SECTION 208 𝑭𝒑𝒙 = design seismic force on a

EARTHQUAKE LOADS diaphragm

𝑭𝒕 = that portion of the base shear, 𝑉,
208.1 General considered concentrated at the
top of the structure in addition
to 𝐹𝑛
208.1.1 Purpose
𝒇𝒊 = lateral force at Level 𝑖 for use in
The purpose of the succeeding earthquake provisions is
Equation 208-14
primarily to design seismic-resistant structures to safeguard 𝒈 = acceleration due to gravity =
against major structural damage that may lead to loss of life 9.815 m/sec2
and property. These provisions are not intended to assure 𝒉𝒊 , 𝒉𝒏 , 𝒉𝒙 = height above the base to Level 𝑖,
zero-damage to structures nor maintain their functionality 𝑛, or 𝑥, respectively, m
after a severe earthquake. 𝑰 = importance factor given in Table
208-1
208.1.2 Minimum Seismic Design 𝑰𝒑 = importance factor for
Structures and portions thereof, as a minimum, be designed nonstructural component as
and constructed to resist the effects of seismic ground motion given in Table 208-1
as provided in this section. 𝑳 = live load
𝐋𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐥 𝒊 = level of the structure referred to
by the subscript 𝑖
208.1.3 Seismic and Wind Design
"𝒊 = 1” designates the first level
When the code-prescribed wind design produces greater
above the base
effects, the wind design shall govern, but detailing 𝐋𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐥 𝒏 = that level that is uppermost in
requirements and limitations prescribed in this section and the main portion of the structure
referenced sections shall be made to govern. 𝐋𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐥 𝒙 = that level that is under design
consideration
208.2 Definitions "𝒙 = 1” designates the first level
See Section 202. above the base
𝑴 = maximum moment magnitude
208.3 Symbols and Notations 𝑵𝒂 = near-source factor used in the
𝑨𝑩 = ground floor area of structure to determination of 𝐶𝑎 in Seismic
include area covered by all Zone 4 related to both the
overhangs and projections, m2 proximity of the building or
𝑨𝑪 = the combined effective area of structure to known faults with
the shear walls in the first storey magnitudes as set forth in Tables
of the structure, m2 208-4 and 208-5
𝑨𝒆 = the minimum cross-sectional 𝑵𝒗 = near-source factor used in the
area in any horizontal plane in determination of 𝐶𝑣 in Seismic
the first storey of a shear wall, m2 Zone 4 related to both proximity
𝑨𝒙 = the torsional amplification factor of the building or structure to
at Level 𝑥 known faults with magnitudes as
𝒂𝒑 = Numerical coefficient specified set forth in Tables 208-4 and
in Section 208.7 and set forth in 208-6
Table 208-13 𝑷𝑰 = plasticity index of soil
𝑪𝒂 = seismic coefficient, as set forth in determined in accordance with
Table 208-7 approved national standards
𝑪𝒕 = numerical coefficient given in 𝑹 = numerical coefficient
Section 208.5.2.2 representative of the inherent
𝑪𝒗 = seismic coefficient, as set forth in over-strength and global
Table 208-8 ductility of lateral-force-resisting
𝑫 = dead load systems, as set forth in Table
𝑫𝒆 = the length of a shear wall in the 208-11 or 208-12
first storey in the direction 𝒓 = a ratio used in determining 𝜌, the
parallel to the applied forces, m redundancy/reliability factor. See
𝑬, 𝑬𝒉 , 𝑬𝒎 , 𝑬𝒗 = earthquake loads set forth in Section 208.5.
Section 208.6 𝑺𝑨 , 𝑺𝑩 , 𝑺𝑪 , 𝑺𝑫 , 𝑺𝑬 , 𝑺𝑭 = soil profile types as set forth in
𝑭𝒙 = design seismic forces applied to Table 208-2
Level 𝑖, 𝑛, or 𝑥, respectively 𝑻 = elastic fundamental period of
𝑭𝒑 = design seismic force on a part of vibration of the structure in the
the structure

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 direction under consideration, inherent redundancy, over-strength and ductility of the lateral
sec force-resisting system.
𝑽 = base shear given by Equation
208-8, 208-9, 208-10, 208-11 or The minimum design strength shall be based on the Design
208-15 Seismic Forces determined in accordance with the static
𝑽𝒙 = the design storey shear in Storey
lateral force procedure of Section 208.5, except as modified
𝑥
by Section 208.5.3.5.4.
𝑾 = the total seismic dead load
defined in Section 208.5.2.1
𝒘𝒊 , 𝒘𝒙 = that portion of 𝑊 located at or Where strength design is used, the load combinations of
assigned to Level 𝑖 or 𝑥, Section 203.3 shall apply. Where Allowable Stress Design is
respectively used, the load combinations of Section 203.4 shall apply.
𝑾𝒑 = the weight of an element or
component Allowable Stress Design may bc used to evaluate sliding or
𝒘𝒑𝒙 = the weight of the diaphragm and overturning at the soil-structure interface regardless of the
the element tributary thereto at design approach used in the design of the structure, provided
Level 𝑥, including applicable load combinations of Section 203.4 are utilized.
portions of other loads defined
in Section 208.6.1
208.4.2 Occupancy Categories
𝒁 = seismic zone factor as given in
For purpose of earthquake-resistant design, each structure
Table 208-3
∆𝑴 = Maximum Inelastic Response shall be placed in one of the occupancy categories listed din
Displacement, which is the total Table 103-1. Table 208-1 assigns importance factors, 𝐼, and 𝐼𝑝 ,
drift or total storey drift that and structural observation requirements for each category.
occurs when the structure is
subjected to the Design Basis
Ground Motion, including Table 208-1 – Seismic Importance Factors
estimated elastic and inelastic Seismic Seismic
contributions to the total Occupancy Category1 Importance Importance2
deformation defined in Section Factors, 𝐼 Factors, 𝐼𝑝
208.6.4.2, mm I. Essential Facilities3 1.50 1.50
∆𝑺 = Design Level Response II. Hazardous Facilities 1.25 1.50
Displacement, which is the total
III. Special Occupancy
drift or total storey drift that 1.00 1.00
Structures
occurs when the structure is
IV. Standard Occupancy
subjected to the design seismic 1.00 1.00
Structures
forces, mm
V. Miscellaneous
𝜹𝒊 = Horizontal displacement at Level 1.00 1.00
Structures
𝑖 relative to the base due to 1 See Table 103-1 for occupancy category listing
applied lateral forces, 𝑓𝑖 , for use 2 The limitation of 𝑰𝒑 for panel connections in Section
in Equation 208-14, mm
𝝆 = Redundancy/Reliability Factor
208.7.2.3 shall be 1.0 for the entire connector
given by Equation 208-20, mm
3 Structural observation requirements are given in
𝛀𝒐 = Seismic Force Amplification Section 107.9
Factor, which is required to
4 For anchorage of machinery and equipment required
account for structural over- for life-safety systems, the value of 𝑰𝒑 shall be taken
strength and set forth in Table as 1.5
208-11
208.4.3 Site Geology and Soil Characteristics
208.4 Basis for Design Each site shall be assigned a soil profile type based on
properly substantiated geotechnical data using the site
208.4.1 General categorization procedure set forth in Section 208.4.3.1.1 and
The procedures and the limitations for the design of structures Table 208-2.
shall be determined considering seismic zoning, site
characteristics, occupancy, configuration, structural system Exception:
and height in accordance with this section. Structures shall be When the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to
designed with adequate strength to withstand the lateral determine the soil type, Type SD shall be used. Soil Profile Type
displacements induced by the Design Basis Ground Motion, SE or SF need not be assumed unless the building official
considering the inelastic response of the structure and the determines that Type 𝑺𝑬 or 𝑺𝑭 may be present at the site or in

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

the event that Type 𝑺𝑬 or 𝑺𝑭 is established by geotechnical 3. Very high plasticity clays with a plasticity index, 𝑃𝐼 >
data. 75, where the depth of clay exceeds 7.5 m.

208.4.3.1 Soil Profile Type 4. Very thick soft/medium clays, where the depth of
Soil Profile Types 𝑺𝑨 , 𝑺𝑩 , 𝑺𝑪 , 𝑺𝑫 and 𝑺𝑬 are defined in Table clay exceeds 35 m.
208-2 and Soil Profile Type SF is defined as soils requiring site-
specific evaluation as follows: 5. The criteria set forth in the definition for Soil Profile
Type 𝑺𝑭 requiring site-specific evaluation shall be
1. Soils vulnerable to potential failure or collapse considered. If the site corresponds to these criteria,
under seismic loading, such as liquefiable soils, the site shall be classified as Soil Profile Type 𝑺𝑭 and
quick and highly sensitive clays, and collapsible a site-specific evaluation shall be conducted.
weakly cemented soils.
208.4.3.1.1 Site Categorization Procedure
2. Peats and/or highly organic clays, where the
thickness of peat or highly organic clay exceeds 3.0 208.4.3.1.1.1 Scope
m. This section describes the procedure for determining the Soil
Profile Types 𝑺𝑨 through 𝑺𝑭 as defined in Table 208-2.

Table 208-2 – Soil Profile Types

Average Soil Properties for Top 30 m of Soil Profile

Soil Profile
Soil Profile Name/ Generic Description Shear Wave Velocity, SPT, N (blows/ Shear Strength,
Type
𝑣𝑠 (m/s) 300 mm) 𝑠𝑢 (kPa)
𝑆𝐴 Hard Rock >1500
𝑆𝐵 Rock 760 to 1500
𝑆𝐶 Very Dense Soil and Soft Rock 360 to 760 >50 >100
𝑆𝐷 Stiff Soil Profile 180 to 360 15 to 50 50 to 100
𝑆𝐸 1 Soft Soil Profile <180 <15 <50
Soil Requiring Site-specific Evaluation.
𝑆𝐹
See Section 208.4.3.1
1 Soil Profile Type 𝑺𝑬 also includes any soil profile with more than 3.0 m of soft clay defined as a soil with plasticity index, 𝑷𝑰 >
𝟐𝟎, 𝒘𝒎𝒄 ≥ 𝟒𝟎% and 𝒔𝒖 < 𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂. The plasticity index, 𝑷𝑰, and moisture content, 𝒘𝒎𝒄, shall be determined in accordance with
approved national standards.

208.4.3.1.1.2 Definitions where

Soil profile types are defined as follows: 𝑑𝑖 = thickness of Layer 𝑖, m
𝑆𝐴 Hard rock with measured shear wave velocity, 𝒗𝒔 > 𝑣𝑠𝑖 = shear wave velocity in Layer 𝑖, m/s
𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒎⁄𝒔
𝑆𝐵 Rock with 𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝒎⁄𝒔 < 𝒗𝒔 ≤ 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒎⁄𝒔 208.4.3.1.1.2.2 𝑵, Average Field Standard Penetration
𝑆𝐶 Very dense soil and soft rock with 𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝒎⁄𝒔 < 𝒗𝒔 < Resistance and 𝑵𝒄𝒉 , Average Standard Penetration
𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝒎⁄𝒔 or with either 𝑵 > 𝟓𝟎 or 𝒔𝒖 ≥ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑷𝒂 Resistance for Cohesionless Soil Layers
𝑆𝐷 Stiff soil with 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝒎⁄𝒔 ≤ 𝒗𝒔 ≤ 𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝒎⁄𝒔 or with 𝟏𝟓 ≤
𝑵 and 𝑵𝒄𝒉 shall be determined in accordance with the
𝑵 ≤ 𝟓𝟎 or 𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝑷𝒂 ≤ 𝒔𝒖 ≤ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑷𝒂
following equation:
𝑆𝐸 A soil profile with 𝒗𝒔 < 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝒎⁄𝒔 or any profile with
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑑𝑖
more than 3 m of soft clay defined as soil with 𝑷𝑰 > 𝑁=
(208-2)
𝑑
𝟐𝟎, 𝒘𝒎𝒄 = 𝟒𝟎 percent and 𝒔𝒖 < 𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖
𝑁𝑖
𝑆𝐹 Soils requiring site-specific evaluation, refer to
Section 208.4.3.1 𝑑𝑠
𝑁𝑐ℎ =
𝑑𝑖 (208-3)
∑𝑛𝑖=1
208.4.3.1.1.2.1 𝒗𝒔 , Average Shear Wave Velocity 𝑁𝑖
𝒗𝒔 shall be determined in accordance with the following
equation: where
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 = thickness of Layer 𝑖 in mm
𝑣𝑠 = = the total thickness of cohesionless soil layers in
𝑑 (208-1) 𝑑𝑠
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖
𝑣𝑠𝑖 the top 30 m

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 𝑁𝑖 = the standard penetration resistance of soil layer 2. 𝑵 for the top 30 meters (𝑵 method).
in accordance with approved nationally
recognized standards 3. 𝑁𝑐ℎ for cohesionless soil layers (𝑷𝑰 < 𝟐𝟎) in the top
30 m and average 𝒔𝒖 for cohesive soil layers (𝑷𝑰 >
208.4.3.1.1.2.3 𝒔𝒖 , Average Undrained Shear Strength 𝟐𝟎) in the top 30 m (𝒔𝒖 method).
𝒔𝒖 shall be determined in accordance with the following
equation: 208.4.4 Site Seismic Hazard Characteristics
𝑑𝑐
𝑠𝑢 = Seismic hazard characteristics for the site shall be established
𝑑 (208-4)
∑𝑛𝑖=1 1
𝑠𝑢𝑖 based on the seismic zone and proximity of the site soil profile
where site to active seismic sources, characteristics and the
𝑑𝑐 = the total thickness (𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒅𝒔 ) of cohesive soil structure's importance factor.
layers in the top 30 m
𝑠𝑢𝑖 = the undrained shear strength in accordance 208.4.4.1 Seismic Zone
with approved nationally recognized The Philippine archipelago is divided into two seismic zones
standards, not to exceed 250 kPa only. Zone 2 covers the provinces of Palawan (except
Busuanga), Sulu and Tawi-Tawi while the rest of the country is
208.4.3.1.1.2.4 Rock Profiles, 𝑺𝑨 and 𝑺𝑩 under Zone 4 as shown in Figure 208-1. Each structure shall
The shear wave velocity for rock, Soil Profile Type 𝑺𝑩 , shall be be assigned a seismic zone factor Z, in accordance with Table
either measured on site or estimated by geotechnical 208-3.
engineer, engineering geologist or seismologist for
competent rock with moderate fracturing and weathering. Table 208-3 – Seismic Zone Factor Z
Softer and more highly fractured and weathered rock shall ZONE 2 4
either be measured on site for shear wave velocity or classified Z 0.20 0.40
as Soil Profile Type 𝑺𝑪 .
208.4.4.2 Seismic Source Types
The hard rock, Soil Profile Type 𝑺𝑨 , category shall be Table 208-4 defines the types of seismic sources. The location
supported by shear wave velocity measurement either on site and type of seismic sources to be used for design shall be
or on profiles of the same rock type in the same formation established based on approved geological data; see Figure
with an equal or greater degree of weathering and fracturing. 208-2A. Type A sources shall be determined from Figure 208-
Where hard rock conditions are known to be continuous to a 2B, 2C, 2D, 2E or the most recent mapping of active faults by
depth of 30 m, surficial shear wave velocity measurements the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
may be extrapolated to assess 𝒗𝒔 . The rock categories, Soil (PHIVOLCS).
Profile Types 𝑺𝑨 and 𝑆𝐵 , shall not be used if there is more than
3 meters of soil between the rock surface and the bottom of Table 208-4 – Seismic Source Types1
the spread footing or mat foundation. Seismic Source
Seismic
Seismic Source Definition
Source
The definitions presented herein shall apply to the upper 30 Description Maximum Moment
Type
m of the site profile. Profiles containing distinctly different soil Magnitude, M
layers shall be subdivided into those layers designated by a Faults that are capable
number from 1 to n at the bottom, where there are a total of of producing large
𝒏 distinct layers in the upper 30 m. The symbol 𝒊 then refer to A magnitude events and 7.0 ≤ 𝑀 ≤ 8.4
any one of the layers between 1 and 𝒏. that have a high rate of
seismic activity.
208.4.3.1.1.2.5 Soft Clay Profile, 𝑺𝑬 All faults other than
B 6.5 ≤ 𝑀 < 7.0
Types A and C.
The existence of a total thickness of soft clay greater than 3 m
Faults that are not
shall be investigated where a soft clay layer is defined by 𝒔𝒖 <
capable of producing
𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂, 𝒘𝒎𝒄 ≥ 𝟒𝟎 percent and 𝑷𝑰 > 𝟐𝟎. If these criteria are
large magnitude
met, the site shall be classified as Soil Profile Type 𝑆𝐸 . C 𝑀 < 6.5
earthquakes and that
have a relatively low
208.4.3.1.1.2.6 Soil Profiles 𝑺𝑪 , 𝑺𝑫 and 𝑺𝑬 rate of seismic activity.
Sites with Soil Profile Types 𝑺𝑪 , 𝑺𝑫 and 𝑺𝑬 shall be classified by 1 Subduction sources shall be evaluated on a site-
using one of the following three methods with 𝒗𝒔 , 𝑵 and 𝒔𝒖 specific basis.
computed in all cases as specified in Section 208.4.3.1.1.2.
208.4.4.3 Seismic Zone 4 Near-Source Factor
1. 𝒗𝒔 for the top 30 meters (𝑣𝑠 method).

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

In Seismic Zone 4, each site shall be assigned near-source 5. None of the following structural irregularities is
factors in accordance with Tables 208-5 and 208-6 based on present, Type 1, 4 or 5 of Table 208-9, and Type 1
the Seismic Source Type as set forth in Section 208.4.4.2. or 4 of Table 208-10.

For high rise structures and essential facilities within 2.0 km of 208.4.4.4 Seismic Response Coefficients
a major fault, a site specific seismic elastic design response Each structure shall be assigned a seismic coefficient, 𝑪𝒂 , in
spectrum is recommended to be obtained for the specific accordance with Table 208-7 and a seismic coefficient, 𝑪𝒗 , in
area. accordance with Table 208-8.
Table 208-5 – Near Source Factor 𝑵𝒂 1
Seismic Closest Distance to Known Seismic
Source Source2 Table 208-7 – Seismic Coefficient, 𝑪𝒂
Type < 2 km < 5 km > 10 km Seismic Zone Z
Soil Profile Type
A 1.5 1.2 1.0 Z = 0.2 Z = 0.4
B 1.3 1.0 1.0 𝑆𝐴 0.16 0.32𝑁𝑎
C 1.0 1.0 1.0 𝑆𝐵 0.20 0.40𝑁𝑎
𝑆𝐶 0.24 0.40𝑁𝑎
Table 208-6 – Near Source Factor 𝑵𝒗 1 𝑆𝐷 0.28 0.44𝑁𝑎
Seismic Closest Distance to Known Seismic 𝑆𝐸 0.34 0.44𝑁𝑎
Source Source2 𝑆𝐹 See Footnote 1 of Table 208-8
Type < 2 km 5 km 10 km > 15 km
A 2.0 1.6 1.2 1.0 Table 208-8 – Seismic Coefficient, 𝑪𝒗
B 1.6 1.2 1.0 1.0 Seismic Zone Z
C 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Soil Profile Type
Z = 0.2 Z = 0.4
𝑆𝐴 0.16 0.32𝑁𝑣
Notes for Tables 208-5 and 208-6: 𝑆𝐵 0.20 0.40𝑁𝑣
1. The Near-Source Factor may be based on the linear 𝑆𝐶 0.32 0.56𝑁𝑣
interpolation of values for distances other than 𝑆𝐷 0.40 0.64𝑁𝑣
those shown in the table. 𝑆𝐸 0.64 0.96𝑁𝑣
2. The closest distance to seismic source shall be taken 𝑆𝐹 See Footnote 1 of Table 208-8
as the minimum distance between the site and the 1 Site-specific geotechnical investigation and dynamic
area described by the vertical projection of the site response analysis shall be performed to determine
source on the surface (i.e. surface projection of fault seismic coefficients
plane). The surface projection need not include
portions of the source at depths of 10 km or 208.4.5 Configuration Requirements
greater. The largest value of the Near-Source Factor Each structure shall be designed as being structurally regular
considering all sources shall be used for design. or irregular in accordance with Sections 208.4.5.1 and
208.4.5.2.
The value of 𝑁𝑎 used to determine 𝐶𝑎 need not exceed 1.1 for
structures complying with all the following conditions: 208.4.5.1 Regular Structures
Regular structures have no significant physical discontinuities
1. The soil profile type is 𝑺𝑨 , 𝑺𝑩, 𝑺𝑪 or 𝑺𝑫 . in plan or vertical configuration or in their lateral-force-
resisting systems such as irregular features described in
2. 𝝆 = 1.0. Section 208.4.5.2.

3. Except in single-storey structures, residential 208.4.5.2 Irregular Structures

building accommodating 10 or fewer persons, 1. Irregular structures have significant physical
private garages, carports, sheds and agricultural discontinuities in configuration or in their lateral-
buildings, moment frame system designated as part force-resisting systems. Irregular features include,
of the lateral-force-resisting system shall be special but are not limited to, those described in Tables
moment-resisting frames. 208-9 and 208-10. All structures in occupancy
Categories 4 and 5 in Seismic Zone 2 need to be
4. The exceptions to Section 516-6-5 shall not apply, evaluated only for vertical irregularities of Type 5
except for columns in one-storey buildings or (Table 208-9) and horizontal irregularities of Type 1
columns at the top storey of multistorey buildings. (Table 208-10).

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 2. Structures having any features listed in Table 208-9 Table 208-10 – Horizontal Structural Irregularities
shall be designated as if having a vertical Reference
Irregularity Type and Definition
irregularity. Section
1. Torsional Irregularity – To be
Considered when Diaphragms are
Exception: not Flexible
Where no storey drift ratio under design lateral forces is Torsional irregularity shall be
greater than 1.3 times the storey drift ratio of the storey considered to exist when the
208.7.2.7
above, the structure may be deemed to not have the maximum storey drift, computed
Item 6
structural irregularities of Type 1 or 2 in Table 208-9, The including accidental torsion, at one
storey drift ratio for the top two stories need not be end of the structure transverse to an
axis is more than 1.2 times the
considered. The storey drifts for this determination may
average of the storey drifts of the
be calculated neglecting torsional effects.
two ends of the structure.
2. Re-Entrant Corner Irregularity
3. Structures having any features lister in Table 208-10
Plan configurations of a structure
shall be designed as having a plan irregularity and its lateral-force-resisting system
contain re-entrant corners, where
Table 208-9 – Vertical Structural Irregularities 208.7.2.7
both projections of the structure
Item 6 and 7
Reference beyond a re-entrant corner are
Irregularity Type and Definition
Section greater than 15% of the plan
1. Stiffness Irregularity – Soft dimension of the structure in the
Storey given direction.
A soft storey is one in which the 3. Diaphragm Discontinuity
208.4.8.3
lateral stiffness is less than 70 % of Irregularity
Item 2
that in the storey above or less than Diaphragms with abrupt
80 percent of the averagc stiffness discontinuities or variations in
of the three stories above. stiffness, including those having
208.7.2.7
2. Weight (Mass) Irregularity cutout or open areas greater than
Item 6
Mass irregularity shall be considered 50% of the gross enclosed area of
to exist where the effective mass of the diaphragm, or changes in
208.4.8.3
any storey is more than 150 % of the effective diaphragm stiffness of
Item 2
effective mass of an adjacent storey. more than 50% from one storey to
A roof that is lighter than the floor the next.
below need not be considered. 4. Out-of-Plane Offsets Irregularity
208.5.8.1.5.1
3. Vertical Geometric Irregularity Discontinuities in a lateral force
208.7.2.7
Vertical geometric irregularity shall path, such as out-of-plane offsets
Item 6
be considered to exist where the of the vertical elements.
horizontal dimension of the lateral- 208.4.8.3 5. Non-parallel System Irregularity
force-resisting system in any storey Item 2 The vertical lateral-load-resisting
is more than 130 % of that in an elements are not parallel to or
208.7.1
adjacent storey. One-storey symmetric about the major
penthouses need not be considered. orthogonal axes of the lateral force-
4. In-Plane Discontinuity in Vertical resisting system.
Lateral-Force-Resisting Element
Irregularity 208.4.6 Structural Systems
208.5.8.1.5.1
An in-plane offset of the lateral- Structural systems shall be classified as one of the types listed
load-resisting elements greater in Table 208-11 and defined in this section.
than the length of those elements.
5. Discontinuity in Capacity – Weak
208.4.6.1 Bearing Wall System
Storey Irregularity
A structural system without a complete vertical load-carrying
A weak storey is one in which the
space frame. Bearing walls or bracing systems provide support
storey strength is less than 80 % of
that in the storey above. The storey 208.4.9.1 for all or most gravity loads. Resistance to lateral load is
strength is the total strength of all provided by shear walls or braced frames.
seismic-resisting elements sharing
the storey for the direction under 208.4.6.2 Building Frame System
consideration. A structural system with an essentially complete space frames
providing support for gravity loads. Resistance to lateral loads
is provided by shear walls or braced frames.

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

208.4.6.3 Moment-Resisting Frame System 1. Buildings of any occupancy (including single-family
A structural system with an essentially complete space frame dwellings) not more than three stories in height
providing support for gravity loads. Moment-resisting frames excluding basements that use light-frame
provide resistance to lateral loads primarily by flexural action construction.
of members.
2. Other buildings not more than two stories in height
208.4.6.4 Dual System excluding basements.
A structural system with the following features:
208.4.8.2 Static
1. An essentially complete space frame that provides The static lateral-force procedure of Section 208.5 may be
support for gravity loads. used for the following structures:

2. Resistance to lateral loads is provided by shear walls 1. All structures, regular or irregular in Occupancy
or braced frames and moment-resisting frames Categories IV and V in Seismic Zone 2.
(SMRF, IMRF, MMRWF, or steel OMRF). The
moment-resisting frames shall be designed to 2. Regular structures under 75 m in height with lateral
independently resist at least 25 percent of the force resistance provided by systems listed in Table
design base shear. 208-11, except where Section 208.4.8.3, Item 4,
applies.
3. The two systems shall be designed to resist the total
design base shear in proportion to their relative 3. Irregular structures not more than five stories or 20
rigidities considering the interaction of the dual m in height.
system at all levels.
4. Structures having a flexible portion supported on a
208.4.6.5 Cantilevered Column System rigid lower portion where both portions of the
A structural system relying on cantilevered column elements structure considered separately can be classified as
for lateral resistance. being regular, the average storey stiffness of the
lower portion is at least 10 times the average storey
208.4.6.6 Undefined Structural System stiffness of the upper portion and the period of the
A structural system not listed in Table 208-11. entire structure is not greater than 1.1 times the
period of the upper portion considered as a
208.4.6.7 Non-building Structural System separate structure fixed at the base.
A structural system conforming to section 208.8.
208.4.8.3 Dynamic
208.4.7 Height Limits The dynamic lateral-force procedure of Section 208.5.3 shall
Height limits for the various structural systems in Seismic Zone be used for all other structures, including the following:
4 are given in Table 208-11.
1. Structures 75 m or more in height, except as
Exception: permitted by Section 208.4.8.2, Item 1.
Regular structures may exceed these limits by not more than
50 percent for unoccupied structures, which are not accessible 2. Structures having a stiffness, weight or geometric
to general public. vertical irregularity of Type 1, 2 or 3, as defined in
Table 208-9, or structures having irregular features
not described in Table 208-9 or 208-10, except as
permitted by Section 208.4.10.3.1.
208.4.8 Selection of Lateral Force Procedure
Any structure may be, and certain structures defined below 3. Structures over five stories or 20 m in height in
shall be, designed using dynamic lateral-force procedures of Seismic Zone 4 not having the same structural
Section 208.5.3. system throughout their height except as permitted
in Section 208.5.3.2.
208.4.8.1 Simplified Static
The simplified static lateral force procedure set forth in 4. Structures, regular or irregular, located on Soil
Section 208.5.1.1 may be used for the following structures of Profile Type 𝑺𝑭 , that have a period greater then 0.7
Occupancy Category IV and V: s. The analysis shall include the effects of the soils
at the site and shall conform to Section 208.5.3.2,
Item 4.

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 208.4.10 Determination of Seismic Factors
208.4.8.4 Alternative Procedures
208.4.10.1 Determination of 𝛀𝒐
208.4.8.4.1 General For specific elements of the structure, as specifically identified
Alternative lateral-force procedures using rational analyses in this code, the minimum design strength shall be the
based on well-established principles of mechanics may be product of the seismic force over-strength factor 𝜴𝒐 and the
used in lieu of those prescribed in these provisions. design seismic forces set forth in Section 208.5. For both
Allowable Stress Design and Strength Design, the Seismic
208.4.8.4.2 Seismic Isolation Force Over-strength Factor, 𝛀𝐨 , shall be taken from Table 208-
Seismic isolation, energy dissipation and damping systems 11.
may be used in the analysis and design of structures when
approved by the building official and when special detailing is 208.4.10.2 Determination of 𝑹
used to provide results equivalent to those obtained by the The values of 𝑹 shall be taken from Table 208-11.
use of conventional structural systems.
208.4.10.3 Combinations of Structural Systems
Where combinations of structural systems are incorporated
208.4.9 System Limitations into the same structure, the requirements of this section shall
be satisfied.
208.4.9.1 Discontinuity
Structures with a discontinuity in capacity, vertical irregularity 208.4.10.3.1 Vertical Combinations
Type 5 as defined in Table 208-9, shall not be over two stories The value of 𝑹 used in the design of any storey shall be less
or 9 m in height where the weak storey has a calculated than or equal to the value of 𝑹 used in the given direction for
strength of less than 65 % of the storey above. the storey above.

Exception: Exception:
Where the weak storey is capable of resisting a total lateral This requirement need not be applied to a storey where the
seismic force of 𝜴𝒐 times the design force prescribed in dead weight above that storey is less than 10 percent of the
Section 208.5. total dead weight of the structure.

Structures may be designed using the lowest 𝑹 of the lateral

208.4.9.2 Undefined Structural Systems force-resisting system used, or
For undefined structural systems not listed in Table 208-11, 1. The following two-stage static analysis procedures may
the coefficient R shall be substantiated by approved cyclic test be used for structures conforming to Section 208.4.8.2,
data and analyses. The following items shall be addressed Item 4.
when establishing R. 1.1. The flexible upper portion shall be designed as a
separate structure, supported laterally by the rigid
1. Dynamic response characteristics, lower portion, using the appropriate values or 𝑹
and 𝝆.
2. Lateral force resistance,
1.2. The rigid lower portion shall be designed as a
3. Over-strength and strain hardening or softening separate structure using the appropriate values of
𝑹 and 𝝆. The reactions from the upper portion shall
4. Strength and stiffness degradation, be those determined from the analysis of the
upper portion amplified by the ration of the (𝑹⁄𝝆)
5. Energy dissipation characteristics, of the upper portion over (𝑹⁄𝝆) of the lower
portion.
6. System ductility, and
208.4.10.3.2 Combinations along Different Axes
7. Redundancy. In Seismic Zone 4 where a structure has a bearing wall system
in only one direction, the value of R used for design in the
208.4.9.3 Irregular Features orthogonal direction shall not be greater than that used for
All structures having irregular features described in Table 208- the bearing wall system.
9 or 208-10 shall be designed to meet the additional
requirements of those sections referenced in the tables. Any combination of bearing wall systems, building frame
systems, dual systems or moment-resisting frame systems
may be used to resist seismic forces in structures less than 50

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

m in height. Only combinations of dual systems and special building dimension at that level perpendicular to the direction
moment-resisting frames shall be used to resist seismic forces of the force under consideration. The effect of this
in structures exceeding 50 m in height in Seismic Zone 4. displacement on the storey shear distribution shall be
considered.
208.4.10.3.3 Combination along the Same Axis
Where a combination of different structural systems is utilized Diaphragms shall be considered flexible for the purposes of
to resist lateral forces in the same direction, the value of R distribution of storey shear and torsional moment when the
used for design in that direction shall not be greater than the maximum lateral deformation of the diaphragm is more than
least value for any of the systems utilized in that same two times the average storey drift of the associated storey.
direction. This may be determined by comparing the computed
midpoint in-plane deflection of the diaphragm itself under
lateral load with the storey drift of adjoining vertical-resisting
208.5 Minimum Design Lateral Forced and Related elements under equivalent tributary lateral load.
Effects
208.5.1.4 Horizontal Torsional Moments
208.5.1 Simplified Static Force Procedure Provisions shall be made for the increased shears resulting
Structures conforming to the requirements of Section from horizontal torsion where diaphragms are not flexible.
208.4.8.1 may be designed using this procedure. The most severe load combination for each element shall be
considered for design.
208.5.1.1 Simplified Design Base Shear
The total design base shear in any given direction shall be The torsional design moment at a given storey shall be the
determined from the following equation: moment resulting from eccentricities between applied design
𝑉=
3𝐶𝑎
𝑊 (208-5) lateral forces at levels above that storey and the vertical-
𝑅 resisting elements in that storey plus an accidental torsion.

where the value of 𝑪𝒂 shall be based on Table 208-7 for the

The accidental torsional moment shall be determined by
soil profile type. When the soil properties are not known in
assuming the mass is displaced as required by Section
sufficient detail to determine the soil profile type, Type 𝑺𝑫
208.5.1.3.
shall be used in Seismic Zone 4, and Type 𝑺𝑬 shall be used in
Seismic Zone 2. In Seismic Zone 4, the Near-Source Factor, 𝑵𝒂 ,
Where torsional irregularity exists, as defined in Table 208-10,
need not be greater than 1.2 if none of the following structural
the effects shall be accounted for by increasing the accidental
irregularities are present:
torsion at each level by an amplification factor, Ax, determined
from the following equation:
1. Type 1, 4 or 5 of Table 208-9, or 2
𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑥 = [ ] (208-7)
1.2𝛿𝑎𝑣𝑔
2. Type 1 or 4 of Table 208-10.
where
𝛿𝑎𝑣𝑔 = the average of the displacements at the
208.5.1.2 Vertical Distribution
extreme points of the structure at Level 𝒙, mm
The forces at each level shall be calculated using the following 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = the maximum displacement at Level 𝒙, mm
equation:
3𝐶𝑎
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑤 (208-6) The value of 𝑨𝒙 shall not exceed 3.0.
𝑅 𝑖
where the value of 𝑪𝒂 shall be determined as in Section
208.5.1.1. 208.5.1.5 Overturning
Every structure shall be designed to resist the overturning
208.5.1.3 Horizontal Distribution of Shear effects caused by earthquake forces specified in Section
The design storey shear, 𝑽𝒙 , in any storey is the sum of the 208.5.2.3. At any level, the overturning moments to be resisted
forces 𝑭𝒕 and 𝑭𝒙 above that storey. 𝑽𝒙 shall be distributed to shall be determined using those seismic forces (𝑭𝒕 and 𝑭𝒙 ) that
the various elements of the vertical lateral force-resisting act on levels above the level under consideration. At any level,
system in proportion to their rigidities, considering the rigidity the incremental changes of the design overturning moment
of the diaphragm. See Section 208.7.2.3 for rigid elements that shall be distributed to the various resisting elements in the
are not intended to be part of the lateral force-resisting manner prescribed in Section 208.5.1.3. Overturning effects on
systems. every element shall be carried down to the foundation. See
Sections 207.1 and 208.7 for combining gravity and seismic
Where diaphragms are not flexible, the mass at each level shall forces.
be assumed to be displaced from the calculated center of
mass in each direction a distance equal to 5 percent of the

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

208.5.1.5.1 Elements Supporting Discontinuous 5. Steel elements designed primarily as axial-load
Systems members shall comply with Sections 515.4.2 and
515.4.3.
208.5.1.5.1.1 General
Where any portion of the lateral load-resisting system is 6. Steel elements designed primarily as flexural
discontinuous, such as for vertical irregularity Type 4 in Table members or trusses shall have bracing for both top
208-9 or plan irregularity Type 4 in Table 208-10, concrete, and bottom beam flanges or chords at the location
masonry, steel and wood elements supporting such of the support of the discontinuous system and
discontinuous systems shall have the design strength to resist shall comply with the requirements of Section
the combination loads resulting from the special seismic load 515.6.1.3.
combinations of Section 203.5.
7. Wood elements designed primarily as flexural
Exceptions: members shall be provided with lateral bracing or
1. The quantity 𝑬𝒎 in Section 208.6 need not exceed solid blocking at each end of the element and at the
the maximum force that can be transferred to the connection location(s) of the discontinuous system.
element by the lateral-force-resisting system.
208.5.1.5.2 At Foundation
2. Concrete slabs supporting light-frame wood shear See Sections 208.4.1 and 308.4 for overturning moments to be
systems or light-frame steel and wood structural resisted at the foundation soil interface.
panel shear wall systems.
208.5.1.6 Applicability
For Allowable Stress Design, the design strength may be Sections 208.6.2, 208.6.3, 208.5.2.1, 208.5.2.2, 208.5.2.3,
determined using an allowable stress increase of 1.7 and a 208.6.4, 208.6.5 and 208.5.3 shall not apply when using the
resistance factor, 𝝓, of 1.0. This increase shall not be combined simplified procedure.
with the one- third stress increase permitted by Section 203.4,
but may be combined with the duration of load increase Exception:
permitted in Section 615.3.4. For buildings with relatively flexible structural systems, the
building official may require consideration of 𝑷∆ effects and
208.5.1.5.1.1.2 Detailing Requirements in Seismic drift in accordance with Sections 208.6.3, 208.6.4 and 208.6.5.
Zone 4 𝑷∆ shall be determined using design seismic forces from
In Seismic Zone 4, elements supporting discontinuous Section 208.5.1.1.
systems shall meet the following detailing or member
limitations: Where used, ∆𝑴 shall be taken equal to 0.01 times the storey
height of all stories. In Section 208.7.2.7, Equation 208-22 shall
1. Reinforced concrete or reinforced masonry read 𝑭𝒑𝒙 =
𝟑𝑪𝒂
𝒘𝒑𝒙 and need not exceed 𝑪𝒂 𝒘𝒑𝒙, but shall not
𝑹
elements designed primarily as axial-load members be less than 𝟎. 𝟓𝑪𝒂 𝒘𝒑𝒙. 𝑹 and 𝜴𝒐 shall be taken from Table
shall comply with Section 421.4.4.5. 208-11.

2. Reinforced concrete elements designed primarily as 208.5.2 Static Force Procedure

flexural members and supporting other than light-
frame wood shear wall system or light-frame steel 208.5.2.1 Design Base Shear
and wood structural panel shear wall systems shall The total design base shear in a given direction shall be
comply with Sections 421.3.2 and 421.3.3. Strength determined from the following equation:
computations for portions of slabs designed as 𝐶𝑣 𝐼
𝑉= 𝑊 (208-8)
supporting elements shall include only those 𝑅𝑇
portions of the slab that comply with the
requirements of these sections. The total design base shear shall not exceed the following:
2.5𝐶𝑎 𝐼
𝑉= 𝑊 (208-9)
3. Masonry elements designed primarily as axial-load 𝑅
carrying members shall comply with Sections
The total design base shear shall not be less than the
706.1.12.4, Item 1, and 708.2.6.2.6.
following:
𝑉 = 0.11𝐶𝑎 𝐼𝑊 (208-10)
4. Masonry elements designed primarily as flexural
members shall comply with Section 708.2.6.2.5.
In addition, for Seismic Zone 4, the total base shear shall also
not be less than the following:

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 𝑉=
0.8𝑍𝑁𝑣 𝐼
𝑊 (208-11) The concentrated force 𝑭𝒕 at the top, which is in addition to
𝑅 𝑭𝒏 , shall be determined from the equation:
𝐹𝑡 = 0.07𝑇𝑉 (208-16)
208.5.2.2 Structure Period
The value of 𝑻 shall be determined from one of the following
The value of 𝑻 used for the purpose of calculating 𝑭𝒕 shall be
methods:
the period that corresponds with the design base shear as
computed using Equation 208-4. 𝑭𝒕 need not exceed 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝑽
1. Method A:
and may be considered as zero where 𝑻 is 0.7 s or less. The
For all buildings, the value 𝑻 may be approximated from the
remaining portion of the base shear shall be distributed over
following equation:
the height of the structure, including Level 𝒏, according to the
𝑇 = 𝐶𝑡 (ℎ𝑛 )3/4 (208-12)
following equation:
where (𝑉 − 𝐹𝑡 )𝑤𝑥 ℎ𝑥
𝐶𝑡 = 0.0853 for steel moment-resisting frame 𝐹𝑥 = (208-17)
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 ℎ𝑖
𝐶𝑡 = 0.0731 for reinforced concrete moment-
resisting frames and eccentrically braced
At each level designated as x, the force 𝑭𝒙 shall be applied
frames
over the area of the building in accordance with the mass
𝐶𝑡 = 0.0488 for all other buildings
distribution at that level. Structural displacements and design
seismic forces shall be calculated as the effect of forces 𝑭𝒙 and
Alternatively, the value of 𝑪𝒕 for structures with concrete
𝑭𝒕 applied at the appropriate levels above the base.
masonry shear walls may be taken as 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟒𝟑⁄√𝑨𝒄.

208.5.3 Dynamic Analysis Procedure

The value of 𝑨𝒄 shall be determined from the following
equation:
208.5.3.1 General
𝐴𝑐 = ∑ 𝐴𝑒 [0.2 + (𝐷𝑒 ⁄ℎ𝑛 )2 ] (208-13) Dynamic analyses procedures, when used, shall conform to
the criteria established in this section. The analysis shall be
The value of 𝑫𝒆 ⁄𝒉𝒏 used in Equation 208-13 shall not exceed based on an appropriate ground motion representation and
0.9. shall be performed using accepted principles of dynamics.

2. Method B: Structures that are designed in accordance with this section

The fundamental period 𝑻 may be calculated using the shall comply with all other applicable requirements of these
structural properties and deformational characteristics of the provisions.
resisting elements in a properly substantiated analysis. The
analysis shall be in accordance with the requirements of 208.5.3.2 Ground Motion
Section 208.6.2. The value of 𝑻 from Method B shall not The ground motion representation shall, as a minimum, be
exceed a value 30 percent greater than the value of 𝑻 obtained having a 10-percent probability of being exceeded in 50 years,
from Method A in Seismic Zone 4, and 40 percent in Seismic shall not be reduced by the quantity 𝑹 and may be one of the
Zone 2. following:

The fundamental period 𝑻 may be computed by using the 1. An elastic design response spectrum constructed in
following equation: accordance with Figure 208-3, using the values of 𝑪𝒂 and
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 𝛿𝑖2 𝑪𝒗 consistent with the specific site. The design
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ (208-14) acceleration ordinates shall be multiplied by the
𝑔(∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑤𝑓𝑖 𝛿𝑖 )
acceleration of gravity, 9.815 m/sec2.
The values of 𝒇𝒊 represent any lateral force distributed
2. A site-specific elastic design response spectrum based
approximately in accordance with the principles of Equations
on the geologic, tectonic, seismologic and soil
208-15, 208-16 and 208-17 or any other rational distribution.
characteristics associated with the specific site. The
The elastic deflections, 𝜹𝒊, shall be calculated using the applied
spectrum shall be developed for a damping ratio of 0.05,
forces, 𝒇𝒊.
unless a different value is shown to be consistent with
the anticipated structural behavior at the intensity of
208.5.2.3 Vertical Distribution of Force
shaking established for the site.
The total force shall be distributed over the height of the
structure in conformance with Equation 208-15, 208-16 and
3. Ground motion time histories developed for the specific
208-17 in the absence of a more rigorous procedure.
𝑛 site shall be representative of actual earthquake motions.
(208-
𝑉 = 𝐹𝑡 + ∑ 𝐹𝑖 Response spectra from time histories, either individually
15)
𝑖=1

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 or in combination, shall approximate the site design 208.5.3.5 Response Spectrum Analysis
spectrum conforming to Section 208.5.3.2, Item 2.
208.5.3.5.1 Response Spectrum Representation
4. For structures on Soil Profile Type 𝑺𝑭 , the following and Interpretation of Results
requirements shall apply when required by Section The ground motion representation shall be in accordance with
208.4.8.3, Item 4: Section 208.5.3.2. The corresponding response parameters,
4.1. The ground motion representation shall be including forces, moments and displacements, shall be
developed in accordance with Items 2 and 3. denoted as Elastic Response Parameters. Elastic Response
Parameters may be reduced in accordance with Section
4.2. Possible amplification of building response due to 208.5.3.5.4.
the effects of soil-structure interaction and
lengthening of building period caused by inelastic The base shear for a given direction, determined using
behavior shall be considered. dynamic analysis must not be less than the value obtained by
the equivalent lateral force method of Section 208.5.2. In this
5. The vertical component of ground motion may be case, all corresponding response parameters are adjusted
defined by scaling corresponding horizontal proportionately.
accelerations by a factor of two- thirds. Alternative
factors may be used when substantiated by site-specific 208.5.3.5.2 Number of Modes
data. Where the Near-Source Factor, 𝑵𝒂 , is greater than The requirement of Section 208.5.3.4.1 that all significant
1.0, site-specific vertical response spectra shall be used modes be included may be satisfied by demonstrating that for
in lieu of the factor of two-thirds. the modes considered, at least 90 percent of the participating
mass of the structure is included in the calculation of response
208.5.3.3 Mathematical Model for each principal horizontal direction.
A mathematical model of the physical structure shall represent
the spatial distribution of the mass and stiffness of the 208.5.3.5.3 Combining Modes
structure to an extent that is adequate for the calculation of The peak member forces, displacements, storey forces, storey
the significant features of its dynamic response. A three- shears and base reactions for each mode shall be combined
dimensional model shall be used for the dynamic analysis of by recognized methods. When three-dimensional models are
structures with highly irregular plan configurations such as used for analysis, modal interaction effects shall be considered
those having a plan irregularity defined in Table 208-10 and when combining modal maxima.
having a rigid or semi-rigid diaphragm. The stiffness
properties used in the analysis and general mathematical 208.5.3.5.4 Reduction of Elastic Response
modeling shall be in accordance with Section 208.6.2. Parameters for Design
Elastic Response Parameters may be reduced for purposes of
208.5.3.4 Description of Analysis Procedure design in accordance with the following items, with the
limitation that in no case shall the Elastic Response Parameters
208.5.3.4.1 Response Spectrum Analysis be reduced such that the corresponding design base shear is
An elastic dynamic analysis of a structure utilizing the peak less than the Elastic Response Base Shear divided by the value
dynamic response of all modes having a significant of 𝑹.
contribution to total structural response. Peak modal
responses are calculated using the ordinates of the 1. For all regular structures where the ground motion
appropriate response spectrum curve which correspond to representation complies with Section 208.5.3.2,
the modal periods. Maximum modal contributions are Item 1, Elastic Response Parameters may be
combined in a statistical manner to obtain an approximate reduced such that the corresponding design base
total structural response. shear is not less than 90 percent of the base shear
determined in accordance with Section 208.5.2.
208.5.3.4.2 Time History Analysis
An analysis of the dynamic response of a structure at each 2. For all regular structures where the ground motion
increment of time when the base is subjected to a specific representation complies with Section 208.5.3.2,
ground motion time history. Item 2, Elastic Response Parameters may be
reduced such that the corresponding design base
shear is not less than 80 percent of the base shear
determined in accordance with Section 208.5.2.

3. For all irregular structures, regardless of the ground

motion representation, Elastic Response

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 Parameters may be reduced such that the to 𝟏. 𝟓𝑻 seconds. Each pair of time histories shall be applied
corresponding design base shear is not less than simultaneously to the model considering torsional effects.
100 percent of the base shear determined in
accordance with Section 208.5.2. The parameter of interest shall be calculated for each time-
history analysis. If three time-history analyses are performed,
The corresponding reduced design seismic forces shall be then the maximum response of the parameter of interest shall
used for design in accordance with Section 203. be used for design. If seven or more time-history analyses are
performed, then the average value of the response parameter
208.5.3.5.5 Directional Effects of interest may be used for design.
Directional effects for horizontal ground motion shall conform
to the requirements of Section 208.6. The effects of vertical 208.5.3.6.2 Elastic Time History Analysis
ground motions on horizontal cantilevers and pre-stressed Elastic time history shall conform to Sections 208.5.3.1,
elements shall be considered in accordance with Section 208.5.3.2, 208.5.3.3, 208.5.3.5.2, 208.5.3.5.4, 208.6.5.3.5.5,
208.6. Alternately, vertical seismic response may be 208.6.5.3.5.6, 208.5.3.5.7 and 208.5.3.6.1 and 208.6.6.1.
determined by dynamic response methods; in no case shall Response parameters from elastic time-history analysis shall
the response used for design be less than that obtained by the be denoted as Elastic Response Parameters. All elements shall
static method. be designed using Strength Design. Elastic Response
Parameters may be scaled in accordance with Section
208.5.3.5.6 Torsion 208.5.3.5.4.
The analysis shall account for torsional effects, including
accidental torsional effects as prescribed in Section 208.5.1.4. 208.5.3.6.3 Nonlinear Time History Analysis
Where three-dimensional models are used for analysis, effects
of accidental torsion shall be accounted or by appropriate 208.5.3.6.3.1 Nonlinear Time History
adjustments in the model such as adjustment of mass Nonlinear time history analysis shall meet the requirements of
locations, or by equivalent static procedures such as provided Section 208.4.8.4, and time histories shall be developed and
in Section 208.5.1.3. results determined in accordance with the requirements of
Section 208.5.3.6.1. Capacities and characteristics of nonlinear
208.5.3.5.7 Dual System elements shall be modeled consistent with test data or
Where the lateral forces are resisted by a dual system as substantiated analysis, considering the Importance Factor. The
defined in Section 208.4.6.4, the combined system shall be maximum inelastic response displacement shall not be
capable of resisting the base shear determined in accordance reduced and shall comply with Section 208.6.5.
with this section. The moment-resisting frame shall conform
to Section 208.4.6.4, Item 2, and may be analyzed using either 208.5.3.6.3.2 Design Review
the procedures of Section 208.5.2.3 or those of Section When nonlinear time-history analysis is used to justify a
208.5.3.5. structural design, a design review of the lateral-force-resisting
system shall be performed by an independent engineering
208.5.3.6 Time History Analysis team, including persons licensed in the appropriate disciplines
and experienced in seismic analysis methods. The lateral-
208.5.3.6.1 Time History force-resisting system design review shall include, but not be
Time-history analysis shall be performed with pairs of limited to, the following:
appropriate horizontal ground-motion time- history
components that shall be selected and scaled from not less 1. Reviewing the development of site-specific spectra
than three recorded events. Appropriate time histories shall and ground-motion time histories.
have magnitudes, fault distances and source mechanisms that
are consistent with those that control the design-basis 2. Reviewing the preliminary design of the latera-
earthquake (or maximum capable earthquake). Where three force-resisting system.
appropriate recorded ground-motion time-history pairs are
not available, appropriate simulated ground-motion time- 3. Reviewing the final design of the lateral-force-
history pairs may be used to make up the total number resisting system and all supporting analyses.
required. For each pair of horizontal ground-motion
components, the square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS) The engineer-of-record shall submit with plans and
of the 5 percent-damped site-specific spectrum of the scaled calculations a statement by all members of engineering team
horizontal components shall be constructed. The motions doing the review stating that the above review has been
shall be scaled such that the average value of the SRSS spectra performed.
does not fall below 1.4 times the 5 percent-damped spectrum
of the design-basis earthquake for periods from 𝟎. 𝟐𝑻 second

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

208.6 Earthquake Loads and Modeling Requirements sides at Level 𝒊 in the direction under consideration, 70
percent of the shear in that column may be used in the column
208.6.1 Earthquake Loads shear summation.
Structures shall be designed for ground motion producing
structural response and seismic forces in any horizontal For shear walls, 𝒓𝒊 shall be taken as the maximum value of the
direction. The following earthquake loads shall be used in the product of the wall shear multiplied by 𝟑/𝒍𝒘 and divided by
load combinations set forth in Section 203: the total storey shear, where 𝒍𝒘 is the length of the wall in
𝐸 = 𝜌𝐸ℎ + 𝐸𝑣 (208-18) meter.

𝐸𝑚 = Ω𝑜 𝐸ℎ (208-19) For dual systems, 𝒓𝒊 shall be taken as the maximum value of

where 𝒓𝒊 as defined above considering all lateral-load-resisting
𝐸 = the earthquake load on an element of the elements. The lateral loads shall be distributed to elements
structure resulting from the combination of the based on relative rigidities considering the interaction of the
horizontal component, 𝑬𝒉, and the vertical dual system. For dual systems, the value of 𝝆 need not exceed
component, 𝑬𝒗
80 percent of the value calculated above.
𝐸ℎ = the earthquake load due to the base shear, V,
as set forth in Section 208.5.2 or the design
𝝆 shall not be taken less than 1.0 and need not be greater than
lateral force, 𝑭𝒑 , as set forth in Section 208.9
1.5. For special moment-resisting frames, except when used in
𝐸𝑚 = the estimated maximum earthquake force that
can be developed in the structure as set forth dual systems, 𝝆 shall not exceed 1.25. The number of bays of
in Section 208.6.1, and used in the design of special moment-resisting frames shall be increased to reduce
specific elements of the structure, as 𝒓, such that 𝝆 is less than or equal to 1.25.
specifically identified in this section
𝐸𝑣 = the load effect resulting from the vertical Exception:
component of the earthquake ground motion 𝐴𝐵 may be taken as the average floor area in the upper
and is equal to an addition of 𝟎. 𝟓𝑪𝒂 𝑰𝑫 to the setback portion of the building where a larger base area exists
dead load effect, D, for Strength Design, and at the ground floor.
may be taken as zero for Allowable Stress
Design When calculating drift, or when the structure is located in
Ω𝑜 = the seismic force amplification factor that is
Seismic Zone 2, 𝝆 shall be taken equal to 1.0.
structural required to account for overstrength,
as set forth in Section 208.4.10.1
The ground motion producing lateral response and design
𝜌 = Reliability/Redundancy Factor as given by the
following equation: seismic forces may be assumed to act non-concurrently in the
direction of each principal axis of the structure, except as
6.1 required by Section 208.7.2.
𝜌 = 2− (208-20)
𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 √𝐴𝐵
where Seismic dead load, 𝑾, is the total dead load and applicable
𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 = the maximum element-storey shear ratio. For a portions of other loads listed below.
given direction of loading, the element-storey
shear ratio is the ratio of the design storey 1. In storage and warehouse occupancies, a minimum
shear in the most heavily loaded single element of 25 percent of the floor live load shall be
divided by the total design storey shear. applicable.

For any given Storey Level 𝒊, the element-storey shear ratio is 2. Where a partition load is used in the floor design, a
denoted as 𝒓𝒊 . The maximum element-storey shear ratio 𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 load of not less than 0.5 kN/m2 shall be included.
is defined as the largest of the element storey shear ratios, 𝒓𝒊 ,
which occurs in any of the storey levels at or below the two- 3. Total weight of permanent equipment shall be
thirds height level of the building. included.

For braced frames, the value of 𝒓𝒊 is equal to the maximum 208.6.2 Modeling Requirements
horizontal force component in a single brace element divided The mathematical model of the physical structure shall include
by the total storey shear. all elements of the lateral-force-resisting system. The model
shall also include the stiffness and strength of elements, which
For moment frames, 𝒓𝒊 shall be taken as the maximum of the are significant to the distribution of forces, and shall represent
sum of the shears in any two adjacent columns in a moment the spatial distribution of the mass and stiffness of the
frame bay divided by the storey shear. For columns common structure. In addition, the model shall comply with the
to two bays with moment-resisting connections on opposite following:

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 The analysis used to determine the Maximum Inelastic
1. Stiffness properties of reinforced concrete and Response Displacement ∆𝑴 shall consider 𝑷∆ effects.
masonry elements shall consider the effects of
cracked sections. 208.6.5 Storey Drift Limitation
Storey drifts shall be computed using the Maximum Inelastic
2. For steel moment frame systems, the contribution Response Displacement, ∆𝑀 .
of panel zone deformations to overall storey drift
shall be included. 208.6.5.1 Calculated
Calculated storey drift using ∆𝑴 shall not exceed 0.025 times
208.6.3 𝑷∆ Effects the storey height for structures having a fundamental period
The resulting member forces and moments and the storey of less than 0.7 sec. For structures having a fundamental
drifts induced by 𝑷∆ effects shall be considered in the period of 0.7 sec or greater, the calculated storey drift shall
evaluation of overall structural frame stability and shall be not exceed 0.020 times the storey height.
evaluated using the forces producing the displacements of ∆𝑺.
𝑷∆ need not be considered when the ratio of secondary Exceptions:
moment to primary moment does not exceed 0.10; the ratio 1. These drift limits may be exceeded when it is
may be evaluated for any storey as the product of the total demonstrated that greater drift can be tolerated by
dead and floor live loads, as required in Section 203, above both structural elements and nonstructural
the storey times the seismic drift in that storey divided by the elements that could affect life safety. The drift used
product of the seismic shear in that storey times the height of in this assessment shall be based upon the
that storey. In Seismic Zone 4, 𝑷∆ need not be considered Maximum Inelastic Response Displacement, ∆𝑴.
when the storey drift ratio does not exceed 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐/𝑹.
2. There shall be no drift limit in single-storey steel-
208.6.4 Drift framed structures whose primary use is limited to
Drift or horizontal displacements of the structure shall be storage, factories or workshops. Minor accessory
computed where required by this code. For both Allowable uses shall be allowed. Structures on which this
Stress Design and Strength Design, the Maximum Inelastic exception is used shall not have equipment
Response Displacement, ∆𝑴, of the structure caused by the attached to the structural frame or shall have such
Design Basis Ground Motion shall be determined in equipment detailed to accommodate the additional
accordance with this section. The drifts corresponding to the drift. Walls that are laterally supported by the steel
design seismic forces of Section 208.5.2.1 or Section 208.5.3.5, frame shall be designed to accommodate the drift
∆𝑺, shall be determined in accordance with Section 208.6.4.1. in accordance with Section 208.7.2.3.
To determine ∆𝑴, these drifts shall be amplified in accordance
with Section 208.6.4.2. 208.6.5.2 Limitations
The design lateral forces used to determine the calculated
208.6.4.1 Determination of ∆𝑺 drift may disregard the limitations of Equations. 208-11 and
A static, elastic analysis of the lateral force-resisting system 208-10 and may be based on the period determined from
shall be prepared using the design seismic forces from Section Equations. 208-14 neglecting the 30 or 40 percent limitations
208.5.2.1. Alternatively, dynamic analysis may be performed in of Section 208.5.2.2.
accordance with Section 208.5.3. Where Allowable Stress
Design is used and where drift is being computed, the load 208.6.6 Vertical Component
combinations of Section 203.3 shall be used. The The following requirements apply in Seismic Zone 4 only.
mathematical model shall comply with Section The resulting Horizontal cantilever components shall be designed for a net
deformations, denoted as ∆𝑺, shall be determined at all critical upward force of 0.7𝐶𝑎 𝐼𝑊𝑝 .
locations in the structure. Calculated drift shall include
translational and torsional deflections. In addition to all other applicable load combinations,
horizontal pre-stressed components shall be designed using
208.6.4.2 Determination of ∆𝑴 not more than 50 percent of the dead load for the gravity load,
The maximum Inelastic Response Displacement, ∆𝑴, shall be alone or in combination with the lateral force effects.
computed as follows:
∆𝑀 = 0.7𝑅∆𝑆 (208-21) 208.7 Detailed System Design Requirement

Exception: 208.7.1 General

Alternatively, ∆𝑴 may be computed by nonlinear time history All structural framing systems shall comply with the
analysis in accordance with Section 208.5.3.6.3. requirements of Section 208.4. Only the elements of the
designated seismic-force-resisting system shall be used to

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

resist design forces. The individual components shall be in Table 208-11. Each type is subdivided by the types of
designed to resist the prescribed design seismic forces acting vertical elements used to resist lateral seismic forces. Special
on them. The components shall also comply with the specific framing requirements are given in this section and in Chapters
requirements for the material contained in Chapters 4 through 4 through 7.
7. In addition, such framing systems and components shall
comply with the detailed system design requirements
contained in Section 208.7. 208.7.2.1 Detailing for Combination of Systems
For components common to different structural systems, the
All building components in Seismic Zones 2 and 4 shall be more restrictive detailing requirements shall be used.
designed to resist the effects of the seismic forces prescribed
herein and the effects of gravity loadings from dead and floor 208.7.2.2 Connections
live loads. Connections that resist design seismic forces shall be
designed and detailed on the drawings.
Consideration shall be given to design for uplift effects caused
by seismic loads. 208.7.2.3 Deformation Compatibility
All structural framing elements and their connections, not
In Seismic Zones 2 and 4, provision shall be made for the required by design to be part of the lateral-force-resisting
effects of earthquake forces acting in a direction other than system, shall be designed and/or detailed to be adequate to
the principal axes in each of the following circumstances: maintain support of design dead plus live loads when
subjected to the expected deformations caused by seismic
1. The structure has plan irregularity Type 5 as given forces. PA effects on such elements shall be considered.
in Table 208-10. Expected deformations shall be determined as the greater of
the Maximum Inelastic Response Displacement, ∆𝑴
2. The structure has plan irregularity Type 1 as given considering 𝑷∆ effects determined in accordance with Section
in Table 208-10 for both major axes. 208.6.4.2 or the deformation induced by a storey drift of
0.0025 times the storey height. When computing expected
3. A column of a structure forms part of two or more deformations, the stiffening effect of those elements not part
intersecting lateral-force-resisting system. of the lateral-force-resisting system shall be neglected.

Exception: For elements not part of the lateral-force-resisting system, the

If the axial load in the column due to seismic forces acting in forces inducted by the expected deformation may be
either direction is less than 20 percent of the column axial load considered as ultimate or factored forces. When computing
capacity. the forces induced by expected deformations, the restraining
effect of adjoining rigid structures and nonstructural elements
The requirement that orthogonal effects be considered may shall be considered and a rational value of member and
be satisfied by designing such elements for 100 percent of the restraint stiffness shall be used. Inelastic deformations of
prescribed design seismic forces in one direction plus 30 members and connections may be considered in the
percent of the prescribed design seismic forces in the evaluation, provided the assumed calculated capacities are
perpendicular direction. The combination requiring the consistent with member and connection design and detailing.
greater component strength shall be used for design
Alternatively, the effects of the two orthogonal directions may For concrete and masonry elements that are part of the
be combined on a square root of the sum of the squares lateral- force-resisting system, the assumed flexural and shear
(SRSS) basis. When the SRSS method of combining directional stiffness properties shall not exceed one half of the gross
effects is used, each term computed shall be assigned the sign section properties unless a rational cracked-section analysis is
that will result in the most conservative result. performed. Additional deformations that may result from
foundation flexibility and diaphragm deflections shall be
considered. For concrete elements not part of the lateral-
208.7.2 Structural Framing System force-resisting system, see Section 421.9.
Four types of general building framing systems defined in
Section 208.4.6 are recognized in these provisions and shown

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 Table 208-11A – Earthquake-Force-Resisting Structural Systems of Concrete

System Limitation and

𝑹 𝜴𝒐 Building Height Limitation
Basic Seismic-Force-Resisting System
by Seismic Zone, m
Zone 2 Zone 4
A. Bearing Wall Systems
Special reinforced concrete shear walls 4.5 2.8 NL 50
Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls 4.5 2.8 NL NP
B. Building Frame Systems
Special reinforced concrete shear walls or braced frames
5.0 2.8 NL 75
(shear walls)
Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls or braced frames 5.6 2.2 NL NP
Intermediate precast shear walls or braced frames 5.0 2.5 NL 10
C. Moment-Resisting Frame Systems
Special reinforced concrete moment frames 8.5 2.8 NL NL
Intermediate reinforced concrete moment frames 5.5 2.8 NL NP
Ordinary reinforced concrete moment frames 3.5 2.8 NL NP
D. Dual Systems
Special reinforced concrete shear walls 8.5 2.8 NL NL
Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls 6.5 2.8 NL NP
E. Dual Systems with Intermediate Moment Frames
Special reinforced concrete shear walls 6.5 2.8 NL 50
Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls 5.5 2.8 NL NP
Shear wall frame interactive system with ordinary reinforced
concrete moment frames and ordinary reinforced concrete 4.2 2.8 NP NL
shear walls
F. Cantilevered Column Building Systems
Cantilevered column elements 2.2 2.0 NL 10
G. Shear Wall-Frame Interaction Systems 5.5 2.8 NL 50

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 Table 208-11B – Earthquake-Force-Resisting Structural Systems of Steel

System Limitation and

𝑹 𝜴𝒐 Building Height Limitation
Basic Seismic-Force-Resisting System
by Seismic Zone, m
Zone 2 Zone 4
A. Bearing Wall Systems
Light steel-framed bearing walls with tension-only bracing 2.8 2.2 NL 20
Braced frames where bracing carries gravity load 4.4 2.2 NL 50
Light framed walls sheathed with steel sheets structural panels
5.5 2.8 NL 20
rated for shear resistance or steel sheets
Light-framed walls with shear panels of all other light materials 4.5 2.8 NL 20
Light-framed wall systems using flat strap bracing 2.8 2.2 NL NP
B. Building Frame Systems
Steel eccentrically braced frames (EBF), moment-resisting
8.0 2.8 NL 30
connections at columns away from links
Steel eccentrically braced frames (EBF), no-moment-resisting
6.0 2.2 NL 30
connections at columns away from links
Special concentrically braced frames (SCBF) 6.0 2.2 NL 30
Ordinary concentrically braced frames (OCBF) 3.2 2.2 NL NP
Light-framed walls sheathed with steel sheet structural
6.5 2.8 NL 20
panels/sheet steel panels
Light frame walls with shear panels of all other materials 2.5 2.8 NL NP
Buckling-restrained braced frames (BRBF), non-moment-
7.0 2.8 NL 30
resisting beam-column connection
Buckling-restrained braced frames, moment-resisting beam-
8.0 2.8 NL 30
column connections
Special steel plate shear walls (SPSW) 7.0 2.8 NL 30
C. Moment-Resisting Frame Systems
Special moment-resisting frame (SMRF) 8.0 3.0 NL NL
Intermediate steel moment frames (IMF) 4.5 3.0 NL NP
Ordinary moment frames (OMF) 3.5 3.0 NL NP
Special truss moment frames (STMF) 6.5 3.0 NL NP
Special composite steel and concrete moment frames 8.0 3.0 NL NL
Intermediate composite moment frames 5.0 3.0 NL NP
Composite partially restrained moment frames 6.0 3.0 50 NP
Ordinary composite moment frames 3.0 3.0 NP NP
D. Dual Systems with Special Moment Frames
Steel eccentrically braced frames 8.0 2.8 NL NL
Special steel concentrically braced frames 7.0 2.8 NL NL
Composite steel and concrete eccentrically braced frame 8.0 2.8 NL NL
Composite steel and concrete concentrically braced frame 6.0 2.8 NL NL
Composite steel plate shear walls 7.5 2.8 NL NL
Buckling-restrained braced frame 8.0 2.8 NL NL
Special steel plate shear walls 8.0 2.8 NL NL
Masonry shear wall with steel OMRF 4.2 2.8 NL 50
Steel EBF with steel SMRF 8.5 2.8 NL NL
Steel EBF with steel OMRF 4.2 2.8 NL 50
Steel concentrically braced frames with steel SMRF 7.5 2.8 NL NL
Special concentrically braced frames with steel OMRF 4.2 2.8 NL 50
E. Dual Systems with Intermediate Moment Frames
Special steel concentrically braced frame 6.0 2.8 NL NP
Composite steel and concrete concentrically braced frame 5.5 2.8 NL NP
Ordinary composite braced frame 3.5 2.8 NL NP
Ordinary composite reinforced concrete shear walls with steel
5.0 3.0 NL NP
elements
F. Cantilevered Column Building Systems
Special steel moment frames 2.2 2.0 10 10

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 Intermediate steel moment frames 1.2 2.0 10 NP
Ordinary steel moment frames 1.0 2.0 10 NP
Cantilevered column elements 2.2 2.0 NL 10
G. Steel Systems not Specifically Detailed for Seismic
3.0 3.0 NL NP
Resistance, Excluding Cantilever Systems

Table 208-11C – Earthquake-Force-Resisting Structural Systems of Masonry

System Limitation and

𝑹 𝜴𝒐 Building Height Limitation
Basic Seismic-Force-Resisting System
by Seismic Zone, m
Zone 2 Zone 4
A. Bearing Wall Systems
Masonry shear walls 4.5 2.8 NL 50
B. Building Frame Systems
Masonry shear walls 5.5 2.8 NL 50
C. Moment-Resisting Frame Systems
Masonry moment-resisting wall frames (MMRWF) 6.5 2.8 NL 50
D. Dual Systems
Masonry shear walls with SMRF 5.5 2.8 NL 50
Masonry shear walls with steel OMRF 4.2 2.8 NL 50
Masonry shear walls with concrete IMRF 4.2 2.8 NL NP
Masonry shear walls with masonry MMRWF 6.0 2.8 NL 50

Table 208-11D – Earthquake-Force-Resisting Structural Systems of Wood

System Limitation and

𝑹 𝜴𝒐 Building Height Limitation
Basic Seismic-Force-Resisting System
by Seismic Zone, m
Zone 2 Zone 4
A. Bearing Wall Systems
Light-framed walls with shear panels: wood structural panel
5.5 2.8 NL 20
walls for structures three stories or less
Heavy timber braced frames where bracing carries gravity load 2.8 2.2 NL 20
All other light framed walls NA NA
B. Building Frame Systems
Ordinary heavy timber-braced frames 5.6 2.2 NL 20

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

208.7.2.3.1 Adjoining Rigid Elements wood elements shall have a minimum actual net
Moment-resisting frames and shear walls may be enclosed by thickness of 63.5 mm.
or adjoined by more rigid elements; provided it can be shown
that the participation or failure of the more rigid elements will 208.7.2.7 Diaphragms
not impair the vertical and lateral-load-resisting ability of the 1. The deflection in the plane of the diaphragm shall
gravity load and lateral-force-resisting systems. The effects of not exceed the permissible deflection of the
adjoining rigid elements shall be considered when assessing attached elements. Permissible deflection shall be
whether a structure shall be designated regular or irregular in that deflection that will permit the attached
Section 208.4.5. element to maintain its structural integrity under
the individual loading and continue to support the
208.7.2.3.2 Exterior Elements prescribed loads.
Exterior non-bearing, non-shear wall panels or elements that
are attached to or enclose the exterior shall be designed to 2. Floor and roof diaphragms shall be designed to
resist the forces per Equation 208-27 or 208-28 and shall resist the forces determined in accordance with the
accommodate movements of the structure based on ∆𝑴 and following equation:
temperature changes. Such elements shall be supported by 𝐹𝑡 + ∑𝑛𝑖=𝑥 𝐹𝑖
𝐹𝑝𝑥 = 𝑤𝑝𝑥 (208-22)
means of cast-in-place concrete or by mechanical connections ∑𝑛𝑖=𝑥 𝑤𝑖
and fasteners in accordance with the following provisions:
The force 𝑭𝒑𝒙 determined from Equation 208-22
1. Connections and panel joints shall allow for a need not exceed 𝟏. 𝟎𝑪𝒂 𝑰𝒘𝒑𝒙, but shall not be less
relative movement between stories of not less than than 𝟎. 𝟓𝑪𝒂 𝑰𝒘𝒑𝒙.
two times storey drift caused by wind, the
calculated storey drift based on ∆𝑴 or 12.7 mm, When the diaphragm is required to transfer design
whichever is greater. seismic forces from the vertical-resisting elements
above the diaphragm to other vertical-resisting
2. Connections to permit movement in the plane of elements below the diaphragm due to offset in the
the panel for storey drift shall be sliding placement of the elements or to changes in stiffness
connections using slotted or oversize holes, in the vertical elements, these forces shall be added
connections that permit movement by bending of to those determined from Equation 208-22.
steel, or other connections providing equivalent
sliding and ductility capacity. 3. Design seismic forces for flexible diaphragms
providing lateral supports for walls or frames of
3. Bodies of connections shall have sufficient ductility masonry or concrete shall be determined using
and rotation capacity to preclude fracture of the Equation 208-22 based on the load determined in
concrete or brittle failures at or near welds. accordance with Section 208.5.2 using 𝑹 not
exceeding 4.
4. When elements of the wall anchorage system are
not loaded concentrically or are not perpendicular 4. Diaphragms supporting concrete or masonry walls
to the wall, the system shall be designed to resist all shall have continuous ties or struts between
components of the forces induced by the diaphragm chords to distribute the anchorage
eccentricity. forces specified in Section 208.7.2.7. Added chords
of subdiaphragms may be used to form
5. When pilasters are present in the wall, the subdiaphragms to transmit the anchorage forces to
anchorage force at the pilasters shall be calculated the main continuous crossties. The maximum
considering the additional load transferred from the length-to-width ratio of the wood structural sub-
wall panels to the pilasters. However, the minimum diaphragm shall be 2½:1.
anchorage force at a floor or roof shall be that
specified in Section 208.7.2.7, Item 2. 5. Where wood diaphragms are used to laterally
support concrete or masonry walls, the anchorage
6. The strength design forces for steel elements of the shall conform to Section 208.7.2.7. In Seismic Zone
wall anchorage system shall be 1.4 times the forces 2 and 4, anchorage shall not be accomplished by
otherwise required by this section. use of toenails or nails subject to withdrawal, wood
ledgers or framing shall not be used in cross-grain
7. The strength design forces for wood elements of bending or cross-grain tension, and the continuous
the wall anchorage system shall be 0.85 times the ties required by Item 4 shall be in addition to the
force otherwise required by this section and these diaphragm sheathing.

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 6. Connections of diaphragms to the vertical elements 208.8 Non-Building Structures
in structures in Seismic Zone 4, having a plan
irregularity of Type 1, 2, 3 or 4 in Table 208-10, shall 208.8.1 General
be designed without considering either the one-
third increase or the duration of load increase 208.8.1.1 Scope
considered in allowable stresses for elements Non-building structures include all self- supporting structures
resisting earthquake forces. other than buildings that carry gravity loads and resist the
effects of earthquakes. Non-building structures shall be
7. In structures in Seismic Zone 4 having a plan designed to provide the strength required to resist the
irregularity of Type 2 in Table 208-10, diaphragm displacements induced by the minimum lateral forces
chords and drag members shall be designed specified in this section. Design shall conform to the
considering independent movement of the applicable provisions of other sections as modified by the
projecting wings of the Structure. Each of these provisions contained in Section 208.8.
diaphragm elements shall be designed for the more
severe of the following two assumptions: 208.8.1.2 Criteria
a. Motion of the projecting wings in the The minimum design seismic forces prescribed in this section
same direction. are at a level that produces displacements in a fixed base,
elastic model of the structure, comparable to those expected
b. Motion of the projecting wings in of the real structure when responding to the Design Basis
opposing directions. Ground Motion. Reductions in these forces using the
coefficient R is permitted where the design of non-building
Exception: structures provides sufficient strength and ductility, consistent
This requirement may be deemed satisfied if the procedures with the provisions specified herein for buildings, to resist the
of Section 208.5.3 in conjunction with a three-dimensional effects of seismic ground motions as represented by these
model have been used to determine the lateral seismic forces design forces.
for design.
When applicable, design strengths and other detailed design
208.7.2.8 Framing below the Base criteria shall be obtained from other sections or their
The strength and stiffness of the framing between the base referenced standards. The design of non-building structures
and the foundation shall not be less than that of the shall use the load combinations or factors specified in Section
superstructure. The special detailing requirements of Chapters 203.3 or 203.4. For non-building structures designed using
4, 5 and 7, as appropriate, shall apply to columns supporting Section 208.8.3, 208.8.4 or 208.8.5, the Reliability/Redundancy
discontinuous lateral-force-resisting elements and to SMRF, Factor, 𝝆, may be taken as 1.0.
IMRF, EBB, STMF and MMRWF system elements below the
base, which are required to transmit the forces resulting from When applicable design strengths and other design criteria
lateral loads to the foundation. are not contained in or referenced by this code, such criteria
shall be obtained from approved national standards.
208.7.2.9 Building Separations
All structures shall be separated from adjoining structures. 208.8.1.3 Weight
Separations shall allow for the displacement ∆𝑴. Adjacent The weight, W, for non-building structures shall include all
buildings on the same property shall be separated by at least dead loads as defined for buildings in Section 208.6.1. For
∆𝑴𝑻 where purposes of calculating design seismic forces in non-building
∆𝑀𝑇 = √(∆𝑀1 )2 + (∆𝑀2 )2 (208-23) structures, 𝑾 shall also include all normal operating contents
and ∆𝑴𝟏 and ∆𝑴𝟐 are the displacements of the adjacent for items such as tanks, vessels, bins and piping.
buildings.
208.8.1.4 Period
When a structure adjoins a property line not common to a The fundamental period of the structure shall be determined
public way, that structure shall also be set back from the by rational methods such as by using Method B in Section
property line by at least the displacement ∆𝑴 of that structure. 208.5.2.2.

Exception: 208.8.1.5 Drift

Smaller separations or property line setbacks may be The drift limitations of Section 208.6.5 need not apply to non-
permitted when justified by rational analyses based on building structures. Drift limitations shall be established for
maximum expected ground motions. structural or nonstructural elements whose failure would

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

cause life hazards. 𝑷∆ effects shall be considered for structures The force V shall be distributed according to the distribution
whose calculated drifts exceed the values in Section 208.6.3. of mass and shall be assumed to act in any horizontal
direction.
Table 208-12 – 𝑹 and 𝜴𝒐 Factors for Non-Building Structures
STRUCTURE TYPE 𝑹 𝜴𝒐 208.8.4 Tanks with Supported Bottoms
Vessels, including tanks and Flat bottom tanks or other tanks with supported bottoms,
1. pressurized spheres, on 2.2 2.0 founded at or below grade, shall be designed to resist the
braced or unbraced legs. seismic forces calculated using the procedures in Section
Cast-in-place concrete silos 208.9 for rigid structures considering the entire weight of the
2. and chimneys having walls 3.6 2.0 tank and its contents. Alternatively, such tanks may be
continuous to the foundation designed using one Of the two procedures described below:
Distributed mass cantilever
structures such as stacks,
3. 2.9 2.0 1. A response spectrum analysis that includes
chimneys, silos and skirt-
consideration of the actual ground motion
supported vertical vessels.
anticipated at the site and the inertial effects of the
Trussed towers (freestanding
4. or guyed), guyed stacks and 2.9 2.0 contained fluid.
chimneys.
Cantilevered column-type 2. A design basis prescribed for the particular type of
5. 2.2 2.0 tank by an approved national standard, provided
structures.
6. Cooling towers. 3.6 2.0 that the seismic zones and occupancy categories
Bins and hoppers on braced or shall be in conformance with the provisions of
7. 2.9 2.0
unbraced legs. Sections 208.4.4.2 and 208.4.4.3, respectively.
8. Storage racks. 3.6 2.0
9. Signs and billboards. 3.6 2.0 208.8.5 Other Non-building Structures
Amusement structures and Non-building structures that are not covered by Section
10. 2.2 2.0
monuments. 208.8.3 and 208.8.4 shall be designed to resist design seismic
All other self-supporting forces not less than those determined in accordance with the
11. structures not otherwise 2.9 2.0 provisions in Section 208.5 with the following additions and
covered. exceptions:

208.8.1.6 Interaction Effects 1. The factors R and no shall be as set forth in

In Seismic Zone 4, structures that support flexible Table208-12. The total design base shear
nonstructural elements whose combined weight exceeds 25 determined in accordance with Section 208.5.2 shall
percent of the weight of the structure shall be designed not be less than the following:
considering interaction effects between the structure and the 𝑉 = 0.56𝐶𝑎 𝐼𝑊 (208-25)
supported elements.
Additionally, for Seismic Zone 4, the total base
208.8.2 Lateral Force shear shall also not be less than the following:
Lateral-force procedures for non-building structures with 1.6𝑁𝑣 𝐼
𝑉= 𝑊 (208-26)
structural systems similar to buildings (those with structural 𝑅
systems which are listed in Table 208-11) shall be selected in
accordance with the provisions of Section 208.4. 2. The vertical distribution of the design seismic forces
in structures covered by this section may be
Exception: determined by using the provisions of Section
Intermediate moment-resisting frames (IMRF) may be used in 208.5.2.3 or by using the procedures of Section
Seismic Zone 4 fop non-building structures in Occupancy 208.5.3.
Categories 111 and IV if (I) the structure is less than 15 m in
height and (2) the value R used in reducing calculated member Exception:
forces and moments does not exceed 2.8. For irregular structures assigned to Occupancy
Categories I and Il that cannot be modeled as a
208.8.3 Rigid Structures single mass, the procedures of Section 208.5.3 shall
Rigid structures (those with period T less than 0.06 s) and their be used.
anchorages shall be designed for the lateral force obtained
from Equation 208-24. 3. Where an approved national standard provides a
𝑉 = 0.7𝐶𝑎 𝐼𝑊 (208-24) basis for the earthquake-resistant design of a
particular type of non-building structure covered by

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 this section, such a standard may be used, subject 𝑎𝑝 𝐶𝑎 𝐼𝑝 ℎ𝑥
𝐹𝑝 = (1 + 3 ) 𝑊𝑝 (208-28)
to the limitations in this section: 𝑅𝑝 ℎ𝑦

The seismic zones and occupancy categories shall be in Except that 𝑭𝒑 shall not be less than 𝟎. 𝟕𝑪𝒂 𝑰𝒑 𝑾𝑷 and need not
conformance with the provisions of Sections 208.4.4 and be more than 𝟒𝑪𝒂 𝑰𝒑 𝑾𝒑.
208.4.2, respectively.

The values for total lateral force and total base overturning
moment used in design shall not be less than 80 percent of where
the values that would be obtained using these provisions. ℎ𝑥 = the element or component attachment
elevation with respect to grade. 𝒉𝒙 shall not be
208.9 Lateral Force on Elements of Structures, taken less than 0.0.
Nonstructural Components and Equipment Supported by ℎ𝑦 = the structure roof elevation with respect to
Structures grade.
𝑎𝑝 = the in-structure Component Amplification
Factor that varies from 1.0 to 2.5.
208.9.1 General
Elements of structures and their attachments, permanent
A value for 𝒂𝒑 shall be selected from Table 208-13.
nonstructural components and their attachments, and the
Alternatively, this factor may be determined based on the
attachments for permanent equipment supported by a
dynamic properties or empirical data of the component and
structure shall be designed to resist the total design seismic
the structure that supports it. The value shall not be taken less
forces prescribed in Section 208.9.2.
than 1.0.

Attachments for floor- or roof-mounted equipment weighing

𝑹 is the Component Response Modification Factor that shall
less than 1.8 kN, and furniture need not be designed.
be taken from Table 208-13, except that 𝑹𝒑 for anchorages

Attachments shall include anchorages and required bracing. shall equal 1.5 for shallow expansion anchor bolts, shallow
chemical anchors or shallow cast-in-place anchors. Shallow
Friction resulting from gravity loads shall not be considered to
anchors are those with an embedment length-to-diameter
provide resistance to seismic forces.
ratio of less than 8. When anchorage is constructed of non-
ductile materials, or by use of adhesive, 𝑹𝑝 shall equal 1.0.
When the structural failure of the lateral-force-resisting
systems of non-rigid equipment would cause a life hazard,
such systems shall be designed to resist the seismic forces The design lateral forces determined using Equation 208-27
prescribed in Section 208.9.2. or 208-19 shall be distributed in proportion to the mass
distribution of the element or component.
When permissible design strengths and other acceptance
criteria are not contained in or referenced by this code, such Forces determined using Equation 208-27 or 208-28 shall be
criteria shall be obtained from approved national standards used to design members and connections that transfer these
subject to the approval of the building official. forces to the seismic-resisting systems. Members and
connection design shall use the load combinations and factors
208.9.2 Design for Total Lateral Force specified in Section 203.3 or 203.4. The
The total design lateral seismic force, 𝑭𝒑 , shall be determined Reliability/Redundancy Factor, 𝝆, may be taken equal to 1.0.
from the following equation:
For applicable forces and Component Response Modification
Factors in connectors for exterior panels and diaphragms,
𝐹𝑝 = 4𝐶𝑎 𝐼𝑝 𝑊𝑝 (208-27)
refer to Sections 208.7.2.3 and 208.7.2.7.
Alternatively, 𝑭𝒑 may be calculated using the following
Forces shall be applied in the horizontal directions, which
equation:
result in the most critical loadings for design.

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 Table 208-13 – Horizontal Force Factors, 𝒂𝒗 and 𝑹𝒑 for Elements of Structures and Nonstructural Components and Equipment
Category Element or Component 𝑎𝑝 𝑅𝑝 Footnote
1. Elements of 1. Walls including the following
Structures a. Unbraced (cantilevered) parapets 2.5 3.0
Exterior walls at or above the ground floor and parapets braced above
b. 1.0 3.0 2
their centers of gravity
c. All interior-bearing and non-bearing walls 1.0 3.0 2
Penthouses (except when framed by an extension of the structural
2. 2.5 4.0
frame)
Connections for prefabricated structural elements other walls. See
3. 1.0 3.0 3
also Section 208.7.2
2. Nonstructural 1. Exterior and interior ornamentations and appendages.
Components Laterally braced or anchored to the structural frame at a point below
a. 2.5 3.0
their centers of mass
Laterally braced or anchored to the structural frame at or above their
b. 1.0 3.0
centers of mass
2. Signs and billboards 2.5 3.0
3. Storage racks (include contents) over 1,8 m tall. 2.5 4.0. 4
Permanent floor-supported cabinets and book stacks more than 1.8
4. 1.0 3.0 5
m in height (include contents)
Anchorage and lateral bracing for suspended ceilings and light
5. 1.0 3.0 3, 6, 7, 8
fixtures
6. Access floor systems 1.0 3.0 4, 5, 9
7. Masonry or concrete fences over 1.8 m high 1.0 3.0
8. Partitions. 1.0 3.0
3. Equipment 1. Tanks and vessels (include contents), including support systems 1.0 3.0
5, 10, 11,
Electrical, mechanical and plumbing equipment and associated 12, 13,
2. 1.0 3.0
conduit and ductwork and piping. 14, 15,
16
Any flexible equipment laterally braced or anchored to the structural 5, 10, 14,
3. 2.5 3.0
frame at a point below their center of mass 15, 16
Anchorage or emergency power supply systems and essential
communications equipment. Anchorage and support systems for
4. 1.0 3.0 17, 18
battery racks and fuel tanks necessary for operation of emergency
equipment. See also Section 208.7.2.
5. Temporary containers with flammable or hazardous materials. 1.0 3.0 19
4. Other 1. Rigid components with ductile material and attachments. 1.0 3.0 1
Components 2. Rigid components with nonductile material or attachments. 1.0 1.5 1
3. Flexible components with ductile material and attachments. 2.5 3.0 1
4. Flexible components with nonductile material or attachments. 2.5 1.5 1

Notes for Table 208-13

1 See Section 208.2 for definitions of flexible components and rigid components.
2 See Section 208.8.7.2.3 and 208.7.2.7 for concrete and masonry walls and Section 208.9.2 for connections for panel connectors
for panels.
3 Applies to Seismic Zones 2 and 4 only.
4 Ground supported steel storage racks may be designed using the provisions of Sections 208.8. Load and resistance factor design
may be used for the design of cold-formed steel members, provided seismic design forces are equal to or greater than those
specified in Section 208.9.2 or 208.8.3 as appropriate.
5 Only anchorage or restraints need be designed.
6 Ceiling weight shall include all light fixtures and other equipment or partitions that are laterally supported by the ceiling. For
purposes of determining the seismic force, a ceiling weight of not less than 0.2 kPa shall be used.
7 Ceilings constructed of lath and plaster or gypsum board screw or nail attached to suspended members that support a ceiling al
one level extending from wall to wall need not be analyzed, provided the walls are not over 15 meters apart.
8 Light fixtures and mechanical services installed in metal suspension systems for acoustical tile and lay-in panel ceilings shall be
independently supported from the structure above as specified in UBC Standard 25-2, Part III.
9 𝑾𝒑 for access floor systems shall be the dead load of the access floor system plus 25 percent of the floor live load plus a 0.5 kPa
partition load allowance.

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 10 Equipment includes, but is not limited to, boilers, chillers, heat exchangers, pumps, air-handling units, cooling towers, control
panels, motors, switchgear, transformers and life-safety equipment. It shall include major conduit, ducting and piping, which
services such machinery and equipment and fire sprinkler systems. See Section 208.9.2 for additional requirements for
determining ap for nonrigid or flexibly mounted equipment.
11 Seismic restraints may be omitted from piping and duct supports if all the following conditions are satisfied:
11.1 Lateral motion of the piping or duct will not cause damaging impact with other systems.
11.2 The piping or duct is made of ductile material with ductile connections.
11.3 Lateral motion of the piping or duct does not cause impact of fragile appurtenances (e.g., sprinkler heads) with any other
equipment, piping or structural member.
11.4 Lateral motion of the piping or duct does not cause loss of system vertical support.
11.5 Rod-hung supports of less than 300 mm in length have top connections that cannot develop moments.
11.6 Support members cantilevered up from the floor are checked for stability.
12 Seismic restraints may be omitted from electrical raceways, such as cable trays, conduit and bus ducts, if all the following
conditions are satisfied:
12.1 Lateral motion of the raceway will not cause damaging impact with other systems.
12.2 Lateral motion of the raceway does not cause loss of system vertical support.
12.3 Rod-hung supports of less than 300 mm in length have top connections that cannot develop moments.
12.4 Support members cantilevered up from the floor are checked for stability.
13 Piping, ducts and electrical raceways, which must be functional following an earthquake, spanning between different buildings or
structural systems shall be sufficiently flexible to withstand relative motion of support points assuming out-of-phase motions.
14 Vibration isolators supporting equipment shall be Designed for lateral loads or restrained from displacing laterally by other means.
Restraint shall also be provided, which limits vertical displacement, such that lateral restraints do not become disengaged. 𝒂𝒑 and
𝑹 for equipment supported on vibration isolators shall be taken as 2.5 and 1.5, respectively, except that if the isolation mounting
frame is supported by shallow or expansion anchors, the design forces for the anchors calculated by Equations. 208-27, or 208-
28 (including limits), shall be additionally multiplied by factor of 2.0.
15 Equipment anchorage shall not be designed such that loads are resisted by gravity friction (e.g., friction clips).
16 Expansion anchors, which are required to resist seismic loads in tension, shall not be used where operational vibrating loads are
present.
17 Movement of components within electrical cabinets, rack-and skid-mounted equipment and portions of skid-mounted
electromechanical equipment that may cause damage to other components by displacing, shall be restricted by attachment to
anchored equipment or support frames.
18 Batteries on racks shall be restrained against movement in all direction due to earthquake forces.
19 Seismic restraints may include straps, chains, bolts, barriers or other mechanisms that prevent sliding, falling and breach of
containment of flammable and toxic materials. Friction forces may not be used to resist lateral loads in the restraints unless
positive uplift restraint is provided which ensures that the friction forces act continuously.

208.9.3 Specifying Lateral Forces 2. The force, 𝑭𝒑 , and the overturning moment used in
Design specifications for equipment shall either specify the the design of the nonstructural component shall
design lateral forces prescribed herein or reference these not be less than 80 percent of the values that would
provisions. be obtained using these provisions.

208.9.4 Relative Motion of Equipment Attachments 208.10 Alternative Earthquake Load Procedure
or equipment in Categories I and Il buildings as defined in The earthquake load procedure of latest edition of ASCE/SEI
Table 103-1, the lateral-force design shall consider the effects 7 prior to the release of this code may be used in determining
of relative motion of the points of attachment to the structure, the earthquake loads as an alternative procedure subject to
using the drift based upon ∆𝑴. reliable research work commissioned by the owner or the
engineer-on-record to provide for all data required due to the
208.9.5 Alternative Designs non-availability of PHIVOLCS-issued spectral acceleration
Where an approved national standard or approved physical maps for all areas in the Philippines.
test data provide a basis for the earthquake-resistant design
of a particular type of equipment or other nonstructural The engineer-on-record shall be responsible for the spectral
component, such a standard or data may be accepted as a acceleration and other related data not issued by PHIVOLCS
basis for design of the items with the following limitations: used in the determination of the earthquake loads. This
alternative earthquake load procedure shall be subject to Peer
1. These provisions shall provide minimum values for Review and approval of the Building Official.
the design of the anchorage and the members and
connections that transfer the forces to the seismic-
resisting system.

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP