90% zinc oxide as a ceramic base material plus other filler
materials for the formation of junctions between the zinc oxide grains.
Metal oxide varistors are now the most common type of voltage clamping
device and are available for use at a wide range of voltages and currents. The
use of a metallic oxide within their construction means that MOV’s are
extremely effective in absorbing short term voltage transients and have higher
energy handling capabilities.
As with the normal varistor, the metal oxide varistor starts conduction at a
specific voltage and stops conduction when the voltage falls below a threshold
voltage. The main differences between a standard silicon carbide (SiC)
varistor and a MOV type varistor is that the leakage current through the
MOV’s zinc oxide material is very small current at normal operating conditions
and its speed of operation in clamping transients is much faster.
MOV’s generally have radial leads and a hard outer blue or black epoxy
coating which closely resembles disc ceramic capacitors and can be
physically mounted on circuit boards and PCB’s in a similar manner. The
construction of a typical metal oxide varistor is given as:

Metal Oxide Varistor Construction

To select the correct MOV for a particular application, it is desirable to have

some knowledge of the source impedance and the possible pulse power of
the transients. For incoming line or phase borne transients, the selection of
the correct MOV is a little more difficult as generally the characteristics of the
power supply are unknown. In general, MOV selection for the electrical
protection of circuits from power supply transients and spikes is often little
more than an educated guess.
However, metal oxide varistors are available in a wide range of varistor
voltages, from about 10 volts to over 1,000 volts AC or DC, so selection can
be helped by knowing the supply voltage. For example, selecting a MOV or
silicon varistor for that matter, for voltage, its maximum continuous rms
voltage rating should be just above the highest expected supply voltage, say
130 volts rms for a 120 volt supply, and 260 volts rms for a 230 volt supply.
The maximum surge current value that a varistor will take depends on the
transient pulse width and the number of pulse repetitions. Assumptions can be
made upon the the width of a transient pulse which are typically 20 to 50
microseconds (μs) long. If the peak pulse current rating is insufficient, then the
varistor may overheat and become damaged. So for a varistor to operate
without any failure or degradation, it must be able to quickly dissipate the
absorbed energy of the transient pulse and return safely to its pre-pulse
condition.

Varistor Applications
Varistors have many advantages and can be used in many different types of
applications for the suppression of mains borne transients from domestic
appliances and lighting to industrial equipment on both AC or DC power lines.
Varistors can be connected directly across mains supplies and across
semiconductor switches for protection of transistors, MOSFET’s and thyristor
bridges.

Varistor Applications

Varistor Summary
In this tutorial we have seen that the basic function of a Voltage Dependant
Resistor, or VDR, is to protect electronic devices and electrical circuits
against voltage surges and spikes, such as those generated by inductive
switching transients.
As such varistors are used in sensitive electronic circuits to ensure that if the
voltage does suddenly exceeds a predetermined value, the varistor will
effectively become a short circuit to protect the circuit that it shunts from
excessive voltage as they are able to withstand peak currents of hundreds of
amperes.
Varistors are a type of resistor with a non-linear, non-ohmic current voltage
characteristic and are a reliable and economical means of providing protection
against over voltage transients and surges.
They achieve this by acting as a high resistance blocking device at lower
voltages and as a good low resistance conducting device at higher voltages.
The effectiveness of a varistor in protecting an electrical or electronic circuit
depends on the proper selection of the varistor with regards to voltage, current
and energy dissipation.
Metal Oxide Varistors, or MOV’s are typically made from a small disk-shaped
metal zinc oxide material. They are available in many values for specific
voltage ranges. An MOV’s voltage rating, called the “varistor voltage” is the
voltage across a varistor when a current of 1mA is passed through the device.
This varistor voltage level is essentially the point on the I-V characteristic
curve when the device starts to conduct. Metal oxide varistors can also be
connected in series to increase the clamping voltage rating.
While metal oxide varistors are widely used in many AC power electronics
circuits to protect against transient over voltages, there are also other types of
solid state voltage suppression devices such as diodes, zener diodes and
suppressors which all can be used in some AC or DC voltage suppression
applications along with Varistors.
Home / Resistors / Resistor Colour Code Wheel

Resistor Colour Code Wheel

The resistive value and tolerance of resistors can be indicated on the body of the
resistive component using colour coded rings or bands

Resistor colour codes can sometimes be a little confusing until you

understand how they work. But once you get the hang of them it becomes
easier to read the values of those simple colour coded bands.
There is a lot of information both online and on this Electronics Tutorials
website too, to help you read and understand how resistor colour codes work
and this free, simple to use and practical resistor colour code wheel will
hopefully help you on your way.
Generally, resistors are too small in size for manufacturers to print numbers
and letters on them to indicate their resistive value and tolerance. Luckily for
us, some bright spark somewhere invented a resistor colour coding system to
make our lives easier and help us to work it out with our free resistor colour
code wheel. Fixed resistors have different coloured rings or bands around
them to indicate their resistive value with each coloured band having a
decimal value associated with it.
 Our Resistor Colour Code Wheel
There are many clear advantages to using a colour coding system on
electrical and electronic components. The main advantage of using coloured
rings or bands around a resistors body, is that they can be very easily seen
and read no matter what the position or orientation of the resistor on a board.
These coloured bands can also be read even if the resistors body is a little
dirty or badly burnt.
We saw in our Ohm’s Law tutorial that resistors are used to limit the amount of
current flowing in a circuit so it is important to know their resistive value and
depending upon the type, size and tolerance of the resistor, there can be
three, four or five coloured bands used to do this.
Although these coloured bands represent nominal or ideal values, they are a
good approximation of the actual resistance value. This is because the actual
resistive value can have a percentage variation of resistance either side of the
nominal value. This variation is called the “tolerance”.
All fixed resistors have a tolerance ranging from less than a tenth of a percent,
(0.1%) up to 20% for large carbon types. So a tolerance of 5, 10 and 20
percent, means that the actual value of the resistor can vary from the
expected nominal value by as much as ±5, ±10, and ±20%. For example, a
100Ω resistor with a tolerance of ±10% can have a value from 90Ω (-10%) to
110Ω; (+10%). That’s a variation of 20Ω and still be in tolerance.
Resistors with just three coloured bands generally have no (none) tolerance
band as they have a fixed tolerance of ±20%. The first two coloured bands are
the digit or number bands and the third is known as the multiplier. When there
are four bands, the first two coloured bands are the digit bands, the third is the
“multiplier”, with the fourth band being the “tolerance” value. On resistors with
five coloured bands, the first three colours are always digit bands followed by
the multiplier and tolerance bands.
Step 1 – Download and Print
Using our simple and free resistor colour code wheel we can now make sense
of all these different coloured bands and what they mean. But first things first.
We need to download and print out the Resistor Colour Code
Wheel template using the download button below. Its completely free!

Please click the button to download the related PDF file.

Note that this is a PDF (Acrobat) Document File. Please make sure that you
have an application to open this file type before downloading the resistor
colour code wheel template.
After you have download and printed out the resistor colour code wheel
template, you should have an A4 sized paper (or whatever size you want to
print out) colour wheel template looking like this:

The Resistor Colour Wheel Template

Note that you can print this resistor colour code wheel template onto any size
or density (weight) of paper that you want. It all depends upon your printer and
what you have. The standard A4 sized printer or office copier paper has a
paper density or weight of 80 g/m2. This standard printer paper is fine and can
be used to make the resistor colour wheel.
However, being thin printing paper it can easily be torn or damaged with use,
so a paper density of 150g/m2 or more such as thin card would be a better
choice and more durable. It would also be possible to laminate the template
sheet after printing to both strengthen and prolong its life, the choice is yours.
Anyway once you have the resistor colour code wheel template downloaded
to your hard drive, you can print it out as many times as you want.

Step 2 – Cut Out the Discs

Having printed out our resistor colour code wheel template from the link above
on to suitable paper, we now need to carefully cut out the five coloured discs
as shown using scissors or a sharp knife.

Once we have our five coloured discs cut out we can now start to assemble
them together to form the finished colour wheel design.
Step 3 – Assemble the Discs

In order to assemble our five individual coloured discs together to create the
finished resistor colour code wheel, we need to use a brass paper fastener
like the ones shown or something similar that you may have easily available.
Carefully poke or make a hole through the center of each wheel using a pin,
needle, compass point, knife or any other sharp object you have, being careful
not to cut yourself in the process. The hole you make needs to be the same
diameter as the brass paper fasteners. Make sure that the hole you make is
big enough to both insert and rotate the paper fastener, or whatever you
decide to use. In my case the hole was about 4mm (5/32″) in diameter.
Insert the paper fastener through each hole in turn, starting with the smallest
disc and working upwards making sure that each disc is free to rotate as you
assemble. Once complete bend the fasteners tabs over at the back of the
larger disc. You should now have an assembled resistor colour code wheel
that looks something like this.

Assembled Resistor Colour Code Wheel

 Step 4 – Using the Colour Wheel
Now that we have assembled our resistor colour code wheel its time to start
using it. In the following examples we are going to use it to find the values of a
4-band and a 5-band resistor. But first we will define what each coloured disc
is in relationship to the meaning of the coloured bands on a resistors body.
 Disc One (1st Digit) – This is for the first coloured band closest to the end of the
resistor on the left hand side and represents the first digit of the resistors value.
 Disc Two (2nd Digit) – This is for the second coloured band along representing
the second digit of the resistors value.
 Disc Three (3rd Digit) – This is used for metal film resistors which use a five and
six-band colour code for more precise values. In this case the first three
coloured bands indicate the first three numerical digits. For a three or four band
colour coded resistor this 3rd digit can be ignored.
 Disc Four (the multiplier) – The next coloured band is the mathematical
multiplier which represents the number of zeros to be added to the first two (or
three) digits. If the third colour, for a 4-band resistor or the fourth colour, for a 5-
band resistor, is either gold or silver, this represents a fractional decimal
multiplier as the resistive value is less than 10Ω. If the coloured band is Gold,
 multiply the first two or three digits by 0.1 (divide-by 10) and if the coloured
band is Silver multiply by 0.01 (divide-by 100).
 Disc Five (the tolerance) – The final coloured band represents the tolerance of
the resistor. A Gold band indicates a tolerance of ±5% while a Silver band
indicates a tolerance of ±10%. If there is no coloured band as in a three band
resistor, then the tolerance is ±20%.
Note that a resistor can have 3, 4 or 5 coloured bands to indicate its resistive
value. The coloured bands that are grouped, or closer together on one side of
the resistors body indicate the resistive value of the resistor and you should
start here reading from left to right. A single coloured band separate from the
group and on its own will be the tolerance value.
In this first example, we are going to use the resistor colour code wheel we
have just made to find the resistive value of the following 4-band resistor
which is used for most resistors.

4-band Resistor Colour Code

The coloured bands are shown

as: YELLOW , VIOLET, ORANGE and GOLD. Then the resistance using the
colour wheel is found as:
As this is a 4-band resistor and the resistor colour code wheel can be used to
find the resistive values of 5-band resistors, then the 3rd digit wheel is not
used in this case. Then the colour code wheel shows:
The first colour band (Yellow) gives the first digit value of 4. The second
colour band (Violet) gives the second digit value of 7. This gives a two digit
value of 47. Multiply this by the value of the third band. In this
case, Orange which has a value of 1000 or 1k, so the resistor has a resistive
value of 47,000 ohms (47 × 1000 = 47000) or 47kΩ. The last band gives the
resistors tolerance value and Gold equals a tolerance range of ±5%.
Then using the resistor colour wheel, the resistor has the following resistance:
Yellow Violet Orange = 4 7 3 = 4 7 x 103 = 47000Ω or 47kΩ ±5%.

In this second example, we will use it to find the value of the following 5-band
resistor. Five band colour codes are used to provide more precise values in
precision metal-film resistors with lower tolerances.

5-band Resistor Colour Code

The coloured bands are shown
as: BLUE, RED, BLACK, BROWN and BROWN. Then the resistance using
the colour wheel is found as:

As this is a 5-band resistor, all the discs of the resistor colour code wheel can
be used to find the resistive value. Then the colour code wheel shows:
The first colour band (Blue) gives the first digit value of 6. The second colour
band (Red) gives the second digit value of 2. The third colour band (Black)
gives the third digit value of 0. This gives a three digit value of 620. We now
multiply this by the value of the fourth band, Brown which has a value of 10.
So the resistor has a resistive value of 6200 ohms (620 × 10 = 6200) or 6k2Ω.
The last band gives the resistors tolerance value and Brownequals a
tolerance range of ±1%.
Then using the resistor colour wheel, the resistor has the following resistance:
Blue Red Black Brown = 6 2 0 0 = 6 2 0 x 10 = 6200Ω or 6k2Ω ±1%.
So there you have it, a fun little project to do at home for use at school or the
science lab, just download, print and cut out to give you a very useful
reference tool for finding the resistive values of 4 or 5-band resistors using this
free and simple Resistor Colour Code Wheel.
This resistor colour code wheel is simple to use, just position the colours of
the discs and read off the number its that easy and simple, and for checking
the value of more resistors, just rotate the coloured discs and you will get
another colour scheme. But remember, if you are still unsure of a resistors
value, you can always find its resistance using a multimeter or check out
our Resistor Colour Codes tutorial.

You can still download the related PDF file here:

Have fun making it, using it and sharing it, and let me know what you think.
Enjoy
Home / Resistors / Potentiometers

Potentiometers
Potentiometers and Rheostats create a change in their resistive value when a
connected shaft is physically rotated

Resistors provide a fixed value of resistance that blocks or resists the flow of
electrical current around a circuit, as well as producing a voltage drop in
accordance with Ohm’s law. Resistors can be manufactured to have either a
fixed resistive value in Ohms or a variable resistive value adjusted by some
external means.
The potentiometer, commonly referred to as a “pot”, is a three-terminal
mechanically operated rotary analogue device which can be found and used
in a large variety of electrical and electronic circuits. They are passive
devices, meaning they do not require a power supply or additional circuitry in
order to perform their basic linear or rotary position function.
Variable potentiometers are available in a variety of different mechanical
variations allowing for easy adjustment to control a voltage, current, or the
biasing and gain control of a circuit to obtain a zero condition.
The name “potentiometer” is a combination of the words Potential
Difference and Metering, which came from the early days of electronics
development. It was thought then that adjusting large wirewound resistive
coils metered or measured out a set amount of potential difference making it a
type of voltage-metering device.

Today, potentiometers are much smaller and much more accurate than those
early large and bulky variable resistances, and as with most electronic
components, there are many different types and names ranging from variable
resistor, preset, trimmer, rheostat and of course variable potentiometer.
But whatever their name, these devices all function in exactly the same way in
that their output resistance value can be changed or varied by the movement
of a mechanical contact or wiper given by some external action.
Variable resistors in whatever format, are generally associated with some
form of control, whether that is adjusting the volume of a radio, the speed of a
vehicle, the frequency of an oscillator or accurately setting the calibration of a
circuit, single-turn and multiple-turn potentiometers, trim-pots and rheostats
find many uses in everyday electrical items.
The term potentiometer and variable resistor are often used together to
describe the same component, but it is important to understand that the
connections and operation of the two are different. However, both share the
same physical properties in that the two ends of an internal resistive track are
brought out to contacts, in addition to a third contact connected to a moveable
contact called the “slider” or “wiper”.

Potentiometer
When used as a potentiometer, connections are made to both ends as well as
the wiper, as shown. The position of the wiper then provides an appropriate
output signal (pin 2) which will vary between the voltage level applied to one
end of the resistive track (pin 1) and that at the other (pin 3).
The potentiometer is a three-wire resistive device that acts as a voltage
divider producing a continuously variable voltage output signal which is
proportional to the physical position of the wiper along the track.

Variable Resistor

When used as a variable resistor, connections are made to only one end of
the resistive track (either pin 1 or pin 3) and the wiper (pin 2) as shown. The
position of the wiper is used to vary or change the amount of effective
resistance connected between itself, the movable contact, and the stationary
fixed end.
Sometimes it is appropriate to make an electrical connection between the
unused end of the resistive track and the wiper to prevent open-circuit
conditions.
Then a variable resistor is a two-wire resistive device that provides an infinite
number of resistance values controlling the current offered to the connected
circuit in proportion to the physical position of the wiper along the track. Note
that a variable resistor used to control very high circuit currents found in lamp
or motor loads are called Rheostats.

Potentiometer Types
Variable potentiometers are an analogue device consisting of two main
mechanical parts. 1. A fixed or stationary resistive element, track or wire coil
that defines its resistive value, such as 1kΩ, 10kΩ, etc, and 2. a mechanical
part that allows a wiper or contact to move along the whole length of the
resistive track changing its resistive value as it moves. There are many
different ways to move the wiper across the resistive track either mechanically
of electrically.
But as well as the resistive track and wiper, potentiometers also comprise of a
housing, a shaft, slider block, and a bush or bearing. The movement of the
sliding wiper or contact can itself be a rotatory (angular) action or a linear
(straight) action. There are four basic groups of variable potentiometer.

Rotary Potentiometer

Rotary potentiometer (the most common type) vary their resistive value as a
result of an angular movement. Rotating a knob or dial attached to the shaft
causes the internal wiper to sweep around a curved resistive element. The
most common use of a rotary potentiometer is the volume-control pot.
Carbon rotary potentiometers are designed to be mounted onto the front panel
of a case, enclosure or printed circuit board (PCB) using a ring nut and locking
washer. They can also have one single resistive track or multiple tracks,
known as a ganged potentiometer that all rotate together using one single
shaft. For example, a dual-gang pot to adjust the left and right volume control
of a radio or stereo amplifier at the same time. Some rotary pots include on-off
switches.
Rotary potentiometers can produce a linear or logarithmic output with
tolerances of typically 10 to 20 percent. As they are mechanically controlled,
they can be used to the measure the rotation of a shaft, but a single-turn
rotary potentiometer normally offers less than 300 degrees of angular
movement from minimum to maximum resistance. However, multi-turn
potentiometers, called trimmers, are available that allow for a higher degree of
rotational accuracy.
Multi-turn potentiometers allow for a shaft rotation of more than 360 degrees
of mechanical travel from one end of the resistive track to the other. Multi-turn
pots are more expensive, but very stable with high precision used mainly for
trimming and precision adjustments. The two most common multi-turn
potentiometers are the 3-turn (1080o) and 10-turn (3600o), but 5-turn, 20-turn
and higher 25-turn pots are available in a variety of ohmic values.
Slider Potentiometer

Slider potentiometers, or slide-pots, are designed to change the value of their

contact resistance by means of a linear motion and as such there is a linear
relationship between the position of the slider contact and the output
resistance.
Slide potentiometers are mainly used in a large range of professional audio
equipment such as studio mixers, faders, graphic equalizers and audio tone
control consoles allowing the users to see from the position of the plastic
square knob or finger-grip the actual setting of the slide.
One of the main disadvantages of a slider potentiometer is that they have a
long open slot to allow the wiper lug to move freely up and down along the full
length of the resistive track. This open slot makes the resistive track inside
susceptible to contamination from dust and dirt, or by sweat and grease from
the users hands. Slotted felt covers and screens can be used to minimise the
effects of resistive track contamination.
As the potentiometer is one of the simplest ways of converting a mechanical
positional into a proportional voltage, they can also be used as resistive
position sensors, also known as a linear displacement sensor. Sliding carbon
track potentiometers measure a precise linear (straight) motion with the
sensor part of a linear sensor being the resistive element attached to a sliding
contact. This contact is in turn attached via a rod or shaft to the mechanical
mechanism to be measured. Then the position of the slide changes with
respect to the quantity being sensed (the measurand) which in turn changes
the resistive value of the sensor.

Presets and Trimmer’s

Preset or trimmer potentiometers are small “set-and-forget” type
potentiometers that allow for very fine or occasional adjustments to be easily
made to a circuit, (e.g. for calibration). Single-turn rotary preset
potentiometers are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor
designed to be mounting directly on a printed circuit board and are adjusted
by means of a small bladed screwdriver or similar plastic tool.
Generally, these linear carbon track preset pots are of an open skeleton
design or of a closed square shape that once the circuit is adjusted and
factory set, are then left at this setting, being only adjusted again if some
changes occur to the circuit settings.
Being of an open construction, skeleton preset’s are prone to mechanical and
electrical degradation affecting the performance and accuracy so are
therefore not suitable for continuous use, and as such, preset pots are only
mechanically rated for a few hundred operations. However, their low cost,
small size and simplicity makes them popular in non-critical circuit
applications.
Presets can be adjust from its minimum to maximum value within a single
turn, but for some circuits or equipment this small range of adjustment may be
too coarse to allow for very sensitive adjustments. Multi-turn variable resistors
however, operate by moving the wiper arm using a small screwdriver some
number of turns, ranging from 3 turns to 20 turns enabling very fine
adjustments.
Trimmer potentiometers or “trim pots” are multi-turn rectangular devices with
linear tracks that are designed to be installed and soldered directly onto a
circuit board either through-hole or as surface-mount. This gives the trimmer
both electrical connections and mechanical mounting and encasing the track
within a plastic housing avoids the problems of dust and dirt during use
associated with skeleton presets.

Rheostats
Rheostats are the big boys of the potentiometer world. They are two
connection variable resistors configured to provide any resistive value within
their ohmic range to control the flow of current through them.
While in theory, any variable potentiometer can be configured to operate as a
rheostat, generally rheostats are large high wattage, wire-wound variable
resistors, used in high current applications as the main advantage of the
rheostat is their higher power rating.
When a variable resistor is used as a two-terminal rheostat, only the portion of
the total resistive element that is in between the end terminal and the movable
contact will be dissipating power. Also, unlike the potentiometer configured as
a voltage divider, all the current flowing through the rheostats resistive
element also passes through the wiper circuit. Then the contact pressure of
the wiper on this conductive element must be capable of carrying the same
current.
Potentiometers are available in various technologies such as: carbon film,
conductive plastic, cermet, wirewound, etc. The rating or “resistive” value of a
potentiometer or variable resistor relates to the resistive value of the entire
stationary resistance track from one fixed terminal to the other. So a
potentiometer with a rating of 1kΩ will have a resistive track equal to the value
of a 1kΩ fixed resistor.
In its simplest form, the electrical operation of a potentiometer can be
considered the same as for two resistors in series with the sliding contact
varying the values of these two resistors allowing it to be used as a voltage
divider.
In our tutorial about Resistors in Series, we saw that the same current flows
through the series circuit, since there is only one path for the current to follow,
and that we can apply Ohm’s Law to find the voltage drops across each
resistor in the series chain. Then a series resistive circuit acts as a voltage
divider network as shown.
Voltage Divider Series Circuit

In this example above, the two resistors are connected together in series
across the supply. As they are in series, the equivalent or total resistance,
RT is therefore equal to the sum of the two individual resistors, that is: R1 + R2.
Also being a series network, the same current flows through each resistor as it
has nowhere else to go. However, the voltage drop given across each resistor
will be different due to the different ohmic values of the resistors. These
voltage drops can be calculated using Ohm’s Law with their sum equal to the
supply voltage across the series chain. So here in this example,
VIN = VR1 + VR2.

Potentiometer Example No1

A resistor of 250 ohms is connected in series with a second resistor of 750
ohms so that the 250 ohm resistor is connected to a supply of 12 volts and the
750 ohm resistor is connected to ground (0v). Calculate the total series
resistance, the current flowing through the series circuit and the voltage drop
across the 750 ohm resistor.
In this simple voltage divider example, the voltage developed across R2 was
found to be 9 volts. But by changing the value of any one of the two resistors,
the voltage can in theory be any value between 0V and 12V. This idea of a
two resistor series circuit in which we can change the value of either resistor
to obtain a different voltage output is the basic concept behind the operation
of the potentiometer.
The difference this time with the potentiometer is that to obtain different
voltages at the output, the total resistance, RT value of the potentiometer
resistive track does not change, only the ratio of the two resistances formed
either side of the wiper as it moves.
Thus the potentiometers movable wiper provides an output which varies
between the voltage at one end of the track and that at the other, usually
between maximum and zero respectively as shown.

Potentiometer as a Voltage Divider

When the potentiometer resistance is decreased (the wiper moves
downwards) the output voltage from pin 2 decreases producing a smaller
voltage drop across R2. Likewise, when the potentiometer resistance is
increased (the wiper moves upwards) the output voltage from pin 2 increases
producing a larger voltage drop. Then the voltage at the output pin depends
upon the position of the wiper with this voltage drop value subtracted from the
supply voltage.

Potentiometer Example No2

A 270o single-turn 1.5kΩ carbon track rotary potentiometer is required to
provide a 6 volt supply from a 9 volt battery. Calculate, 1. the angular position
of the wiper on the track in degrees and, 2. the values of the resistances
either side of the wiper.
1. Angular position of pots wiper:

Then the wipers angular position is 180o or 2/3rds rotation.

2. Potentiometer Resistance Values:

Then the resistive values either side of the wiper are R1 = 500Ω and
R2 = 1000Ω. We can also confirm that these values are correct by using the
voltage divider formula from above:
Then we can see that when used as a variable voltage divider, the output
voltage will be some percentage value of the input voltage with the amount of
output voltage being proportional to the physical position of the movable wiper
with respect to one end terminal. So for example, if the resistance from one
end terminal to the wiper is 30% of the total, then the output voltage at the
wiper pin across that section will be 30% of the voltage across the
potentiometer, and this condition will always be true for linear potentiometers.

Loading the Wiper

In the simple voltage divider example above, we have calculated the values
for R1 and R2as 500Ω and 1000Ω respectively, to produce a voltage at the
wiper terminal (pin 2) of 6 volts with a wiper angular position of 180o. We have
assumed here that the potentiometer is unloaded and producing a linear
straight line output, so VOUT = θVIN.
However, if we were to load the wiper terminal by connecting a resistive load,
RL, the output voltage would no longer be 6 volts as the load resistor, RL is
effectively in parallel with R2, the lower 1000Ω part, and thus affects the total
resistive value of the load part of the voltage divider network.
Consider what would happen if we connected a 3kΩ load resistance to the
wipers output terminals.

Loaded Potentiometer Wiper

So we can see that by connecting a load across the terminals of the
potentiometers output, the voltage has decreased in this example, from the
required 6 volts to just 5.4 volts as the loading effect of the 3kΩ resistor gives
a parallel equivalent resistance, RP of 750Ω instead of the original 1kΩ.
Obviously, the higher or lower the resistance of the connected load the
greater or lesser the loading effect on the wiper. So a load resistance in the
mega-ohms range would have very little effect compared to one that was just
a few ohms in value. Thus, to return the output voltage back to the original 6
volts would require a small adjustment of the potentiometer wiper position
(18o in this case) as now RT is equal to 1250Ω (500 + 750).

The Rheostat
Thus far we have seen that a variable resistor can be configured to operate as
a voltage divider circuit which is given the name of potentiometer. But we can
also configure a variable resistor to regulate a current, and this type of
configuration is commonly known as a Rheostat.
Rheostats are two-terminal variable resistors which are configured to use one
end terminal and the wiper terminal only. The unused end terminal can be
either left unconnected or connected directly to the wiper. They are wirewound
devices which contain tight coils of heavy duty enamelled wire that changes
resistance in step-like increments. By changing the position of the wiper on
the resistive element, the amount of resistance can be increased or
decreased thereby controlling the amount of current.
Then the rheostat is used to control a current by changing the value of its
resistance making it a true variable resistor. The classic example of the use of
a rheostat is in the speed control of a model train set or Scalextric were the
amount of current that passes through the rheostat is governed by Ohm’s
Law. Then rheostats are defined not only by their resistive values but also by
their power handling capabilities as P = I2*R.

Rheostat as a Current Regulator

In the diagram above, the effective resistance of the rheostat is between end
terminal pin 3 and the wiper at pin 2. If pin 1 is left unconnected, the
resistance of the track between pin 1 and pin 2 is open-circuited and has no
effect on the value of the load current. Conversely, if pin 1 and pin 2 are
connected together, then that part of the resistive track is short-circuited, and
again has no effect on the value of the load current.
As rheostats control a current, then by definition they should be suitably rated
to handle that continuous load current. It is possible to configure a three-
terminal potentiometer as a two-terminal rheostat, but the carbon based
resistive track may not be able to pass the load current. Also the wiper contact
of a potentiometer is normally the weakest point so its best to draw as little
current through the wiper as possible.
Note however that the rheostat is not suitable for controlling a load current if
the load resistance, RL is much higher than the full value of the rheostat
resistance. That is RL >> RRHEO. The resistive value of the load resistance must
be much lower than that of the rheostat to allow load current to flow.
Generally rheostats are high-wattage electro-mechanical variable resistors
used for power applications and whose resistance element is usually made of
thick resistance wire suitable to carry the maximum current, I when its
resistance, R is minimum.
Wirewound rheostats are mainly used in power control applications such as in
lamp, heater or motor control circuits to regulate the field currents for speed
control or the starting current of DC motors, etc. There are many types of
rheostat but the most common are the rotary toroidal types which use an open
construction for cooling, but enclosed types are also available.

Slider Rheostat

Tubular slider rheostats are also available which can be found in physics labs
and laboratories in schools and colleges. These linear or slide types use
resistive wire wound around an insulating tubular former or cylinder. The
sliding contact (pin 2) mounted above, is manually adjusted left or right to
increase or decrease the rheostats effective resistance as shown.
As with rotary potentiometers, multi-gang type slider rheostats are also
available. In some types, fixed electrical connections are made to the resistive
wire to give a fixed value of resistance between any two terminals. Such
intermediate connections are generally known as “tappings”, the same name
as those used on transformers.

Linear or Logarithmic Potentiometers

The most popular type of variable resistor and potentiometer is the linear type,
or linear taper, whose resistive value at pin 2 varies linearly when adjusted
producing a characteristics curve that represents a straight line. That is the
resistive track has the same change of resistance per angle of rotation along
the whole length of the track.
So if the wiper is rotated 20% of its total travel, then its resistance is 20% of
maximum, or minimum. This is mainly because their resistive track element is
made from carbon composites, ceramic-metal alloys or conductive plastics
type materials which have a linear characteristic across their whole length.
But the resistance element of a potentiometer may not always produce a
straight line characteristic or have a linear change in resistance across its
whole range of travel as the wiper is adjusted, but instead can produce what is
called a logarithmic change in resistance.
Logarithmic potentiometers are basically very popular non-linear or non-
proportional types of potentiometers whose resistance that varies
logarithmically. Logarithmic or “log” potentiometers are commonly used as
volume and gain controls in audio applications where the attenuation changes
as a logarithmic ratio in decibels. This is because the sensitivity to sound
levels of human ear has a logarithmic response and is therefore non-linear.
If we where to use a linear potentiometer to control the volume, it would give
the impression to the ear that most of the volume adjustment was restricted to
one end of the pots track. The logarithmic potentiometer however, gives the
impression of a more even and balanced volume adjustment across the full
rotation of the volume control.
So the operation of a logarithmic potentiometers when adjusted is to produce
an output signal which closely matches the nonlinear sensitivity of the human
ear making the volume level sound as though it is increasing linearly.
However, some cheaper logarithmic potentiometers are more exponential in
resistance changes rather than logarithmic but are still called logarithmic
because their resistive response is linear on a log scale. As well as
logarithmic potentiometers, there are also anti-logarithmic potentiometers in
which their resistance quickly increases initially but then levels off.
The all potentiometers and rheostats are available in a choice of different
resistive tracks or patterns, known as laws, being either linear, logarithmic, or
anti-logarithmic. These terms are more commonly abbreviated to lin, log,
and anti-log, respectively.
The best way to determine the type, or law of a particular potentiometer is to
set the pots shaft to the center of its travel, that is about half way, and then
measure the resistance across each half from wiper to end terminal. If each
half has more or less equal resistance, then it’s a Linear Potentiometer. If the
resistance appears to be split at about 90% one way and 10% the other then
chances are it’s a Logarithmic Potentiometer.

Potentiometer Summary
In this tutorial about potentiometers, we have seen that a potentiometer or
variable resistor basically consists of a resistive track with a connection at
either end and a third terminal called the wiper with the position of the wiper
dividing the resistive track. The position of the wiper on the track is adjusted
mechanically by rotating a shaft or by using a screwdriver.
Variable resistors can be categorised into one of two operational modes – the
variable voltage divider or the variable current rheostat. The potentiometer is a
three terminal device used for voltage control, while the rheostat is a two
terminal device used for current control.
We can summarise this in the following table:

Type Potentiometer Rheostat

Number of
Three Terminals Two Terminals
Connections

Number of Turns Single and Multi-turn Single-turn Only

Connection Type Connected Parallel with a Voltage Source Connected in Series with the Load

Quantity Controlled Controls Voltage Controls Current

Type of Taper Law Linear and Logarithmic Linear Only

Then the potentiometer, trimmer and rheostat are electromechanical devices

designed so that their resistance values can be easily changed. They can be
designed as single-turn pots, presets, slider pots, or as multi-turn trimmers.
Wirewound rheostats are mainly used to control an electrical current.
Potentiometers and rheostats are also available as multi-gang devices and
can be classified as having either a linear taper or a logarithmic taper.
Either way, potentiometers can provide highly precise sensing and
measurement for linear or rotary movement as their output voltage is
proportional to the wipers position. The advantages of potentiometers include
low cost, simple operation, lots of shapes, sizes and designs and can be used
in a vast array of different applications.
However as mechanical devices, their disadvantages include eventual wear-
out of the sliding contact wiper and/or track, limited current handling
capabilities (unlike Rheostats), electrical power restrictions and rotational
angles that are limited to less than 270 degrees for single turn pots.
Home / Resistors / Resistivity

Resistivity
Resistivity of materials is the resistance to the flow of an electric current with some
materials resisting the current flow more than others

Ohms Law states that when a voltage (V) source is applied between two
points in a circuit, an electrical current (I) will flow between them encouraged
by the presence of the potential difference between these two points. The
amount of electrical current which flows is restricted by the amount of
resistance (R) present. In other words, the voltage encourages the current to
flow (the movement of charge), but it is resistance that discourages it.
We always measure electrical resistance in Ohms, where Ohms is denoted by
the Greek letter Omega, Ω. So for example: 50Ω, 10kΩ or 4.7MΩ, etc.
Conductors (e.g. wires and cables) generally have very low values of
resistance (less than 0.1Ω) and thus we can neglect them as we assume in
circuit analysis calculations that wires have zero resistance. Insulators (e.g.
plastic or air) on the other hand generally have very high values of resistance
(greater than 50MΩ), therefore we can ignore them also for circuit analysis as
their value is too high.
But the electrical resistance between two points can depend on many factors
such as the conductors length, its cross-sectional area, the temperature, as
well as the actual material from which it is made. For example, let’s assume
we have a piece of wire (a conductor) that has a length L, a cross-sectional
area A and a resistance R as shown.

A Single Conductor
The electrical resistance, R of this simple conductor is a function of its length,
L and the conductors area, A. Ohms law tells us that for a given resistance R,
the current flowing through the conductor is proportional to the applied voltage
as I = V/R. Now suppose we connect two identical conductors together in a
series combination as shown.

Doubling the Length of a Conductor

Here by connecting the two conductors together in a series combination, that

is end to end, we have effectively doubled the total length of the conductor
(2L), while the cross-sectional area, A remains exactly the same as before.
But as well as doubling the length, we have also doubled the total resistance
of the conductor, giving 2R as: 1R + 1R = 2R.
Therefore we can see that the resistance of the conductor is proportional to its
length, that is: R ∝ L. In other words, we would expect the electrical resistance
of a conductor (or wire) to be proportionally greater the longer it is.
Note also that by doubling the length and therefore the resistance of the
conductor (2R), to force the same current, i to flow through the conductor as
before, we need to double (increase) the applied voltage as now I = (2V)/(2R).
Next suppose we connect the two identical conductors together in parallel
combination as shown.

Doubling the Area of a Conductor

Here by connecting the two conductors together in a parallel combination, we
have effectively doubled the total area giving 2A, while the conductors length,
L remains the same as the original single conductor. But as well as doubling
the area, by connecting the two conductors together in parallel we have
effectively halved the total resistance of the conductor, giving 1/2R as now
each half of the current flows through each conductor branch.
Thus the resistance of the conductor is inversely proportional to its area, that
is: R 1/∝ A, or R ∝ 1/A. In other words, we would expect the electrical
resistance of a conductor (or wire) to be proportionally less the greater is its
cross-sectional area.
Also by doubling the area and therefore halving the total resistance of the
conductor branch (1/2R), for the same current, i to flow through the parallel
conductor branch as before we only need half (decrease) the applied voltage
as now I = (1/2V)/(1/2R).
So hopefully we can see that the resistance of a conductor is directly
proportional to the length (L) of the conductor, that is: R ∝ L, and inversely
proportional to its area (A), R ∝ 1/A. Thus we can correctly say that resistance
is:

Proportionality of Resistance

But as well as length and conductor area, we would also expect the electrical
resistance of the conductor to depend upon the actual material from which it is
made, because different conductive materials, copper, silver, aluminium, etc
all have different physical and electrical properties. Thus we can convert the
 proportionality sign (∝) of the above equation into an equals sign simply by
adding a “proportional constant” into the above equation giving:

Electrical Resistivity Equation

Where: R is the resistance in ohms (Ω), L is the length in metres (m), A is the
area in square metres (m2), and where the proportional constant ρ (the Greek
letter “rho”) is known as Resistivity.

Electrical Resistivity
The electrical resistivity of a particular conductor material is a measure of how
strongly the material opposes the flow of electric current through it. This
resistivity factor, sometimes called its “specific electrical resistance”, enables
the resistance of different types of conductors to be compared to one another
at a specified temperature according to their physical properties without
regards to their lengths or cross-sectional areas. Thus the higher the
resistivity value of ρ the more resistance and vice versa.
For example, the resistivity of a good conductor such as copper is on the
order of 1.72 x 10-8 ohm metre (or 17.2 nΩm), whereas the resistivity of a poor
conductor (insulator) such as air can be well over 1.5 x 1014 or 150 trillion Ωm.
Materials such as copper and aluminium are known for their low levels of
resistivity thus allowing electrical current to easily flow through them making
these materials ideal for making electrical wires and cables. Silver and gold
have much low resistivity values, but for obvious reasons are more expensive
to turn into electrical wires.
Then the factors which affect the resistance (R) of a conductor in ohms can be
listed as:
 The resistivity (ρ) of the material from which the conductor is made.
 The total length (L) of the conductor.
 The cross-sectional area (A) of the conductor.
 The temperature of the conductor.

Resistivity Example No1

Calculate the total DC resistance of a 100 metre roll of 2.5mm2 copper wire if
the resistivity of copper at 20oC is 1.72 x 10-8 Ω metre.
Data given: resistivity of copper at 20oC is 1.72 x 10-8, coil length L = 100m,
the cross-sectional area of the conductor is 2.5mm2 giving an area of: A = 2.5
x 10-6 metres2.

That is 688 milli-ohms or 0.688 Ohms.

We said previously that resistivity is the electrical resistance per unit length
and per unit of conductor cross-sectional area thus showing that resistivity, ρ
has the dimensions of ohms metre, or Ωm as it is commonly written. Thus for
a particular material at a specified temperature its electrical resistivity is given
as.

Electrical Resistivity, Rho

Electrical Conductivity
While both the electrical resistance (R) and resistivity (or specific resistance)
ρ, are a function of the physical nature of the material being used, and of its
physical shape and size expressed by its length (L), and its sectional area
(A), Conductivity, or specific conductance relates to the ease at which
electric current con flow through a material.
Conductance (G) is the reciprocal of resistance (1/R) with the unit of
conductance being the siemens (S) and is given the upside down ohms
symbol mho, ℧. Thus when a conductor has a conductance of 1 siemens (1S)
it has a resistance is 1 ohm (1Ω). So if its resistance is doubled, the
conductance halves, and vice-versa as: siemens = 1/ohms, or ohms =
1/siemens.
While a conductors resistance gives the amount of opposition it offers to the
flow of electric current, the conductance of a conductor indicates the ease by
which it allows electric current to flow. So metals such as copper, aluminium
or silver have very large values of conductance meaning that they are good
conductors.
Conductivity, σ (Greek letter sigma), is the reciprocal of the resistivity. That is
1/ρ and is measured in siemens per metre (S/m). Since electrical conductivity
σ = 1/ρ, the previous expression for electrical resistance, R can be rewritten
as:

Electrical Resistance as a Function of Conductivity

Then we can say that conductivity is the efficiency by which a conductor

passes an electric current or signal without resistive loss. Therefore a material
or conductor that has a high conductivity will have a low resistivity, and vice
versa, since 1 siemens (S) equals 1Ω-1. So copper which is a good conductor
of electric current, has a conductivity of 58.14 x 106siemens per metre.

Resistivity Example No2

A 20 metre length of cable has a cross-sectional area of 1mm2 and a
resistance of 5 ohms. Calculate the conductivity of the cable.
Data given: DC resistance, R = 5 ohms, cable length, L = 20m, and the cross-
sectional area of the conductor is 1mm2 giving an area of: A = 1 x 10-6 metres2.
That is 4 mega-siemens per metre length.

Resistivity Summary
We have seen in this tutorial about resistivity, that resistivity is the property of
a material or conductor that indicates how well the material conducts electrical
current. We have also seen that the electrical resistance (R) of a conductor
depends not only on the material from which the conductor is made from,
copper, silver, aluminium, etc. but also on its physical dimensions.
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length (L) as R ∝ L.
Thus doubling its length will double its resistance, while halving its length
would halve its resistance. Also the resistance of a conductor is inversely
proportional to its cross-sectional area (A) as R ∝ 1/A. Thus doubling its
cross-sectional area would halve its resistance, while halving its cross-
sectional area would double its resistance.
We have also learnt that the resistivity (symbol: ρ) of the conductor (or
material) relates to the physical property from which it is made and varies from
material to material. For example, the resistivity of copper is generally given
as: 1.72 x 10-8 Ωm. The resistivity of a particular material is measured in units
of Ohm-Metres (Ωm) which is also affected by temperature.
Depending upon the electrical resistivity value of a particular material, it can
be classified as being either a “conductor”, an “insulator” or a “semiconductor”.
Note that semiconductors are materials where its conductivity is dependent
upon the impurities added to the material.
Resistivity is also important in power distribution systems as the effectiveness
of the earth grounding system for an electrical power and distribution system
greatly depends on the resistivity of the earth and soil material at the location
of the system ground.
Conduction is the name given to the movement of free electrons in the form of
an electric current. Conductivity, σ is the reciprocal of the resistivity. That is
1/ρ and has the unit of siemens per metre, S/m. Conductivity ranges from zero
(for a perfect insulator) to infinity (for a perfect conductor). Thus a super
conductor has infinite conductance and virtually zero ohmic resistance.