Hydraulics Notes

Hydraulics and Pneumatic systems
Mechatronics and Control

Fundamental of Fluid Power
Methods for transmitting power from one point to another point
 Mechanical Transmission
 Electrical Transmission
 Fluid Transmission – Hydraulics and Pneumatics
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112106175/Module%201/
Lecture%201.pdf
Fluid Power
Fluid power is the technology that deals with the generation, control and
transmission of forces and movement of mechanical element or system with
the use of pressurized fluids in a confined system.
Fluid power system includes a hydraulic system (hydra meaning water in Greek)
A pneumatic system (pneuma meaning air in Greek).
Oil hydraulic employs pressurized liquid petroleum oils and synthetic oils, and
pneumatic employs compressed air that is released to the atmosphere after
performing the work.
Lecture%201.pdf
Why not water ?
 Water has certain drawbacks in the transmission of hydraulic power in

machine operation and control.
 Pure water contains various chemicals (some deliberately included) and

also foreign matter, and unless special precautions are taken when it is
used, it is nearly impossible to maintain valves and working surfaces in
satisfactory condition.
 Benefits of lubrication not afforded by water as well as increased life and

efficiency of packings and valves
Lecture%201.pdf
Fluid Power Systems
1.Fluid transport systems: Their sole objective is the delivery of a fluid from
one location to another to accomplish some useful purpose. Examples
include pumping stations for pumping water to homes, cross-country gas
lines, etc.
2. Fluid power systems: These are designed to perform work. In fluid power
systems, work is obtained by pressurized fluid acting directly on a fluid
cylinder or a fluid motor. A cylinder produces a force resulting in linear
motion, whereas a fluid motor produces a torque resulting in rotary motion.
Lecture%201.pdf
Classification of Fluid Power Systems
Based on the control system
Open-loop system: There is no feedback in the open system and

performance is based on the characteristics of the individual components
of the system. The open loop system is not accurate and error can be
reduced by proper calibration and control.
Closed-loop system: This system uses feedback. The output of the system is
fed back to a comparator by a measuring element. The comparator
compares the actual output to the desired output and gives an error signal to
the control element. The error is used to change the actual output and bring
it closer to the desired value. A simple closed-loop system uses servo
valves and an advanced system uses digital electronics.
Lecture%201.pdf
Based on the type of control

Fluid logic control: This type of system is controlled by hydraulic oil or air.
The system employs fluid logic devices such as AND, NAND, OR, NOR, etc.
Two types
of fluid logic systems are available:
(a)Moving part logic (MPL): diaphragms, disks and poppets to implement
various logic gates.
(b)Fluidics: Fluid devices contain no moving parts and depend solely on
interacting fluid jets to implement various logic gates.
Electrical control: This type of system is controlled by electrical devices. Four

basic
electrical devices are used for controlling the fluid power systems: switches,
relays, timers and solenoids. These devices help to control the starting,
stopping, sequencing, speed, positioning, timing and reversing of actuating
cylinders and fluid motors. Electrical control and fluid http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112106175/Module%201/
power work well
Lecture%201.pdf
Based on the type of control
Electronic control: This type of system is controlled by microelectronic devices.

The
electronic brain is used to control the fluid power muscles for doing work. This
system uses the most advanced type of electronic hardware including
programmable logic control (PLC) or microprocessor (P). In the electrical
control, a change in system operation results in a cumbersome process of
redoing hardware connections.
The difficulty is overcome by programmable electronic control. The program
can be modified or a new program can be fed to meet the change of operations.
A number of such programs can be stored in these devices, which makes the
systems more flexible.
Lecture%201.pdf
Advantages of fluid power system
Fluid power systems are simple, easy to operate and can be controlled
accurately: Fluid power gives flexibility to equipment without requiring a
complex mechanism. Using fluid power, we can start, stop, accelerate,
decelerate, reverse or position large forces/components with great accuracy
using simple levers and push buttons. For example, in Earth-moving
equipment, bucket carrying load can be raised or lowered by an operator
using a lever. The landing gear of an aircraft can be retrieved to home
position by the push button.
Lecture%201.pdf
Multiplication and variation of forces: Linear or rotary force can be multiplied by a

fraction of a kilogram to several hundreds of tons.
Multifunction control: A single hydraulic pump or air compressor can provide power
and control for numerous machines using valve manifolds and distribution systems.
The fluid power controls can be placed at a central station so that the operator has,
at all times, a complete control of the entire production line, whether it be a multiple
operation machine or a group of machines. Such a setup is more or less standard in
the steel mill industry.
Lecture%201.pdf
Low-speed torque: Unlike electric motors, air or hydraulic motors can

produce a large amount of torque while operating at low speeds. Some
hydraulic and pneumatic motors can even maintain torque at a very slow
speed without overheating.
Constant force or torque: Fluid power systems can deliver constant torque or
force regardless of speed changes.
Lecture%201.pdf
Economical: Not only reduction in required manpower but also the production or
elimination of operator fatigue, as a production factor, is an important element in
the use of fluid power.
Low weight to power ratio: The hydraulic system has a low weight to power ratio
compared to electromechanical systems. Fluid power systems are compact.
Lecture%201.pdf
Fluid power systems can be used where safety is of vital importance: Safety is
of vital importance in air and space travel, in the production and operation of
motor vehicles, in mining and manufacture of delicate products. For example,
hydraulic systems are responsible for the safety of takeoff, landing and flight of
aeroplanes and space craft. Rapid advances in mining and tunneling are the
results of the application of modern hydraulic and pneumatic systems.
Lecture%201.pdf
Disadvantages of fluid power system
The following list of disadvantages applies to both hydraulic and
pneumatic systems, except as noted.
■ Higher safety factors associated with high-pressure oil and
compressed air.
■ Susceptibility to dirty environments, which can cause extreme
component wear without careful filtration.
■ Fluid leakage and spills cause a slippery, messy work environment
around hydraulic equipment.
■ Fire hazard with hydraulic systems using combustible oils.
Lecture%201.pdf
Disadvantages of fluid power system
 Special handling and disposal procedures for hydraulic oil required by

environmental
regulations.
 High cost of compressing and conditioning air for use in pneumatic systems.
 Reduced accuracy in actuator speed control in pneumatic systems caused by
compressibility of air.
 Noise level of pneumatic systems when air is directly exhausted to the
atmosphere from components.
Lecture%201.pdf
System Characteristics
All power-transmission systems have characteristics that are desirable in one
application, but
turn into disadvantages in other situations. A system cannot have every desired
advantage without disadvantages. Understanding system characteristics as well as
what is needed for a particular result will help in producing an effective and efficient
application.
Accuracy of movement
Fluid compressibility is the inherent characteristic that produces the
difference between hydraulic and pneumatic systems. A gas is
compressible, while a liquid can be compressed only slightly. Hydraulic
systems, therefore, can produce
more accurate, easily controlled movement of cylinders and motors than
pneumatic systems. Compressibility produces a more “spongy” operation
in pneumatic systems that is not suitable where highly accurate movement
is required.
Lecture%201.pdf
Operating pressure
Hydraulic systems can operate at much higher pressures than pneumatic
systems. Hydraulic system operating pressure ranges from a few hundred
pounds per square inch (psi) to several thousand psi. Pressures of more
than 10,000 psi are used in
special situations. Pneumatic systems, in contrast, normally operate
between 80 to 120 psi. Extremely high–pressure pneumatic systems
normally are not used.
Lecture%201.pdf
Actuator speed
Pneumatic systems are commonly used when high-speed movement is
required in an application. Rotation speeds of over 20,000 revolutions per
minute (rpm) are possible. Rapid-response cylinder operation is also
possible with pneumatic
systems. These designs are generally found in situations involving lighter
loads and lower accuracy requirements
Lecture%201.pdf
Component weight
System operating pressure affects the structure of components. Hydraulic
systems operate at higher pressures, requiring the use of stronger materials and
more-massive designs to withstand the pressure. Pneumatic systems operate at
much lower pressures and, therefore, can be manufactured using lightweight
materials and designs that
minimize the amount of material.
Lecture%201.pdf
Cost
The cost of fluid power systems ranges widely. A variety of situations exist and a
number of solutions are available for each one. The solution selected to solve the
problem directly affects the cost.
Understanding system advancements, basic characteristics of hydraulic and
pneumatic systems, and knowing which standard components are available are
necessary to produce a system that does the best job at the lowest cost.
The cost of system operation is a factor that must be considered. Generally,

pneumatic systems are more expensive to operate than hydraulic systems. This
cost can be directly associated with the compression, conditioning, and
distribution of air. Careful maintenance to eliminate leakage can greatly reduce
operating cost.
Lecture%201.pdf
Comparison between Hydraulics and Pneumatic System
Hydraulics System Pneumatic System

It employs a pressurized liquid It employs a compressed gas, usually
as a fluid air, as a fluid
An oil hydraulic system operates at A pneumatic system usually operates
pressures up to 700 bar at 5–10 bar
Generally designed as closed system Usually designed as open system
The system slows down when leakage Leakage does not affect the system
occurs much
Valve operations are difficult Valve operations are easy
Heavier in weight Lighter in weight
Pumps are used to provide Compressors are used to provide
pressurized liquids compressed gases
The system is unsafe to fire hazards The system is free from fire hazards
Automatic lubrication is provided Special arrangements for lubrication
are needed
Comparison Between Hydraulics, Pneumatics, Electrical,
Mechanical
Mechanical
Mechanical
Mechanical
Future of Fluid Power Industry in India
The automation market in India is estimated to be 1/10ththat of China.
1. As the economy grows, this industry grows.
2. There is a lot of automation and conversion into more sophisticated

manufacturing methods which increases the rate.
3. One of the interesting things happening in this industry is that India is

becoming an attractive destination for manufacturing and outsourcing of
some of the products.
Properties of Fluids
 A fluid may be either a gas or a liquid.

 The molecules of a gas are much farther apart than those of a liquid.
Hence, very compressible
 When all external pressure is removed, it tends to expand indefinitely.
 A liquid is relatively incompressible.
 If all pressure, except its own vapor pressure, is removed, the cohesion
between molecules holds them together, so that the liquid does not
expand indefinitely.
Density Density (ρ ) is defined as mass per unit volume,
Density Increases with pressure and decreases with temperature
Density Characteristics of Hydraulics Fluid

Specific Weight Specific weight (ϒ) is defined as weight per unit volume,
Specific weight of common Liquids at 200 C , 1 bar

Specific Volume
Specific volume (SV) is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid. We commonly apply it
to gases and usually express it in m3/kg. Specific volume is the reciprocal of density.
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity (SG) of a given fluid is defined as the specific weight of the fluid divided by
the specific weight of water,
Pressure:- Pressure is defined as force per unit area. It is the amount of force acting over a unit
area
Atmospheric Pressure and Absolute Pressure

Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted against a surface by the weight of air above that
surface in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Atm Pressure :- 101325 Pa or 101.325 kPa. 760 mmHg (torr), 29.92 in Hg, 14.696 psi, 1013.25
mbar/hPa.
Force:- A force is a push or pull acting upon an object as a result of its interaction with another
object.
Contact Forces Action-at-a-Distance Forces
Frictional Force Gravitational Force
Tension Force Electrical Force
Normal Force Magnetic Force
Air Resistance Force
Applied Force
Spring Force
Ideal Fluid
An ideal fluid is usually defined as a fluid in which there is no friction; it is inviscid (its
viscosity is zero). Thus, the internal forces at any section within it are always normal to the
section, even during motion. So these forces are purely pressure forces.
In a real fluid, either liquid or gas, tangential or shearing forces always develop whenever
there is a motion relative to body, thus creating fluid friction, because these forces oppose
the motion of one particle past another. These friction forces give rise to a fluid property
called viscosity.
Pascal's law :- when there is an increase in pressure at any point in a confined fluid,
there is an equal increase at every other point in the container.
Bernoulli Principle:-
A1 A1
A2
v2 v1
v1
Low speed high speed Low speed
Low KE high KE Low KE
High pressure low pressure High pressure
Functions of Hydraulic Fluids
1. Power transmission: To transmit power, which is the primary function.

2. Lubrication: To lubricate various parts, so as to avoid metal-to-metal
contact and reduce friction, wear and heat generation.
3. Sealing: To seal the moving elements to avoid leakage.
4. Cooling: To carry away the heat generated in the system and to dissipate the
heat through a reservoir or a heat exchanger.
5. Contaminant removal: To carry along the contaminations to the tank, where
they
can be removed through filters.
HYDRAULIC PUMPS
The function of a pump is to convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy
1. Classification based on displacement:

Non-positive displacement pumps (hydrodynamic pumps).
Positive displacement pumps (hydrostatic pumps).
Hydrostatic means that the pump converts mechanical energy to hydraulic energy with
comparatively small quantity and velocity of liquid. In a hydrodynamic pump, liquid velocity and
movement are large; output pressure actually depends on the velocity at which the liquid is made to
flow.
2. Classification based on delivery:

Constant delivery pumps.
Variable delivery pumps.
3. Classification based on motion:
Rotary pump.
Reciprocating pump.
Non-Positive Displacement Pumps
The advantages:
1.Non-displacement pumps have fewer moving parts.
2.Initial and maintenance cost is low.
3. They give smooth continuous flow.
4. They are suitable for handling almost all types of fluids including slurries and
sledges.
5.Their operation is simple and reliable.
The disadvantages:
1.Non-displacement pumps are not self-priming and hence they must be positioned
below the fluid level.
2. Discharge is a function of output resistance.
3.Low volumetric efficiency.
The advantages of positive displacement pumps over non-positive displacement pumps
1. They can operate at very high pressures of up to 800 bar (used for lifting oils from
very deep oil wells).
2. They can achieve a high volumetric efficiency of up to 98%.
3. They are highly efficient and almost constant throughout the designed pressure range.
4. They are a compact unit, having a high power-to-weight ratio.
5. They can obtain a smooth and precisely controlled motion.
6. By proper application and control, they produce only the amount of flow required to
move the load at the desired velocity.
7. They have a great flexibility of performance. They can be made to operate over a wide
range of pressures and speeds.
Differences between positive displacement pumps and non-positive
displacement pumps
Pumping Theory
All pumps operate by creating a partial vacuum at the intake, and a mechanical force at the outlet
that induces flow.
Suction Stroke:-
As the piston moves to the left, a partial
vacuum is created in the pump chamber
that holds the outlet valve in place
against its seat and induces flow from
the reservoir that is at a higher
(atmospheric) pressure.
As this flow is produced, the inlet valve

is temporarily displaced by the force of
fluid, permitting the flow into the pump
chamber (suction stroke).
Pumping Theory
All pumps operate by creating a partial vacuum at the intake, and a mechanical force at the outlet
that induces flow.
Delivery stroke:-
When the piston moves to the right, the

resistance at the valves causes an
immediate increase in the pressure that
forces the inlet valve against its seat and
opens the outlet valve thereby permitting
the fluid to flow into the system.
If the outlet port opens directly to the

atmosphere, the only pressure developed
is the one required to open the outlet valve.
It is important to note that pumps create flow not pressure. Pressure is created by the resistance
to flow.
Gear Pumps
Gear pumps are less expensive but limited to pressures below 140 bar. It is noisy in
operation than either vane or piston pumps.
Gear pumps are invariably of fixed displacement type, which means that the amount of
fluid displaced for each revolution of the drive shaft is theoretically constant.
The advantages are as follows:

1.They are self-priming.
2.They give constant delivery for a given speed.
3. They are compact and light in weight.
4. Volumetric efficiency is high.
The disadvantages are as follows:
1. The liquid to be pumped must be clean, otherwise it will damage pump.
2. Variable speed drives are required to change the delivery.
3. If they run dry, parts can be damaged because the fluid to be pumped is used as
lubricant
External Gear Pump
• Been around since the beginning oil pump industry
• Used for high pressure applications (pulse free fluid flow)
• Smaller - operate at 1 750 rpm or 3 450 rpm
• Larger operate 640 rpm
• Can handle viscous and water type liquids well
• Thick liquids speed must be properly set (small meshing time)
•True involute gear form (contour gear curved)

External Gear Pumps
Low-pressure ranges Long operating life, High efficiency and Low
cost.
It consist of a pump housing in which a pair of precisely machined

meshing gears runs with minimal radial and axial clearance .
One of the gears, called a driver is driven by a prime mover. The

driver drives another gear called a follower. As the teeth of the two
gears separate, the fluid from the pump inlet gets trapped
between the rotating gear cavities and pump housing.
The trapped fluid is then carried around the periphery of the pump
casing and delivered to outlet port. The teeth of precisely meshed
gears provide almost a perfect seal between the pump inlet and
the pump outlet.
When the outlet flow is resisted, pressure in the pump outlet

chamber builds up rapidly and forces the gear diagonally outward
against the pump inlet.
External Gear Pumps
When the system pressure increases, imbalance

occurs.
This imbalance increases mechanical friction and

the bearing load of the two gears.
It is important to note that the inlet is at the point of

separation and the outlet at the point of mesh.
These units are not reversible if the internal bleeds

for the bearings are to be drilled to both the inlet
and outlet sides.
So that the manufacturer’s literature should be

checked before attempting a reversed installation.
If they are not drilled in this manner, the bearing

may be permanently damaged as a result of
inadequate lubrications.
External Gear Pumps
D o =the outside diameter of gear teeth
D i= the inside diameter of gear teeth
L =the width of gear teeth
N =the speed of pump in RPM
V D=the displacement of pump in m/rev
M = module of gear
z =number of gear teeth
ɸ= pressure angle
Internal Gear Pump
• Crescent pump
• Less than 100 years old
• Generally run at 1 150 rpm
• Smaller ones run at 3 450 rpm (same as external)
• Fairly long meshing time (allowing higher speeds with thicker
fluids than external)
•Not true involute gear form

Internal Gear Pumps
They consist of two gears: An external gear and an internal gear. The crescent placed in
between these acts as a seal between the suction and discharge. When a pump operates, the
external gear drives the internal gear and both gears rotate in the same direction.
The fluid fills the cavities formed by the rotating teeth and the stationary crescent. Both the
gears transport the fluid through the pump.
Internal Gear Pumps
The fluid volume is directly proportional to the degree of separation and these units may be
reversed without difficulty.
These pumps have a higher pressure capability than external gear pumps.
Lobe Pumps
Higher volumetric capacity per revolution. The output may be
slightly greater pulsation because of the smaller number of
meshing elements.
Lobe pumps, unlike external gear pumps, have both elements
externally driven and neither element has any contact with the
other.
For this reason, they are quieter when compared to other types
of gear pumps.
Lobe contact is prevented by external timing gears located in
the gearbox.
Pump shaft support bearings are located in the gearbox, and
because the bearings are out of the pumped liquid, pressure is
limited by bearing location and shaft deflection.
They do not lose efficiency with use. They are similar to external
gear pumps with respect to the feature of reversibility.
Operation of Lobe Pump
1.As the lobes come out of mesh, they create expanding volume on the inlet side of the
pump. Liquid flows into the cavity and is trapped by the lobes as they rotate.
2.Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in pockets between the lobes and the
casing (it does not pass between the lobes).
3.Finally, the meshing of the lobes forces the liquid through the outlet port under pressure.
Lobe Pumps
The advantages of lobe pumps are as follows:
1. Lobe pumps can handle solids, slurries, pastes and many liquid.
2. No metal-to-metal contact.
3. Superior CIP(Cleaning in Place) /SIP(Sterilization in Place) capabilities.
4. Long-term dry run (with lubrication to seals).
5. Non-pulsating discharge.
The disadvantages of lobe pumps are as follows:
1. Require timing gears.
2. Require two seals. Applications
3. Reduced lift with thin liquids. 1. Polymers.
2. Paper coatings.
3. Soaps and surfactants.
4. Paints and dyes.
5. Rubber and adhesives.
6. Pharmaceuticals.
7. Food applications
Vane Pumps
There are two types of vane pumps:
1. Unbalanced vane pump: Unbalanced vane pumps are of two
varieties:
Unbalanced vane pump with fixed delivery.

Unbalanced vane pump with pressure-compensated variable
delivery.
2. Balanced vane pump

Unbalanced Vane Pump with Fixed Delivery
When the rotor rotates, the centrifugal force pushes

the vanes out against the surface of the cam ring.
The vanes divide the space between the rotor and
the cam ring into a series of small chambers.
During the first half of the rotor rotation, the volume
of these chambers increases, thereby causing a
reduction of pressure. This is the suction process,
which causes the fluid to flow through the inlet port.
During the second half of rotor rotation, the cam
ring pushes the vanes back into the slots and the
trapped volume is reduced. This positively ejects
the trapped fluid through the outlet port. In this
pump, all pump action takes place in the chambers
located on one side of the rotor and shaft, and so
the pump is of an unbalanced design.
The delivery rate of the pump depends on the
eccentricity of the rotor with respect to the cam ring.
Pressure-Compensated Variable Displacement Vane Pump (an Unbalanced Vane Pump with
Pressure-Compensated Variable Delivery)
Balanced Vane Pump with Fixed Delivery
The advantages of vane pumps are as follows:
1. Vane pumps are self-priming, robust and supply constant delivery at a given
speed.
2. They provide uniform discharge with negligible pulsations.
3. Their vanes are self-compensating for wear and vanes can be replaced easily.
4. These pumps do not require check valves.
5. They are light in weight and compact.
6. They can handle liquids containing vapors and gases.
7. Volumetric and overall efficiencies are high.
8. Discharge is less sensitive to changes in viscosity and pressure variations.
The disadvantages of vane pumps are as follows:
1. Relief valves are required to protect the pump in case of sudden closure of
delivery.
2. They are not suitable for abrasive liquids.
3. They require good seals.
4. They require good filtration systems and foreign particle can severely damage
pump.
Radial Piston Pump (inside Impinged)
Bent Axis piston Pump
Swash plate pump:-
Pump Performance
The performance of a pump is a function of the precision of its manufacture. An ideal pump
is one having zero clearance between all mating parts. Because this is not possible, working
clearances should be as small as possible while maintaining proper oil films for lubrication
between rubbing parts. The performance of a pump is determined by the following
efficiencies:
Volumetric efficiency :It is the ratio of actual flow rate of the pump to the theoretical flow
rate of the pump.
Mechanical efficiency: It is the ratio of the pump output power assuming no leakage to actual
power delivered to the pump:
Overall efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of actual power delivered by the pump to actual
power delivered to the pump.
Application of Compressed Air
CHOICE OF WORKING MEDIUM AND SYSTEM.
 When the system requirement is high speed, medium pressure (usually 6 to 8 bar) and less
accuracy of position, then pneumatic system is preferred.
 If the system requirement is high pressure and high precision, a fluid system with oil is good.
 When the power requirement is high like in forging presses, sheet metal press, it is impossible
to use air system. Oil hydraulics is the only choice
 Air is used where quick response of actuator is required.
 If temperate variation range in the system is large, then use of air system may run into
condensation problems and oil is preferred.
 If the application requires only a medium pressure and high positional accuracy is required then
hydro –pneumatic system is preferred
CHOICE OF WORKING MEDIUM AND SYSTEM.
 Air is non-explosive, it is preferred where fire/electric hazard are expected. Oil systems are
more prone to fire and electrical hazards and are not recommended in such applications.
 Because air contains oxygen (about 20%) and is not sufficient alone to provide adequate
lubrication of moving parts and seals, oil is usually introduced into the air stream near the
actuator to provide this lubrication preventing excessive wear and oxidation.
In a practical sense, compressed air is a medium that carries potential energy. However it can
be expensive to produce, and from a simple energy efficiency point of view compressed air may
not appear advantageous at first.
Considering that it takes about 6 kW of electrical energy to generate 0.75 kW output on an air
motor, compressed air has an efficiency rating of only 12%. In spite of that compressed air is
used due to its other advantages.
Advantages of compressed air Disadvantages of compressed air
PROPERTIES OF AIR
Composition:
Air is a mechanical mixture of gases containing by volume, approximately 78 % of nitrogen and
21 % of oxygen, and about 1 % of other gases, including argon and carbon dioxide. Water being
the most important remaining ingredient as far as pneumatics is concerned.
The dilution of the oxygen by nitrogen makes air much less chemically active than pure oxygen
but it is still capable of causing spontaneous combustion or explosion , particularly if oil vapor
at an elevated temperature is present, as may occur in an air receiver.
Air is colorless, odorless, tasteless, and compressible and has weight. Air has a great affinity
with water and unless specifically dried, contains considerable quantities of water vapour,
sometimes as much as 1% by weight.
PROPERTIES OF AIR
Free air and Standard air
Free air: Air at the atmospheric condition at the point where the compressor is located is
defined as free air. Free air will vary with atmospheric conditions like altitude, pressure and
temperature.
Standard air: It is also called normal air. It is defined as the air at sea level conditions
(1.01324 bar as per ISO –R554 and 20 and Relative humidity of 36%). The condition of
normal atmosphere is used as a basis for getting average values for compressor delivery
volumes, efficiencies and operating characteristics.
PROPERTIES OF AIR
Variation of pressure with altitude
According to Barometric law, the atmospheric pressure decreases exponentially with the increase
in altitude.
PROPERTIES OF AIR GAS LAWS
Boyle’s Law
If a given mass of a gas is compressed or expanded at a constant temperature, then the

absolute pressure is inversely proportional to the volume.
Boyle’s law assumes conditions of constant temperature. In actual situations this is rarely the
case. Temperature changes continually and affects the volume of a given mass of gas.
Charles law
All gases expand and contract proportionally to the change in the absolute temperature, providing
the pressure remains constant.
Statement: If a given mass of a gas is heated or cooled at a constant pressure, then the volume is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
Gay-Lussac’s Law
A third gas law may be derived as a corollary to Boyle's and Charles's laws. Suppose we
double the thermodynamic temperature of a sample of gas.
According to Charles’s law, the volume should double. Now, how much pressure would be
required at the higher temperature to return the gas to its original volume?
According to Boyle’s law, we would have to double the pressure to have the volume. Thus, if
the volume of gas is to remain the same, doubling the temperature will require doubling the
pressure.
At constant pressure, the absolute pressure of an
ideal gas will vary directly with the absolute
temperature.
General gas equation
For any given mass of gas undergoing changes of pressure, temperature and volume, the
general gas equation can be used. By combining Boyle’s law and Gay-Lussac’s law we get,
AIR PREPARATION
Pneumatic control systems operate on a supply of compressed air, which must be made
available in sufficient quantity and at a pressure to suit the capacity of the system.
The operational reliability and service life of a pneumatic system depend to a large extent on
the preparation of the compressed air.
Impurities in the compressed air such as scale, rust and dust as well as the liquid constituents
in the air which deposit as condensate can cause a great deal of damage in pneumatic
systems.
These contaminants accelerate wear on sliding surfaces and sealing elements, adversely
affecting the functioning and service life of pneumatic components.
As a result of switching the compressors on and off, pressure fluctuations occur which have
an unfavourable effect on the functioning of the system.
In order to eliminate these effects, compressed air preparation should be given utmost
importance.
There are four distinct stages of air preparation
Stage 1 : An Intake filter removes larger particles which can damage the air compressor.
a) Location: The intake for a compressor will located either outdoors or indoors, whichever
provides the better air quality. Elevation of the compressor relative to sea level is required to
determine the atmospheric pressure and density of intake air. Air quality is judged by its
temperature, humidity and cleanliness. We must ensure that air intake is free of moisture or
pollution
b) Intake Temperature: The density of air varies inversely with its temperature : an increase
in delivery of approximately 1 percent is gained for -200C reduction of intake temperature.
c) Intake pipe material: The inside of intake piping must be smooth and not subject to rusting
or oxidation. Rust that flakes off will enter and damage the compressor.. Acceptable intake air
piping materials include plastic, cooper, stainless steel, aluminium or galvanized steel. On
metallic piping, mechanical couplings will be used. Welded joint must be avoided since weld
beads can break free, enter and damage the compressor.
There are four distinct stages of air preparation
Stage 2: In this stage air is compressed using compressor.
Stage 3: In this stage outlet temperature at the compressor is reduced, solid contaminants usually
large than 100 micron are removed, and air is dried to reduce to its humidity. The units used in the
primary stage are after cooler, main line filter and dryer.
Stage 4: In this stage moisture and fine dirt particles are removed. In this stage pressure is
regulated to suit individual machine‟s requirement and introduces the fine mist of oil to the
compressed air to aid lubrication. The units used in secondary air treatment are filter ,
regulator and lubricator ( Called FRL or service units)
Types of Compressors
Positive Displacement Compressors
Operation of Reciprocating Compressor (Single Stage)
Operation of Reciprocating Compressor (Two Stage)
Rotary Lobe Air Compressor
Vane Compressor:-
Reciprocating Diaphragm Compressor
Comparison Between Compressors
Aspect Reciprocating Compressors Rotary Compressors

Pressure Ratio Discharge Pressure of air is high. The Discharge pressure of air is low. The
pressure ratio per stage will be in the order pressure ratio per stage will be in the order
of 4 to 7. of 3 to 5.
Handled Volume Quantity of air handled is low and is limited Large measure of air handled can be
to 50m3/s. handled and it is about 500 m3/s.
Speed of Low speed of compressor. High speed of compressor.
Compressor
Vibrational Due to reciprocating section, greater Rotary parts of machine, thus it has less
Problem vibrational problem, the parts of machine vibrational problems. The machine parts are
are poorly balanced. fairly balanced.
Size of Size of Compressor is bulky for given Compressor size is small for given discharge
compressor discharge volume. volume.
Air supply Air supply is intermittent. Air supply is steady and continuous..
Purity of Air delivered from the compressor is dirty, Air delivered from the compressor is clean
compressed air since it comes in contact with lubricating oil and free from dirt.
and cylinder surface.
Comparison Between Compressors
Aspect Reciprocating Compressors Rotary Compressors

Compressed Higher with pressure ratio more than 2. Higher with compression ratio less than 2.
efficiency
Maintanence Higher due to reciprocating engine. Lower due to less sliding parts..
Mechanical Efficiency Lower due to several sliding parts.. Higher due to less sliding parts.
Lubrication Complicated lubrication system Simple lubrication system.
Initial cost Higher. Lower.
Flexibility Greater flexibility in capacity and pressure No flexibility in capacity and pressure range.
range.
For medium and high pressure ratio. For low and medium pressures.
Suitability
For low and medium gas volume. For large volumes.
Selection of compressors
Selection of air compressor for given application is governed by

several factors as below
Pressure
Flow rates or capacity
Geometry of cylinder
Speed of piston
The layout of pipe line, system requirement and the distance of
user machine from compressor plant
• Pressure :
• The discharge pressure from the compressor should be decided
first considering the needs of the cylinder, air motor & pressure
drop in the circuit.
• Most of pneumatic systems and tools are designed for pressure
of 6 – 7 bar.
• A compressor used should meet the requirement.
• Pressure :
• Pneumatic circuit requiring air at high pressure can be supplied
with air by a separate high pressure compressor
• While any low pressure can be met by availing a reducing valve.
• For huge air flow rates at pressures below 2 bar, a turbo-blower
or low pressure rotary compressor may be used.
• Flow rates or capacity:-

• Volume of air required per minute is also an important factor for
selection.
• The capacity should be adequate enough to supply air to all
devices operating simultaneously.
• In many plants where pneumatic tools are operated
intermittently, in such cases maximum instantaneous demand
of the compressed air has to be find first.
• Geometry of cylinder:-
• For single cylinder geometric fashion :-
vertical-single acting or double acting
horizontal- single or double acting
• For two cylinders geometric fashion:-
- vertical inline, single or double acting
- V-type, single or double acting
- horizontal duplex, double acting
Speed of piston:-
The speed of piston inside the cylinder must also be
considered.
For small capacity compressor, the piston speed 300 m/min,
whereas for large capacity compressor piston speed 250 m/
min.
The layout of pipe line, system requirement and the distance of

user machine from compressor plant
Air Service Unit
Air filter
Pressure Regulator
Lubricator
FRL Unit
AIR FILTERS
The purpose of the air filter is to clean the compressed air of all impurities and
any condensate it contains.
Function of air filters
 To remove all foreign matter and allow dry and clean air flow without
restriction to regulator and then to the lubricator
 To condensate and remove water from the air
 To arrest fine particles and all solid contaminants from air
AIR FILTERS
Source of contamination.
Contaminants in a compressed air system can generally be attributed to
the following:
 The quality of air being drawn into the compressor : Air compressors
draw in a large volume of air from the surrounding atmosphere
containing large numbers of airborne contaminants.
 The type and operation of the air compressor : The air compressor itself
can also add contamination, from wear particles to coolants and
lubricants.
 Compressed air storage devices and distribution systems : The air
receiver and system piping are designed to store and distribute the
compressed air. As a consequence, they will also store the large
amounts of contaminants drawn into the system.
Types of contamination in a compressed air system
Atmospheric dirt: Atmospheric air in an industrial environment typically

contains 140 million per m3 of dirt particles. 80% of these particles are less
than 2 microns in size and are too small to be captured by the compressor
intake filter, therefore passing directly into the compressed air system.
Water vapour, condensed water:
The ability of compressed air to hold water vapour is dependent upon it's
temperature. The higher the temperature, the more water vapour that can be
held by the air.
After the compression stage, air is normally cooled to a usable temperature.

This reduces the airs ability to retain water vapour, resulting in a proportion of
the water vapour being condensed into liquid water which is removed by a
condensate drain fitted to the compressor after-cooler.
Types of contamination in a compressed air system
Rust and pipe scale: Rust and pipe scale can be found in air receivers and the
piping of “wet systems” (systems without adequate purification equipment) or
systems which were operated “wet” prior to purification being installed. Over
time, this contamination breaks away to cause damage or blockage in
production which can also contaminate final product and processes.
Liquid oil : Most air compressors use oil in the compression stage for sealing,
lubrication and cooling.
This oil mixes with water vapour in the air and is often very acidic, causing
damage to the compressed air storage and distribution system, production
equipment and final product.
Factor affecting selection of filters
While selecting the filters, the following factors should be taken into
account.
 Size of particles to be filtered from the system

 Capacity of the filter
 Accessibility and maintainability
 Life of the filter
 Ability to drain the condensate
AIR FILTERS
It consists of filter cartridge, Deflector, bowl,

water drain valve. Filter bowl is usually made of
plastic and transparent. For pressure more than
10 bar, bowl may be made of brass.
AIR FILTERS
Air enters the inlet port of the air filter through angled
louvers. This causes the air to spin as it enters the
bowl.
The centrifugal action of the rotating air causes the
larger pieces of dirt and water particles to be thrown
against the inner wall of the filter bowl.
These contaminants then flow down into the bottom
of the filter bowl.
A baffle prevents turbulent air from splashing water
on to the filter element.
The air, which has been pre-cleaned in this way, then
passes through the filter element, where the fine dirt
particles are filtered out.
The size of the dirt particles which can be filtered out
depends on mesh size of filter element (usually 5-50
microns). The compressed air then exits through the
outer port.
The pressure difference between inlet and outlet will
indicate the degree to which the filter element is
AIR REGULATOR
The function of the air pressure regulator is to maintain working pressure

virtually constant regardless of fluctuations of the line pressure and air
consumption. When the pressure is too low, it results in poor efficiencies and
when the pressure is too high, energy is wasted and equipment’s performance
decay faster.
In pneumatic system, pressure fluctuations occur due to variation in supply

pressure or load pressure. It is therefore essential to regulate the pressure to
match the requirement of load regardless of variation in supply pressure or
load pressure.
AIR REGULATOR
AIR LUBRICATOR
The function of air lubricator is to add a controlled amount of oil with air to ensure
proper lubrication of internal moving parts of pneumatic components. Lubricants are
used to
 To reduce the wear of the moving parts

 Reduce the frictional losses
 Protect the equipment form corrosion
The lubricator adds the lubricating oil in the form of fine mist to reduce the friction
and wear of moving parts of pneumatic components such as valves, packing used in
air actuators
Excessive lubrication is undesirable. Excessive lubrication may results in
 malfunctioning of components,
 seizing and sticking of components after prolonged downtime
 environmental pollution
AIR LUBRICATOR
Direction Control Valve
Directional control valves perform only three functions:

•stop fluid flow
•allow fluid flow, and
•change direction of fluid flow.
These three functions usually operate in combination.
The simplest directional control valve is the 2-way valve. A 2-way valve stops flow or allows
flow. A water tab is a good example of a 2-way valve. A water tab allows flow or stops flow
by manual control.
http://hydraulicspneumatics.com/other-technologies/book-2-chapter-8-directional-control-
Directional Control Valves
A valve is a device that receives an external signal (mechanical, fluid pilot signal, electrical or
electronics) to release, stop or redirect the fluid that flows through it.
The function of a DCV is to control the direction of fluid flow in any hydraulic system. A DCV
does this by changing the position of internal movable parts.
Purpose of DCV in Circuits:
 To start, stop, accelerate, decelerate and change the direction of motion of a hydraulic
actuator.
 To permit the free flow from the pump to the reservoir at low pressure when the pump’s
delivery is not needed into the system.
 To vent the relief valve by either electrical or mechanical control.
 To isolate certain branch of a circuit.
Direction Control Valve
Directional control valves can be classified according to-
•Number of ports
Ports are the one which helps the liquid to flow through them. Mainly there are 4 ports P-pump, t-
tank or oil sump, A&B- flow of liquid to inlet and outlet of tank
•Number of positions
Including the normal and working positions which a valve spool can take there are types like two
position, three position and proportional valve
•Actuating methods
Manual, spring, electrical, pneumatic, and hydraulic
•Type of spool.
Spool is of two types namely sliding and rotary. Sliding spool is cylindrical in cross section, and the
lands and grooves are also cylindrical. Rotary valves have sphere-like lands and grooves in the form
of holes drilled through them.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directional_control_valve
Symbols of DCV
2-way directional control valves
Normally Open or Normally closed.

Actuating Devices
Actuating Devices
Actuating Devices
Check Valve
Poppet valve
Poppet valve
Advantages of a poppet valve
 Virtually zero leakage in closed position.
 Poppet elements do not stick even when left under pressure for long periods.
 Fast, consistent response time: typically 15 ms.
Disadvantages of a Poppet Valve
A poppet valve has the following disadvantages:
 Axial pressure balance is impossible and considerable force may be needed to open the
poppet against the flow at a high pressure. This limits valves that have direct mechanical
actuation to low flow duties.
 Generally individual poppets are required for each flow path that significantly increases
the complexity of multi-port valves.
 Lapping and super finishing of valves add cost.
Pilot-operated check valves
These are normally closed check valves which may be opened by a pilot signal or less commonly held
closed by a pilot signal. The pilot pressure needed to open the check valve against a load pressure
depends upon the ratio of the areas of the pilot piston and check valve
With a long stroke cylinder the lowering motion of the load may be jerky. If the load overruns, the pressure in
the full bore end of the cylinder drops, the check valve closes and the cylinder jerks to a stop. The pressure at
the full bore end increases, the check opens, the cylinder lowers the load, the load overruns and so on.
Shuttle Valve
Application of 2/2 DCV
Application of 3/2 DCV
Pressure Relief Valve
Pressure Reducing valve
Flow Control valve
Functions of Flow-Control Valves
 Regulate the speed of linear and rotary

 Regulate the power available to the sub-circuits by controlling the flow to
them:
 Proportionally divide or regulate the pump flow to various branches of the
circuit
Non-Pressure-Compensated Valves
Pressure-Compensated Valves
Meter-In Circuit
Meter-Out Circuit
Bleed-Off Circuit
Counterbalance circuit
Regenerative Circuit
PNEUMATICS ACTUATORS
Linear Actuator or Pneumatic

cylinders
Rotary Actuator or Air motors
Limited angle Actuators
Classification scheme of the Pneumatic cylinders
1.Based on application for which air
cylinders are used
i) Light duty air cylinders
ii) Medium duty air cylinders
iii) Heavy duty air cylinders
2. Based on the cylinder action
i) Single acting cylinder
ii) Double acting cylinder
Single rod type double acting cylinder
Double rod type double acting
cylinder
3. Based on cylinder’s movement

i) Rotating type air cylinder
ii) Non rotating type air cylinder
Based on application for which air cylinders are used
Based on the cylinder action
Advantages of double acting cylinders over single acting

cylinders are
1. In single acting cylinder, compressed air is fed only on one

side. Hence this cylinder can produce work only in one direction.
But the compressed air moves the piston in two directions in
double acting cylinder, so they work in both directions
2. In a single acting cylinder, the stroke length is limited by the
compressed length of the spring. But in principle , the stroke
length is unlimited in a double acting cylinder
3. While the piston moves forward in a single acting cylinder, air
has to overcome the pressure of the spring and hence some
power is lost before the actual stroke of the piston starts. But
Single acting cylinders.
Construction features of single acting cylinder
Diaphragm cylinder
Rolling diaphragm cylinder
Gravity Return Single Acting Cylinder
Spring Return Single Acting Cylinder
Double acting cylinders
Double acting cylinder with piston rod on both sides
Based on the cylinder action
Rotating type of cylinders are used in applications where cylinder body is

connected to a rotating member and air connection to the cylinder in a
stationary housing. They are not widely used.
Non Rotating type of cylinders are widely used Industries. Cylinder body
is connected air connection are mounted stationary housing and piston
rod moves and exerts force.
Based on the cylinder’s design
Telescopic Cylinder
Tandem Cylinder
Rodless Cylinder
Cable cylinder
Cylinder with Magnetically Coupled Slide
Duplex cylinder or opposite thrust or multi position cylinder
Duplex cylinder or opposite thrust or multi position cylinder
Rotary Actuators
Vane type actuators
Single Vane limited rotation actuators Double vane limited rotation actuators
Rotary Actuator of Rack and Pinion Type
Helix spine rotary actuator
VALVES
Valve are defined as devices to control or regulate the

commencement, termination and direction and also the pressure or
rate of flow of a fluid under pressure which is delivered by a
compressor or vacuum pump or is stored in a vessel.
Values of one sort or another, perform three main function in

pneumatic installation
 They control the supply of air to power units, example
cylinders
 They provide signal which govern the sequence of
operation
 They act as interlock and safety devices
Valve available for pneumatic control can be classified into four
principal groups according to their function:
1. Direction control valve

2. Non return valves
3. Flow control valves
4. Pressure control valves
DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES
The function of directional control valve is to control the direction of

flow in the pneumatic circuit. DCVs are used to start, stop and
regulate the direction of air flow and to help in the distribution of air
in the required line. Classification scheme
1. Based on construction
i) Poppet or seat valves
- Ball seat valve
- Disc seat valve
- Diaphragm Valves
ii) Sliding spool valves
- Longitudinal slide valve
- Suspended spool valves
- Rotary spool valves
2. Based on the Number of ports
i) Two way valves
ii) Three way valves
iii) Four way valves
3. Based on methods of actuation
i) Mechanical
ii) Electrical
iii) Pneumatic
4. Based on Size of the port
Size refers to a valve’s port size. The port sizes are designated as M5, G1/8,
and G1/4 etc. M refer to Metric thread, G refer to British standard pipe (BSP)
thread.
5. Based on mounting styles
i) Sub base
ii) Manifold
iii) In-line
iv) Valve island
ISO DESIGNATION OF DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES
Valves are represented by symbols because actual construction is quite complex. A symbol
specifies function of the valve, method of actuation, no of ports and ways. Pneumatic symbols
have been standardised in ISO 1219-1:2006. (Fluid power systems and components – Graphic
symbols and circuit diagram).
Port designation of DCV
POPPET DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES
Ball seat valve.

Disc seat poppet valve
Advantages of poppet valves are as follows
i) Response of poppet valve is very fast- short stroke to provide maximum
flow opening
ii) They give larger opening (larger flow) of valves for a small stroke
iii) The valve seats are usually simple elastic seals so wear is minimum
iv) They are insensitive to dust and dirt and they are robust, seats are self
cleaning
v) Maintenance is easy and economical.
vi) They are inexpensive
vii) They give longer service life: short stroke and few wearing parts give
minimum wear of
Disadvantages and maximum
poppet lifeare
valves capabilities
as follows
i) The actuating force is relatively high, as it is necessary to overcome the
force of the built in reset spring and the air pressure.
ii) They are noisy if flow fluctuation is large.
Comparison of Ball seat and Disc seat valves
SPOOL DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES
Hand operated 3/2 DCV
3/2 Directional control valve (Normally closed)

3/2 Directional control valve (pneumatically operated)

Pneumatically actuated valves have following advantages
i. Great flexibility for use in simple as well as complex control system
ii. Adaptability for use in safety circuits.
iii. Various control functions can be easily incorporated as and when required
iv. Feedback signals from sensors can be applied conveniently for the purpose of
controlling the pilot ports of these main valves. This means existing pneumatically
actuated control circuits can be modified easily to incorporate any additional control
requirement.
Pneumatically actuated 4/2 DCV

Suspended Disc Direction Control Valves

5/2 Directional control valve (suspended disc type)

Suspended Disc Direction Control Valves
Advantages
i) They have short actuation movement
ii) They are quick to operate because of small switching movement
iii) If signals are applied at both ports, first signal will be dominant
Disadvantages
i) Construction of the valve is complex
ii) Expensive
Rotary valves
Three different positions of 4/3 way rotary spool directional control valve.
Different position of core and sleeve for various mid position of 4/3
DCV
Different position of core and sleeve for various mid position of 4/3
DCV
METHODS OF ACTUATION
NON RETURN VALVES
Check valve
NON RETURN VALVES
Shuttle valve
NON RETURN VALVES
Quick Exhaust Valves
Functional diagram of quick exhaust valve.

NON RETURN VALVES
Quick Exhaust Valves
Application of quick exhaust valve.

NON RETURN VALVES
Two pressure valve

FLOW CONTROL VALVES
Flow control valve a) manifold b) inline

Pressure limiting valve

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Hydraulics and Pneumatic systems

Mechatronics and Control

Methods for transmitting power from one point to another point

 Fluid Transmission – Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Water has certain drawbacks in the transmission of hydraulic power in

 Pure water contains various chemicals (some deliberately included) and

 Beneﬁts of lubrication not afforded by water as well as increased life and

Based on the control system

Open-loop system: There is no feedback in the open system and

Based on the type of control

Electrical control: This type of system is controlled by electrical devices. Four

Based on the type of control

Electronic control: This type of system is controlled by microelectronic devices.

Multiplication and variation of forces: Linear or rotary force can be multiplied by a

Low-speed torque: Unlike electric motors, air or hydraulic motors can

 Special handling and disposal procedures for hydraulic oil required by

The cost of system operation is a factor that must be considered. Generally,

Hydraulics System Pneumatic System

The automation market in India is estimated to be 1/10ththat of China.

1. As the economy grows, this industry grows.

2. There is a lot of automation and conversion into more sophisticated

3. One of the interesting things happening in this industry is that India is

 A ﬂuid may be either a gas or a liquid.

Density Density (ρ ) is deﬁned as mass per unit volume,

Density Increases with pressure and decreases with temperature

Density Characteristics of Hydraulics Fluid

Speciﬁc weight of common Liquids at 200 C , 1 bar

Atmospheric Pressure and Absolute Pressure

1. Power transmission: To transmit power, which is the primary function.

1. Classiﬁcation based on displacement:

2. Classiﬁcation based on delivery:

As this ﬂow is produced, the inlet valve

When the piston moves to the right, the

If the outlet port opens directly to the

The advantages are as follows:

•True involute gear form (contour gear curved)

It consist of a pump housing in which a pair of precisely machined

One of the gears, called a driver is driven by a prime mover. The

When the outlet ﬂow is resisted, pressure in the pump outlet

When the system pressure increases, imbalance

This imbalance increases mechanical friction and

It is important to note that the inlet is at the point of

These units are not reversible if the internal bleeds

So that the manufacturer’s literature should be

If they are not drilled in this manner, the bearing

•Not true involute gear form

Unbalanced vane pump with ﬁxed delivery.

2. Balanced vane pump

When the rotor rotates, the centrifugal force pushes

The disadvantages of vane pumps are as follows:

 Air is used where quick response of actuator is required.

Free air and Standard air

Variation of pressure with altitude

If a given mass of a gas is compressed or expanded at a constant temperature, then the

Stage 2: In this stage air is compressed using compressor.

Aspect Reciprocating Compressors Rotary Compressors

Aspect Reciprocating Compressors Rotary Compressors

Selection of air compressor for given application is governed by

• Flow rates or capacity:-