Unit 88

AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS AND INDICATING SYSTEMS

OUTCOME 01
AIR DATA INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

WEEK 03
AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS(ALTIMETER)

CONTENTS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 ANEROID BAROMETER AND ALTIMETER
3.3 ALTIMETER DIAL PRESENTATIONS
3.4 TYPES OF ALTITUDE MEASUREMENT
3.5 Q’ CODE FOR ALTIMETER SETTING
3.6 ALTIMETER TESTS

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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS AND INDICATING Unit level: 3 01.02.08
Week 3 88
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3.1 INTRODUCTION
An air data (or manometric) system of an aircraft is one in which the total
pressure created by the forward motion of an aircraft, and the static pressure of
the atmosphere surrounding it, sensed and measured in terms of speed, altitude,
and rate of altitude change (vertical speed). The measurement and indication of
these three parameters may be done by connecting the appropriate sensors,
either directly to mechanical type instruments, or to a remotely- located air data
computer which then transmits the data in electrical signal format to Electro-
mechanical or servo-type instruments.
The three primary air data instruments may be either of the pure ‘pneumatic’ type,
or the servo-operated type. Pneumatic-type instruments are those which are
connected to probes and/or static vents, and therefore respond to the pressure
transmitted directly to them. They are commonly used in the more basic air data
systems installed in many types of small aircraft, while in the more complex
systems adopted in large public transport aircraft, they are used only in a standby
role.
Servo-operated instruments are, on the other hand, of the direct type in that they
respond to electrical signals generated by pressure transducers within central air
data computers (CADCs) to which probes and static vents are connected. The
fundamental principles of these instruments will be described in this chapter.

3.2 ANEROID BAROMETER AND ALTIMETER

In the general development of instruments for atmospheric pressure measurement,
certain practical applications demanded instruments which would be portable and
able to operate in various attitudes. For example, for weather observations at sea it
was apparent that a mercury barometer would be rather fragile, and that under
pitching and rolling conditions the erratic movement of the mercury column would
make observations difficult. A more robust instrument was therefore needed and it
had to be one which required no liquid whatsoever. Thus the aneroid (from the
Greek aneros, `not wet'), barometer came into being. The instrument has been
developed to quite a high standard of precision for many specialized applications,
but the simplest version of it, and one more familiar perhaps to the reader, is the
household barometer.
The pressure-sensing element of the instrument (see Fig 3.1) is an evacuated metal
capsule. Since there is approximately zero pressure inside the capsule, and
assuming the instrument to be at sea level, approximately 14.7 lbf/in2 on the outside,
the capsule will tend to collapse. This, however, is prevented by a strong leaf spring
fitted so that one side is attached to the top of the capsule and the other side to the
instrument base plate. The spring always tends to open outwards, and a state of
equilibrium is obtained when the pressure is balanced by the spring tension.

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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS AND INDICATING Unit level: 3 01.02.08
Week 3 88
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 Figure 3.1: Aneroid barometer principle

If now the atmospheric pressure decreases, the force tending to collapse the capsule
is decreased but the spring tension remains the same and consequently is able to
open out the capsule a little further than before. If there is an increase in pressure,
the action is reversed, the pressure now collapsing the capsule against the tension
of the spring until equilibrium is attained.
The resulting expansion and contraction of the capsule, which is extremely small, is
transformed into rotary motion of the pointer by means of a magnifying lever system
and a very finely-linked chain.
From the foregoing description, we can appreciate that when it first became
necessary to measure the height of an aeroplane above the ground, the aneroid
barometer with change of scale markings formed a ready-made altimeter. Present-
day altimeters are, of course, much more sophisticated, but the aneroid barometer
principle still applies. "The mechanism of a typical sensitive altimeter is shown in Fig
3.3. The pressure-sensing element is made up of three aneroid capsules stacked
together to increase the sensitivity of the instrument. Deflections of the capsules are
transmitted to a sector gear via a link and rocking shaft assembly. The sector gear
meshes with a magnifying gear mechanism which drives a handstaff carrying
a long pointer the function of which is to indicate hundreds of feet. A pinion is also
mounted on the handstaff, and this drives second gear mechanism carrying second
and third pointers which indicate thousands and tens of thousands of feet
respectively. In this particular instrument a disc is also attached to the third pointer
gear and moves with it. One side of the disc is painted white, and above 10,000 ft
this becomes visible through a semicircular slot cut in the main dial. Thus, the pointer
movement is `traced' out to eliminate ambiguity of readings above 10,000 ft.

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Week 3 88
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 Figure: 3.2: Basic Altimeter

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 Figure 3.3: Exploded view of a typical altimeter mechanism. 1 link, 2
calibration arm, 3 spring-loaded balance weight, 4 rocking shaft, 5 handstaff, 6
mechanism adaptor plate, 7 cam-follower pin, 8 cam follower (drives output
wheel), ' 9 slotted cam, 10 millibar counter, 11 baroscale adjusting knob, 12
trace disc,13 third pointer, 14 long pointer, 15 intermediate pointer, 16 dial, 17
top mechanism gear train,18 output wheel, 19. cam gear, 20 spigot, 21 hair-
spring, 22 intermediate pinion and gear wheel, 23 temperature-compensating
U-bracket,24 diaphragm unit.

In order to derive a linear altitude scale from the non-linear pressure/ altitude
relationship, it is necessary to incorporate some form of conversion within the
altimeter mechanism (see Fig 3.4). Linearity is obtained by a suitable choice of
material for the capsule and corresponding deflection curve (2) and also of the
deflection characteristics of the variable magnification lever and gear system
adopted for transmitting deflections to the pointer system (curve 3). The resultant of
both curves produces the linear scale as indicated at 4. To cater for variations
between deflection characteristics of individual capsules, and so allow for calibration,
adjustments are always provided whereby the lever and gear system magnification
may be matched to suit the capsule characteristics.

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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS AND INDICATING Unit level: 3 01.02.08
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The pressure-sensing element of the altimeter shown in Fig 3.3 is compensated for
changes in ambient temperatures by a bimetal`U'-shaped bracket, the open ends of
which are connected to the top capsule by push rods.

Figure 3.4: Conversion of pressure/height relationship to a linear scale

The temperature coefficient of the instrument is chiefly due to the change of elasticity
of the capsule material with change of temperature; this, in turn, varying the degree
of deflection of the capsule in relation to the pressure acting external to it. For
example, if at sea-level the temperature should decrease, the elasticity of the
capsule would increase; in other words, and from the definition of elasticity, the
capsule has a greater tendency `to return to its original size' and so would expand
and cause the altimeter to over-read. At higher altitudes the same effects on
elasticity will take place, but since the pressures acting on the capsule will have
decreased, then by comparison, the capsule expansion becomes progressively
greater. The effect of a decrease in temperature on the `U'-shaped bracket is to
cause the limbs to bend inwards, and by virtue of the angular position of the pins, a
corresponding downward force is exerted on the capsule assembly to oppose the

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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS AND INDICATING Unit level: 3 01.02.08
Week 3 88
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error-producing expansion. The converse of the foregoing sequence will apply when
an increase of ambient temperature occurs.
A barometric pressure-setting mechanism is mounted in front of the main
mechanism. It consists of a counter geared to the shaft of a setting knob. The shaft
also carries a pinion which meshes with a gear around the periphery of the main
mechanism casting. When the knob is rotated to set the required barometric
pressure, the main mechanism is also rotated, and the pointers are set to the
corresponding altitude change.
Linearity between the pressure counter and the pointers is maintained by a cam and
follower. The position of the capsules under the influence of the atmospheric
pressure prevailing at the time of setting remains undisturbed. A spring-loaded
balance weight is linked to the rocking shaft to maintain the balance of the main
mechanism regardless of its attitude.

3.3 ALTIMETER DIAL PRESENTATIONS

The presentation of altitude information has undergone many changes in recent
years, principally as a result of altimeter misreading being the proven or suspected
cause of a number of fatal accidents. In consequence, several methods are to be
found in altimeters currently in use, the most notable of which are the triple-pointer,
single-pointer and digital counter, and single-pointer and drum presentations. The
triple-pointer method is the oldest of presentations and is the one which really made
it necessary to introduce changes. This method is used in the altimeter shown in Fig
3.3 the susceptibility of its predecessor to misreading of 1,000 ft and 10,000 ft, has
been overcome to a large extent by giving the pointers a more distinctive shape, and
by incorporating the trace disc referred to earlier. In addition, some versions
incorporate a yellow and black striped disc which serves as a low-altitude warning
device by coming into view at altitudes below 16,000 ft.
The counter pointer (Fig 3.5 (c)), and in some cases the drum pointer presentations
are used in servo altimeters and altimeters forming part of air data computer
systems.

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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS AND INDICATING Unit level: 3 01.02.08
Week 3 88
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 Figure 3.5: Altimeter dial presentations. (a) Triplepointer (10,000 ft pointer
behind, 1,000 ft pointer in this view); (b) modified triple pointer; (c) and (d)
counter/pointer.

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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS AND INDICATING Unit level: 3 01.02.08
Week 3 88
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3.4 TYPES OF ALTITUDE MEASUREMENT
An altimeter can measure two types of altitude. They are as follows:
i) Indicated altitude,
ii) Pressure altitude.

(i) Indicated altitude:

An altimeter, which measures the pressure above the existing sea level, this
pressure measurement is called indicated altitude.
(ii) Pressure altitude:
The altimeter, which measures altitude above standard sea level, this pressure
(29.92 in. Hg or 1013 millibars) measurement is called pressure altitude.

3.5 ‘Q’ CODE FOR ALTIMETER SETTING

The setting of altimeters to the barometric pressures prevailing at various flight levels
and airports is part of flight operating techniques, and is essential for maintaining
adequate separation between aircraft and also terrain clearance during take-off and
landing. In order to make the settings flight crews are dependent on observed
meteorological data are requested and transmitted from air traffic controls. The
requests and transmissions are adopted universally and form part of the ICAO ‘Q’
code of communication.
There are three code letter groups are normally used in communication with
altimeter settings and they are defined as follows:-
(i) QFE: - Setting the pressure prevailing at an airfield to make the altimeter read
zero on landing and take-off.
(ii) QNE: - Setting the standard sea-level pressure of 1,013.25 mbar (29.92 in Hg) to
make the altimeter read the airfield elevation.
(iii) QNH: - Setting the pressure scale to make the altimeter read airfield height
above-sea level on landing and take-off.

Unit Name Unit No Unit value: 1 Issue Date

Outcome 1
AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS AND INDICATING Unit level: 3 01.02.08
Week 3 88
SYSTEMS Core unit: Page 9
3.6 ALTIMETER TESTS
The altimeter is the only instrument specifically singled out in the Federal Aviation
Regulations as requiring a test. Every 24 calendar months, every altimeter and every
static system of airplanes used for instrument flight rules (IFR) flying must be
checked according to the tests prescribed in F.A.R 43, appendix E. These tests
include;
3.6.1 Scale error:
The barometric scale is set to 29.92 in. Hg and the instrument subjected to pressure
corresponding to a series of test altitudes. The instrument must not have a scale
error in excess of allowed in table 3.1.
3.6.2 Hysteresis:
This test is made to determine that the instrument will be within tolerance between a
reading taken when the altitude is increasing and one taken when the altitude is
decreasing. Hysteresis is essentially a lagging of the indication caused by the
deflection of the metal in the diaphragms not keeping up with the pressure changes.
3.6.3 After-effect:
This error shows up by the altimeter not returning to its original reading after the
hysteresis test has been performed. It is the effect of the “set” the diaphragms have
taken.
3.6.4 Friction:
All non-servo altimeters have enough friction that some form of vibration is needed
for their accurate reading. This test determines just how much friction the instrument
has. A reading is taken before and after the case is vibrated.
3.6.5 Case leak:
The case is tested at 18,000 feet pressure to be sure it does not leak more than 100
feet in one minute.
3.6.6 Barometric scale error:
This test determines that the movement of the barometric scale has the proper effect
on the pointers.

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AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS AND INDICATING Unit level: 3 01.02.08
Week 3 88
SYSTEMS Core unit: Page 10
 Table 3.1

Altitude Equivalent pressure

Tolerance
(feet) (Inches of mercury)

-1,000 31.018 20
0 29.921 20
500 29.385 20
1,000 28.856 20
1,500 28.335 25
2,000 27.821 30
3,000 26.817 30
4,000 25.842 35
6,000 23.978 40
8,000 22.225 60
10,000 20.577 80
12,000 19.029 90
14,000 17.577 100
16,000 16.216 110
18,000 14.942 120
20,000 13.750 130
22,000 12.636 140
25,000 11.104 155
30,000 8.885 180
35,000 7.041 205
40,000 5.538 230
45,000 4.355 255
50,000 3.425 280

Table 3.2: TEST TOLERANCES

Test Tolerance
(feet)
Case Leak Test ---------------------------------------------------- + 100
Hysteresis Test:
First Test Point (50 percent of maximum
Altitude) ----------------------------------------------------- 75
Second Test Point (40 percent of maximum
Altitude ------------------------------------------------------ 75
After effect Test ----------------------------------------------------- 30

Unit Name Unit No Unit value: 1 Issue Date

Outcome 1
AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS AND INDICATING Unit level: 3 01.02.08
Week 3 88
SYSTEMS Core unit: Page 11
 Table 3.3: Friction

Altitude Tolerance
(feet) + (feet)

1,000 70
2,000 70
3,000 70
5,000 70
10,000 80
15,000 90
20,000 100
25,000 120
30,000 140
35,000 160
40,000 180
50,000 250

Table 3.4: PRESSURE-ALTITUDE DIFFERENCE

Pressure (Inches of Hg) Altitude Difference (feet)

28.10 -1227
28.50 -1340
29.0 -863
29.50 -392
29.92 0
30.50 +531
30.90 +893
30.99 +974

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Unit Name Unit No Unit value: 1 Issue Date

Outcome 1
AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS AND INDICATING Unit level: 3 01.02.08
Week 3 88
SYSTEMS Core unit: Page 12