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Sample PDF
Sample PDF
CHAPTER 1
Inspection Methods—
Overview and
Comparison
Visual Inspection
Visual inspection provides a means of detecting and examining a vari-
ety of surface flaws, such as corrosion, contamination, surface finish, and
surface discontinuities on joints (for example, welds, seals, and solder
connections). Visual inspection is also the most widely used method for
detecting and examining surface cracks that are particularly important be-
cause of their relationship to structural failure mechanisms. Even when
other inspection techniques are used to detect surface cracks, visual in-
spection often provides a useful supplement. For example, when the eddy
2 / Inspection of Metals—Understanding the Basics
Fig. 1 F low lines in closed die forged UNS G41400 steering knuckle revealed
by cold deep acid etching with 10% aqueous HNO3 (0.5×) and en-
hanced with inking. Source: Ref 1
Chapter 1: Inspection Methods—Overview and Comparison / 3
Machine Vision
Machine vision emerged as an important new technique for industrial
inspection and quality control in the early 1980s. When properly applied,
machine vision can provide accurate and inexpensive inspection of work-
pieces, thus dramatically increasing product quality. Machine vision is
also used as an in-process gaging tool for controlling the process and cor-
recting trends that could lead to the production of defective parts. The
automotive and electronics industries make heavy use of machine vision
for automated high volume, labor intensive and repetitive inspection
operations.
4 / Inspection of Metals—Understanding the Basics
This ability to acquire an image, analyze it, and then make an appro
priate decision is extremely useful in inspection and quality control ap-
plications. It enables machine vision to be used for a variety of functions,
including: identification of shapes, measurement of distances and ranges,
gaging of sizes and dimensions, determining orientation of parts, quantifying
motion, and detecting surface shading. Several examples of machine vision
applications are shown in Fig. 3. These capabilities allow users to employ
machine vision systems for cost-effective and reliable 100% inspection of
workpieces.
Fig. 3 E xamples of machine vision applications. (a) Measuring fit and gap of automotive fender. Courtesy
of Diffracto Limited. (b) Reading box labels in sorting application. Courtesy of Cognex Corporation.
(c) Reading part numbers on silicon wafers. Courtesy of Cognex Corporation. (d) Vision system for arc welding.
Courtesy of Robotic Vision Systems, Inc. Source: Ref 2
Chapter 1: Inspection Methods—Overview and Comparison / 5
Hardness Testing
Hardness testing is one of the simplest and most widely used inspection
methods. It is a nondestructive method that can be used to predict the
strength of metals. The correlation between tensile strength and hardness
for steels, brass, and nodular cast iron are shown in Fig. 4. All heat treated
steels are subjected to hardness testing to verify that the heat treatment
produced the correct hardness and thus strength.
The most common types of hardness tests are indentation methods.
These tests use a variety of indentation loads ranging from 1 gf (microin-
dentation) to 3000 kgf (Brinell). Low and high powered microscopes (Bri-
nell, Vickers, and microindentation) are used to measure the resulting in-
dentation diagonals from which a hardness number is calculated using a
formula. In the Rockwell test, the depth of indentation is measured and
converted to a hardness number, which is inversely related to the depth.
A general comparison of indentation hardness testing methods is given
in Table 1. Generally, the scale to use for a specified material is indicated
on the engineering design drawings or in the test specifications. However,
at times the scale must be determined and selected to suit a given set of
circumstances.
Hardness testing has many applications in quality control, materials
evaluation, and the prediction of properties. Because hardness testing is
nondestructive and quick, it is a very useful tool for manufacturing and
process control. For example, the most common application of the Rock-
well test is testing steels that have been hardened and tempered. If a hard-
Indent
Diagonal or
Test Indenter(s) diameter Depth Load(s) Method of measurement Surface preparation Tests per hour Applications Remarks
Brinell Ball indenter, 10 1–7 mm (0.04– Up to 0.3 mm (0.01 3000 kgf for fer- Measure diameter of Specially ground 50 with diameter Large forged and Damage to specimen
mm (0.4 in.) or 0.28 in.) in.) and 1 mm rous materials indentation under area of measure- measurements cast parts minimized by use of
6 / Inspection of Metals—Understanding the Basics
2.5 mm (0.1 in.) (0.04 in.), re- down to 100 kgf microscope; read ments of diame- lightly loaded ball in-
in diameter spectively, with for soft metals hardness from ta- ter denter. Indent then
2.5 mm (0.1 in.) bles less than Rockwell
and 10 mm (0.4
in.) diam balls
Rockwell 120° diamond cone, 0.1–1.5 mm 25–375 μm (0.1– Major 60–150 kgf Read hardness di- No preparation nec- 300 manually Forgings, castings, Measure depth of pene-
1.6–13 mm (116⁄ (0.004–0.06 1.48 μin.) Minor 10 kgf rectly from meter essary on many 900 automati- roughly ma- tration, not diameter
to ½ in.) diam in.) or digital display surfaces cally chined parts
ball
Rockwell As for Rockwell 0.1–0.7 mm 10–110 μm (0.04– Major 15–45 kgf As for Rockwell Machined surface, As for Rockwell Critical surfaces of A surface test of case
superficial (0.004–0.03 0.43 μin.) Minor 3 kgf ground finished parts hardening and anneal-
in.) ing
Vickers 136° diamond Measure diago- 300–100 μm (0.12– 1–120 kgf Measure indent with Smooth clean sur- Up to 180 Fine finished sur- Small indent but high
pyramid nal, not diame- 0.4 μin.) low-power micro- face, symmetri- faces, thin speci- local stresses
ter scope; read hard- cal if not flat mens
ness from tables
Microhard- 136° diamond in- 40 μm (0.16 μin.) 1–4 μm (0.004– 1 gf–1 kgf Measure indentation Polished surface Up to 60 Surface layers, thin Laboratory test used on
ness denter or a 0.016 μin.) with low-power stock, down to brittle materials or mi-
Knoop indenter microscope; read 200 μm crostructural constitu-
hardness from ents
tables
Ultrasonic 136° diamond 15–50 μm (0.06– 4–18 μm (0.016– 800 gf Direct readout onto Surface better than 1200 (limited by Thin stock and fin- Calibration for Young’s
pyramid 0.2 μin.) 0.07 μin.) meter or digital 1.2 μm (0.004 speed at which ished surfaces in modulus necessary,
display μin.) for accurate operator can any position 100% testing of fin-
work. Otherwise, read display) ished parts. Com-
up to 3 μm pletely nondestructive
(0.012 μin.)
Source: Ref 4
Chapter 1: Inspection Methods—Overview and Comparison / 7
Tensile Testing
The tensile test is the most common test used to evaluate the mechani-
cal properties of materials. Tensile testing is normally conducted by the
material producer and the results are supplied to the user as part of the
material certification sheet. Since the tensile test is a destructive test, it is
not performed directly on the supplied material. For wrought materials,
the test specimens are taken from the same heat or lot of material that is
supplied. In the case of castings, separate test bars are cast at the same
time as the part casting and from the same material used to pour the part
casting. Although the tensile test is not normally conducted by the user of
the metal product, it is important for the user to understand the test and its
results.
Unless the material specification requires an elevated temperature test,
the tensile test is normally conducted at room temperature. Typical values
reported on the material certification include the yield strength, the ulti-
mate tensile strength, and the percent elongation. Since the modulus of
elasticity is a structure insensitive property and not affected by process-
ing, it is generally not required. The main advantages of the tensile test
are, the stress state is well established, the test has been carefully stan-
dardized, and the test is relatively easy and inexpensive to perform.
The tensile properties of a material are determined by applying a ten-
sion load to a specimen and measuring the elongation or extension in a
load frame such as the one shown in Fig. 5. The load can be converted to
engineering stress s by dividing the load by the original cross-sectional
area of the specimen. The engineering strain (e) can be calculated by di-
viding the change in gage length by the original gage length.
A typical stress-strain curve for a metal is shown in Fig. 6. The shape
and magnitude of the stress-strain curve of a metal depends on its compo-
sition, heat treatment, prior history of plastic deformation, and the strain
8 / Inspection of Metals—Understanding the Basics
rate, temperature, and state of stress imposed during the testing. The pa-
rameters used to describe the stress-strain curve of a metal are, the tensile
strength, yield strength or yield point, percent elongation, and reduction in
area. The first two are strength parameters and the last two are indications
of ductility.
The yield strength (YS) is the stress required to produce a small speci-
fied amount of plastic deformation. The usual definition of this property is
the offset yield strength determined by the stress corresponding to the in-
tersection of the stress-strain curve offset by a specified strain. For metals
without a definite yield point, the yield strength is determined by drawing
Chapter 1: Inspection Methods—Overview and Comparison / 9
a straight line parallel to the initial straight line portion of the stress-strain
curve. The line is normally offset by a strain of 0.2% (0.002).
As shown in Fig. 6, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is the maximum
stress that occurs during the test. Although the tensile strength is the value
most often listed from the results of tensile testing, it is not generally the
value that is used in design. Static design of ductile metals is usually based
on the yield strength, since most designs do not allow any plastic defor-
mation. However, for brittle metals that do not display any appreciable
plastic deformation, tensile strength is a valid design criterion.
Measures of ductility that are obtained from the tension test are the en-
gineering strain at fracture (ef) and the reduction of area at fracture (q).
Both are usually expressed as percentages, with the engineering strain at
failure often reported as the percent elongation.
Chemical Analysis
The overall chemical composition of metals and alloys is most com-
monly determined by x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and optical emission
spectroscopy (OES). While these methods work well for most elements,
they are not useful for dissolved gases and some nonmetallic elements that
can be present in metals as alloying or impurity elements. High tempera-
ture combustion and inert gas fusion methods are typically used to analyze
for dissolved gases (oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen) and, in some cases, car-
bon and sulfur in metals.
A number of methods can be used to obtain information about the
chemistry of the first one to several atomic layers of samples of metals, as
well as of other materials, such as semiconductors and various types of
thin films. Of these methods, the scanning Auger microprobe (SAM) is the
most widely used.
Metallography
Metallography is the scientific discipline of examining and determining
the constitution and the underlying structure of the constituents in metals
and alloys. The objective of metallography is to accurately reveal material
structure at the surface of a sample and/or from a cross-section specimen.
For example, cross-sections cut from a component or sample may be mac-
roscopically examined by light illumination in order to reveal various im-
portant macrostructural features (on the order of 1 mm to 1 m or 0.04 in.
to 3 ft), such as the ones shown in Fig. 7 and listed here:
• Flow lines in wrought products
• Solidification structures in cast products
• Weld characteristics, including depth of penetration, fusion zone size
and number of passes, size of heat affected zone, and type and density
of weld imperfections
10 / Inspection of Metals—Understanding the Basics
Fig. 7 E xamples of uses for metallography. (a) Equiaxed ferrite grain size in plain carbon steel. (b) Ion
carburized gear tooth showing case depth. (c) Microstructure of galvanized coating on steel,
thickness and quality. (d) Multipass weld quality in type 304 stainless steel plate. Source: Ref 5, 6, and 7.
Nondestructive Testing
Nondestructive testing (NDT) and inspection techniques are commonly
used to detect and evaluate flaws (irregularities or discontinuities) or leaks
in engineering systems. Of the many different NDT techniques used in
industry, liquid penetrant and magnetic particle testing account for about
one-half of all NDT, ultrasonics and x-ray methods about another third,
eddy current testing about 10%, and all other methods for only about 2%.
It should be noted that the techniques reviewed in this book are by no
means all of the NDT techniques utilized. However, they do represent the
most commonly employed methods. A simplified breakdown of the com-
plexity and relative requirements of the five most frequently used NDT
techniques is shown in Table 2, and the common NDT methods are com-
Table 2 The relative uses and merits of various nondestructive testing methods
Test method
Source: Ref 8
12 / Inspection of Metals—Understanding the Basics
Source: Ref 8
Chapter 1: Inspection Methods—Overview and Comparison / 13
Fig. 8 ead of liquid penetrant formed when, after excess penetrant has been
B
removed from a workpiece surface, the penetrant remaining in a dis-
continuity emerges to the surface until an equilibrium is established. Source:
Ref 9
14 / Inspection of Metals—Understanding the Basics
Fig. 9 agnetized bars showing directions of magnetic field. (a) Circular. (b)
M
Longitudinal. Source: Ref 10
Chapter 1: Inspection Methods—Overview and Comparison / 15
Fig. 10 wo common types of inspection coils and the patterns of eddy cur-
T
rent flow generated by the exciting current in the coils. Solenoid type
coil is applied to cylindrical or tubular parts; pancake type coil, to a flat surface.
Source: Ref 11
16 / Inspection of Metals—Understanding the Basics
Radiographic Inspection
Three basic elements of radiography include a radiation source, the tes-
tpiece or object being evaluated, and a sensing material. These elements
are shown schematically in Fig. 11. Radiography is based on differential
absorption of penetrating radiation−either electromagnetic radiation of
very short wavelength or particulate radiation−by the part or test piece
(object) being inspected. Because of differences in density and variations
in thickness of the part, or differences in absorption characteristics caused
by variations in composition, different portions of a testpiece absorb dif-
ferent amounts of penetrating radiation. Unabsorbed radiation passing
Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic inspection is a nondestructive method in which beams of
high frequency acoustic energy are introduced into a material to detect
18 / Inspection of Metals—Understanding the Basics
surface and subsurface flaws, to measure the thickness of the material, and
to measure the distance to a flaw. An ultrasonic beam travels through a
material until it strikes an interface or discontinuity such as a flaw. Inter-
faces and flaws interrupt the beam and reflect a portion of the incident
acoustic energy. The amount of energy reflected is a function of (a) the
nature and orientation of the interface or flaw; and, (b) the acoustic imped-
ance of such a reflector. Energy reflected from various interfaces and flaws
can be used to define the presence and locations of flaws, the thickness of
the material, and the depth of a flaw beneath a surface. Pulse echo and
through transmission, two types of ultrasonic inspection, are illustrated in
Fig. 12.
Fig. 12 wo types of ultrasonic inspection. (a) Pulse echo. (b) Through trans-
T
mission
Chapter 1: Inspection Methods—Overview and Comparison / 19
REFERENCES
1. S.M. Purdy, Macroetching, Metallography and Microstructures, Vol
9, ASM Handbook, ASM International, 2004, p 313–324
2. J.D. Meyer, Machine Vision and Robotic Inspection Systems, Nonde-
structive Evaluation and Quality Control, Vol 17, ASM Handbook,
ASM International, 1992, p 29–45
3. F.C. Campbell, Elements of Metallurgy and Engineering Alloys, ASM
International, 2008
4. A. Fee, Selection and Industrial Applications of Hardness Tests, Me-
chanical Testing and Evaluation, Vol 8, ASM Handbook, ASM Inter-
national, 2000, p 260–277
5. A. O. Benscoter and B.L. Bramfitt, Metallography and Microstruc-
tures of Low-Carbon and Coated Steels, Metallography and Micro-
structures, Vol 9, ASM Handbook, ASM International, 2004, p 588–
607
6. Metallography and Microstructures of Case-Hardening Steel, Metal-
lography and Microstructures, Vol 9, ASM Handbook, ASM Interna-
tional, 2004, p 627–643
7. Metallography and Microstructures of Weldments, Metallography
and Microstructures, Vol 9, ASM Handbook, ASM International,
2004, p 1047–1056
8. L. Cartz, Quality Control and NDT, Nondestructive Testing, ASM In-
ternational, 1995, p 1–13
9. J.S. Borucki and G. Jordan, Liquid Penetrant Inspection, Nondestruc-
tive Evaluation and Quality Control, Vol 17, ASM Handbook, 1989,
p 491–511
10. A. Lindgren, Magnetic Particle Inspection, Nondestructive Eval-
20 / Inspection of Metals—Understanding the Basics
uation and Quality Control, Vol 17, ASM Handbook, 1989, p 89–
128
11. Eddy Current Inspection, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality
Control, Vol 17, ASM Handbook, 1989, p 164–194
12. Radiographic Inspection, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality
Control, Vol 17, ASM Handbook, 1989, p 295–357