Contents
1 Music theory 1
1.1 History of music theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Fundamentals of music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Scales and modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.3 Consonance and dissonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.4 Rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.5 Chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.6 Melody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.7 Harmony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.8 Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.9 Timbre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.10 Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.11 Form or structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.12 Performance and style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.13 Music perception and cognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.14 Serial composition and set theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.15 Musical semiotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Music subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.1 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.4 Ear training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 Musical notation 15
2.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.1 Ancient Near East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.2 Ancient Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
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ii CONTENTS
3 Pitch (music) 27
3.1 Perception of pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.1 Pitch and frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.2 Theories of pitch perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1.3 Just-noticeable difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1.4 Aural illusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
CONTENTS iii
4 Pitch circularity 32
4.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5 Interval (music) 34
5.1 Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.1.1 Frequency ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.1.2 Cents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2 Main intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.3 Interval number and quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.3.1 Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.3.2 Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.3.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.4 Shorthand notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.5 Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.6 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.6.1 Melodic and harmonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.6.2 Diatonic and chromatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.6.3 Consonant and dissonant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.6.4 Simple and compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.6.5 Steps and skips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.6.6 Enharmonic intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.7 Minute intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.8 Compound intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.8.1 Main compound intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.9 Intervals in chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.9.1 Chord qualities and interval qualities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.9.2 Deducing component intervals from chord names and symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.10 Size of intervals used in different tuning systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.11 Interval root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.12 Interval cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.13 Alternative interval naming conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
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6 Note 47
6.1 Accidentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.2 12-tone chromatic scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.3 Note designation in accordance with octave name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.4 Written notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.5 Note frequency (hertz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.6 History of note names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.9 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7 Semitone 52
7.1 Minor second . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.2 Augmented unison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.4 Semitones in different tunings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.4.1 Meantone temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.4.2 Equal temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.4.3 Well temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.4.4 Pythagorean tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.4.5 Just intonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.4.6 Other equal temperaments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8 Octave 59
8.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.2 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.2.1 First octave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
CONTENTS v
9 Tritone 63
9.1 Augmented fourth and diminished fifth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
9.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
9.2.1 Broad interpretation (chromatic scale) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
9.2.2 Strict interpretation (diatonic scale) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
9.3 Size in different tuning systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
9.4 Eleventh harmonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9.5 Dissonance and expressiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9.6 Common uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.6.1 Occurrences in diatonic scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.6.2 Occurrences in chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.6.3 Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.6.4 Other uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.7 Historical uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9.9 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
10 Major second 71
10.1 Major and minor tones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
10.2 Epogdoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
10.2.1 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
10.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
10.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
11 Minor second 74
11.1 In other temperaments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
11.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
11.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
12 Major third 75
12.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
12.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
13 Minor third 77
13.1 Pythagorean minor third . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
13.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
13.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
14 Perfect fourth 79
14.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
14.1.1 Middle ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
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15 Perfect fifth 83
15.1 Alternative definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
15.2 Other qualities of fifth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
15.3 Pitch ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
15.4 Use in harmony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
15.5 Bare fifth, open fifth, or empty fifth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
15.6 Use in tuning and tonal systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
15.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
15.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
16 Supertonic 86
16.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
17 Submediant 88
17.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
17.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
18 Mediant 91
18.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
18.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
19 Subdominant 93
19.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
20 Subtonic 95
20.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
20.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
20.3 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
21 Tonic (music) 97
21.1 Importance and function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
21.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
21.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
22 Chord (music) 99
22.1 Definition and history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
22.2 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
22.2.1 Roman numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
CONTENTS vii
54 Leading-tone 215
54.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
54.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
56 Harmonic 221
56.1 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
56.2 Harmonics and overtones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
56.3 Harmonics on stringed instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
56.3.1 Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
xvi CONTENTS
Music theory
Music theory considers the practices and possibilities of 1.1 History of music theory
music. It is generally derived from observation of how
musicians and composers actually make music, but in-
cludes hypothetical speculation. Most commonly, the
term describes the academic study and analysis of fun-
damental elements of music such as pitch, rhythm, har-
mony, and form, but also refers to descriptions, con-
cepts, or beliefs related to music. Because of the ever-
expanding conception of what constitutes music (see
Definition of music), a more inclusive definition could be
that music theory is the consideration of any sonic phe-
nomena, including silence, as it relates to music.
Music theory is a subfield of musicology, which is itself
a subfield within the overarching field of the arts and hu-
manities. Etymologically, music theory is an act of con-
templation of music, from the Greek θεωρία, a look-
ing at, viewing, contemplation, speculation, theory, also
a sight, a spectacle.[1] As such, it is often concerned with Egyptian musicians playing lutes in an ensemble.
abstract musical aspects such as tuning and tonal systems,
scales, consonance and dissonace, and rhythmic relation- The beginnings of music theory can be observed in ex-
ships, but there is also a body of theory concerning such tremely ancient instruments, artifacts, and later, depic-
practical aspects as the creation or the performance of tions of performance in artworks.
music, orchestration, ornamentation, improvisation, and As early as the Paleolithic, it appears people considered
electronic sound production.[2] A person working in mu- elements of music in some way. For instance, a bone flute
sic theory is a music theorist. Methods of analysis include with carefully placed finger holes found in Hohle Fels in
mathematics, graphic analysis, and, especially, analysis Germany and dated c.35,000 BCE,[4] may be a prehis-
enabled by Western music notation. Comparative, de- toric example of the manufacture of an instrument to pro-
scriptive, statistical, and other methods are also used. duce a preconceived set of pitches. For further discussion
The development, preservation, and transmission of of Upper Paleolithic flutes, see d'Errico, et al. 2003, 39–
music theory may be found in oral and practical 48.
music-making traditions, musical instruments, and other Similar bone flutes (gǔdí, ) from Neolithic Jiahu,
artifacts. For example, ancient instruments from China dated c. 7,000 BCE[5] reveal their makers progres-
Mesopotamia, China,[3] and prehistoric sites around the sively added more holes to expand their scales, structured
world reveal details about the music they produced and, pitch intervals closer to each other to adjust tuning, and
potentially, something of the musical theory that might could play increasingly expressive and varied music.[6]
have been used by their makers (see History of music “Tonal analysis of the flutes revealed that the seven holes
and Musical instrument). In ancient and living cultures [in some of the flutes] correspond to a tone scale remark-
around the world, the deep and long roots of music the- ably similar to Western eight-pitch scales.”[7][8] These
ory are clearly visible in instruments, oral traditions, and instruments[9] indicate their makers became familiar with
current music making. Many cultures, at least as far back acoustics and developed theories of music comparable to
as ancient Mesopotamia, Pharoanic Egypt, and ancient those of later times. Audio recordings of two of these
China have also considered music theory in more formal flutes by Brookhaven National Laboratory are available
ways such as written treatises and music notation. here.
In North America, similar flutes from the Anasazi In-
1
2 CHAPTER 1. MUSIC THEORY
dian culture were found in Arizona and dated c. 600– ica from at least 2,000 BCE, though "...it is widely ac-
750 CE, but again, suggest an older tradition. These in- cepted that finds and depictions of ancient musical instru-
struments typically have six finger holes ranging one and ments are not only markers of musical traditions in space
a half octaves.[10] As with all these ancient flutes, it is and time. … The information obtained from the archaeo-
likely an error to imagine the Anasazi flutes were lim- logical record can be deepened considerably when ancient
ited to only as many tones as they have holes. Changes in scripts, historical treaties, and other written sources con-
embouchure, overblowing, and cross-fingering are com- cerning music are related. Such documents offer notes
mon techniques on modern flutes like these that produce on performance practices and their sociocultural contexts.
a much larger range of notes within an octave and in oc- For some cultures, hints concerning ancient music theory
taves above the fundamental octave.[11] and musical aesthetics may also be found.”[26]
The earliest known examples of written music theory are Music theory in ancient Africa can also be seen in instru-
inscribed on clay tablets found in Iraq and Syria, some ments .[27] The Mbira, a wood or bamboo-tined instru-
of which contain lists of intervals and other details[12][13]
ment similar to a Kalimba, appeared on the west coast
from which "...musicologists have been able to produce of Africa about 3,000 years ago, and metal-tined lamel-
credible reconstructions of the Mesopotamian tonal and lophones appeared in the Zambezi River valley around
tuning systems.”[14] Tablets from Ugarit contain what are 1,300 years ago.[28] In the 20th century, these instru-
known as the Hurrian songs or Hurrian Hymns dated ments produce a number of tones, ranging to 32 sepa-
c. 1,400 BCE. An interpretation of the only substan- rate pitches, and demonstrate a great variety of tunings—
tially complete Hurrian Hymn, h.6, may be heard here. tunings “so dissimilar as to offer no apparent common
The system of phonetic notation in Sumer and Babylo- foundation”, something that might have been expected
nia is based on a music terminology that gives individual at least by 1932.[29] The djembe, a common type of
names to nine musical strings or “notes”, and to fourteen drum, likely originated from earlier, extremely ancient
basic terms describing intervals of the fourth and fifth drums.[30] Djembe ensembles create complex polyrhyth-
that were used in tuning string instruments (according mic patterns,[31] but produce a variety of pitches depend-
to seven heptatonic diatonic scales), and terms for thirds ing on size and playing technique, usually producing at
and sixths that appear to have been used to fine tune (or least three separate tones.[32] African music theory is also
temper in some way) the seven notes generated for each preserved in oral and cultural traditions that are one ex-
scale.[15][16][17][18][19] ample of the great variety of concepts of fundamental as-
[33]
Over time, many cultures began to record their theories pects of music around the world.
of music in writing by describing practices and theory In China, a variety of wind, string, percussion instru-
that was previously developed and passed along through ments, and written descriptions and drawings of them
oral tradition. In cultures where no written examples ex- from the Shang Dynasty (c.16th to 11th century BCE),
ist, oral traditions indicate a long history of theoretical show sophisticated form and design.[34] During the Zhou
consideration, often with unique concepts of use, perfor- Dynasty (c. 1046–256 BC), a formal system of court and
mance, tuning and intervals, and other fundamental ele- ceremonial music later termed “yayue” was established.
ments of music. The Vedas, the sacred texts of India (c. As early as the 7th century BCE, a system of pitch gen-
1,000–500 BCE) contain theoretical discussion of music eration was described based on a ratio of 2:3 and a pen-
in the Sama Veda and Yajur-Veda, however, these texts tatonic scale was derived from the cycle of fifths,[35] the
are widely considered to be based on far older oral tradi- beginnings of which may be seen in the 7,000 year-old
tions. The Natya Shastra,[20] written between 200 BCE to Jiahu bone flutes. In the tomb of the Marquis Yi of Zeng
200 CE and attributed to Bharata Muni, discusses classes (5th century BCE), among many other instruments, a set
of melodic structure, intervals, consonance and disso- of bronze chime bells were found that sound five com-
nance, performance, and other theoretical aspects such plete seven note octaves in the key of C Major and in-
a “shruti,” defined as the least perceivable difference be- clude twelve semitones.[36] The Analects of Confucius,
tween two pitches.[21] believed to have been written c. 475 to 221 BC, dis-
The music of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica is known cuss the aesthetics of what Confucius considered to be
through the many instruments discovered. Thirty-two the most benevolent form and use of music, in contrast
condor-bone flutes and thirty-seven cornet-like instru- to popular music of his time—an example of early music
[37][38]
ments made of deer and llama bones have been re- criticism and consideration of aesthetics.
covered from a site at Caral, Peru dating to c. 2,100 Around the time of Confucius, the ancient Greeks, no-
BCE.[22][23][24] Flute No. 15 produces five distinct fun- tably Pythagoras (c. 530 BCE), Aristotle (c. 350
damental tones. A Mayan marimba-like instrument (c. BCE),[39] Aristoxenus (c. 335 BCE),[40] and later
350 CE), made from five turtle shells of decreasing sizes Ptolemy (c. 120 CE),[41] speculated and experimented
suspended on a wooden frame, has been discovered in with ideas that became the basis of music theory in Mid-
Belize.[25] Later artwork depicts ensemble and solo per- dle Eastern and Western cultures during the Middle Ages
formance. Taken together, this evidence does not in itself as can be seen, for example, in the writing of Boethius
demonstrate anything about music theory in Mesoamer- in 5th century Rome[42] and Yunus al-Katibin 7th cen-
1.2. FUNDAMENTALS OF MUSIC 3
1.2.1 Pitch
octaves may be grouped into a single “class” by ignoring the melodic minor, and the natural minor. Other exam-
the difference in octave. For example, a high C and a low ples of scales are the octatonic scale and the pentatonic or
C are members of the same pitch class—that class which five-tone scale, which is common in folk music and blues.
contains all C’s. The concept of pitch class greatly aids Non-Western cultures often use scales that do not corre-
aspects of analysis and composition.[54] spond with an equally divided twelve-tone division of the
Although pitch can be identified by specific frequency, octave. For example, classical Ottoman, Persian, Indian
the letter names assigned to pitches are somewhat arbi- and Arabic musical systems often make use of multiples
trary. For example, today most orchestras assign Concert of quarter tones (half the size of a semitone, as the name
indicates), for instance in 'neutral' seconds (three quarter
A (the A above middle C on the piano) to the specific fre-
quency of 440 Hz, rather than, for instance, 435HZ as it tones) or 'neutral' thirds (seven quarter tones) – they do
not normally use the quarter tone itself as a direct interval,
was in France in 1859. In England, that A varied between
439 and 452. These differences can have noticeable af- however.[56]
fect on the timbre of instruments and other phenomena. In traditional Western notation, the scale used for a com-
Many cultures do not attempt to standardize pitch, of- position is usually indicated by a key signature at the be-
ten considering that it should be allowed to vary depend- ginning to designate the pitches that make up that scale.
ing on genre, style, mood, etc. In historically informed As the music progresses, the pitches used may change and
performance of older music, tuning is often set to match introduce a different scale. Music can be transposed from
the tuning used in the period in which it was written. A one scale to another for various purposes, often to ac-
frequency of 440 Hz was recommended as the standard commodate the range of a vocalist. Transposition raises
pitch for Concert A in 1939, and in 1955 the International or lowers the overall pitch range, but preserves the in-
Organization for Standardization affirmed the choice.[55] tervallic relationships of the original scale. For example,
A440 is now widely, though not exclusively, the standard transposition from the key of C major to D major raises
for music around the world. all pitches of the scale of C major equally by a whole
Pitch is also an important consideration in tuning sys- tone. Since the interval relationships remain unchanged,
tems, or temperament, used to determine the intervallic transposition may be unnoticed by a listener, however
distance between tones, as within a scale. Tuning sys- other qualities may change noticeably because transpo-
tems vary widely within and between world cultures. In sition changes the relationship of the overall pitch range
Western culture, there have long been several compet- compared to the range of the instruments or voices that
ing tuning systems, all with different qualities. Interna- perform the music. This often affects the music’s over-
all sound, as well as having technical implications for the
tionally, the system known as equal temperament is most
commonly used today because it is considered the most performers.[57]
satisfactory compromise that allows instruments of fixed The interrelationship of the keys most commonly used in
tuning (e.g. the piano) to sound acceptably in tune in all Western tonal music is conveniently shown by the circle
keys. of fifths. Unique key signatures are also sometimes de-
vised for a particular composition. During the Baroque
period, emotional associations with specific keys, known
1.2.2 Scales and modes as the doctrine of the affections, were an important topic
in music theory, but the unique tonal colorings of keys
Main articles: Musical scale and Musical mode that gave rise to that doctrine were largely erased with the
Notes can be arranged in a variety of scales and modes. adoption of equal temperament. However, many musi-
cians continue to feel that certain keys are more appropri-
ate to certain emotions than others. Indian classical music
theory continues to strongly associate keys with emotional
states, times of day, and other extra-musical concepts and
notably, does not employ equal temperament.
Pattern of whole and half steps in the Ionian mode or major scale
on C Play . 1.2.3 Consonance and dissonance
Western music theory generally divides the octave into Main article: Consonance and dissonance
a series of twelve tones, called a chromatic scale, within
which the interval between adjacent tones is called a half
step or semitone. In equal temperament each semitone is Consonance and dissonance are subjective qualities of the
equidistant from the next, but other tuning systems are sonority of intervals that vary widely in different cultures
also used. Selecting tones from this set of 12 and ar- and over the ages.
ranging them in patterns of semitones and whole tones Consonance (or concord) is the quality of an interval or
creates other scales. The most commonly encountered chord which seems stable and complete in itself. Dis-
scales are the seven-toned major, the harmonic minor, sonance (or discord) is the opposite in that it feels in-
1.2. FUNDAMENTALS OF MUSIC 5
Metric levels: beat level shown in middle with division levels 1.2.6 Melody
above and multiple levels below.
Main article: Melody
sounds and silences in time. Meter measures music in
A melody is a series of tones sounding in succession that
regular pulse groupings, called measures or bars. The
time signature or meter signature specifies how many
beats are in a measure, and which value of written note
is counted or felt as a single beat. Through increased
stress, or variations in duration or articulation, particular
tones may be accented. There are conventions in most
musical traditions for regular and hierarchical accentu-
ation of beats to reinforce a given meter. Syncopated
rhythms contradict those conventions by accenting unex- "Pop Goes the Weasel" melody[59] Play
pected parts of the beat. Playing simultaneous rhythms
in more than one time signature is called polymeter. See typically move toward a climax of tension then resolve to
also polyrhythm. a state of rest. Because melody is such a prominent aspect
In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an impor- in so much music, its construction and other qualities are
tant area of research among music scholars. Recent work a primary interest of music theory.
in these areas includes books by Bengt-Olov Palmqvist, The basic elements of melody are pitch, duration, rhythm,
Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, and Jonathan Kramer. and tempo. The tones of a melody are usually drawn
6 CHAPTER 1. MUSIC THEORY
1.2.7 Harmony
plete composition, commonly described according to the
number of and relationship between parts or lines of mu-
Main article: Harmony
sic: monophony, heterophony, polyphony, homophony,
Harmony is the study of vertical sonorities in music. Ver-
or monody. The perceived texture of a piece can also
be affected by the timbre of the instruments, the number
of instruments used, and the intervallic distance between
each musical line, among other things. Its theoretical in-
terest includes its effects on perception, form, and style.
1.2.9 Timbre
timbre. Sul tasto instructs a string player to bow near of indicating volume are also used in both notation and
or over the fingerboard to produce a less brilliant sound. analysis: dB (decibels), numerical scales, colored or dif-
Cuivre instructs a brass player to produce a forced and ferent sized notes, words in languages other than Italian,
stridently brassy sound. Accent symbols like marcato (^) and symbols such as those for progressively increasing
and dynamic indications (pp) can also indicate changes in volume (crescendo) or decreasing volume (decrescendo),
timbre. often called "hairpins" when indicated with diverging or
converging lines as shown in the graphic above.
1.2.10 Expression
Articulation
Main article: Musical expression
Main article: Articulation (music)
Articulation is the manner in which the performer sounds
Expression is created by nuances of any phenomena of
sound including timbre, variation of pitch, tempo, vol-
ume, etc. Due to its great effect on perception and emo-
tional response, it is of particular interest in music theory.
Although frequently indicated in music notation verbally
or by symbols, those indications are imprecise in com-
parison to elements like pitch, and so highly dependent Examples of articulations. From left to right: staccato,
on the interpretation and performance of the player. For staccatissimo, martellato, marcato, tenuto.
example, although pianissimo pp and the word dolce in-
dicate a low volume and sweet or tender feeling, precisely notes. For example, staccato is the shortening of dura-
how quietly and with what technique they may be played tion compared to the written note value, legato performs
is subject to the player’s interpretation. Common mu- the notes in a smoothly joined sequence with no separa-
sic notation is incapable of directing every aspect of a tion. Articulation is often described rather than quanti-
player’s performance. fied, therefore there is room to interpret how to execute
precisely each articulation. For example, staccato is often
referred to as “separated” or “detached” rather than hav-
Dynamics ing a defined or numbered amount by which to reduce
the notated duration. But, for example, violin players use
Main article: Dynamics (music) a variety of techniques to perform different qualities of
In music, “dynamics” normally refers to variations of staccato. The manner in which a performer decides to ex-
ecute a given articulation is usually based on the context
of the piece or phrase, but many articulation symbols and
verbal instructions depend on the instrument and musical
period (e.g. viol, wind; classical, baroque; etc.). There is
a set of articulations that most all instruments and voices
perform in common. They are, in order of long to short:
legato (smooth, connected); tenuto (pressed or played to
intensity or volume, as may be measured by physicists full notated duration); marcato (accented and detached);
and audio engineers in decibels or phons. In music nota- staccato (“separated”, “detached”); martelé (heavily ac-
tion, however, dynamics are not treated as absolute val- cented or “hammered”). Many of these can be combined
ues, but a relative ones. Because they are usually mea- to create certain “in-between” articulations. For example,
sured subjectively, there are factors besides amplitude portato is the combination of tenuto and staccato. Some
that affect the performance or perception of intensity, instruments have unique methods by which to produce
such as timbre, vibrato, and articulation. The conven- sounds, such as spicatto for bowed strings, where the bow
tional indications of dynamics are abbreviations for Ital- bounces off the string.
ian words like forte (f) for loud and piano (p) for soft.
These two basic notations are modified by indications in-
cluding mezzo piano (mp) for moderately soft (literally 1.2.11 Form or structure
“half soft”) and mezzo forte (mf) for moderately loud,
sforzando or sforzato (sfz) for a surging or “pushed” at- Main article: Musical form
tack, or fortepiano (fp) for a loud attack with a sudden
decrease to a soft level. The full span of these mark- Form is an important area of music theory that consid-
ings usually range from a nearly inaudible pianississis- ers the structure, both local and global, of a composition.
simo (pppp) to a loud-as-possible fortissississimo (ffff). Examples of common forms of Western music include
Greater extremes of pppppp and fffff and nuances such sonata-allegro, canon, strophic, theme and variation, and
as p+ or più piano are sometimes found. Other systems rondo. Popular Music often makes use of ballad form
8 CHAPTER 1. MUSIC THEORY
Main article: Music genre Main articles: Musical notation and Sheet music
Musical notation is the written or symbolized represen-
Since music is generally written to be performed, con-
sideration of performance and style is inherent in music
theory. Notation is the attempt by the composer to clearly
and accurately communicate how the music is intended to
be performed. Theory also considers performance prac-
tices and standards from previous eras, many of which are Tibetan musical score from the 19th century.
based on style or genre, especially the problem of chang-
ing interpretation of symbols and verbal instructions over tation of music. This is most often achieved by the use of
time. For examples, symbols for mordents and turns and commonly understood graphic symbols and written ver-
tempo indications such as Andante were performed dif- bal instructions and their abbreviations. Computer file
ferently in the Baroque period than today. The violin bow formats have become important as well.[63] Spoken lan-
was shaped in a high arc, like a hunting bow, in the Re- guage and hand signs are also used to symbolically repre-
naissance and early Baroque, with significant effect on sent music, primarily in teaching.
performance technique.
In standard Western music notation, tones are repre-
Performance is an integral aspect of style, but style also sented graphically by symbols (notes) placed on a staff
includes consideration of forces (number of players in or staves, the vertical axis corresponding to pitch and
sections), interpretation of notation markings like stac- the horizontal axis corresponding to time. Note head
cato, genre, and many other aspects. shapes, stems, flags, ties and dots are used to indicate
duration. Additional symbols indicate keys, dynamics,
accents, rests, etc. Verbal instructions are often used to
1.2.13 Music perception and cognition indicate tempo, technique, and other aspects.
Further information: Music cognition, Fred Lerdahl and There are many systems of music notation from different
Ray Jackendoff cultures and different ages. Traditional Western notation
evolved during the Middle Ages and continues to be an
area of experimentation and innovation.[64]
methods of composition, especially computer-assisted key part of a musician’s craft and are usually taught along-
composition, rely on mathematics. (see Computer music) side music theory. Most aural skills courses train the per-
Many electronic instruments use a mathematical system ception of relative pitch (the ability to determine pitch in
known as MIDI (musical instrument digital interface) to an established context) and rhythm. Sight-singing – the
specify and control pitch, duration, volume, tempo and ability to sing unfamiliar music without assistance – is
other aspects of sound. generally an important component of aural skills courses.
Absolute pitch or perfect pitch describes the ability to
recognize a particular audio frequency as a given musi-
1.3.3 Analysis cal note without any prior reference.
• AP Music Theory
• Theory of painting
• Musicology
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• Kubik, Gerhard (2010). Theory of African Music. 2 • “theory, n.1 ". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.).
vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN Oxford University Press. September 2005.
0226456919
• Olson, Steve (2011). "A Grand Unified Theory
• Laroche, Emmanuel (1955), Le palais royal d' of Music". Princeton Alumni Weekly 111, no. 7
Ugarit 3: Textes accadiens et hourrites des archives (February 9) (Online edition accessed 25 Septem-
est, ouest et centrales, Paris: C. Klincksieck ber 2012).
• Latham, Alison (ed.) (2002), The Oxford Compan- • Palisca, Claude V., and Ian D. Bent. n.d. “Theory,
ion to Music, Oxford and New York: Oxford Uni- theorists”. Grove Music Online, edited by Deane
versity Press, ISBN 0-19-866212-2 Root. Oxford University Press (accessed 17 De-
cember 2014).
• Lee, Yuan-Yuan, and Sin-Yan Shen (1999). Chi-
nese Musical Instruments. Chinese Music Mono- • Ptolemy (1999). Harmonics. Mnemosyne, biblio-
graph Series. Chicago: Chinese Music Society of theca classica Batava: Supplementum 203. trans-
North America Press. ISBN 1880464039. lation and commentary by by Jon Solomon. Lei-
den and Boston: Brill Academic Publications. ISBN
• Lerdahl, Fred (2001). Tonal Pitch Space. Oxford: 9004115919
Oxford University Press.
• Randel, Don Michael (2003). The Harvard Dictio-
• Lewin, David (1987). Generalized Musical Intervals nary of Music (4th ed.). Harvard University Press.
and Transformations. New Haven: Yale University pp. 260–262. ISBN 978-0674011632
Press.
• Read, Gardner (1979), Music Notation, Taplinger
• Lloyd, Llewellyn S., and Hugh Boyle (1978). In- Publishing.
tervals, Scales and Temperaments. New York: St.
Martin’s Press. ISBN 0-312-42533-3. • Ross, John (August 2002). “First City in the New
World?". Smithsonian Museum: .
• Lu, Liancheng (2005). “The Eastern Zhou and the
Growth of Regionalism”. In The Formation of Chi- • Routledge (2008). The Concise Garland Encyclope-
nese Civilization, edited by Sarah Allan,. New Haven dia of World Music (1st ed.). : Garland Encyclope-
and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0- dia of World Music. ISBN 978-0415994040
300-09382-7. • Schaeffer, Claude; Nougayrol, Jean, eds. (n.d.).
• McAdams, Stephen, and Albert Bregman (1979). “Documents en langue houritte provenent de Ras
"Hearing Musical Streams". Computer Music Jour- Shamra”. Ugaritica 5: Nouveaux textes accadiens,
nal 3, no. 4 (December): 26–43, 60. hourrites et ugaritiques des archives et bibliothèques
privées d'Ugarit (Paris: Bibliothèque archéologique
• Mannell, Robert (n.d.). “Spectral Analysis of et historique / Institut français d'archéologie de Bey-
Sounds”. Macquarie University. routh 80): 462–96.
• Martin, Litchfield West (1994). “The Babylonian • Shiloah, Amnon (2003). Music in the World of Is-
Musical Notation and the Hurrian Melodic Texts”. lam: A Socio-Cultural Study. Detroit: Wayne State
Music and Letters 75, no. 2 (May): 161–79 University Press. ISBN 0814329705.
1.7. FURTHER READING 13
• Stein, Leon (1979), Structure and Style: The Study • Baur, John (2014). Practical Music Theory.
and Analysis of Musical Forms, Princeton, NJ: Dubuque: Kendall-Hunt Publishing Company.
Summy-Birchard Music, ISBN 0-87487-164-6 ISBN 978-1-4652-1790-5
• Stevens, S. S., J. Volkmann, and E. B. Newman • Benward, Bruce, Barbara Garvey Jackson, and
(1937). “A Scale for the Measurement of the Psy- Bruce R. Jackson. (2000). Practical Beginning The-
chological Magnitude Pitch”. Journal of the Acous- ory: A Fundamentals Worktext, 8th edition, Boston:
tical Society of America 8, no. 3:185–90. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-697-34397-9. [First edition
1963]
• Stone, Kurt (1980). Music Notation in the Twentieth
Century. New York: W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN • Brown, James Murray (1967). A Handbook of Mu-
978-0-393-95053-3. sical Knowledge, 2 vols. London: Trinity College of
Music.
• Thrasher, Alan (2000), Chinese Musical Instru-
ments, London and New York: Oxford University • Chase, Wayne (2006). How Music REALLY Works!,
Press, ISBN 0-19-590777-9 second edition. Vancouver, Canada: Roedy Black
• Touma, Habib Hassan (1996). The Music of the Publishing. ISBN 1-897311-55-9 (book).
Arabs, new expanded edition, translated by Laurie • Hewitt, Michael (2008). Music Theory for Com-
Schwartz. Portland, OR: Amadeus Press. ISBN 0- puter Musicians. USA: Cengage Learning. ISBN
931340-88-8. 978-1-59863-503-4.
• Tracey, Hugh (1969). “The Mbira Class of African • Lawn, Richard J., and Jeffrey L. Hellmer (1996).
Instruments in Rhodesia”. African Music Society Jazz Theory and Practice. [N.p.]: Alfred Publishing
Journal 4, no. 3:78–95. Co. ISBN 0-88284-722-8.
• Wu, Zhao ( ) (1991). “Jiahu guiling gudi
• Mazzola, Guerino (1985). Gruppen und Kategorien
yu Zhongguo yinyue wenming zhi yuan
in der Musik: Entwurf einer mathematischen Musik-
( )" [The relation of Ji-
theorie. Heldermann. ISBN 978-3-88538-210-2.
ahu bone flutes and turtle shell shakers to the origin
Retrieved 26 February 2012.
of Chinese music]. Wenwu ( ) [Cultural Relics],
no. 3: 50–55. • Mazzola, Guerino; Daniel Muzzulini (1990).
Geometrie der Töne: Elemente der mathematischen
• Wulstan, David (1968). “The Tuning of the Baby-
Musiktheorie. Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-3-7643-2353-
lonian Harp”. Iraq 30: 215–28.
0. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
• Yamaguchi, Masaya (2000). The Complete The-
saurus of Musical Scales. New York: Charles Colin. • Mazzola, Guerino, Stefan Göller, and Stefan Müller
ISBN 0-9676353-0-6. (2002). The Topos of Music: Geometric Logic
of Concepts, Theory, and Performance, Vol. 1.
• Zhang, Juzhong; Harboolt, Garman; Wang, Cahng- Basel, Boston, and Berlin: Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-
sui; Kong, Zhaochen (September 23, 1999). “Oldest 3-7643-5731-3. (Basel). ISBN 978-0-8176-5731-4
playable musical instrument found at Jiahu early Ne- (Boston). Retrieved 26 February 2012.
olithic site in China”. Nature.
• Olson, Harry F. (1967). Music, Physics and Engi-
• Zhang, Juzhong; Yun Kuen (2004). “The early de- neering. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-
velopment of music. Analysis of the Jiahu Bone 486-21769-8.
Flutes”. Music Archaeology.
• Miguel, Roig-Francoli (2011). Harmony in Con-
• Zhang, Juzhong, and L. K. Kuem (2005). “The text, Second edition, McGraw-Hill Higher Educa-
Magic Flutes”. Natural History Magazine 114:43– tion. ISBN 0073137944.
49
• Owen, Harold (2000). Music Theory Resource Book.
• Zhang, Juzhong, X. Xiao, and Y, K. Lee (2004). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511539-2.
“The Early Development of Music: Analysis of the
Jiahu Bone Flutes”. Antiquity 78, no. 302:769–79 • Seashore, Carl (1933). Approaches to the Science of
Music and Speech. Iowa City: The University.
• Apel, Willi, and Ralph T. Daniel (1960). The Har- • Sorce, Richard (1995). Music Theory for the Mu-
vard Brief Dictionary of Music. New York: Simon sic Professional. [N.p.]: Ardsley House. ISBN 1-
& Schuster Inc. ISBN 0-671-73747-3 880157-20-9.
14 CHAPTER 1. MUSIC THEORY
• http://www.musictheoryhelp.co.uk
Chapter 2
Musical notation
“Music markup” redirects here. For the XML applica- kinds of music worldwide.
tion, see Music Markup Language.
Music notation or musical notation is any system used
2.1 History
15
16 CHAPTER 2. MUSICAL NOTATION
from the score and the note they are singing presently,
which note comes next. The pitch symbols themselves
resemble brush strokes and are colloquially called gántzoi
(“hooks”) in Modern Greek. Notes themselves are repre-
sented in written form only between measures, as an op-
tional reminder, along with modal and tempo directions
if needed. Additional signs are used to indicate embel-
lishments and microtones (pitch changes smaller than a
semitone), both essential in Byzantine chant (see Roma-
nian anastasimatarion picture, left).
The seven standard note names in Byzantine “solfege”
are: pá, vú, gh á, dh ē, ké, zō, nē, corresponding to Western
re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, do. Byzantine music uses the eight
Photograph of the original stone at Delphi containing the second natural, non-tempered scales called Ēkhoi, “sounds”, ex-
of the two hymns to Apollo. The music notation is the line of clusively, and therefore the absolute pitch of each note
occasional symbols above the main, uninterrupted line of Greek may slightly vary each time, depending on the particu-
lettering. lar Ēkhos used. Byzantine notation is still used in many
Orthodox Churches. Some cantors can also use standard
Western notation while adding non-notatable embellish-
2.1.3 Byzantine Empire
ment material from memory and “sliding” into the natural
scales from experience.
Further information: Byzantine music
Byzantine music is vocal religious music, based on the
2.1.4 South West Asia
In 1252, Safi al-Din al-Urmawi developed a form of
musical notation, where rhythms were represented by
geometric representation. Many subsequent scholars of
rhythm have sought to develop graphical geometrical no-
tations. For example, a similar geometric system was
published in 1987 by Kjell Gustafson, whose method rep-
resents a rhythm as a two-dimensional graph.[5]
6. labii reatum,
7. Sancte Iohannes.
Guido used the first syllable of each line, Ut, Re, Mi, Fa,
Sol and La, to read notated music in terms of hexachords;
they were not note names, and each could, depending on
context, be applied to any note. In the 17th century, Ut
was changed in most countries except France to the eas-
ily singable, “open” syllable Do, said to have been taken
from the name of the Italian theorist Giovanni Battista
Doni.[10]
For vocal music, lyrics are written. For short pauses rhythmic notation. This is the most common kind of
(breaths), retakes (looks like ') are added. written music used by professional session musicians
In music for ensembles, a "score" shows music for all playing jazz or other forms of popular music and is
players together, while “parts” contain only the music intended primarily for the rhythm section (usually
played by an individual musician. A score can be con- containing piano, guitar, bass and drums).
structed from a complete set of parts and vice versa. The • Simpler chord charts for songs may contain only the
process can be laborious but computer software offers a chord changes, placed above the lyrics where they
more convenient and flexible method. occur. Such charts depend on prior knowledge of
the melody, and are used as reminders in perfor-
mance or informal group singing.
2.2.1 Specialized notation conventions
• The shape note system is found in some church hym-
nals, sheet music, and song books, especially in the
Southern United States. Instead of the customary el-
liptical note head, note heads of various shapes are
used to show the position of the note on the major
scale. Sacred Harp is one of the most popular tune
books using shape notes.
Rhythm notation
• A lead sheet specifies only the melody, lyrics and is fixed in any scale, and Pa is fixed at a fifth above it
harmony, using one staff with chord symbols placed (a Pythagorean fifth rather than an equal-tempered fifth).
above and lyrics below. It is used to capture the es- These two notes are known as achala swar ('fixed notes’).
sential elements of a popular song without specify- Each of the other five notes, Re, Ga, ma, Dha and Ni, can
ing how the song should be arranged or performed. take a 'regular' (shuddha) pitch, which is equivalent to its
pitch in a standard major scale (thus, shuddha Re, the sec-
• A chord chart or “chart” contains little or no melodic ond degree of the scale, is a whole-step higher than Sa),
information at all but provides detailed harmonic or an altered pitch, either a half-step above or half-step
and rhythmic information, using slash notation and below the shuddha pitch. Re, Ga, Dha and Ni all have
2.3. NOTATION IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES 19
altered partners that are a half-step lower (Komal-"flat”) to play a melody step-by-step using the plain language of
(thus, komal Re is a half-step higher than Sa). Ma has an the time, i.e. Descriptive Notation (Classical Chinese);
altered partner that is a half-step higher (teevra-"sharp”) the newer form, composed of bits of Chinese characters
(thus, tivra Ma is an augmented fourth above Sa). Re, Ga, put together to indicate the method of play is called Pre-
ma, Dha and Ni are called vikrut swar ('movable notes’). scriptive Notation. Rhythm is only vaguely indicated in
In the written system of Indian notation devised by Ravi terms of phrasing. Tablatures for the qin are collected in
Shankar, the pitches are represented by Western letters. what is called qinpu.
Capital letters are used for the achala swar, and for the Gongche notation used Chinese characters for the names
higher variety of all the vikrut swar. Lowercase letters
of the scale.
are used for the lower variety of the vikrut swar.
The jianpu system of notation (probably an adapta-
Other systems exist for non-twelve-tone equal tem- tion of a French Galin-Paris-Cheve system) had gained
perament and non-Western music, such as the Indian widespread acceptance by 1900. It uses a movable do
Swaralipi. system, with the numbers 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 standing for do,
re, mi, fa, sol, la, si. Dots above or below a numeral in-
2.3.2 Russia dicate the octave of the note it represents. Key signa-
tures, barlines, and time signatures are also employed.
Further information: Znamenny chant Many symbols from Western standard notation, such as
bar lines, time signatures, accidentals, tie and slur, and the
expression markings are also used. The number of dashes
In Byzantium and Russia, sacred music was notated with following a numeral represents the number of crotchets
special 'hooks and banners’. (See “Byzantine Empire” (quarter notes) by which the note extends. The number
above.) of underlines is analogous to the number of flags or beams
on notes or rests in standard notation.
2.3.3 China
2.3.4 Korea
Main article: Chinese musical notation
The earliest known examples of text referring to music
Jeongganbo (or Chong Gan Bo, , ) is traditional
Korean musical notation system introduced by Sejong the
Great and known as the first musical notation system that
is able to represent durations of notes in the Eastern.
Among various kinds of Korean traditional music, Jeong-
ganbo targets a particular genre, Jeongak( , ).
2.3.5 Japan
de Leeuw also invented a three line staff for his com- letter names A–G, possibly with a trailing sharp or flat
position Gending. However, these systems do not enjoy symbol, such as A♯ or B♭. This is the most common way
widespread use. of specifying a note in English speech or written text.
In the second half of the twentieth century, Indone- In Northern and Central Europe (e.g., Germany, Aus-
sian musicians and scholars extended cipher notation to tria, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slove-
other oral traditions, and a diatonic scale cipher notation nia, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia,
has become common for notating western-related gen- and the Netherlands—and with diminishing frequency in
res (church hymns, popular songs, and so forth). Un- Sweden), the letter system used is slightly different for
like the cipher notation for gamelan music, which uses historical reasons. In these countries’ languages, the note
a “fixed Do” (that is, 1 always corresponds to the same called simply B in English (i.e., B♮) is called H, and the
pitch, within the natural variability of gamelan tuning), note B♭ is named B. (The C chromatic scale is thus: C C♯
Indonesian diatonic cipher notation is “moveable-Do” no- D D♯ E F F♯ G G♯ A B H C). Also, the endings -is (for
tation, so scores must indicate which pitch corresponds to sharp) and -es/-s (for flat) are used. The note a semitone
the number 1 (for example, “1=C”). above C is either “Cis” or “Des”, and A♭ is “As”. Often
this is also used in writing (instead of using the sharp or
flat symbol), especially in flowing text. Another differ-
2.4 Other systems and practices ence is that these languages often write the notes in lower
case, e.g., ais, c, d, es, fis. Lower case denotes the mi-
nor, upper case denotes the major, so A = Amaj and a =
2.4.1 Cipher notation Amin.
Many computer programs have been developed for creat- Recent US 6987220 on a new color based musical notation
ing music notation (called scorewriters or music notation scheme
software). Music may also be stored in various digital file
formats for purposes other than graphic notation output.
• Jewish Torah Trope Cantillation
According to Philip Tagg and Richard Middleton, mu- • History of music publishing
sicology and to a degree European-influenced musical
practice suffer from a 'notational centricity', a method- • List of scorewriters
ology slanted by the characteristics of notation.[26] • Mensural notation
• Modal notation
2.7 Patents • Modern musical symbols
• Rastrum
2.8 See also • Scorewriter
• Time unit box system, a notation system useful for • Krims, Adam (2001). Rap Music And The Poetics
polyrhythms Of Identity. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge
University Press.
• Tongan music notation, a subset of standard music
notation • Lindsay, Jennifer (1992). Javanese Gamelan. Ox-
ford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN
• Tonnetz
0-19-588582-1.
• Znamenny chant
• McNaught, W. G. (1893). "The History and Uses
of the Sol-fa Syllables". Proceedings of the Musical
Association 19 (January): 35–51. ISSN 0958-8442
2.9 References (accessed 23 April 2010).
• Adams, Kyle (2009). "On the Metrical Techniques • Otten, J. (1910). “Guido of Arezzo”. The Catholic
of Flow in Rap Music". Music Theory Online 5, no. Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Com-
9 (October) (accessed 4 April 2014). pany. Retrieved May 30, 2010 from New Advent.
• Apel, Willi (1961). The Notation of Polyphonic Mu- • Paolo, Tortiglione (2012). Semiography and Semi-
sic, 900-1600, 5th edition, revised and with com- ology of Contemporary Music. Milan: Rugginenti.
mentary. Publications of the Mediaeval Academy ISBN 978-88-7665-616-3
of America, no. 38. Cambridge, Mass.: Mediaeval
Academy of America. • Schneider, Albrecht (1987). “Musik, Sound,
Sprache, Schrift: Transkription und Notation in der
• Bagley, Robert (2004). “The Prehistory of Chi- Vergleichenden Musikwissenschaft und Musiketh-
nese Music Theory”. Elsley Zeitlyn Lecture on Chi- nologie”. Zeitschrift für Semiotik 9, nos. 3–4:317–
nese Archaeology and Culture. (Tuesday 26 Octo- 43.
ber) British Academy’s Autumn 2004 Lecture Pro-
gramme. London: British Academy. Abstract. Ac- • Sotorrio, José A. (1997). Bilinear Music Notation:
cessed 30 May 2010. A New Notation System for the Modern Musician.
Spectral Music. ISBN 978-0-9548498-2-5.
• Christensen, Thomas (2002). The Cambridge His-
tory of Western Music Theory. Cambridge and New • Tagg, Philip (1979). Kojak—50 Seconds of Televi-
York: Cambridge University Press. sion Music: Toward the Analysis of Affect in Popular
• Edwards, Paul (2009). How to Rap: The Art & Sci- Music. Skrifter från Musikvetenskapliga Institutio-
ence of the Hip-Hop MC, with a foreword by Kool nen, Göteborg 2. Göteborg: Musikvetenskapliga In-
G. Rap. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. stitutionen, Göteborgs Universitet. ISBN 91-7222-
235-2 (Rev. translation of “Kojak—50 sekunders
• Edwards, Paul (2013). How to Rap 2: Advanced tv-musik”)
Flow and Delivery Techniques, foreword by Gift of
Gab. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. • Touma, Habib Hassan (1996). The Music of the
Arabs, new expanded edition, translated by Laurie
• Isidore of Seville (2006). The Etymologies of Schwartz. With accompanying CD recording. Port-
Isidore of Seville, translated with introduction and land, Oregon: Amadeus Press. ISBN 0-931340-88-
notes by Stephen A. Barney, W. J. Lewis, J. A. 8
Beach, and Oliver Berghof, with the collaboration
of Muriel Hall. Cambridge and New York: Cam- • Toussaint, Godfried (2004). "A Comparison of
bridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83749- Rhythmic Similarity Measures". Technical Report
1 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-511-21969-6 (ebook) (ac- SOCS-TR-2004.6. Montréal: School of Computer
cessed 8 September 2012). Science, McGill University.
• Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn (1965). “The Strings of • West, M[artin]. L[itchfield]. (1994). “The Baby-
Musical Instruments: Their Names, Numbers, and lonian Musical Notation and the Hurrian Melodic
Significance”, in Studies in Honor of Benno Lands- Texts”. Music & Letters 75, no. 2. (May): 161–179
berger on His Seventy-fifth Birthday, April 21, 1965,
Assyriological Studies 16, edited by Hans G. Güter- • Williams, Charles Francis Abdy (1903). “The Story
bock and Thorkild Jacobsen, 261–68. Chicago, of Notation.” New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
University of Chicago Press.
• Zapke, Susana (ed.) (2007). Hispania Vetus:
• Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn, and Miguel Civil (1986). Musical-Liturgical Manuscripts from Visigothic Ori-
“Old Babylonian Musical Instructions Relating to gins to the Franco-Roman Transition (9th–12th Cen-
Hymnody”. Journal of Cuneiform Studies 38, no. turies), with a foreword by Anscario M Mundó. Bil-
1:94–98. bao: Fundación BBVA. ISBN 978-84-96515-50-5
2.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 25
[1] Kilmer & Civil 1986,. • Karakayali, Nedim (2010). “Two Assemblages of
Cultural Transmission: Musicians, Political Actors
[2] Kilmer 1965,. and Educational Techniques in the Ottoman Empire
[3] West 1994, 161–63.
and Western Europe”. Journal of Historical Sociol-
ogy 23, no. 3:343–71.
[4] West 1994, 161.
• Lieberman, David (2006). Game Enhanced Mu-
[5] Toussaint 2004, 3. sic Manuscript. In GRAPHITE '06: Proceedings
of the 4th International Conference on Computer
[6] Isidore of Seville 2006, 95. Graphics and Interactive Techniques in Australasia
and South East Asia, Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), 29
[7] Zapke 2007,
November–2 December 2006, edited by Y Tina Lee,
[8] Christensen 2002, 628. Siti Mariyam Shamsuddin, Diego Gutierrez, and
Norhaida Mohd Suaib, 245–50. New York: ACM
[9] Otten 1910. Press. ISBN 1-59593-564-9
[10] McNaught 1893, 43. • Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular
Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN
[11] Bagley 2004. 0-335-15275-9.
[12] Lindsay 1992, 43–45. • Read, Gardner (1978). Modern Rhythmic Notation.
Victor Gollance Ltd.
[13] Apel 1961, xxiii and 22.
• Read, Gardner (1987). Source Book of Proposed
[14] olga.net
Music Notation Reforms. Greenwood Press.
[15] dodeka.info • Reisenweaver, Anna (2012). “Guido of Arezzo
[16] ambrosepianotabs.com
and His Influence on Music Learning”, Musi-
cal Offerings: Vol. 3: No. 1, Article 4.
[17] twinnote.org Available at http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/
musicalofferings/vol3/iss1/4.
[18] musicnotation.org
• Savas, Savas I. (1965). Byzantine Music in Theory
[19] musicmarkup.info and Practice. Boston: Hercules. ISBN 0-916586-
24-3. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
[20] emusician.com
• Stone, Kurt (1980). Music Notation in the Twentieth
[21] Edwards 2009, 67. Century: A Practical Guidebook. W. W. Norton &
[22] Edwards 2013, 53. Company.
• Gould, Elaine (2011). “Behind Bars - The Definitive • Byrd, Don. "Extremes of Conventional Musical No-
Guide to Music Notation”. London: Faber Music. tation.”
26 CHAPTER 2. MUSICAL NOTATION
Pitch (music)
27
28 CHAPTER 3. PITCH (MUSIC)
Pitch depends to a lesser degree on the sound pressure 3.1.3 Just-noticeable difference
level (loudness, volume) of the tone, especially at fre-
quencies below 1,000 Hz and above 2,000 Hz. The pitch The just-noticeable difference (jnd) (the threshold at
of lower tones gets lower as sound pressure increases. For which a change is perceived) depends on the tone’s fre-
instance, a tone of 200 Hz that is very loud seems one quency content. Below 500 Hz, the jnd is about 3 Hz for
semitone lower in pitch than if it is just barely audible. sine waves, and 1 Hz for complex tones; above 1000 Hz,
Above 2,000 Hz, the pitch gets higher as the sound gets the jnd for sine waves is about 0.6% (about 10 cents).[19]
louder.[12] The jnd is typically tested by playing two tones in quick
succession with the listener asked if there was a differ-
ence in their pitches.[12] The jnd becomes smaller if the
two tones are played simultaneously as the listener is then
able to discern beat frequencies. The total number of per-
ceptible pitch steps in the range of human hearing is about
1,400; the total number of notes in the equal-tempered
3.1.2 Theories of pitch perception scale, from 16 to 16,000 Hz, is 120.[12]
Theories of pitch perception try to explain how the phys- 3.1.4 Aural illusions
ical sound and specific physiology of the auditory system
work together to yield the experience of pitch. In gen- The relative perception of pitch can be fooled, result-
eral, pitch perception theories can be divided into place ing in aural illusions. There are several of these, such
coding and temporal coding. Place theory holds that the as the tritone paradox, but most notably the Shepard
perception of pitch is determined by the place of maxi- scale, where a continuous or discrete sequence of spe-
mum excitation on the basilar membrane. cially formed tones can be made to sound as if the se-
A place code, taking advantage of the tonotopy in the au- quence continues ascending or descending forever.
ditory system, must be in effect for the perception of high
frequencies, since neurons have an upper limit on how fast
they can phase-lock their action potentials.[6] However, a 3.2 Definite and indefinite pitch
purely place-based theory cannot account for the accu-
racy of pitch perception in the low and middle frequency Not all musical instruments make notes with a clear
ranges. pitch. The unpitched percussion instrument (a class
Temporal theories offer an alternative that appeals to of percussion instrument) does not produce particular
the temporal structure of action potentials, mostly the pitches. A sound or note of definite pitch is one
phase-locking and mode-locking of action potentials to where a listener can possibly (or relatively easily) dis-
frequencies in a stimulus. The precise way this tem- cern the pitch. Sounds with definite pitch have harmonic
[12]
poral structure helps code for pitch at higher levels is frequency spectra or close to harmonic spectra.
still debated, but the processing seems to be based on A sound generated on any instrument produces many
an autocorrelation of action potentials in the auditory modes of vibration that occur simultaneously. A listener
nerve.[13] However, it has long been noted that a neu- hears numerous frequencies at once. The vibration with
ral mechanism that may accomplish a delay—a neces- the lowest frequency is called the fundamental frequency;
sary operation of a true autocorrelation—has not been the other frequencies are overtones.[20] Harmonics are an
found.[6] At least one model shows that a temporal delay is important class of overtones with frequencies that are in-
unnecessary to produce an autocorrelation model of pitch teger multiples of the fundamental. Whether or not the
perception, appealing to phase shifts between cochlear higher frequencies are integer multiples, they are collec-
filters;[14] however, earlier work has shown that certain tively called the partials, referring to the different parts
sounds with a prominent peak in their autocorrelation that make up the total spectrum.
function do not elicit a corresponding pitch percept,[15][16]
and that certain sounds without a peak in their autocor- A sound or note of indefinite pitch is one that a listener
relation function nevertheless elicit a pitch.[17][18] To be finds impossible or relatively difficult to identify as to
a more complete model, autocorrelation must therefore pitch. Sounds with indefinite pitch do not have harmonic
apply to signals that represent the output of the cochlea, spectra or have altered harmonic spectra a characteristic
as via auditory-nerve interspike-interval histograms.[16] known as inharmonicity.
Some theories of pitch perception hold that pitch has in- It is still possible for two sounds of indefinite pitch to
herent octave ambiguities, and therefore is best decom- clearly be higher or lower than one another. For instance,
posed into a pitch chroma, a periodic value around the a snare drum sounds higher pitched than a bass drum
octave, like the note names in western music, and a pitch though both have indefinite pitch, because its sound con-
height, which may be ambiguous, indicating which octave tains higher frequencies. In other words, it is possible
the pitch may be in.[5] and often easy to roughly discern the relative pitches of
3.5. SCALES 29
400
sound reaches the ear of an observer directly from the
source, and also after reflecting off a sound-reflecting sur-
face. This phenomenon is called repetition pitch, because 300
100
pitch 0
C1 D1
0 CENTS
E1 F1 G1 A1 B1 C2
1200
D2 E2 F2 G2 A2 B2 C3
2400
D3 E3 F3 G3 A3 B3 C4
3600
D4 E4 F4 G4 A4 B4 C5
4800
Main article: Concert pitch Note frequencies, four-octave C major diatonic scale, starting
with C1.
A pitch standard (also Concert pitch) is the conventional
pitch reference a group of musical instruments are tuned • Number that represent the frequency in hertz (Hz),
to for a performance. Concert pitch may vary from en- the number of cycles per second
semble to ensemble, and has varied widely over musical
history. For example, one might refer to the A above middle C
Standard pitch is a more widely accepted convention. The as a', A4, or 440 Hz. In standard Western equal tem-
A above middle C is usually set at 440 Hz (often writ- perament, the notion of pitch is insensitive to “spelling":
ten as “A = 440 Hz" or sometimes “A440”), although the description “G4 double sharp” refers to the same
other frequencies, such as 442 Hz, are also often used as pitch as A4; in other temperaments, these may be dis-
variants. Another standard pitch, the so-called “Baroque tinct pitches. Human perception of musical intervals is
pitch”, has been set in the 20th century as A = 415 Hz, approximately logarithmic with respect to fundamental
exactly an equal tempered semitone lower than A440, in frequency: the perceived interval between the pitches
order to facilitate transposition between them. “A220” and “A440” is the same as the perceived interval
between the pitches A440 and A880. Motivated by this
Transposing instruments have their origin in the variety logarithmic perception, music theorists sometimes rep-
of pitch standards. In modern times, they conventionally resent pitches using a numerical scale based on the log-
have their parts transposed into different keys from voices arithm of fundamental frequency. For example, one can
and other instruments (and even from each other). As a adopt the widely used MIDI standard to map fundamental
result, musicians need a way to refer to a particular pitch frequency, f, to a real number, p, as follows
in an unambiguous manner when talking to each other.
For example, the most common type of clarinet or ( )
trumpet, when playing a note written in their part as C, f
p = 69 + 12 × log2
sounds a pitch that is called B♭ on a non-transposing in- 440 Hz
strument like a violin (which indicates that at one time
This creates a linear pitch space in which octaves have
these wind instruments played at a standard pitch a tone
size 12, semitones (the distance between adjacent keys
lower than violin pitch). In order to refer to that pitch un-
on the piano keyboard) have size 1, and A440 is assigned
ambiguously, one may call it concert B♭, meaning, "...the
the number 69. (See Frequencies of notes.) Distance in
pitch that someone playing a non-transposing instrument
this space corresponds to musical intervals as understood
like a violin calls B♭.”
by musicians. An equal-tempered semitone is subdivided
into 100 cents. The system is flexible enough to include
“microtones” not found on standard piano keyboards. For
3.4 Labeling pitches example, the pitch halfway between C (60) and C♯ (61)
can be labeled 60.5.
For a comprehensive list of frequencies of musical notes,
see Scientific pitch notation and Frequencies of notes.
Pitches are labeled using: 3.5 Scales
• Letters, as in Helmholtz pitch notation
The relative pitches of individual notes in a scale may be
• A combination of letters and numbers—as in determined by one of a number of tuning systems. In the
scientific pitch notation, where notes are labelled up- west, the twelve-note chromatic scale is the most common
wards from C0, the 16 Hz C method of organization, with equal temperament now the
30 CHAPTER 3. PITCH (MUSIC)
most widely used method of tuning that scale. In it, the • Relative pitch
pitch ratio between any two successive notes of the scale
• Scale of vowels
is exactly the twelfth root of two (or about 1.05946). In
well-tempered systems (as used in the time of Johann Se- • Vocal and Instrumental Pitch Ranges
bastian Bach, for example), different methods of musical
tuning were used. Almost all of these systems have one
interval in common, the octave, where the pitch of one 3.8 References
note is double the frequency of another. For example, if
the A above middle C is 440 Hz, the A an octave above [1] Anssi Klapuri and Manuel Davy (2006). Signal processing
that is 880 Hz . methods for music transcription. Springer. p. 8. ISBN
978-0-387-30667-4.
[2] Plack, Christopher J.; Andrew J. Oxenham, Richard R.
3.6 Other musical meanings of Fay, eds. (2005). Pitch: Neural Coding and Perception.
pitch Springer. ISBN 0-387-23472-1. For the purposes of this
book we decided to take a conservative approach, and
to focus on the relationship between pitch and musical
In atonal, twelve tone, or musical set theory a “pitch” is a melodies. Following the earlier ASA definition, we de-
specific frequency while a pitch class is all the octaves of fine pitch as 'that attribute of sensation whose variation is
a frequency. In many analytic discussions of atonal and associated with musical melodies.' Although some might
post-tonal music, pitches are named with integers because find this too restrictive, an advantage of this definition is
of octave and enharmonic equivalency (for example, in a that it provides a clear procedure for testing whether or
serial system, C♯ and D♭ are considered the same pitch, not a stimulus evokes a pitch, and a clear limitation on the
while C4 and C5 are functionally the same, one octave range of stimuli that we need to consider in our discus-
apart). sions.
Discrete pitches, rather than continuously variable [3] Randel, Don Michael, ed. (2003). The Harvard Dictio-
pitches, are virtually universal, with exceptions in- nary of Music (4 ed.). Harvard University Press. p. 499.
ISBN 978-0-674-01163-2. Melody: In the most general
cluding "tumbling strains"[21] and “indeterminate-pitch
case, a coherent succession of pitches. Here pitch means
chants”.[22] Gliding pitches are used in most cultures,
a stretch of sound whose frequency is clear and stable
but are related to the discrete pitches they reference or enough to be heard as not noise; succession means that
embellish.[23] several pitches occur; and coherent means that the suc-
cession of pitches is accepted as belonging together.
[4] Roy D. Patterson, Etienne Gaudrain, and Thomas C. Wal-
3.7 See also ters (2010). “The Perception of Family and Register in
Musical Tones”. In Mari Riess Jones, Richard R. Fay,
• 3rd bridge (harmonic resonance based on equal and Arthur N. Popper. Music Perception. Springer. pp.
string divisions) 37–38. ISBN 978-1-4419-6113-6.
• Absolute pitch [5] Hartmann, William Morris (1997). Signals, Sound, and
Sensation. Springer. pp. 145, 284, 287. ISBN 1-56396-
• Diplacusis 283-7.
• Eight foot pitch [6] Plack, Christopher J.; Andrew J. Oxenham, Richard R.
Fay, eds. (2005). Pitch: Neural Coding and Perception.
• Harmonic pitch class profiles Springer. ISBN 0-387-23472-1.
• Just intonation [7] Robert A. Dobie and Susan B. Van Hemel (2005).
Hearing loss: determining eligibility for Social Security
• Music and mathematics benefits. National Academies Press. pp. 50–51. ISBN
978-0-309-09296-8.
• Piano key frequencies
[8] E. Bruce Goldstein (2001). Blackwell handbook of per-
• Pitch accent ception (4th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 381. ISBN 978-0-
631-20683-5.
• Pitch circularity
[9] Richard Lyon and Shihab Shamma (1996). “Auditory
• Pitch detection algorithm Representation of Timbre and Pitch”. In Harold L.
Hawkins and Teresa A. McMullen. Auditory Computa-
• Pitch of brass instruments tion. Springer. pp. 221–223. ISBN 978-0-387-97843-7.
[11] Schwartz, D.A.; Purves, D. (May 2004). “Pitch [23] Burns, Edward M. (1999). “Intervals, Scales, and Tun-
is determined by naturally occurring peri- ing”, The Psychology of Music second edition. Deutsch,
odic sounds”. Hearing Research 194: 31–46. Diana, ed. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-
doi:10.1016/j.heares.2004.01.019. Retrieved 4 Septem- 213564-4.
ber 2012.
[17] Burns, E.M.; Viemeister, N.F. (October 1976). “Non- 3.10 External links
spectral pitch”. Journal of the Acoustical Society of Amer-
ica 60 (4): 863–869. Bibcode:1976ASAJ...60..863B.
doi:10.1121/1.381166. • 12 Tone Equal Temperament Frequency Table
Maker
[18] Fitzgerald, M.B.; Wright, B. (December 2005).
“A perceptual learning investigation of the pitch • Online Guide to Pitch and Clefs
elicited by amplitude-modulated noise”. Jour-
nal of the Acoustical Society of America 118
(6): 3794–3803. Bibcode:2005ASAJ..118.3794F.
doi:10.1121/1.2074687. PMID 16419824.
Pitch circularity
32
4.2. REFERENCES 33
Interval (music)
For albums named Intervals, see Interval (disambigua- names describe not only the difference in semitones be-
tion). tween the upper and lower notes, but also how the interval
In music theory, an interval is the difference between is spelled. The importance of spelling stems from the his-
torical practice of differentiating the frequency ratios of
enharmonic intervals such as G-G♯ and G-A♭.[4]
5.1 Size
34
5.3. INTERVAL NUMBER AND QUALITY 35
equal temperament, in which the main intervals are typ- same width. Namely, all semitones will have a width of
ically perceived as consonant, but none is justly tuned 100 cents, and all intervals spanning 4 semitones will be
and as consonant as a just interval, except for the uni- 400 cents wide.
son (1:1) and octave (2:1). As a consequence, the size The names listed here cannot be determined by count-
of most equal-tempered intervals cannot be expressed by ing semitones alone. The rules to determine them are
small-integer ratios, although it is very close to the size of explained below. Other names, determined with differ-
the corresponding just intervals. For instance, an equal- ent naming conventions, are listed in a separate section.
tempered fifth has a frequency ratio of 27/12 :1, approxi- Intervals smaller than one semitone (commas or micro-
mately equal to 1.498:1, or 2.997:2 (very close to 3:2).
tones) and larger than one octave (compound intervals)
For a comparison between the size of intervals in differ- are introduced below.
ent tuning systems, see section Size in different tuning
systems.
5.3 Interval number and quality
5.1.2 Cents
Main article: Cent (music)
( )
f2
n = 1200 · log2 .
f1
scale).[9] This means that interval numbers can be also de- only in chromatic contexts. The quality of a compound
termined by counting diatonic scale degrees, rather than interval is the quality of the simple interval on which it is
staff positions, provided that the two notes which form based.
the interval are drawn from a diatonic scale. Namely, C–
G is a fifth because in any diatonic scale that contains C Perfect
and G, the sequence from C to G includes five notes. For
instance, in the A♭-major diatonic scale, the five notes are
C–D♭–E♭–F–G (see figure). This is not true for all kinds
of scales. For instance, in a chromatic scale, the notes
from C to G are eight (C–C♯–D–D♯–E–F–F♯–G). This is
the reason interval numbers are also called diatonic num-
bers, and this convention is called diatonic numbering.
If one takes away any accidentals from the notes which Perfect intervals on C. PU , P4 , P5 , P8 .
form an interval, by definition the notes do not change
their staff positions. As a consequence, any interval has Perfect intervals are so-called because they were tradi-
the same interval number as the corresponding natural in- tionally considered perfectly consonant,[10] although in
terval, formed by the same notes without accidentals. For Western classical music the perfect fourth was some-
instance, the intervals C–G♯ (spanning 8 semitones) and times regarded as a less than perfect consonance, when
C♯–G (spanning 6 semitones) are fifths, like the corre- its function was contrapuntal. Conversely, minor, major,
sponding natural interval C–G (7 semitones). augmented or diminished intervals are typically consid-
Interval numbers do not represent exactly interval widths. ered to be less consonant, and were traditionally classi-
For instance, the interval C–D is a second, but D is only fied as mediocre consonances, imperfect consonances, or
[10]
one staff position, or diatonic-scale degree, above C. Sim- dissonances.
ilarly, C–E is a third, but E is only two staff positions Within a diatonic scale[9] all unisons (P1) and octaves
above C, and so on. As a consequence, joining two inter- (P8) are perfect. Most fourths and fifths are also perfect
vals always yields an interval number one less than their (P4 and P5), with five and seven semitones respectively.
sum. For instance, the intervals C–E and E–G are thirds, There’s one occurrence of a fourth and a fifth which are
but joined together they form a fifth (C–G), not a sixth. not perfect, as they both span six semitones: an aug-
Similarly, a stack of three thirds, such as C–E, E–G, and mented fourth (A4), and its inversion, a diminished fifth
G–B, is a seventh (C–B), not a ninth. (d5). For instance, in a C-major scale, the A4 is between
The rule to determine the diatonic number of a compound F and B, and the d5 is between B and F (see table).
interval (an interval larger than one octave), based on the By definition, the inversion of a perfect interval is also
diatonic numbers of the simple intervals from which it is perfect. Since the inversion does not change the pitch of
built is explained in a separate section. the two notes, it hardly affects their level of consonance
(matching of their harmonics). Conversely, other kinds
of intervals have the opposite quality with respect to their
5.3.2 Quality inversion. The inversion of a major interval is a minor
interval, the inversion of an augmented interval is a di-
minished interval.
Major/minor
sizes, which differ by one semitone. For example, six of • A–C♯ is a third, as it encompasses three staff posi-
the fifths span seven semitones. The other one spans six tions (A, B, C), and it is major, as it spans 4 semi-
semitones. Four of the thirds span three semitones, the tones.
others four. If one of the two versions is a perfect inter-
val, the other is called either diminished (i.e. narrowed by • A–D♭ is a fourth, as it encompasses four staff po-
sitions (A, B, C, D), and it is diminished, as it falls
one semitone) or augmented (i.e. widened by one semi-
tone). Otherwise, the larger version is called major, the short of a perfect fourth (such as A-D) by one semi-
tone.
smaller one minor. For instance, since a 7-semitone fifth
is a perfect interval (P5), the 6-semitone fifth is called • A♯-E is a fifth, as it encompasses five staff posi-
“diminished fifth” (d5). Conversely, since neither kind tions (A, B, C, D, E), and it is triply diminished, as
of third is perfect, the larger one is called “major third” it falls short of a perfect fifth (such as A-E) by three
(M3), the smaller one “minor third” (m3). semitones.
Within a diatonic scale,[9] unisons and octaves are al-
ways qualified as perfect, fourths as either perfect or aug-
mented, fifths as perfect or diminished, and all the other 5.4 Shorthand notation
intervals (seconds, thirds, sixths, sevenths) as major or
minor. Intervals are often abbreviated with a P for perfect, m for
minor, M for major, d for diminished, A for augmented,
Augmented/diminished followed by the interval number. The indication M and
P are often omitted. The octave is P8, and a unison is
usually referred to simply as “a unison” but can be labeled
P1. The tritone, an augmented fourth or diminished fifth
is often TT. The interval qualities may be also abbreviated
with perf, min, maj, dim, aug. Examples:
Augmented and diminished intervals are so called be- • A4 (or aug4): augmented fourth,
cause they exceed or fall short of either a perfect inter- • d5 (or dim5): diminished fifth,
val, or a major/minor pair by one semitone, while having
the same interval number (i.e., encompassing the same • P5 (or perf5): perfect fifth.
number of staff positions). For instance, an augmented
third such as C–E♯ spans five semitones, exceeding a ma-
jor third (C–E) by one semitone, while a diminished third 5.5 Inversion
such as C♯–E♭ spans two semitones, falling short of a mi-
nor third (C–E♭) by one semitone.
Main article: Inversion (music)
Except for the above-mentioned augmented fourth (A4) A simple interval (i.e., an interval smaller than or equal
and diminished fifth (d5), augmented and diminished in-
tervals do not appear in diatonic scales[9] (see table).
5.3.3 Example
2. The inversion of a major interval is a minor interval, 5.6.2 Diatonic and chromatic
and vice versa; the inversion of a perfect interval is
also perfect; the inversion of an augmented interval Main article: Diatonic and chromatic
is a diminished interval, and vice versa; the inver-
sion of a doubly augmented interval is a doubly di- In general,
minished interval, and vice versa.
• A diatonic interval is an interval formed by two notes
For example, the interval from C to the E♭ above it is a of a diatonic scale.
minor third. By the two rules just given, the interval from • A chromatic interval is a non-diatonic interval
E♭ to the C above it must be a major sixth. formed by two notes of a chromatic scale.
Since compound intervals are larger than an octave, “the
inversion of any compound interval is always the same
as the inversion of the simple interval from which it is
compounded.”[12]
For intervals identified by their ratio, the inversion is de- Ascending and descending chromatic scale on C Play .
termined by reversing the ratio and multiplying by 2. For
example, the inversion of a 5:4 ratio is an 8:5 ratio. The table above depicts the 56 diatonic intervals formed
by the notes of the C major scale (a diatonic scale). No-
For intervals identified by an integer number of semi- tice that these intervals, as well as any other diatonic in-
tones, the inversion is obtained by subtracting that num- terval, can be also formed by the notes of a chromatic
ber from 12. scale.
Since an interval class is the lower number selected The distinction between diatonic and chromatic intervals
among the interval integer and its inversion, interval is controversial, as it is based on the definition of dia-
classes cannot be inverted. tonic scale, which is variable in the literature. For exam-
ple, the interval B–E♭ (a diminished fourth, occurring in
the harmonic C-minor scale) is considered diatonic if the
harmonic minor scales are considered diatonic as well.[13]
5.6 Classification Otherwise, it is considered chromatic. For further details,
see the main article.
Intervals can be described, classified, or compared with
By a commonly used definition of diatonic scale[9] (which
each other according to various criteria.
excludes the harmonic minor and melodic minor scales),
all perfect, major and minor intervals are diatonic. Con-
versely, no augmented or diminished interval is diatonic,
except for the augmented fourth and diminished fifth.
Melodic and harmonic intervals. Play The distinction between diatonic and chromatic intervals
may be also sensitive to context. The above-mentioned
5.6. CLASSIFICATION 39
56 intervals formed by the C-major scale are sometimes position in the harmonic series. See also: Lipps–
called diatonic to C major. All other intervals are called Meyer law.
chromatic to C major. For instance, the perfect fifth A♭–
E♭ is chromatic to C major, because A♭ and E♭ are not • #Interval root
contained in the C major scale. However, it is diatonic to
others, such as the A♭ major scale. All of the above analyses refer to vertical (simultaneous)
intervals.
• In the Middle Ages, only the unison, octave, perfect A simple interval is an interval spanning at most one oc-
fourth, and perfect fifth were considered consonant tave (see Main intervals above). Intervals spanning more
harmonically. than one octave are called compound intervals, as they
• In 15th- and 16th-century usage, perfect fifths and can be obtained by adding one or more [17]
octaves to a sim-
octaves, and major and minor thirds and sixths were ple interval (see below for details).
considered harmonically consonant, and all other in-
tervals dissonant, including the perfect fourth, which
by 1473 was described (by Johannes Tinctoris) as
5.6.5 Steps and skips
dissonant, except between the upper parts of a ver-
Main article: Steps and skips
tical sonority—for example, with a supporting third
below (“6-3 chords”).[14] In the common practice
period, it makes more sense to speak of consonant Linear (melodic) intervals may be described as steps or
and dissonant chords, and certain intervals previ- skips. A step, or conjunct motion,[18] is a linear interval
ously thought to be dissonant (such as minor sev- between two consecutive notes of a scale. Any larger in-
enths) became acceptable in certain contexts. How- terval is called a skip (also called a leap), or disjunct mo-
ever, 16th-century practice continued to be taught tion.[18] In the diatonic scale,[9] a step is either a minor
to beginning musicians throughout this period. second (sometimes also called half step) or major second
(sometimes also called whole step), with all intervals of a
• Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) defined a minor third or larger being skips.
harmonically consonant interval as one in which
the two pitches have an upper partial (an overtone) For example, C to D (major second) is a step, whereas C
in common[15] (specifically excluding the seventh to E (major third) is a skip.
harmonic). This essentially defines all seconds and More generally, a step is a smaller or narrower interval
sevenths as dissonant, and the above thirds, fourths, in a musical line, and a skip is a wider or larger interval,
fifths, and sixths as consonant. with the categorization of intervals into steps and skips
is determined by the tuning system and the pitch space
• Pythagoras defined a hierarchy of consonance based
used.
on how small the numbers are that express the ra-
tio. 20th-century composer and theorist Paul Hin- Melodic motion in which the interval between any two
demith's system has a hierarchy with the same re- consecutive pitches is no more than a step, or, less
sults as Pythagoras’s, but defined by fiat rather than strictly, where skips are rare, is called stepwise or con-
by interval ratios, to better accommodate equal tem- junct melodic motion, as opposed to skipwise or disjunct
perament, all of whose intervals (except the octave) melodic motions, characterized by frequent skips.
would be dissonant using acoustical methods.
• David Cope (1997) suggests the concept of interval 5.6.6 Enharmonic intervals
strength,[16] in which an interval’s strength, conso-
nance, or stability is determined by its approxima- Main article: Enharmonic
tion to a lower and stronger, or higher and weaker, Two intervals are considered to be enharmonic, or en-
40 CHAPTER 5. INTERVAL (MUSIC)
kind. For instance, a major tenth (two staff positions be a chord.[20] Chords are classified based on the quality
above one octave), also called compound major third, and number of the intervals which define them.
spans one octave plus one major third.
Any compound interval can be always decomposed into
5.9.1 Chord qualities and interval qualities
one or more octaves plus one simple interval. For in-
stance, a major seventeenth can be decomposed into two
The main chord qualities are: major, minor, augmented,
octaves and one major third, and this is the reason why it
diminished, half-diminished, and dominant. The
is called a compound major third, even when it is built by
symbols used for chord quality are similar to those used
adding up four fifths.
for interval quality (see above). In addition, + or aug is
The diatonic number DN of a compound interval formed used for augmented, ° or dim for diminished, ø for half
from n simple intervals with diatonic numbers DN 1 , DN 2 , diminished, and dom for dominant (the symbol − alone
..., DN , is determined by: is not used for diminished).
DNc = 1+(DN1 −1)+(DN2 −1)+...+(DNn −1), 5.9.2 Deducing component intervals from
chord names and symbols
which can also be written as:
The main rules to decode chord names or symbols are
summarized below. Further details are given at Rules to
DNc = DN1 + DN2 + ... + DNn − (n − 1), decode chord names and symbols.
The quality of a compound interval is determined by the 1. For 3-note chords (triads), major or minor always
quality of the simple interval on which it is based. For in- refer to the interval of the third above the root note,
stance, a compound major third is a major tenth (1+(8– while augmented and diminished always refer to the
1)+(3–1) = 10), or a major seventeenth (1+(8–1)+(8– interval of the fifth above root. The same is true for
1)+(3–1) = 17), and a compound perfect fifth is a per- the corresponding symbols (e.g., Cm means Cm3,
fect twelfth (1+(8–1)+(5–1) = 12) or a perfect nineteenth and C+ means C+5). Thus, the terms third and fifth
(1+(8–1)+(8–1)+(5–1) = 19). Notice that two octaves are and the corresponding symbols 3 and 5 are typically
a fifteenth, not a sixteenth (1+(8–1)+(8–1) = 15). Sim- omitted. This rule can be generalized to all kinds
ilarly, three octaves are a twenty-second (1+3*(8–1) = of chords,[21] provided the above-mentioned qual-
22), and so on. ities appear immediately after the root note, or at
the beginning of the chord name or symbol. For in-
stance, in the chord symbols Cm and Cm7, m refers
5.8.1 Main compound intervals to the interval m3, and 3 is omitted. When these
qualities do not appear immediately after the root
It is also worth mentioning here the major seventeenth (28
note, or at the beginning of the name or symbol, they
semitones), an interval larger than two octaves which can
should be considered interval qualities, rather than
be considered a multiple of a perfect fifth (7 semitones) as
chord qualities. For instance, in Cm/M7 (minor
it can be decomposed into four perfect fifths (7 * 4 = 28
major seventh chord), m is the chord quality and
semitones), or two octaves plus a major third (12 + 12 + 4
refers to the m3 interval, while M refers to the M7
= 28 semitones). Intervals larger than a major seventeenth
interval. When the number of an extra interval is
seldom need to be spoken of, most often being referred
specified immediately after chord quality, the qual-
to by their compound names, for example “two octaves
ity of that interval may coincide with chord quality
plus a fifth”[19] rather than “a 19th”.
(e.g., CM7 = CM/M7). However, this is not always
true (e.g., Cm6 = Cm/M6, C+7 = C+/m7, CM11 =
CM/P11).[21] See main article for further details.
5.9 Intervals in chords
2. Without contrary information, a major third interval
Main articles: Chord (music) and Chord names and and a perfect fifth interval (major triad) are implied.
symbols (jazz and pop music) For instance, a C chord is a C major triad, and the
name C minor seventh (Cm7) implies a minor 3rd by
rule 1, a perfect 5th by this rule, and a minor 7th by
Chords are sets of three or more notes. They are typically definition (see below). This rule has one exception
defined as the combination of intervals starting from a (see next rule).
common note called the root of the chord. For instance
a major triad is a chord containing three notes defined by 3. When the fifth interval is diminished, the third must
the root and two intervals (major third and perfect fifth). be minor.[22] This rule overrides rule 2. For instance,
Sometimes even a single interval (dyad) is considered to Cdim7 implies a diminished 5th by rule 1, a minor
42 CHAPTER 5. INTERVAL (MUSIC)
3rd by this rule, and a diminished 7th by definition (700+11ε, the wolf fifth or diminished sixth); 8 major
(see below). thirds have size about 386 cents (400−4ε), 4 have size
about 427 cents (400+8ε, actually diminished fourths),
4. Names and symbols which contain only a plain and their average size is 400 cents. In short, similar dif-
interval number (e.g., “Seventh chord”) or the chord ferences in width are observed for all interval types, ex-
root and a number (e.g., “C seventh”, or C7) are in- cept for unisons and octaves, and they are all multiples
terpreted as follows: of ε (the difference between the 1/4-comma meantone
fifth and the average fifth). A more detailed analysis is
• If the number is 2, 4, 6, etc., the
provided at 1/4-comma meantone Size of intervals. Note
chord is a major added tone chord
that 1/4-comma meantone was designed to produce just
(e.g., C6 = CM6 = Cadd6) and
major thirds, but only 8 of them are just (5:4, about 386
contains, together with the implied
cents).
major triad, an extra major 2nd,
perfect 4th, or major 6th (see names The Pythagorean tuning is characterized by smaller dif-
and symbols for added tone chords). ferences because they are multiples of a smaller ε (ε ≈
• If the number is 7, 9, 11, 13, 1.96 cents, the difference between the Pythagorean fifth
etc., the chord is dominant (e.g., and the average fifth). Notice that here the fifth is wider
C7 = Cdom7) and contains, to- than 700 cents, while in most meantone temperaments,
gether with the implied major triad, including 1/4-comma meantone, it is tempered to a size
one or more of the following ex- smaller than 700. A more detailed analysis is provided at
tra intervals: minor 7th, major 9th, Pythagorean tuning#Size of intervals.
perfect 11th, and major 13th (see The 5-limit tuning system uses just tones and semitones
names and symbols for seventh and as building blocks, rather than a stack of perfect fifths,
extended chords). and this leads to even more varied intervals throughout
• If the number is 5, the chord (tech- the scale (each kind of interval has three or four differ-
nically not a chord in the traditional ent sizes). A more detailed analysis is provided at 5-limit
sense, but a dyad) is a power chord. tuning#Size of intervals. Note that 5-limit tuning was de-
Only the root, a perfect fifth and signed to maximize the number of just intervals, but even
usually an octave are played. in this system some intervals are not just (e.g., 3 fifths, 5
major thirds and 6 minor thirds are not just; also, 3 major
The table shows the intervals contained in some of the and 3 minor thirds are wolf intervals).
main chords (component intervals), and some of the The above-mentioned symmetric scale 1, defined in the
symbols used to denote them. The interval qualities or 5-limit tuning system, is not the only method to obtain
numbers in boldface font can be deduced from chord just intonation. It is possible to construct juster intervals
name or symbol by applying rule 1. In symbol examples, or just intervals closer to the equal-tempered equivalents,
C is used as chord root. but most of the ones listed above have been used histori-
cally in equivalent contexts. In particular, the asymmetric
version of the 5-limit tuning scale provides a juster value
5.10 Size of intervals used in dif- for the minor seventh (9:5, rather than 16:9). Moreover,
the tritone (augmented fourth or diminished fifth), could
ferent tuning systems have other just ratios; for instance, 7:5 (about 583 cents)
or 17:12 (about 603 cents) are possible alternatives for
In this table, the interval widths used in four different tun- the augmented fourth (the latter is fairly common, as it is
ing systems are compared. To facilitate comparison, just closer to the equal-tempered value of 600 cents). The 7:4
intervals as provided by 5-limit tuning (see symmetric interval (about 969 cents), also known as the harmonic
scale n.1) are shown in bold font, and the values in cents seventh, has been a contentious issue throughout the his-
are rounded to integers. Notice that in each of the non- tory of music theory; it is 31 cents flatter than an equal-
equal tuning systems, by definition the width of each type tempered minor seventh. Some assert the 7:4 is one of
of interval (including the semitone) changes depending the blue notes used in jazz. For further details about ref-
on the note from which the interval starts. This is the erence ratios, see 5-limit tuning#The justest ratios.
price paid for seeking just intonation. However, for the
In the diatonic system, every interval has one or more
sake of simplicity, for some types of interval the table
enharmonic equivalents, such as augmented second for
shows only one value (the most often observed one).
minor third.
In 1/4-comma meantone, by definition 11 perfect fifths
have a size of approximately 697 cents (700−ε cents,
where ε ≈ 3.42 cents); since the average size of the 12
fifths must equal exactly 700 cents (as in equal tempera-
ment), the other one must have a size of about 738 cents
5.14. PITCH-CLASS INTERVALS 43
distance between two pitches upward or downward. For ized Musical Intervals and Transformations uses interval
instance, the interval from C upward to G is 7, and the in- as a generic measure of distance between time points,
terval from G downward to C is −7. One can also measure timbres, or more abstract musical phenomena.[29][30]
the distance between two pitches without taking into ac-
count direction with the unordered pitch interval, some-
what similar to the interval of tonal theory. 5.17 See also
The interval between pitch classes may be measured with
ordered and unordered pitch-class intervals. The ordered • Music and mathematics
one, also called directed interval, may be considered the
measure upwards, which, since we are dealing with pitch • Circle of fifths
classes, depends on whichever pitch is chosen as 0. For • List of musical intervals
unordered pitch-class intervals, see interval class.[28]
• List of pitch intervals
In diatonic set theory, specific and generic intervals are • Regular temperament
distinguished. Specific intervals are the interval class or
number of semitones between scale steps or collection
members, and generic intervals are the number of dia- 5.18 Notes
tonic scale steps (or staff positions) between notes of a
collection or scale. [1] Prout, Ebenezer (1903), “I-Introduction”, Harmony, Its
Notice that staff positions, when used to determine the Theory And Practise (30th edition, revised and largely
conventional interval number (second, third, fourth, etc.), rewritten ed.), London: Augener; Boston: Boston Music
Co., p. 1, ISBN 978-0781207836
are counted including the position of the lower note of
the interval, while generic interval numbers are counted [2] Lindley, Mark/Campbell, Murray/Greated, Clive. “Inter-
excluding that position. Thus, generic interval numbers val”. In Macy, Laura. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music
are smaller by 1, with respect to the conventional interval Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
numbers.
[3] Aldwell, E; Schachter, C.; Cadwallader, A., “Part 1: The
Primary Materials and Procedures, Unit 1”, Harmony and
5.15.1 Comparison Voice Leading (4th edition ed.), Schirmer, p. 8, ISBN
978-0495189756
5.16 Generalizations and non- [4] Duffin, Ross W. (2007), “3. Non-keyboard tuning”,
How Equal Temperament Ruined Harmony (and Why You
pitch uses Should Care) (1st ed.), W. W. Norton, ISBN 978-0-393-
33420-3
[5] “Prime (ii). See Unison” (from Prime. Grove Music On-
line. Oxford University Press. Accessed August 2013.
(subscription required))
[7] The perfect and the augmented unison are also known as
perfect and augmented prime.
on a staff with a conventional key signature, or with no M3, P5, M7). The advantage of rule 1 is that it has no ex-
signature. This includes, for instance, the major and the ceptions, which makes it the simplest possible approach
natural minor scales, but does not include some other to decode chord quality.
seven-tone scales, such as the melodic minor and the According to the two approaches, some may format CM7
harmonic minor scales (see also Diatonic and chromatic). as CM7 (general rule 1: M refers to M3), and others as
CM7 (alternative approach: M refers to M7). Fortunately,
[10] Definition of Perfect consonance in Godfrey Weber’s Gen- even CM7 becomes compatible with rule 1 if it is consid-
eral music teacher, by Godfrey Weber, 1841. ered an abbreviation of CMM7 , in which the first M is
omitted. The omitted M is the quality of the third, and
[11] Kostka, Stephen; Payne, Dorothy (2008). Tonal Har- is deduced according to rule 2 (see above), consistently
mony, p. 21. First Edition, 1984. with the interpretation of the plain symbol C, which by
the same rule stands for CM.
[12] Prout, Ebenezer (1903). Harmony: Its Theory and Prac-
tice, 16th edition. London: Augener & Co. (facsimile [22] All triads are tertian chords (chords defined by sequences
reprint, St. Clair Shores, Mich.: Scholarly Press, 1970), of thirds), and a major third would produce in this case
p. 10. ISBN 0-403-00326-1. a non-tertian chord. Namely, the diminished fifth spans
6 semitones from root, thus it may be decomposed into a
[13] See for example William Lovelock, The Rudiments of Mu-
sequence of two minor thirds, each spanning 3 semitones
sic, 1971.
(m3 + m3), compatible with the definition of tertian chord.
[14] Drabkin, William (2001). “Fourth”. The New Grove Dic- If a major third were used (4 semitones), this would entail
tionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by a sequence containing a major second (M3 + M2 = 4 +
Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Pub- 2 semitones = 6 semitones), which would not meet the
lishers. definition of tertian chord.
[15] Helmholtz, Hermann L. F. On the Sensations of Tone as a [23] Hindemith, Paul (1934). The Craft of Musical Composi-
Theoretical Basis for the Theory of Music Second English tion. New York: Associated Music Publishers. Cited in
Edition translated by Ellis, Alexander J. (1885) reprinted Cope (1997), p. 40-41.
by Dover Publications with new introduction (1954) ISBN [24] Perle, George (1990). The Listening Composer, p. 21.
0-486-60753-4, page 182d “Just as the coincidences of California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-
the two first upper partial tones led us to the natural conso- 06991-9.
nances of the Octave and Fifth, the coincidences of higher
upper partials would lead us to a further series of natural [25] Gioseffo Zarlino, Le Istitutione harmoniche ... nelle
consonances.” quali, oltre le materie appartenenti alla musica, si trovano
dichiarati molti luoghi di Poeti, d'Historici e di Filosofi,
[16] Cope, David (1997). Techniques of the Contemporary si come nel leggerle si potrà chiaramente vedere (Venice,
Composer, pp. 40–41. New York, New York: Schirmer 1558): 162.
Books. ISBN 0-02-864737-8.
[26] J. F. Niermeyer, Mediae latinitatis lexicon minus:
[17] Wyatt, Keith (1998). Harmony & Theory... Hal Leonard Lexique latin médiéval–français/anglais: A Medieval
Corporation. p. 77. ISBN 0-7935-7991-0. Latin–French/English Dictionary, abbreviationes et index
fontium composuit C. van de Kieft, adiuvante G. S. M.
[18] Bonds, Mark Evan (2006). A History of Music in Western
M. Lake-Schoonebeek (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1976): 955.
Culture, p.123. 2nd ed. ISBN 0-13-193104-0.
ISBN 90-04-04794-8.
[19] Aikin, Jim (2004). A Player’s Guide to Chords and Har- [27] Robert De Handlo: The Rules, and Johannes Hanboys, The
mony: Music Theory for Real-World Musicians, p. 24. Summa: A New Critical Text and Translation, edited and
ISBN 0-87930-798-6. translated by Peter M. Lefferts. Greek & Latin Music
Theory 7 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991):
[20] Károlyi, Otto (1965), Introducing Music, p. 63. Ham-
193fn17. ISBN 0803279345.
mondsworth (England), and New York: Penguin Books.
ISBN 0-14-020659-0. [28] Roeder, John. “Interval Class”. In Macy, Laura. Grove
Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University
[21] General rule 1 achieves consistency in the interpretation
Press. (subscription required)
of symbols such as CM7, Cm6, and C+7. Some musi-
cians legitimately prefer to think that, in CM7, M refers [29] Lewin, David (1987). Generalized Musical Intervals and
to the seventh, rather than to the third. This alternative Transformations, for example sections 3.3.1 and 5.4.2.
approach is legitimate, as both the third and seventh are New Haven: Yale University Press. Reprinted Oxford
major, yet it is inconsistent, as a similar interpretation is University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-19-531713-8
impossible for Cm6 and C+7 (in Cm6, m cannot possi-
bly refer to the sixth, which is major by definition, and in [30] Ockelford, Adam (2005). Repetition in Music: Theo-
C+7, + cannot refer to the seventh, which is minor). Both retical and Metatheoretical Perspectives, p. 7. ISBN 0-
approaches reveal only one of the intervals (M3 or M7), 7546-3573-2. “Lewin posits the notion of musical 'spaces’
and require other rules to complete the task. Whatever is made up of elements between which we can intuit 'in-
the decoding method, the result is the same (e.g., CM7 tervals’....Lewin gives a number of examples of musical
is always conventionally decoded as C–E–G–B, implying spaces, including the diatonic gamut of pitches arranged
46 CHAPTER 5. INTERVAL (MUSIC)
Note
The note A or La
6.1 Accidentals
Two notes with fundamental frequencies in a ratio equal Letter names are modified by the accidentals. A sharp
to any power of two (e.g. half, twice, or four times) are♯ raises a note by a semitone or half-step, and a flat ♭
lowers it by the same amount.√In modern tuning a half
perceived as very similar. Because of that, all notes with
these kinds of relations can be grouped under the same step has a frequency ratio of 12 2 , approximately 1.059.
pitch class. The accidentals are written after the note name: so, for
In traditional music theory, most countries in the world example, F♯ represents F-sharp, B♭ is B-flat.
use the naming convention Do-Re-Mi-Fa-Sol-La-Si, in- Additional accidentals are the double-sharp , raising the
cluding for instance Italy, Spain, France, Romania, most frequency by two semitones, and double-flat , lowering
Latin American countries, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, it by that amount.
47
48 CHAPTER 6. NOTE
Frequency of B (not Bes, which would also have fit into the system).
Dutch-speakers in Belgium and the Netherlands use the
C5
500 B same suffixes, but applied throughout to the notes A to G,
A so that B, B♭ and B have the same meaning as in English,
A
G although they are called B, Bes, and Beses instead of B,
400 G B flat and B double flat. Denmark also uses H, but uses
F Bes instead of Heses for B .
Hz F
E
D
300 D
C4
C 6.2 12-tone chromatic scale
The following chart lists the names used in different coun-
tries for the 12 notes of a chromatic scale built on C.
The corresponding symbols are shown within parenthe-
sis. Differences between German and English notation
Frequency vs Position on Treble Clef. Each √ note shown has a are highlighted in bold typeface. Although the English
frequency of the previous note multiplied by 12 2 and Dutch names are different, the corresponding sym-
bols are identical.
When notes are written out in a score, each note is as- is the number of octaves up or down), and so the formula
signed a specific vertical position on a staff position (a reduces to:
line or a space) on the staff, as determined by the clef.
Each line or space is assigned a note name. These names
are memorized by musicians and allow them to know at f = 212k/12 × 440 Hz = 2k × 440 Hz
a glance the proper pitch to play on their instruments for
each note-head marked on the page. yielding a factor of 2. In fact, this is the means by
The staff above shows the notes C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C which this formula is derived, combined with the notion
listen and then in reverse order, with no key signature or of equally-spaced intervals.
accidentals. The distance of an equally tempered semitone is divided
into 100 cents. So 1200 cents are equal to one octave
— a frequency ratio of 2:1. This means that a cent is
6.5 Note frequency (hertz) precisely equal to the 1200th root of 2, which is approx-
imately 1.000578.
Main article: Mathematics of musical scales For use with the MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Inter-
face) standard, a frequency mapping is defined by:
In all technicality, music can be composed of notes at any
arbitrary physical frequency. Since the physical causes
f
of music are vibrations of mechanical systems, they are p = 69 + 12 × log2
440 Hz
often measured in hertz (Hz), with 1 Hz = one vibration
per second. For historical and other reasons, especially in Where p is the MIDI note number. And in the opposite
Western music, only twelve notes of fixed frequencies are direction, to obtain the frequency from a MIDI note p,
used. These fixed frequencies are mathematically related the formula is defined as:
to each other, and are defined around the central note, A4.
The current “standard pitch” or modern "concert pitch"
for this note is 440 Hz, although this varies in actual prac- f = 2(p−69)/12 × 440 Hz
tice (see History of pitch standards).
The note-naming convention specifies a letter, any For notes in an A440 equal temperament, this formula de-
accidentals, and an octave number. Any note is an integer livers the standard MIDI note number (p). Any other fre-
of half-steps away from middle A (A4). Let this distance quencies fill the space between the whole numbers evenly.
be denoted n. If the note is above A4, then n is positive; This allows MIDI instruments to be tuned very accurately
if it is below A4, then n is negative. The frequency of the in any microtuning scale, including non-western tradi-
note (f) (assuming equal temperament) is then: tional tunings.
A2 -B2 -C3 -D3 -E3 -F3 -G3 -A3 -B3 -C4 -D4 -E4 -
f =2 −4/12
× 440 Hz ≈ 349.2 Hz F4 -G4 .
Finally, it can be seen from this formula that octaves au- Though it is not known whether this was his devising
tomatically yield powers of two times the original fre- or common usage at the time, this is nonetheless called
quency, since n is therefore a multiple of 12 (12k, where k Boethian notation. Although Boethius is the first author
50 CHAPTER 6. NOTE
which is known to have used this nomenclature in the lit- The two notation systems most commonly used nowadays
erature, the above-mentioned two-octave range was al- are the Helmholtz pitch notation system and the Scientific
ready known five centuries before by Ptolemy, who called pitch notation system. As shown in the table above, they
it the “perfect system” or “complete system”, as opposed both include several octaves, each starting from C rather
to other systems of notes of smaller range, which did not than A. The reason is that the most commonly used scale
contain all the possible species of octave (i.e., the seven in Western music is the major scale, and the sequence
octaves starting from A, B, C, D, E, F, and G). C-D-E-F-G-A-B (the C-major scale) is the simplest ex-
Following this, the range (or compass) of used notes was ample of a major scale. Indeed, it is the only major scale
which can be obtained using natural notes (the white keys
extended to three octaves, and the system of repeating let-
ters A-G in each octave was introduced, these being writ- on the piano keyboard), and typically the first musical
scale taught in music schools.
ten as lower case for the second octave (a-g) and double
lowercase letters for the third (aa-gg). When the range In a newly developed system, primarily in use in the
was extended down by one note, to a G, that note was United States, notes of scales become independent to the
denoted using the Greek G (Γ), gamma. (It is from this music notation. In this system the natural symbols C-D-
that the French word for scale, gamme is derived, and the E-F-G-A-B refer to the absolute notes, while the names
English word gamut, from “Gamma-Ut”, the lowest note Do-Re-Mi-Fa-So-La-Ti are relativized and show only the
in Medieval music notation.) relationship between pitches, where Do is the name of
The remaining five notes of the chromatic scale (the black the base pitch of the scale, Re is the name of the second
keys on a piano keyboard) were added gradually; the first pitch, etc. The idea of so-called movable-do, originally
being B♭, since B was flattened in certain modes to avoid suggested by John Curwen in the 19th century, was fully
the dissonant tritone interval. This change was not always developed and involved into a whole educational system
shown in notation, but when written, B♭ (B-flat) was writ- by Zoltán Kodály in the middle of the 20th century, which
ten as a Latin, round “b”, and B♮ (B-natural) a Gothic or system is known as the Kodály Method or Kodály Con-
“hard-edged” b. These evolved into the modern flat (♭) cept.
and natural (♮) symbols respectively. The sharp symbol
arose from a barred b, called the “cancelled b”.
In parts of Europe, including Germany, the Czech Re-
6.7 See also
public, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary, Norway, Denmark,
Serbia, Croatia, Finland, Iceland and Sweden, the Gothic • Music and mathematics (mathematics of musical
b transformed into the letter H (possibly for hart, Ger- scales)
man for hard, or just because the Gothic b resembled an • Diatonic and chromatic
H). Therefore, in German music notation, H is used in
lieu of B♮ (B-natural), and B in lieu of B♭ (B-flat). Oc- • Ghost note
casionally, music written in German for international use
will use H for B-natural and Bb for B-flat (with a modern- • Grace note
script lowercase b instead of a flat sign). Since a Bes or
• Interval (music)
B♭ in Northern Europe (i.e. a B elsewhere) is both rare
and unorthodox (more likely to be expressed as Heses), it • Musical temperament
is generally clear what this notation means.
• Musical tone
In Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Romanian,
Greek, Russian, Mongolian, Flemish, Persian, Arabic, • Note value
Hebrew, Bulgarian and Turkish notation the notes of
scales are given in terms of Do-Re-Mi-Fa-Sol-La-Si • Pensato
rather than C-D-E-F-G-A-B. These names follow the
original names reputedly given by Guido d'Arezzo, who • Piano key frequencies
had taken them from the first syllables of the first six
• Solfege
musical phrases of a Gregorian Chant melody Ut queant
laxis, which began on the appropriate scale degrees. • Universal key
These became the basis of the solfege system. “Do” later
replaced the original “Ut” for ease of singing (most likely
from the beginning of Dominus, Lord), though “Ut” is
still used in some places. “Si” or “Ti” was added as the
6.8 References
seventh degree (from Sancte Johannes, St. John, to whom
[1] Nattiez 1990, p.81n9
the hymn is dedicated). The use of 'Si' versus 'Ti' varies
regionally. [2] is = sharp; es (after consonant) and s (after vowel) = flat
6.9 Bibliography
• Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1990). Music and Discourse:
Toward a Semiology of Music (Musicologie générale
et sémiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate
(1990). ISBN 0-691-02714-5.
Semitone
This article is about the musical interval. For the printing tome); they differ by the Pythagorean comma of ratio
method, see halftone. 531441:524288 or 23.5 cents. In quarter-comma mean-
A semitone, also called a half step or a half tone,[1] is tone, seven of them are diatonic, and 117.1 cents wide,
while the other five are chromatic, and 76.0 cents wide;
they differ by the lesser diesis of ratio 128:125 or 41.1
cents. 12-tone scales tuned in just intonation typically
define three or four kinds of semitones. For instance,
Asymmetric five-limit tuning yields chromatic semitones
with ratios 25:24 (70.7 cents) and 135:128 (92.2 cents),
and diatonic semitones with ratios 16:15 (111.7 cents)
and 27:25 (133.2 cents). For further details, see below.
Main article: Anhemitonic scale
52
7.2. AUGMENTED UNISON 53
Augmented unison on C.
notes still retain the same two semitone sizes, but there is 7.4.4 Pythagorean tuning
more flexibility for the musician about whether to use an
augmented unison or minor second. 31-tone equal tem-
perament is the most flexible of these, which makes an
unbroken circle of 31 fifths, allowing the choice of semi-
tone to be made for any pitch.
• 18/17 ≈ 99.0cents,
suggested by Vincenzo Galilei and used
by luthiers of the Renaissance,
√
• 4 2√
3− 2
≈ 100.4cents, Pythagorean apotome as seven just perfect fifths.
suggested by Marin Mersenne as a
constructible and more accurate alterna- Like meantone temperament, Pythagorean tuning is a
tive, broken circle of fifths. This creates two distinct semi-
tones, but because Pythagorean tuning is also a form
• (139/138)8 ≈ 99.9995cents, of 3-limit just intonation, these semitones are rational.
used by Julián Carrillo as part of a Also, unlike most meantone temperaments, the chro-
sixteenth-tone system. matic semitone is larger than the diatonic.
The Pythagorean diatonic semitone has a ratio of
For more examples, see Pythagorean and Just systems of 256/243 ( play ), and is often called the Pythagorean
tuning below. limma. It is also sometimes called the Pythagorean mi-
nor semitone. It is about 90.2 cents.
It can be thought of as the difference between four perfect proximately 111.7 cents), called the just diatonic semi-
octaves and seven just fifths, and functions as a chromatic tone.[13] This is a practical just semitone, since it is the
semitone in a Pythagorean tuning. difference between a perfect fourth and major third (
The Pythagorean limma and Pythagorean apotome are 3 ÷ 4 = 15 ).
4 5 16
enharmonic equivalents (chromatic semitones) and only The 16:15 just minor second arises in the C major scale
a Pythagorean comma apart, in contrast to diatonic and between B & C and E & F, and is, “the sharpest disso-
chromatic semitones in meantone temperament and 5- nance found in the scale.”[14]
limit just intonation. An augmented unison in just intonation is another semi-
tone of 25:24 ( play ) or 1.0416... (approximately 70.7
cents). It is the difference between a 5:4 major third and
7.4.5 Just intonation
a 6:5 minor third. Composer Ben Johnston uses a sharp
an accidental to indicate a note is raised 70.7 cents, or a
flat to indicate a note is lowered 70.7 cents.[15]
Two other kinds of semitones are produced by 5-limit
tuning. A chromatic scale defines 12 semitones as the
12 intervals between the 13 adjacent notes forming a full
octave (e.g. from C4 to C5). The 12 semitones produced
by a commonly used version of 5-limit tuning have four
different sizes, and can be classified as follows:
25
S1 = ≈ 70.7 cents
24
16
S3 = ≈ 111.7 cents
15
) available between the 5-limit major seventh (15:8) and • Major second
the 7-limit minor seventh (7:4). There is also a smaller
septimal chromatic semitone of 21:20 ( play ) be- • Neutral second
tween a septimal minor seventh and a fifth (21:8) and an • Pythagorean interval
octave and a major third (5:2). Both are more rarely used
than their 5-limit neighbours, although the former was of- • Regular temperament
ten implemented by theorist Henry Cowell, while Harry
Partch used the latter as part of his 43-tone scale.
Under 11-limit tuning, there is a fairly common undec- 7.6 References
imal neutral second (12:11) ( play ), but it lies on the
boundary between the minor and major second (150.6 [1] Semitone, half step, half tone, halftone, and half-tone are
cents). In just intonation there are infinitely many possi- all variously used in sources.
bilities for intervals that fall within the range of the semi- Aaron Copland, Leonard Bernstein, and others use “half
tone”.
tone (e.g. the Pythagorean semitones mentioned above),
One source says that step is “chiefly US”, and that half-tone
but most of them are impractical. is “chiefly N. Amer.”
In 17-limit just intonation, the major diatonic semitone is
[2] Miller, Michael. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Music The-
15:14 or 119.4 cents ( Play ), and the minor diatonic
ory, 2nd ed. [Indianapolis, IN]: Alpha, 2005. ISBN 1-
semitone is 17:16 or 105.0 cents.[17] 59257-437-8. p. 19.
Though the names diatonic and chromatic are often used
[3] Capstick, John Walton (1913). Sound: An Elementary
for these intervals, their musical function is not the same Text-book for Schools and Colleges. Cambridge Univer-
as the two meantone semitones. For instance, 15:14 sity Press.
would usually be written as an augmented unison, func-
tioning as the chromatic counterpart to a diatonic 16:15. [4] Wharram, Barbara (2010). Elementary Rudiments of Mu-
These distinctions are highly dependent on the musical sic (2nd ed.). Mississauga, ON: Frederick Harris Music.
context, and just intonation is not particularly well suited p. 17. ISBN 978-1-55440-283-0.
to chromatic usage (diatonic semitone function is more [5] Benward & Saker (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice,
prevalent). Vol. I, p.54. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-0. Specific example
of an A1 not given but general example of perfect intervals
described.
7.4.6 Other equal temperaments
[6] Kostka and Payne (2003). Tonal Harmony, p.21. ISBN
19-tone equal temperament distinguishes between the 0-07-285260-7. “There is no such thing as a diminished
chromatic and diatonic semitones; in this tuning, the unison.”
chromatic semitone is one step of the scale ( play 63.2 [7] Day and Pilhofer (2007). Music Theory for Dummies,
cents ), and the diatonic semitone is two ( play 126.3 p.113. ISBN 0-7645-7838-3. “There is no such thing as
cents ). 31-tone equal temperament also distinguishes be- a diminished unison, because no matter how you change
tween these two intervals, which become 2 and 3 steps of the unisons with accidentals, you are adding half steps to
the scale, respectively. 53-ET has an even closer match the total interval.”
to the two semitones with 3 and 5 steps of its scale while
[8] Surmani, Andrew; Karen Farnum Surmani; Morton
72-ET uses 4 ( play 66.7 cents ) and 7 ( play 116.7 Manus (2009). Alfred’s Essentials of Music Theory: A
cents ) steps of its scale. Complete Self-Study Course for All Musicians. p. 135:
In general, because the two semitones can be viewed as Alfred Music Publishing. p. 153. ISBN 0-7390-3635-
the difference between major and minor thirds, and the 1. “Since lowering either note of a perfect unison would
actually increase its size, the perfect unison cannot be di-
difference between major thirds and perfect fourths, tun-
minished, only augmented.”.
ing systems that match these just intervals closely will also
distinguish between the two types of semitones and match [9] Dahlhaus, Carl, trans. Gjerdingen, Robert O. Studies in
their just intervals closely. the Origin of Harmonic Tonality. Princeton University
Press: Princeton, 1990. ISBN 0-691-09135-8.
Octave
For other uses, see Octave (disambiguation). by ANSI [1] as the unit of frequency level when the base
In music, an octave (Latin: octavus: eighth) or per- of the logarithm is two. The octave relationship is a nat-
ural phenomenon that has been referred to as the “basic
miracle of music”, the use of which is “common in most
musical systems”.[2]
The most important musical scales are typically written
using eight notes, and the interval between the first and
last notes is an octave. For example, the C Major scale is
Layout of a musical keyboard (three octaves shown) typically written C D E F G A B C, the initial and final C’s
being an octave apart. Two notes separated by an octave
have the same letter name and are of the same pitch class.
Three commonly cited examples of melodies featuring
the perfect octave as their opening interval are "Singin'
in the Rain", "Somewhere Over the Rainbow", and
"Stranger on the Shore".
The interval between the first and second harmonics of
the harmonic series is an octave.
The octave has occasionally been referred to as a
diapason.[3]
Perfect octave Play
To emphasize that it is one of the perfect intervals (in-
cluding unison, perfect fourth, and perfect fifth), the oc-
tave is designated P8. The octave above or below an
indicated note is sometimes abbreviated 8va (= Italian
all'ottava), 8va bassa (= Italian all'ottava bassa, some-
times also 8vb), or simply 8 for the octave in the direction
indicated by placing this mark above or below the staff.
8.1 Theory
For example, if one note has a frequency of 440 Hz, the
note an octave above it is at 880 Hz, and the note an octave
below is at 220 Hz. The ratio of frequencies of two notes
an octave apart is therefore 2:1. Further octaves of a note
occur at 2n times the frequency of that note (where n is
an integer), such as 2, 4, 8, 16, etc. and the reciprocal of
that series. For example, 55 Hz and 440 Hz are one and
Multi-octave F major chord with octaves marked by brackets. two octaves away from 110 Hz because they are 0.5 (or
Play full chord , lowest octave , middle octave , or highest octave
2 −1 ) and 4 (or 22 ) times the frequency, respectively.
.
After the unison, the octave is the simplest interval in
fect octave is the interval between one musical pitch and music. The human ear tends to hear both notes as being
another with half or double its frequency. It is defined essentially “the same”, due to closely related harmonics.
59
60 CHAPTER 8. OCTAVE
"Twinkle Twinkle Little Star" melody doubled in four octaves: While octaves commonly refer to the perfect octave
consonant and equivalent. Play (P8), the interval of an octave in music theory encom-
passes chromatic alterations within the pitch class, mean-
ing that G♮ to G♯ (13 semitones higher) is an Augmented
Notes separated by an octave “ring” together, adding a octave (A8), and G♮ to G♭ (11 semitones higher) is a
pleasing sound to music. For this reason, notes an octave diminished octave (d8). The use of such intervals is
apart are given the same note name in the Western system rare, as there is frequently a preferable enharmonic no-
of music notation—the name of a note an octave above tation available, but these categories of octaves must be
A is also A. This is called octave equivalency, the as- acknowledged in any full understanding of the role and
sumption that pitches one or more octaves apart are mu- meaning of octaves more generally in music.
sically equivalent in many ways, leading to the conven-
tion “that scales are uniquely defined by specifying the
intervals within an octave”.[4] The conceptualization of 8.2 Notation
pitch as having two dimensions, pitch height (absolute
frequency) and pitch class (relative position within the
octave), inherently include octave circularity.[4] Thus all
C♯s, or all 1s (if C = 0), in any octave are part of the same
pitch class.
Octave equivalency is a part of most “advanced musi-
cal cultures”, but is far from universal in “primitive” and
early music.[5][6] The languages in which the oldest ex-
tant written documents on tuning are written, Sumerian
and Akkadian, have no known word for “octave”. How-
ever, it is believed that a set of cuneiform tablets that
collectively describe the tuning of a nine-stringed instru-
ment, believed to be a Babylonian lyre, describe tunings Octaves are identified with various naming systems.
for seven of the strings, with indications to tune the re- Among the most common are the Scientific, Helmholtz,
maining two strings an octave from two of the seven tuned Organ Pipe, Midi, and Midi Note systems.
strings.[7] Leon Crickmore recently proposed that “The
octave may not have been thought of as a unit in its own
right, but rather by analogy like the first day of a new
seven-day week”.[8]
Monkeys experience octave equivalency, and its biolog-
ical basis apparently is an octave mapping of neurons in
the auditory thalamus of the mammalian brain.[9] Stud- An example of the same two notes expressed regularly, in an 8va
ies have also shown the perception of octave equivalence bracket, and in a 15ma bracket
in rats (Blackwell & Schlosberg, 1943), human infants
8.3. SEE ALSO 61
Tritone
63
64 CHAPTER 9. TRITONE
of exactly half an octave. In most other tuning systems, A tritone (abbreviation: TT) is traditionally defined as a
they are not equivalent, and neither is exactly equal to half musical interval composed of three whole tones. As the
an octave. symbol for whole tone is T, this definition may be also
Any augmented fourth can be decomposed into three written as follows:
whole tones. For instance, the interval F–B is an aug-
mented fourth and can be decomposed into the three ad- TT = T+T+T
jacent whole tones F–G, G–A, and A–B.
The above is not possible for the diminished fifth. The Only if the three tones are of the same size (which is not
reason is that a whole tone is a major second, and ac- the case for many tuning systems) can this formula be
cording to a rule explained elsewhere, the composition of simplified to:
three seconds is always a fourth (for instance, an A4). To
obtain a fifth (for instance, a d5), it is necessary to add an- TT = 3T
other second. For instance, using the notes of the C major
scale, the diminished fifth B–F can be decomposed into This definition, however, has two different interpretations
the four adjacent intervals (broad and strict).
TT = T+T+T = S+S+S+S+S+S.
9.2 Definitions
According to this definition, with the twelve notes of a
chromatic scale it is possible to define twelve different
tritones, each starting from a different note and ending
six notes above it. Although all of them span six semi-
tones, six of them are classified as A4, and the other six
as d5.
d5 = S+T+T+S.
A4 + d5 = P8.
musica” the opposition of “square” and “round” B (B♮ in first inversion is permitted, as this eliminates the tritone
and B♭, respectively) because these notes represent the relation to the bass.[25]
juxtaposition of “mi contra fa”.[21] Johann Joseph Fux It is only with the Romantic music and modern classical
cites the phrase in his seminal 1725 work Gradus ad music that composers started to use it totally freely, with-
Parnassum, Georg Philipp Telemann in 1733 describes, out functional limitations notably in an expressive way to
“mi against fa”, which the ancients called “Satan in mu- exploit the “evil” connotations which are culturally asso-
sic”, and Johann Mattheson in 1739 writes that the “older ciated to it (e.g., Franz Liszt's use of the tritone to suggest
singers with solmization called this pleasant interval 'mi Hell in his Dante Sonata). The tritone was also exploited
contra fa' or 'the devil in music'".[22] Although the latter
heavily in that period as an interval of modulation for
two of these authors cite the association with the devil as its ability to evoke a strong reaction by moving quickly
from the past, there are no known citations of this term
to distantly related keys. Later on, in twelve-tone mu-
from the Middle Ages, as is commonly asserted.[23] How- sic, serialism, and other 20th century compositional id-
ever Denis Arnold, in the New Oxford Companion to Mu-
ioms it came to be considered as a neutral interval.[26] In
sic, suggests that the nickname was already applied early some analyses of the works of 20th century composers,
in the medieval music itself: the tritone plays an important structural role; perhaps the
most cited is the axis system, proposed by Ernő Lend-
It seems first to have been designated as a vaï, in his analysis of the use of tonality in the music of
“dangerous” interval when Guido of Arezzo Béla Bartók.[27] Tritone relations are also important in the
developed his system of hexachords and with music of George Crumb. George Harrison uses tritones
the introduction of B flat as a diatonic note, at on the downbeats of the opening phrases of the Beatles
much the same time acquiring its nickname of songs "The Inner Light", "Blue Jay Way" and "Within
“Diabolus in Musica” (“the devil in music”).[24] You Without You", creating a prolonged sense of sus-
pended resolution.[28]
...and with the correct resolution of the true tri- Marchetto da Padova per la prima volta trascritto e illus-
tones this desire is totally satisfied. However, trato”, Rivista Musicale Italiana 20 (1913): 731–62, cita-
if one plays a just diminished fifth that is per- tions on 732–34.
fectly in tune, for example, there is no wish to
[3] Smith Brindle, Reginald (1966). Serial Composition.
resolve it to a major third. Just the opposite—
Oxford University Press. p. 66. ISBN 0-19-311906-4.
aurally one wants to enlarge it to a minor sixth.
The opposite holds true for the just augmented [4] Bruce Benward & Marilyn Nadine Saker (2003). Music:
fourth.... In Theory and Practice, Vol. I, seventh edition (Boston:
These apparently contradictory aural experi- McGraw-Hill), p. 54. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-0.
ences become understandable when the cents
of both types of just tritones are compared [5] Fonville, John. “Ben Johnston’s Extended Just Intonation-
with those of the true tritones and then read A Guide for Interpreters”, p. 121–22, Perspectives of New
'crossed-over'. One then notices that the just Music, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Summer, 1991), pp. 106–37.
augmented fourth of 590.224 cents is only 2
[6] Partch, Harry. (1974). Genesis of a Music: An Account of
cents bigger than the true diminished fifth of a Creative Work, Its Roots and Its Fulfillments, second edi-
588.270 cents, and that both intervals lie be- tion, enlarged (New York: Da Capo Press): p. 69. ISBN
low the middle of the octave of 600.000 cents. 0-306-71597-X (cloth); ISBN 0-306-80106-X (pbk).
It is no wonder that, following the ear, we want
to resolve both downwards. The ear only de- [7] Renold, Maria (2004). Intervals, Scales, Tones and the
sires the tritone to be resolved upwards when it Concert Pitch C=128Hz, translated from the German by
is bigger than the middle of the octave. There- Bevis Stevens, with additional editing by Anna R. Meuss
fore the opposite is the case with the just di- (Forest Row: Temple Lodge): p. 15–16. ISBN 1-
minished fifth of 609.776 cents....[7] 902636-46-5.
9.9 Sources [12] Haluska (2003). p. xxiii. “7/5 septimal or Huygens’ tri-
tone, Bohlen-Pierce fourth”, “10/7 Euler’s tritone”.
[1] Don Michael Randel (2003). The Harvard Dictionary of [13] Strange, Patricia and Patricia, Allen (2001). The contem-
Music: Fourth Edition. Harvard University Press. ISBN porary violin: Extended performance techniques, p. 147.
0-674-01163-5. ISBN 0-520-22409-4. "...septimal tritone, 10:7; smaller
septimal tritone, 7:5;...This list is not exhaustive, even
[2] E.g., Jacobus Leodiensis, Speculum musicae, Liber se- when limited to the first sixteen partials. Consider the very
cundus, in Jacobi Leodiensis Speculum musicae, edited narrow augmented fourth, 13:9....just intonation is not an
by Roger Bragard, Corpus Scriptorum de Musica 3/2 attempt to generate necessarily consonant intervals.”
([Rome]: American Institute of Musicology, 1961): 128–
31, citations on 192–96, 200, and 229; Jacobus Leodien- [14] Monelle, Raymond (2006). The Musical Topic: Hunt, Mil-
sis, Speculum musicae, Liber sextus, in Jacobi Leodien- itary And Pastoral, p.102. ISBN 9780253347664.
sis Speculum musicae, edited by Roger Bragard, Corpus
Scriptorum de Musica 3/6 ([Rome]: American Institute [15] Fauvel, John; Flood, Raymond; and Wilson, Robin
of Musicology, 1973): 1-161, citations on 52 and 68; Jo- J. (2006). Music And Mathematics, p.21-22. ISBN
hannes Torkesey, Declaratio et expositio, London: British 9780199298938.
Library, Lansdowne 763, ff.89v-94v, citations on f.92r,2–
3; Prosdocimus de Beldemandis, Tractatus musice specu- [16] Haluska (2003), p. 286.
lative, in D. Raffaello Baralli and Luigi Torri, “Il Trat-
tato di Prosdocimo de' Beldomandi contro il Lucidario di [17] Partch (1974), p. 115. ISBN 0-306-80106-X.
70 CHAPTER 9. TRITONE
Major second
See also: Minor second and Diminished third second and the diminished third, are also called tones,
In Western music theory, a major second (some- whole tones, or whole steps[1] In just intonation, ma-
jor seconds can occur in at least two different frequency
ratios:[2] 9:8 (about 203.9 cents) and 10:9 (about 182.4
cents). The largest (9:8) ones are called major tones or
greater tones, the smallest (10:9) are called minor tones
or lesser tones. Their size differs by exactly one syntonic
comma (81:80, or about 21.5 cents). Some equal tem-
peraments, such as 15-ET and 22-ET, also distinguish be-
tween a greater and a lesser tone.
The major second was historically considered one of the
most dissonant intervals of the diatonic scale, although
Step: major second (major tone) Play . much 20th-century music saw it reimagined as a conso-
nance. It is common in many different musical systems,
including Arabic music, Turkish music and music of the
Balkans, among others. It occurs in both diatonic and
pentatonic scales.
Listen to a major second in equal temperament . Here,
middle C is followed by D, which is a tone 200 cents
sharper than C, and then by both tones together.
71
72 CHAPTER 10. MAJOR SECOND
Some equal temperaments also produce major seconds of Diagram showing relations between epogdoon, diatessaron,
two different sizes, called greater and lesser tones (or ma- diapente, and diapason
jor and minor tones). For instance, this is true for 15-ET,
22-ET, 34-ET, 41-ET, 53-ET, and 72-ET. Conversely, in In Pythagorean music theory, the epogdoon (Ancient
twelve-tone equal temperament, Pythagorean tuning, and Greek: ἐπόγδοον) is the interval with the ratio 9 to 8.
meantone temperament (including 19-ET and 31-ET) all The word is composed of the prefix epi- meaning “on top
major seconds have the same size, so there cannot be a of” and ogdoon meaning “one eighth"; so it means “one
distinction between a greater and a lesser tone. eighth in addition”. For example, the natural numbers are
1
In any system where there is only one size of major sec- 8 and 9 in this relation (8+( 8 ×8)=9).
ond, the terms greater and lesser tone (or major and minor According to Plutarch, the Pythagoreans hated the num-
tone) are rarely used with a different meaning. Namely, ber 17 because it separates the 16 from its Epogdoon
they are used to indicate the two distinct kinds of whole 18.[6]
10.4. SOURCES 73
[6] http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/
Detail of Raphael’s School of Athens showing epogdoon dia- Plutarch/Moralia/Isis_and_Osiris*/C.html[]
gram
[7] http://philpapers.org/archive/BALPCO PDF
10.4 Sources
[1] Whole step, whole tone, and tone are all variously used in
sources.
One source says step is “chiefly US.”
The preferred usage has been argued since the 19th cen-
tury:
Minor second
74
Chapter 12
Major third
This article is about the musical interval. For the guitar Interval number for more details), and the major third
tuning, see major thirds tuning. ( Play ) is a third spanning four semitones. Along with
In classical music from Western culture, a third is a the minor third, the major third is one of two commonly
occurring thirds. It is qualified as major because it is the
larger of the two: the major third spans four semitones,
the minor third three. For example, the interval from C
to E is a major third, as the note E lies four semitones
above C, and there are three staff positions from C to E.
Diminished and augmented thirds span the same number
of staff positions, but consist of a different number of
semitones (two and five).
The major third may be derived from the harmonic series
as the interval between the fourth and fifth harmonics.
The major scale is so named because of the presence of
this interval between its tonic and mediant (1st and 3rd)
Just major third. scale degrees. The major chord also takes its name from
the presence of this interval built on the chord’s root (pro-
vided that the interval of a perfect fifth from the root is
also present or implied).
A major third in just intonation corresponds to a pitch
ratio of 5:4 ( play ) (fifth harmonic in relation to the
fourth) or 386.31 cents; in equal temperament, a major
third is equal to four semitones, a ratio of 21/3 :1 (about
1.2599) or 400 cents, 13.69 cents wider than the 5:4 ratio.
The older concept of a ditone (two 9:8 major seconds)
made a dissonantly wide major third with the ratio 81:64
Pythagorean major third. ( play ). The septimal major third is 9:7, the undecimal
major third is 14:11, and the tridecimal major third is
13:10.
A helpful way to recognize a major third is to hum the
first two notes of "Kumbaya" or of "When the Saints Go
Marching In". A descending major third is heard at the
starts of "Goodnight, Ladies" and "Swing Low, Sweet
Chariot".
In equal temperament three major thirds in a row are
equal to an octave (for example, A♭ to C, C to E, and
E to G♯; G♯ and A♭ represent the same note). This is
sometimes called the "circle of thirds". In just intonation,
however, three 5:4 major thirds are less than an octave.
For example, three 5:4 major thirds from C is B♯ (C to
E to G♯ to B♯). The difference between this just-tuned
Comparison, in cents, of intervals at or near a major third B♯ and C, like that between G♯ and A♭, is called a diesis,
about 41 cents.
musical interval encompassing three staff positions (see
75
76 CHAPTER 12. MAJOR THIRD
12.2 References
Chapter 13
Minor third
77
78 CHAPTER 13. MINOR THIRD
Semiditone (32:27) on C Play . [5] Paul, Oscar (1885). A manual of harmony for use
in music-schools and seminaries and for self-instruction,
p.165. Theodore Baker, trans. G. Schirmer.
Perfect fourth
79
80 CHAPTER 14. PERFECT FOURTH
The music of the 20th century for the most part discards
the rules of “classical” western tonality. For instance,
composers such as Erik Satie borrowed stylistic elements
from the Middle Ages, but some composers found more
innovative uses for these intervals. Conventional closing cadences
written. Jean-Philippe Rameau completed his treatise of musical harmony to become more predominant than
Le Traité de l'harmonie réduite à ses principes naturels its function, a notion which was soon after to be explored
(French: the theory of harmony reduced to its natural by Debussy and others.
principles) in 1722 which supplemented his work of four
years earlier, Nouveau Système de musique theoretique
(French: new system of music theory); these together
may be considered the cornerstone of modern Music the-
ory relating to consonance and harmony. The Austrian
composer Johann Fux published in 1725 his powerful
treatise on the composition of Counterpoint in the style
of Palestrina under the title Gradus ad Parnassum (Latin: Measures 24 to 27 from Mussorgsky’s The Hut on Fowl’s Legs
The Steps to Parnassus). He outlined various types of
counterpoint (e.g., note against note), and suggested a Fourth-based harmony became important in the work of
careful application of the fourth so as to avoid dissonance. Slavic and Scandinavian composers such as Modest Mus-
sorgsky, Leoš Janáček, and Jean Sibelius. These com-
posers used this harmony in a pungent, uncovered, al-
14.1.3 Classical and Romantic most archaic way, often incorporating the Folk music of
their particular homelands. Sibelius’ Piano Sonata in F-
The blossoming of tonality and the establishment of well Major op. 12 of 1893 used tremolo passages of near-
temperament in Bach’s time both had a continuing in- quartal harmony in a way that was relatively hard and
fluence up to the late Romantic period, and the tenden- modern. Even in the example on the right from Mus-
cies towards quartal harmony were somewhat suppressed. sorgsky’s piano-cycle Pictures at an Exhibition (Избушка
An increasingly refined cadence, and triadic harmony de- на курьих ножках (Баба-Яга) - The Hut on Fowl’s Legs)
fined the musical work of this era. Counterpoint was sim- ( Listen) the fourth always makes an “unvarnished” en-
plified to favour an upper line with a clear accompany- trance.
ing harmony. Still, there are many examples of dense The Romantic composers Frédéric Chopin and Franz
counterpoint utilizing fourths in this style, commonly as Liszt, had use the special “thinned out” sound of fourth-
part of the background urging the harmonic expression chord in late works for piano (Nuages gris (Fr: Grey
in a passage along to a climax. Mozart in his so-called Clouds), La lugubre gondola (Fr: The Mournful Gon-
Dissonance Quartet KV 465 ( Listen) used Chromatic dola), and other works).
and Whole tone scales to outline fourths, and the sub-
ject of the fugue in the third movement of Beethoven’s In the 1897 work The Sorcerer’s Apprentice (L'Apprenti
Piano sonata op. 110 ( Listen) opens with three ascend- sorcier) by Paul Dukas, the repetition of rising fourths
ing fourths. These are all melodic examples, however, is a musical representation of the tireless work of out-
and the underlying harmony is built on thirds. of-control walking brooms causes the water level in the
house to “rise and rise”. Quartal harmony in Ravel’s
Composers started to reassess the quality of the fourth Sonatine and Ma Mère l'Oye (Fr: Mother Goose) would
as a consonance rather than a dissonance. This would follow a few years later.
later influence the development of quartal and quintal har-
mony.
14.1.4 20th century music
14.3 References
[1] William Smith and Samuel Cheetham (1875). A Dictio-
nary of Christian Antiquities. London: John Murray.
[7] Morgan (1991), p. 71. “no doubt for its 'nontonal' quality”
• All fifths
• Lists of intervals
• eleventh
• chromatic fourth
Chapter 15
Perfect fifth
83
84 CHAPTER 15. PERFECT FIFTH
The perfect unison has a pitch ratio 1:1, the perfect octave instrument to play in all keys. In 12-tone equal tempera-
2:1, the perfect fourth 4:3, and the perfect fifth 3:2. ment, the frequencies
√ 7 of the tempered perfect fifth are in
12
Within this definition, other intervals may also be called the ratio ( 2) or approximately 1.498307. An equally
[7]
perfect, for example a perfect third (5:4) or a perfect tempered perfect fifth, defined as 700 cents, is about two
major sixth (5:3). [8] cents narrower than a just perfect fifth, which is approx-
imately 701.955 cents.
Kepler explored musical tuning in terms of integer ra-
15.2 Other qualities of fifth tios, and defined a “lower imperfect fifth” as a 40:27
pitch ratio, and a “greater imperfect fifth” as a 243:160
pitch ratio.[12] His lower perfect fifth ratio of 1.4815 (680
In addition to perfect, there are two other kinds, or quali- cents) is much more “imperfect” than the equal temper-
ties, of fifths: the diminished fifth, which is one chromatic ament tuning (700 cents) of 1.498 (relative to the ideal
semitone smaller, and the augmented fifth, which is one 1.50). Helmholtz uses the ratio 301:200 (708 cents) as
chromatic semitone larger. In terms of semitones, these an example of an imperfect fifth; he contrasts the ratio of
are equivalent to the tritone (or augmented fourth), and a fifth in equal temperament (700 cents) with a “perfect
the minor sixth, respectively. fifth” (3:2), and discusses the audibility of the beats that
result from such an “imperfect” tuning.[13]
15.5 Bare fifth, open fifth, or empty [5] Charles Knight (1843). Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society
for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Society for the
fifth Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. p. 356.
A bare fifth, open fifth or empty fifth is a chord contain- [6] John Stillwell (2006). Yearning for the Impossible. A K
Peters, Ltd. p. 21. ISBN 1-56881-254-X.
ing only a perfect fifth with no third. The closing chord
of the Kyrie in Mozart's Requiem and of the first move- [7] Llewelyn Southworth Lloyd (1970). Music and Sound.
ment of Bruckner's Ninth Symphony are both examples Ayer Publishing. p. 27. ISBN 0-8369-5188-3.
of pieces ending on an empty fifth. These “chords” are
common in Sacred Harp singing and throughout rock mu- [8] John Broadhouse (1892). Musical Acoustics. W. Reeves.
p. 277.
sic. In hard rock, metal, and punk music, overdriven or
distorted guitar can make thirds sound muddy while the [9] Fonville, John. “Ben Johnston’s Extended Just Intonation-
bare fifth remains crisp. In addition, fast chord-based A Guide for Interpreters”, p.109, Perspectives of New Mu-
passages are made easier to play by combining the four sic, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Summer, 1991), pp. 106-137.
most common guitar hand shapes into one. Rock musi-
[10] Willi Apel (1969). Harvard dictionary of music (2nd ed.).
cians refer to them as power chords and often include oc-
Harvard University Press. p. 382. ISBN 978-0-674-
tave doubling (i.e., their bass note is doubled one octave 37501-7.
higher, e.g. F3-C4-F4).
[11] Don Michael Randel (ed.), New Harvard Dictionary of
An empty fifth is sometimes used in traditional music,
Music (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard Uni-
e.g., in Asian music and in some Andean music genres versity Press, 1986), p. 376.
of pre-Columbian origin, such as k'antu and sikuri. The
same melody is being led by parallel fifths and octaves [12] Johannes Kepler (2004). Stephen W. Hawking, ed.
during all the piece. Hear examples: Play K'antu , Harmonies of the World. Running Press. p. 22. ISBN
Play Pacha Siku . 0-7624-2018-9.
Western composers may use the interval to give a passage [13] Hermann von Helmholtz (1912). On the Sensations of
an exotic flavor.[17] Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music.
Longmans, Green. pp. 199, 313.
Supertonic
86
16.1. SOURCES 87
mon.
Adding a chordal seventh to the supertonic (minor or di-
minished) does nothing to interfere with its pre-dominant
qualities, but rather intensifies their pre-dominant func-
tion and also increases harmonic intensity and motion to-
wards dominant harmony. Supertonic seventh chords are
such intense pre-dominant chords because they outline
the leading note contained in chord V with a dissonance.
In C Major: A Neapolitan sixth chord in first inversion contains “Supertonic” also refers to a relationship of musical keys.
an interval of a sixth between F and D♭ ( Play ). For example, relative to the key of C major, the key of
D major (or D minor) is the supertonic. Modulation
(change of key) to the supertonic is relatively common
(by far the most common modulation in modern popular
music), though in classical music it is more common to
modulate to the dominant or other keys.
In German theory derived from Hugo Riemann, the su-
pertonic is considered the subdominant parallel: Sp/T in
major though sP/T in minor (A♭M).
16.1 Sources
Common-tone diminished seventh chord Play . [1] Benward & Saker (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice,
Vol. I, p.32. Seventh Edition. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-0.
Submediant
In music, the submediant is the sixth scale degree of For example, in the C major scale (white keys on a pi-
the diatonic scale, the 'lower mediant' halfway between ano, starting on C), the submediant is the note A; and the
the tonic and the subdominant or 'lower dominant'.[3] It submediant chord is A-minor consisting of the notes A,
is also the third factor of the subdominant (IV) triad. It C, and E. Therefore, Am is the vi chord in the C ma-
is occasionally called superdominant, being above the jor scale. Since the submediant is minor it may provide
dominant. contrast with major chords, frequently in a sequence of
In music theory, the submediant chord is symbolized by descending thirds (I, vi, IV, ii | V in root position or first
the Roman numeral VI if it is major or vi if it is minor.[4] inversion).[1] Further, in the A natural minor scale (same
88
89
17.2 Sources
[1] William G Andrews and Molly Sclater (2000). Materials
of Western Music Part 1, p.226. ISBN 1-55122-034-2.
Mediant
♭III+ Play .
Schenkerian analysts consider this scale degree as expan-
is the third scale degree of a diatonic scale, being the sion of the Tonic since they have two common tones.[6]
note halfway between the tonic and the dominant.[4] Sim- On the other hand, in German theory derived from
ilarly, the submediant is halfway between the tonic and Hugo Riemann the mediant in major is considered the
subdominant.[5] The fifth note is almost always a perfect dominant parallel, Dp, and in minor the tonic parallel,
fifth, while the third note can equally be a minor or major tP.
third. In Roman numeral analysis, the mediant chord can take
91
92 CHAPTER 18. MEDIANT
18.2 Sources
[1] Benward & Saker (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice,
Vol. I, p.230. Seventh Edition. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-
0.
Subdominant
93
94 CHAPTER 19. SUBDOMINANT
19.1 Sources
[1] Benward & Saker (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice,
Vol. I, p.229. Seventh Edition. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-
0.
Subtonic
95
96 CHAPTER 20. SUBTONIC
[5] Jerry Coker, Elements of the Jazz Language for the De-
veloping Improvisor (Miami: CCP/Belwin, Inc, 1991), p.
82. ISBN 1-57623-875-X.
Tonic (music)
97
98 CHAPTER 21. TONIC (MUSIC)
the different tone centers which a composer used in a [8] Berger, Arthur (Fall–Winter 1963). “Problems of Pitch
piece of music, with most pieces beginning and ending Organization in Stravinsky”. Perspectives of New Music 2
on the tonic, usually modulating to the dominant (the fifth (1): 11–42. doi:10.2307/832252. JSTOR 832252.
above the tonic, or the fourth note down from the tonic)
in between.
Two parallel keys have the same tonic. For example,
in both C major and C minor, the tonic is C. However,
relative keys (two different scales that share a key signa-
ture) have different tonics. For example, C major and A
minor share a key signature that feature no sharps or flats,
despite having different tonic pitches (C and A, respec-
tively).
Tonic may be reserved exclusively for use in tonal con-
texts while tonal center and/or pitch center may be used
in post- and atonal music: “For purposes of non-tonal
centric music, it might be a good idea to have the term
'tone center' refer to the more general class of which 'ton-
ics’ (or tone centers in tonal contexts) could be regarded
as a subclass.”[6] Thus a pitch center may function refer-
entially or contextually in an atonal context, often acting
as axis or line of symmetry in an interval cycle.[7] Pitch
centricity was coined by Arthur Berger in his “Problems
of Pitch Organization in Stravinsky”.[8]
The tonic diatonic function includes four separate activ-
ities or roles as the principal goal tone, initiating event,
generator of other tones, and the stable center neutraliz-
ing the tension between dominant and subdominant.
21.3 References
[1] Benward & Saker (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice,
Vol. I, p.229. Seventh Edition. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-
0.
Chord (music)
99
100 CHAPTER 22. CHORD (MUSIC)
22.2 Notation
See also: Chord names and symbols (popular music)
In the medieval era, early Christian hymns featured 1. Plain staff notation, used in classical music (see fig-
organum (which used the simultaneous perfect intervals ure).
of a fourth, a fifth, and an octave[13] ), with chord progres-
sions and harmony an incidental result of the emphasis on 2. Roman numerals, commonly used in harmonic anal-
melodic lines during the medieval and then Renaissance ysis to denote the scale step on which the chord is
(15-17th centuries).[7][14] built.[6] See: Roman numeral analysis.
22.2. NOTATION 101
4. The altered fifth (e.g. sharp five, or ♯5). • Number of pitch classes (distinct notes without re-
spect to octave) that constitute the chord.
5. An additional interval number (e.g. add 13 or
add13), in added tone chords. • Scale degree of the root note
For instance, the name C augmented seventh, and the cor- • Position or inversion of the chord
responding symbol Caug7, or C+7, are both composed of • General type of intervals it appears constructed
parts 1, 2, and 3. from—for example seconds, thirds, or fourths
None of these parts, except for the root, directly refer to
• Counts of each pitch class as occur between all
the notes forming the chord, but to the intervals they form
combinations of notes the chord contains
with respect to the root. For instance, Caug7 is formed
by the notes C-E-G♯-B♭. However, its name and symbol
refer only to the root note C, the augmented (fifth) interval 22.3.1 Number of notes
from C to G♯, and the (minor) seventh interval from C
to B♭. The interval from C to E (a major third) sets the Two-note combinations, whether referred to as chords or
chord quality (major). A set of decoding rules is applied intervals, are called dyads. Chords constructed of three
to deduce the missing information. notes of some underlying scale are described as triads.
Chord qualities are related with the qualities of the com- Chords of four notes are known as tetrads, those contain-
ponent intervals that define the chord. The main chord ing five are called pentads and those using six are hexads.
qualities are: Sometimes the terms trichord, tetrachord, pentachord,
and hexachord are used—though these more usually re-
fer to the pitch classes of any scale, not generally played
• Major, and minor.
simultaneously. Chords that may contain more than
• Augmented, diminished, and half- three notes include pedal point chords, dominant seventh
diminished. chords, extended chords, added tone chords, clusters, and
• Dominant. polychords.
Polychords are formed by two or more chords
Some of the symbols used for chord quality are similar to superimposed.[25] Often these may be analysed as
those used for interval quality: extended chords (See: tertian, altered chord, secundal
chord, quartal and quintal harmony and Tristan chord).
• m, or min for minor, For example G7 (♯11♭9) (G-B-D-F-A♭-C♯) is formed
from G major (G-B-D) and D♭ major (D♭-F-A♭).[26] A
• M, maj, or no symbol (see rule 2 below)
nonchord tone is a dissonant or unstable tone that lies
for major,
outside the chord currently heard, though often resolving
• aug for augmented, to a chord tone.[27]
• dim for diminished.
22.3.2 Scale degree
In addition, however,
In the key of C major the first degree of the scale, called
• Δ is sometimes used for major,[24] in- the tonic, is the note C itself, so a C major chord, a triad
stead of the standard M, or maj, built on the note C, may be called the one chord of that
22.3. CHARACTERISTICS 103
and the other notes are above it. When the lowest note
is not the tonic, the chord is inverted. Chords, having
many constituent notes, can have many different inverted
positions as shown below for the C major chord:
C major scale play
Further, a four-note chord can be inverted to four dif-
ferent positions by the same method as triadic inversion.
key and notated in Roman numerals as I. The same C
Where guitar chords are concerned the term “inversion”
major chord can be found in other scales: it forms chord
is used slightly differently; to refer to stock fingering
III in the key of A minor (A-B-C) and chord IV in the
“shapes”.[28]
key of G major (G-A-B-C). This numbering lets us see
the job a chord is doing in the current key and tonality.
Many analysts use lower-case Roman numerals to indi- 22.3.4 Secundal, tertian, and quartal
cate minor triads and upper-case for major ones, and de- chords
gree and plus signs ( o and + ) to indicate diminished and
augmented triads respectively. Otherwise all the numer- See also: Secundal, Tertian, Quartal and quintal harmony
als may be upper-case and the qualities of the chords in- and Mixed-interval chord
ferred from the scale degree. Chords outside the scale can Many chords are a sequence of ascending notes sepa-
be indicated by placing a flat/sharp sign before the chord
— for example, the chord of E flat major in the key of C
major is represented by ♭III. The tonic of the scale may
be indicated to the left (e.g. F♯:) or may be understood
from a key signature or other contextual clues. Indica-
tions of inversions or added tones may be omitted if they
are not relevant to the analysis. Roman numerals indicate
the root of the chord as a scale degree within a particular
major key as follows:
Main article: Inversion (music) These terms can become ambiguous when dealing with
non-diatonic scales, such as the pentatonic or chromatic
In the harmony of Western art music a chord is in root scales. The use of accidentals can also complicate the
position when the tonic note is the lowest in the chord, terminology. For example, the chord B♯-E-A♭ appears to
104 CHAPTER 22. CHORD (MUSIC)
be a series of diminished fourths (B♯-E and E-A♭) but is Triads, also called triadic chords, are tertian chords (see
enharmonically equivalent to (and sonically indistinguish- above) with three notes. The four basic triads are de-
able from) the chord C-E-G♯, which is a series of major scribed below.
thirds (C-E and E-G♯).
The notes of a chord form intervals with each of the other diminished half-diminished minor minor major
notes of the chord in combination. A 3-note chord has C DC# C DC# C DC# C DC#
B b B b B b B b
3 of these harmonic intervals, a 4-note chord has 6, a 5-
G#b A Bb#
G#b A Bb#
G#b A Bb#
G#b A Bb#
A
A
D
D
note chord has 10, a 6-note chord has 15.[31] The absence,
Eb E
Eb E
Eb E
Eb E
D#
D#
D#
D#
A
A
F F F F
presence, and placement of certain key intervals plays a Gb G
F#
Gb G
F#
Gb G
F#
Gb G
F#
G#b A Bb#
G#b A Bb#
G#b A Bb#
G#b A Bb#
A
A
D
D
tant part of Dominant seventh chords, giving their sound
Eb E
Eb E
Eb E
Eb E
D#
D#
D#
D#
A
A
a characteristic tension, and making the tritone interval
F F F F
Gb G Gb G Gb G Gb G
F# F# F# F#
G#b A Bb#
G#b A Bb#
G#b A Bb#
A
A
D
D
Eb E
Eb E
Eb E
Eb E
D#
D#
D#
D#
F F F F
Gb G Gb G Gb G Gb G
F# F# F# F#
teenth chords. After the thirteenth, any notes added in
triadic chord examples (key of C) thirds duplicate notes elsewhere in the chord. All seven
notes of the scale are present in the chord and adding
Pitch constellations of triads more notes does not add new pitch classes. Such chords
may be constructed only by using notes that lie outside the
Main article: Triad (music) diatonic seven-note scale (See #Altered chords below).
See also: Jazz and pop notation for triads Other extended chords follow similar rules, so that for
example maj9, maj11, and maj13 contain major seventh
22.8. ADDED TONE CHORDS 105
Suspended chord (sus2) and added tone chord (add9) both with
Dominant thirteenth extended chord: C E G B♭ D F A play . The D (ninth=second), distinguished by the absence or presence of
upper structure or extensions, i.e. notes beyond the seventh, in the third (E♭).[34]
red.
enth chords and other sixth chords, they are not gener- called added ninth and added eleventh chords instead.
ally regarded as having roots (nor, therefore, inversions), In modern layman usage the term is restricted to the dis-
although one re-voicing of the notes is common (with placement of the third only and the dissonant second or
the namesake interval inverted to create a diminished fourth no longer needs to be held over (prepared) from
third).[37] the previous chord. Neither is it now obligatory for the
The second group of sixth chords includes inverted ma- displaced note to make an appearance at all though in
jor and minor chords, which may be called sixth chords in the majority of cases the conventional stepwise resolu-
that the six-three (6/3) and six-four (6/4) chords contain tion to the third is still observed. In post-bop and modal
intervals of a sixth with the bass note, though this is not jazz compositions and improvisations suspended seventh
the root. Nowadays this is mostly for academic study or chords are often used in nontraditional ways: these often
analysis (see figured bass) but the neapolitan sixth chord do not function as V chords, and do not resolve from the
is an important example; a major triad with a flat super- fourth to the third. The lack of resolution gives the chord
tonic scale degree as its root that is called a “sixth” be- an ambiguous, static quality. Indeed, the third is often
cause it is almost always found in first inversion. Though played on top of a sus4 chord. A good example is the
a technically accurate Roman numeral analysis would be jazz standard, Maiden Voyage.
♭II, it is generally labelled N6 . In C major, the chord is Extended versions are also possible, such as the seventh
notated (from root position) D♭, F, A♭. Because it uses suspended fourth, which, with root C, contains the notes
chromatically altered tones this chord is often grouped C F G B♭ and is notated as C7sus4 play . Csus4 is some-
with the borrowed chords (see below) but the chord is not times written Csus since the sus4 is more common than
borrowed from the relative major or minor and it may the sus2.
appear in both major and minor keys.
22.11 References [20] Winston Harrison, The Rockmaster System: Relating On-
going Chords to the Keyboard – Rock, Book 1, Dellwin
[1] Benward & Saker (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice, Publishing Co. 2005, p. 33
Vol. I, p. 67&359. Seventh Edition. ISBN 978-0-07-
[21] Pachet, François, Surprising Harmonies, International
294262-0."A chord is a harmonic unit with at least three
Journal on ComputingAnticipatory Systems, 1999.
different tones sounding simultaneously.” “A combination
of three or more pitches sounding at the same time.”
[22] Pen, Ronald (1992). Introduction to Music, p.81.
[2] Károlyi, Otto (1965). Introducing Music. Penguin Books. McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-038068-6. “In each case the
p. 63. Two or more notes sounding simultaneously are note that forms the foundation pitch is called the root, the
known as a chord. middle tone of the chord is designated the third (because
it is separated by the interval of a third from the root), and
[3] Mitchell, Barry (January 16, 2008). "An explanation for the top tone is referred to as the fifth (because it is a fifth
the emergence of Jazz (1956)", Theory of Music. away from the root).”
[4] Linkels, Ad, The Real Music of Paradise”, In Broughton, [23] William G Andrews and Molly Sclater (2000). Materials
Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James of Western Music Part 1, p.227. ISBN 1-55122-034-2.
and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin &
North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp [24] The symbol Δ is ambiguous, as it is used by some as a
218–229. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1- synonym for M (e.g. CΔ=CM and CΔ7=CM7), and by
85828-636-0 others as a synonym of M7 (e.g. CΔ=CM7).
[5] Malm, William P. (1996). Music Cultures of the Pacific, [25] Haerle, Dan (1982). The Jazz Language: A Theory Text
the Near East, and Asia. p.15. ISBN 0-13-182387-6. for Jazz Composition and Improvisation, p.30. ISBN 978-
Third edition: “Indeed this harmonic orientation is one 0-7604-0014-2.
of the major differences between Western and much non-
Western music.” [26] Policastro, Michael A. (1999). Understanding How to
Build Guitar Chords and Arpeggios, p.168. ISBN 978-0-
[6] Arnold Schoenberg, Structural Functions of Harmony, 7866-4443-8.
Faber and Faber, 1983, p.1-2.
[27] Benward & Saker (2003), p.92.
[7] Benward & Saker (2003), p. 77.
[28] Bert Weedon, Play in a Day, Faber Music Ltd, ISBN 0-
[8] Merriam-Webster, Inc. (1995). “Chord”, Merriam-
571-52965-8, passim - among a wide range of other guitar
Webster’s dictionary of English usage, p.243. ISBN 978-
tutors
0-87779-132-4.
[29] Dufrenne, Mikel (1989). The Phenomenology of Aesthetic
[9] "Chord", Oxford Dictionaries.
Experience, p.253. ISBN 0-8101-0591-8.
[10] Dahlhaus, Car. “Harmony”. In Macy, Laura. Grove Mu-
sic Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. [30] Connie E. Mayfield (2012) “Theory Essentials”, p.523.
(subscription required) ISBN 1-133-30818-X.
[11] Károlyi, Ottó, Introducing Music, p. 63. England: Pen- [31] Hanson, Howard. (1960) Harmonic Materials of Modern
guin Books. Music, p.7ff. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. LOC
58-8138.
[12] Schellenberg, E. Glenn; Bigand, Emmanuel; Poulin-
Charronnat, Benedicte; Garnier, Cecilia; Stevens, Cather- [32] Benjamin, Horvit, and Nelson (2008). Techniques and
ine (Nov 2005). “Children’s implicit knowledge of Materials of Music, p.46-47. ISBN 0-495-50054-2.
harmony in Western music”. Developmental Science 8
(8): 551–566. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.00447.x. [33] Benjamin, Horvit, and Nelson (2008). Techniques and
PMID 16246247. Materials of Music, p.48-49. ISBN 0-495-50054-2.
[13] Duarter, John (2008). Melody & Harmony for Guitarists, [34] Hawkins, Stan. "Prince- Harmonic Analysis of 'Anna Ste-
p.49. ISBN 978-0-7866-7688-0. sia'", p.329 and 334n7, Popular Music, Vol. 11, No. 3
(Oct., 1992), pp. 325-335.
[14] Benward & Saker (2003), p.70.
[35] Miller, Michael (2005). The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Mu-
[15] Benward & Saker (2003), p.100. sic Theory, p.119. ISBN 978-1-59257-437-7.
[16] Benward & Saker (2003), p.201.
[36] Piston, Walter (1987). Harmony (5th ed.), p.66. New
[17] Benward & Saker (2003), p.220. York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-95480-3.
[18] Benward & Saker (2003), p.231. [37] Bartlette, Christopher, and Steven G. Laitz (2010). Grad-
uate Review of Tonal Theory. New York: Oxford Uni-
[19] Benward & Saker (2003), p.274. versity Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537698-2
108 CHAPTER 22. CHORD (MUSIC)
22.12 Sources
• Grout, Donald Jay (1960). A History Of Western
Music. Norton Publishing.
• Dahlhaus, Carl. Gjerdingen, Robert O. trans.
(1990). Studies in the Origin of Harmonic Tonality,
p. 67. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-
09135-8.
Scale (music)
For psychoacoustic scale, see bark scale and mel scale. of the adopted interval pattern. Typically, the name of
In music, a scale is any set of musical notes ordered the scale specifies both its tonic and its interval pattern.
For example, C-major indicates a major scale in which C
is the tonic.
109
110 CHAPTER 23. SCALE (MUSIC)
The notes of a scale are numbered by their steps from the 7-note scale has 21, an 8-note chord has 28.[5] Though
root of the scale. For example, in a C major scale the first the scale is not a chord, and might never be heard more
note is C, the second D, the third E and so on. Two notes than one note at a time, still the absence, presence, and
can also be numbered in relation to each other: C and E placement of certain key intervals plays a large part in
create an interval of a third (in this case a major third); D the sound of the scale, the natural movement of melody
and F also create a third (in this case a minor third). within the scale, and the selection of chords taken natu-
rally from the scale.[6]
23.1.2 Scales and pitch A musical scale containing tritones is called tritonic; one
without tritones is atritonic. A scale or chord containing
A single scale can be manifested at many different pitch semitones is called hemitonic; one without semitones is
levels. For example, a C major scale can be started at C4 anhemitonic. The significance of these categories lies in
(middle C; see scientific pitch notation) and ascending an their bases of semitones and tritones being the severest of
octave to C5; or it could be started at C6, ascending an dissonances, avoidance of which is often desirable. The
octave to C7. As long as all the notes can be played, the most used scales across the planet are anhemitonic.
octave they take on can be altered.
monic minor scale includes a three-semitone step; the stable note of the scale, also known as the root note. Rel-
pentatonic includes two of these. ative to a choice of tonic, the notes of a scale are of-
Western music in the Medieval and Renaissance periods ten labeled with numbers recording how many scale steps
(1100–1600) tends to use the white-note diatonic scale above the tonic they are. For example, the notes of the
C–D–E–F–G–A–B. Accidentals are rare, and somewhat C major scale (C, D, E, F, G, A, B) can be labeled {1,
unsystematically used, often to avoid the tritone. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, reflecting the choice of C as tonic. The
expression scale degree refers to these numerical labels.
Music of the common practice periods (1600–1900) uses Such labeling requires the choice of a “first” note; hence
three types of scale: scale-degree labels are not intrinsic to the scale itself, but
rather to its modes. For example, if we choose A as tonic,
• The diatonic scale (seven notes)—this includes the then we can label the notes of the C major scale using A
major scale and the natural minor = 1, B = 2, C = 3, and so on. When we do so, we create
a new scale called the A minor scale. See the Note arti-
• The melodic and harmonic minor scales (seven cle for how the notes are customarily named in different
notes) countries.
The scale degrees of a heptatonic (7-note) scale can also
These scales are used in all of their transpositions. The be named using the terms tonic, supertonic, mediant,
music of this period introduces modulation, which in- subdominant, dominant, submediant, subtonic. If the
volves systematic changes from one scale to another. subtonic is a semitone away from the tonic, then it is usu-
Modulation occurs in relatively conventionalized ways. ally called the leading-tone (or leading-note); otherwise
For example, major-mode pieces typically begin in a the leading-tone refers to the raised subtonic. Also com-
“tonic” diatonic scale and modulate to the “dominant” monly used is the (movable do) solfège naming conven-
scale a fifth above. tion in which each scale degree is denoted by a syllable.
In the 19th century (to a certain extent), but more in the In the major scale, the solfege syllables are: Do, Re, Mi,
20th century, additional types of scales were explored: Fa, So (or Sol), La, Ti (or Si), Do (or Ut).
In naming the notes of a scale, it is customary that each
• The chromatic scale (twelve notes) scale degree be assigned its own letter name: for example,
the A major scale is written A–B–C♯–D–E–F♯–G♯ rather
• The whole tone scale (six notes) than A–B–D♭–D–E–E –G♯. However, it is impossible to
do this with scales containing more than seven notes.
• The pentatonic scale (five notes)
Scales may also be identified by using a binary system
• The octatonic or diminished scales (eight notes) of twelve zeros or ones to represent each of the twelve
notes of a chromatic scale. It is assumed that the scale
A large variety of other scales exists, some of the more is tuned using 12-tone equal temperament (so that, for
common being: instance, C♯ is the same as D♭), and that the tonic is in
the leftmost position. For example the binary number
101011010101, equivalent to the decimal number 2773,
• The Phrygian dominant scales (actually, a mode of
would represent any major scale (such as C–D–E–F–G–
the harmonic minor scale)
A–B). This system includes scales from 100000000000
• The Arabic scales (2048) to 111111111111 (4095), providing a total of
2048 possible species, but only 352 unique scales con-
• The Hungarian minor scale taining from 1 to 12 notes.[8]
• The Byzantine Music scales (called echoi) Scales may also be shown as semitones (or fret positions)
from the tonic. For instance, 0 2 4 5 7 9 11 denotes
• The Persian scale any major scale such as C–D–E–F–G–A–B, in which the
first degree is, obviously, 0 semitones from the tonic (and
Scales such as the pentatonic scale may be considered therefore coincides with it), the second is 2 semitones
gapped relative to the diatonic scale. An auxiliary scale from the tonic, the third is 4 semitones from the tonic,
is a scale other than the primary or original scale. See: and so on. Again, this implies that the notes are drawn
modulation (music) and Auxiliary diminished scale. from a chromatic scale tuned with 12-tone equal temper-
ament.
Composers often transform musical patterns by moving The term microtonal music usually refers to music with
every note in the pattern by a constant number of scale roots in traditional Western music that uses non-standard
steps: thus, in the C major scale, the pattern C–D–E scales or scale intervals. Mexican composer Julián Car-
might be shifted up, or transposed, a single scale step to rillo created in the late 19th century microtonal scales
become D–E–F. This process is called “scalar transposi- which he called "Sonido 13", The composer Harry Partch
tion” and can often be found in musical sequences. Since made custom musical instruments to play compositions
the steps of a scale can have various sizes, this process in- that employed a 43-note scale system, and the Ameri-
troduces subtle melodic and harmonic variation into the can jazz vibraphonist Emil Richards experimented with
music. This variation is what gives scalar music much of such scales in his Microtonal Blues Band in the 1970s.
its complexity. Easley Blackwood has written compositions in all equal-
tempered scales from 13 to 24 notes. Erv Wilson in-
troduced concepts such as Combination Product Sets
(Hexany), Moments of Symmetry and golden horagrams,
23.5 Jazz and blues used by many modern composers. Microtonal scales are
also used in traditional Indian Raga music, which has a
variety of modes which are used not only as modes or
See also: Jazz scales
scales but also as defining elements of the song, or raga.
• Tonsilabo
• Java applet that lists all N-note scales, and lets you
see & hear them in standard musical notation
Dominant (music)
For the term “dominant function” on the Myers- especially the first two of these.
Briggs Type Indicator, see Myers-Briggs Type Indica- —Berry (1976)[2]
tor#Dominant function.
In music, the dominant is the fifth scale degree of the
The scheme I-x-V-I symbolizes, though
naturally in a very summarizing way, the
harmonic course of any composition of the
Classical period. This x, usually appearing
as a progression of chords, as a whole series,
constitutes, as it were, the actual “music”
within the scheme, which through the annexed
formula V-I, is made into a unit, a group, or
even a whole piece.
—Rudolph Reti, (1962)[3] quoted in[4]
Tonic and dominant in C Play . C major and G major chords.
114
24.2. DOMINANT KEY 115
Modulation into the dominant key often creates a sense [2] Berry, Wallace (1976/1987). Structural Functions in Mu-
of increased tension; as opposed to modulation into sub- sic, p.62. ISBN 0-486-25384-8.
dominant (fourth note of the scale), which creates a sense
[3] Reti, Rudolph (1962). Tonality in Modern Music, p.28.
of musical relaxation.
[4] Kostka & Payne (1995). Tonal Harmony, p.458. ISBN
The vast majority of harmonies designated 0-07-035874-5.
as “essential” in the basic frame of structure
[5] Berry, Wallace (1976/1987). Structural Functions in Mu-
must be I and V–the latter, when tonal music is
sic, p.54. ISBN 0-486-25384-8.
viewed in broadest terms, an auxiliary support
and embellishment of the former, for which it [6] Dahlhaus, Carl. Gjerdingen, Robert O. trans. (1990).
is the principal medium of tonicization. Studies in the Origin of Harmonic Tonality, p.143. Prince-
—Berry (1976)[2] ton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09135-8.
The dominant chord itself is composed of the dominant [8] DeVoto, Mark. “Dominant”. Encyclopædia Britannica.
(sol), the leading-tone (ti), and the supertonic (re) scale Retrieved 22 May 2013.
degrees. According to the rules of tonal resolution, both
[9] “Sonata form”. Answers.com. Retrieved 22 May 2013.
the leading-tone and the supertonic primarily resolve to
the tonic. These two tones resolving to the tonic are [10] Rosen, Charles (1972). The Classical Style. W.W. Norton
strengthened by the dominant scale degree, which is a & Company Inc. Cited in White, John D. (1976). The
common tone between the tonic and dominant chords. Analysis of Music, p.56. ISBN 0-13-033233-X.
The dominant may also be considered the result of a
[11] Perle, George (1955). “Symmetrical Formations in the
transformational operation applied to the tonic that most String Quartets of Béla Bartók”, Music Review 16: 300-
closely resembles the tonic by some clear-cut criteria such 312. Cited in Wilson, Paul (1992). The Music of Béla
as common tones.[11] Bartók, p.37-38. ISBN 0-300-05111-5.
24.5 Sources
[1] Benward & Saker (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice,
Vol. I, p.33. Seventh Edition. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-0.
Chapter 25
Sequence (music)
For the unrelated genre of Gregorian chant, see Sequence segments are decorated or embellished so as to not de-
(poetry). For the means of triggering musical notes, see stroy the character of the original segment. A false se-
Music sequencer. quence is a literal repetition of the beginning of a fig-
ure and stating the rest in sequence.[1] A modulating se-
quence is a sequence that leads from one tonal center to
the next, with each segment technically being in a differ-
ent key in some sequences.[2] A rhythmic sequence is
the repetition of a rhythm with free use of pitches.
A sequence can be described according to its direction
(ascending or descending in pitch) and its adherence to
Sequence ascending by step Play . Note that there
the diatonic scale—that is, the sequence is diatonic if the
are only four segments, continuingly higher, and that the
pitches remain within the scale, or chromatic (or non-
segments continue by similar distance (seconds: C-D,
diatonic) if pitches outside of the diatonic scale are used
D-E, etc.).
and especially if all pitches are shifted by exactly the same
interval (i.e., they are transposed). The non-diatonic se-
quence tends to modulate to a new tonality or to cause
temporarily tonicisation.
At least two instances of a sequential pattern—including
the original statement—are required to identify a se-
quence, and the pattern should be based on several
Real, rather than tonal, sequence. Play melody notes or at least two successive harmonies
(chords). Although stereotypically associated with
Baroque music, and especially the music of Antonio Vi-
In music, a sequence is the immediate restatement of a
valdi, this device is widespread throughout Western mu-
motif or longer melodic (or harmonic) passage at a higher
[1] sic history.
or lower pitch in the same voice. It is one of the most
common and simple methods of elaborating a melody
in eighteenth and nineteenth century classical music[1] The device of sequence epitomises both
(Classical period and Romantic music). Characteristics the goal-directed and the hierarchical nature
of sequences:[1] of common-practice tonality. It is particularly
prevalent in passages involving extension or
• Two segments, usually no more than three or four elaboration; indeed, because of its inherently
directed nature, it was (and still is) often
• Usually only one direction: continuingly higher or
pulled from the shelf by the less imaginative
lower
tonal composer as the stock response to a
• Segments continue by same interval distance need for transitional or developmental activity.
Whether dull or masterly, however, the em-
It is possible for melody or harmony to form a sequence phasis is on the underlying process rather than
without the other participating. the material itself.
—Christopher Mark (2006), [3]
A real sequence is a sequence where the subsequent seg-
ments are exact transpositions of the first segment. A
tonal sequence is a sequence where the subsequent seg-
ments are diatonic transpositions of the first segments. A Ritornellos and the amplification from melodies to
modified sequence is a sequence where the subsequent Baroque lyrics are often built from sequences.[4]
117
118 CHAPTER 25. SEQUENCE (MUSIC)
25.1.1 Descending fifths A descending thirds sequence in C major. The pattern in the lower
staff descends by a third each time in this sequence. Play
Descending fifths sequences, also known as “circle of
fifths” sequences, are the most commonly used types of
25.1.4 Pachelbel sequence
sequences,[5] singular extended in some works of Claudio
Monteverdi and Heinrich Schütz.[6] It usually consists of
The Pachelbel sequence is very common, and is named
a series of chords whose bass or “root” notes follow a pat-
after Johann Pachelbel, who used it in Pachelbel’s Canon.
tern of descending fifths (or ascending fourths).
It consists of a pattern of alternating between descending
For example, if a descending fifths sequence in C major a fourth and ascending a second. In other words, the pat-
starts with the note C, the next note will be F, a perfect tern first skips down a fourth, then up a second, down a
fifth below the first note. The next few notes will be B, E, fourth, and so on. For example, if a Pachelbel sequence
A, D and so on, following a pattern of descending fifths.[7] in C major starts on C, the next note will be G, followed
by A, E, F, etc.[7]
Play
• Heptatonic scale
• Jazz scale
• Arabian maqam
• Modes of limited transposition
• Symmetric scale
• Synthetic modes
• Tetrachord
26.2 Notes
[1] "Gypsy" is considered a derogatory term for people who
refer to themselves as Roma.
120
Chapter 27
“Chromatic” redirects here. For other uses, see These terms may mean different things in different con-
Chromatic (disambiguation). texts. Very often, diatonic refers to musical elements
Diatonic (Greek: διατονική) and chromatic (Greek: derived from the modes and transpositions of the “white
note scale” C–D–E–F–G–A–B (see details below).[4] In
some usages it includes all forms of heptatonic scale that
are in common use in Western music (the major, and all
forms of the minor).[5] Chromatic most often refers to
structures derived from the chromatic scale, which con-
sists of all semitones. Historically, however, it had other
senses, referring in Ancient Greek music theory to a par-
ticular tuning of the tetrachord, and to a rhythmic nota-
tional convention in mensural music of the 14th through
16th centuries.
27.1 History
Melodies may be based on a diatonic scale and maintain its tonal 27.1.1 Greek genera
characteristics but contain many accidentals up to all twelve tones
of the chromatic scale, such as the opening of Henry Purcell's Main article: Tetrachord
“Thy Hand, Belinda”, Dido and Aeneas (1689) ( Play , Play with
figured bass) which features eleven of twelve pitches while chro-
matically descending by half steps,[1] the missing pitch being sung In ancient Greece there were three standard tunings
later. (known by the Latin word genus, plural genera)[6] of a
lyre.[7] These three tunings were called diatonic,[8] chro-
matic,[9] and enharmonic,[10] and the sequences of four
notes that they produced were called tetrachords (“four
strings”).[11] A diatonic tetrachord comprised, in de-
scending order, two whole tones and a semitone, such
Béla Bartók - Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta, mov. I, as A G F E (roughly). In the chromatic tetrachord the
fugue subject: chromatic Play .[2] second string of the lyre was lowered from G to G♭, so
that the two lower intervals in the tetrachord were semi-
tones, making the pitches A G♭ F E. In the enharmonic
tetrachord the tuning had two quarter tone intervals at the
bottom: A G F♭ E (where F♭ is F♮ lowered by a quar-
ter tone). For all three tetrachords, only the middle two
Bartok - Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta, mov. I, strings varied in their pitch.[12]
fugue subject: diatonic variant Play .[2]
χρωματική) are terms in music theory that are most often 27.1.2 Medieval coloration
used to characterize scales, and are also applied to musi-
cal instruments, intervals, chords, notes, musical styles, The term cromatico (Italian) was occasionally used in
and kinds of harmony. They are very often used as a the Medieval and Renaissance periods to refer to the col-
pair, especially when applied to contrasting features of oration (Latin coloratio) of certain notes. The details
the common practice music of the period 1600–1900.[3] vary widely by period and place, but generally the ad-
121
122 CHAPTER 27. DIATONIC AND CHROMATIC
origin of the word gamut is explained at the article For this group, every scale standardly used in
Hexachord; here the word is used in one of the avail- common practice music and much similar later
able senses: the all-encompassing gamut as described by music is either diatonic (the major, and all
Guido d'Arezzo (which includes all of the modes). forms[23] of the minor) or chromatic.[24]
The intervals from one note to the next in this Medieval
gamut are all tones or semitones, recurring in a certain • “Mixed” usage
pattern with five tones (T) and two semitones (S) in any
given octave. The semitones are separated as much as Still other writers mix these two meanings of
they can be, between alternating groups of three tones and diatonic (and conversely for chromatic), and
two tones. Here are the intervals for a string of ascending this may lead to confusions and misconcep-
notes (starting with F) from the gamut: tions. Sometimes, though not always, the con-
text makes it clear which meaning is intended.
... –T–T–T–S–T–T–S–T–T–T–S–T– ...
For print sources employing each of these usages (for
And here are the intervals for an ascending octave (the scales, and derived usages for intervals, etc.), see the list
[25]
seven intervals separating the eight notes A–B–C–D–E– of sources, below.
F–G–A) from the gamut: There are a few other meanings of the term diatonic
scale, some of which take the extension to harmonic and
T–S–T–T–S–T–T [five tones and two melodic minor even further, to be even more inclusive.[26]
[20]
semitones]
In general, diatonic is most often used inclusively with re-
spect to music that restricts itself to standard uses of tra-
In its most strict definition, therefore, a diatonic scale ditional major and minor scales. When discussing music
is one that may be derived from the pitches represented that uses a larger variety of scales and modes (including
in successive white keys of the piano (or a transposition much jazz, rock, and some tonal 20th-century concert
thereof): the modern equivalent of the gamut. (For sim- music), writers often adopt the exclusive use to prevent
plicity, throughout this article equal temperament tuning confusion.
is assumed unless otherwise noted.) This would include
the major scale, and the natural minor scale (same as the
descending form of the melodic minor), but not the old
ecclesiastical church modes, most of which included both
27.3 Chromatic scale
versions of the “variable” note B♮/B♭.
Main article: Chromatic scale
A chromatic scale consists of an ascending or descend-
27.2.1 Modern meanings
There are specific applications in the music of the
Common Practice Period, and later music that shares its
core features. Chromatic scale on C: full octave ascending and descending Play
.
All writers accept the major scale as diatonic. Most, but
not all,[21] accept the natural minor as diatonic. As for ing sequence of pitches proceeding always by semitones.
other forms of the minor: Such a sequence of pitches would, for example, be pro-
duced by playing black and white keys of a piano in or-
• “Exclusive” usage der, without leaving any out. The structure of a chromatic
scale is therefore uniform throughout, unlike major and
Some writers consistently classify the other minor scales which have tones and semitones in particular
variants of the minor scale – the melodic minor arrangements (and an augmented second, in the harmonic
(ascending form) and the harmonic minor – as minor).[27]
non-diatonic, since they are not transpositions
of the white-note pitches of the piano. Among
such theorists there is no agreed general term 27.4 Musical instruments
that encompasses the major and all forms of
the minor scale.[22] Some instruments, such as the violin, can be played in any
scale; others, such as the glockenspiel, are restricted to the
• “Inclusive” usage scale to which they are tuned. Among this latter class,
some instruments, such as the piano, are always tuned to
Some writers consistently include the melodic a chromatic scale, and can be played in any key, while
and harmonic minor scales as diatonic also. others are restricted to a diatonic scale, and therefore to a
124 CHAPTER 27. DIATONIC AND CHROMATIC
particular key. Some instruments, such as the harmonica, to be written as augmented or diminished chromatic in-
harp, and glockenspiel, are available in both diatonic and tervals. In meantone temperament, for instance, chro-
chromatic versions. matic semitones (E–E♯) are smaller than diatonic semi-
tones (E–F),[31] and with consonant intervals such as the
major third the enharmonic equivalent is generally less
27.5 Intervals consonant.
The exception to this classification is the tritone, of
The diatonic intervals are usually understood as those be- which both enharmonic forms (e.g., C–F♯ and C–G♭)
tween some pair of notes both drawn from the same di- are equally distant along the cycle of fifths, making them
atonic scale. Intervals that cannot be so derived are then inversions of each other at the octave. Because of this
called chromatic intervals. Because diatonic scale is it- the ambiguity cannot be resolved where octave equiva-
self ambiguous, this way of distinguishing intervals is lence is assumed, and the label diatonic or chromatic for
also ambiguous.[28] For example, the interval B♮–E♭ (a either form of tritone is not useful in the context of tuning
diminished fourth, occurring in C harmonic minor) is (the choice is arbitrary, and therefore unspecific).
considered diatonic if the harmonic minor scale is con- If the tritone is assumed diatonic, the classification of
sidered diatonic;[29] but it is considered chromatic if the written intervals by this definition is not significantly dif-
harmonic minor scale is not considered diatonic.[30] ferent from the “drawn from the same diatonic scale”
Additionally, the label chromatic or diatonic for an inter- definition given above as long as the harmonic minor
val may be sensitive to context. For instance, in a passage and ascending melodic minor scale variants are not in-
in C major, the interval C–E♭ could be considered a chro- cluded. Aside from tritones, all intervals that are either
matic interval because it does not appear in the prevailing augmented or diminished are chromatic, and the rest are
diatonic key; conversely in C minor it would be diatonic. diatonic.
This usage is still subject to the categorization of scales
as above, e.g. in the B♮–E♭ example above, classification
would still depend on whether the harmonic minor scale 27.6 Chords
is considered diatonic.
Diatonic chords are generally understood as those that are
27.5.1 In different systems of tuning built using only notes from the same diatonic scale; all
other chords are considered chromatic. However, given
the ambiguity of diatonic scale, this definition, too, is am-
biguous. And for some theorists, chords are only ever di-
atonic in a relative sense: the augmented triad E♭–G–B♮
is diatonic “to” or “in” C minor.[32]
On this understanding, the diminished seventh chord built
on the leading note is accepted as diatonic in minor
Pythagorean diatonic and chromatic interval: E♮-F♮ and E♮-E♯ keys.[33]
Play .
If the strictest understanding of the term diatonic scale is
In equal temperament, there is no difference in tun- adhered to - whereby only transposed 'white note scales’
ing (and therefore in sound) between intervals that are are considered diatonic - even a major triad on the dom-
enharmonically equivalent. For example, the notes F and inant scale degree in C minor (G–B♮–D) would be chro-
E♯ represent exactly the same pitch, so the diatonic inter- matic or altered in C minor.[34] Some writers use the
val C–F (a perfect fourth) sounds exactly the same as its phrase “diatonic to” as a synonym for “belonging to”.
enharmonic equivalent—the chromatic interval C–E♯ (an Therefore a chord can be said to be diatonic if its notes
augmented third). belong to the underlying diatonic scale of the key.
means little, because chromatic chords are also used • Movement between harmonies that are not elements
in that same system. of any common diatonic system (that is, not of the
same diatonic scale: movement from D–F–A to D♯–
• At other times, especially in textbooks and syl- F♯–A, for example).[41]
labuses for musical composition or music theory, di-
atonic harmony means harmony that uses only “di- • The same as the second sense of chromatic inflection,
atonic chords”.[35] According to this usage, chro- above.[42]
matic harmony is then harmony that extends the • In musica ficta and similar contexts, a melodic frag-
available resources to include chromatic chords: the ment that includes a chromatic semitone, and there-
augmented sixth chords, the Neapolitan sixth, chro- fore includes a chromatic inflection in the second
matic seventh chords, etc.[36] sense, above.[43]
• Since the word harmony can be used of single
classes of chords (dominant harmony, E minor har- The term diatonic progression is used in two senses:
mony, for example), diatonic harmony and chro-
matic harmony can be used in this distinct way • Movement between harmonies that both belong to at
also.[37] least one shared diatonic system (from F–A–C to G–
B–E, for example, since both occur in C major).[44]
However, • In musica ficta and similar contexts, a melodic frag-
ment that does not include a chromatic semitone,
• Chromatic harmony may be defined as “the use even if two semitones occur contiguously, as in F♯–
of two successive chords which belong to two G–A♭.[43]
different keys and therefore contain tones repre-
sented by the same note symbols but with differ-
27.8.4 Modulation
ent accidentals”.[38] Four basic techniques produce
chromatic harmony under this definition: modal in- • Diatonic modulation is modulation via a diatonic
terchange, secondary dominants, melodic tension, progression.[45]
and chromatic mediants.[38]
• Chromatic modulation is modulation via a chro-
matic progression, in the first sense given above.[45]
27.8 Miscellaneous usages
27.8.5 Pentatonic scale
27.8.1 Notes
• One very common kind of pentatonic scale that
In modern usage, the meanings of the terms diatonic note draws its notes from the diatonic scale (in the exclu-
and chromatic note vary according to the meaning of the sive sense, above) is sometimes called the diatonic
term diatonic scale. Generally – not universally – a note pentatonic scale: C–D–E–G–A[–C], or some other
is understood as diatonic in a context if it belongs to the modal arrangement of those notes.
diatonic scale that is used in that context; otherwise it is • Other pentatonic scales (such as the pelog scales)
chromatic. may also be construed as reduced forms of a dia-
tonic scale, but are not labelled diatonic.[46]
27.8.2 Inflection
The term chromatic inflection (alternatively spelt inflex- 27.9 Modern extensions
ion) is used in two senses:
Traditionally, and in all uses discussed above, the term
• Alteration of a note that makes it (or the harmony diatonic has been confined to the domain of pitch, and in
that includes it) chromatic rather than diatonic.[39] a fairly restricted way. The common idea in those uses
is that a specific selection is made from an underlying
• Melodic movement between a diatonic note and a superset of pitches. A particular subset of seven pitch
chromatically altered variant (from C to C♯ in G ma- classes is selected from a superset of twelve semitonally
jor, or vice versa, for example).[40] incrementing pitch classes, to yield a particular hepta-
tonic scale. Exactly which heptatonic scales (and even
which modes of those scales) should count as diatonic is
27.8.3 Progression unsettled, as shown above. But the broad selection prin-
ciple itself is not disputed, at least as a theoretical conve-
The term chromatic progression is used in three senses: nience.
126 CHAPTER 27. DIATONIC AND CHROMATIC
27.9.1 Extended pitch selections [5] For inclusion of the harmonic minor and the ascending
melodic minor see the section Modern meanings of “dia-
The selection of pitch classes can be generalised to en- tonic scale” in this article.
compass formation of non-traditional scales from the un- [6] Translating the term used by Greek theorists: γένος,
derlying twelve chromatic pitch classes.[26] Or a larger génos; plural γένη, génē.
set of underlying pitch classes may be used instead. For
example, the octave may be divided into varying num- [7] It is unclear whether the lyre in question was it-
self a presumed four-stringed instrument ("τετράχορδον
bers of equally spaced pitch classes. The usual number is
ὄργανον"), as some have suggested (see Peter Gorman,
twelve, giving the conventional set used in Western mu-
Pythagoras, a Life (London: Routledge & K. Paul, 1979),
sic. But Paul Zweifel[47] uses a group-theoretic approach p. 162: “The fundamental instrument of early Greek mu-
to analyse different sets, concluding especially that a set sic was the tetrachord or four-stringed lyre which was
of twenty divisions of the octave is another viable option tuned in accordance with the main concordances; the
for retaining certain properties associated with the con- tetrachord was also the foundation of Greek harmonic the-
ventional “diatonic” selections from twelve pitch classes. ory”). The number of strings on early lyres and similar
instruments is a matter of much speculation (see Martin
Litchfield West, Ancient Greek music (Oxford and New
27.9.2 Rhythms York: Oxford University Press, 1994), especially pp. 62–
64). Many later instruments had seven or perhaps more
It is possible to generalise this selection principle even strings, and in that case the tetrachord must be thought of
beyond the domain of pitch. The diatonic idea has been as based on a selection of four adjacent strings.
applied in analysis of some traditional African rhythms, [8] The English word diatonic is ultimately from the Greek
for example. Some selection or other is made from an διατονικός (diatonikós), itself from διάτονος (diátonos),
underlying superset of metrical beats, to produce a “dia- which may mean (as OED claims) “through the tones”
tonic” rhythmic “scale” embedded in an underlying met- (taking τόνος, tónos, to mean interval of a tone), or per-
rical “matrix”. Some of these selections are diatonic in a haps stretched out (as recorded in Liddell and Scott’s
way similar to the traditional diatonic selections of pitch Greek Lexicon). See also Barsky (Chromaticism, Barsky,
classes (that is, a selection of seven beats from a matrix of Vladimir, Routledge, 1996, p. 2): “There are two possi-
twelve beats – perhaps even in groupings that match the ble ways of translating the Greek term 'diatonic': (1) 'run-
ning through tones’, i.e. through the whole tones; or (2)
tone-and-semitone groupings of diatonic scales). But the
a 'tensed' tetrachord filled up with the widest intervals”.
principle may also be applied with even more generality The second interpretation would be justified by consid-
(including even any selection from a matrix of beats of eration of the pitches in the diatonic tetrachord, which
any size).[48] are more equally distributed (“stretched out”) than in the
chromatic and enharmonic tetrachords, and are also the
result of tighter stretching of the two variable strings. It is
27.10 See also perhaps also sounder on linguistic morphological grounds.
(See also Merriam-Webster Online.) A completely sepa-
rate explanation of the origins of the term diatonic appeals
• Major and minor to the generation of the diatonic scale from “two tones":
• Universal key “Because the musical scale is based entirely on octaves
and fifths, that is, two notes, it is called the 'diatonic scale'
" (Phillips, Stephen, “Pythagorean aspects of music”, in
Music and Psyche, Vol. 3, available also online). But
27.11 Notes and references this ignores the fact that it is the element di- that means
“two”, not the element dia-, which has “through” among
[1] Benward & Saker (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice, its meanings (see Liddell and Scott). There is a Greek
Vol. I, p.38. Seventh Edition. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-0. term δίτονος (dítonos), which is applied to an interval
equivalent to two tones. It yields the English words di-
[2] Leeuw, Ton de (2005). Music of the Twentieth Century, tone and ditonic (see Pythagorean comma), but it is quite
p.93. ISBN 90-5356-765-8. distinct from διάτονος. Yet another derivation assumes
[3] Often diatonic and chromatic are treated as mutually ex- the sense “through the tones” for διάτονος, but inter-
clusive opposites, concerning common practice music. prets tone as meaning individual note of the scale: “The
This article deals mainly with common practice music, word diatonic means 'through the tones’ (i.e., through the
and later music that shares the same core features (in- tones of the key)" (Gehrkens, 1914, see below; see also
cluding the same particular use of tonality, harmonic and the Prout citation, at the same location). This is not in
melodic idioms, and types of scales, chords, and inter- accord with any accepted Greek meaning, and in Greek
vals). Where other music is dealt with, this is specially theory it would fail to exclude the other tetrachords. The
noted. fact that τόνος itself has at least four distinct meanings
in Greek theory of music contributes to the uncertainty
[4] This definition encompasses the natural minor scale (and of the exact meaning and derivation of διατονικός, even
equivalently the descending melodic minor), the major among ancient writers. (See Solon Michaelides, The Mu-
scale, and the ecclesiastical modes. sic of Ancient Greece: An Encyclopaedia (London; Faber
27.11. NOTES AND REFERENCES 127
and Faber, 1978), pp. 335–40: “Tonos”. Τόνος may re- reduced to two-thirds of the value that it would have en-
fer to a pitch, an interval, a “key” or register of the voice, joyed in its pristine state. In respect of any note in men-
or a mode.) For more information, especially concerning sural notation that was equal in duration to two of that
the various exact tunings of the diatonic tetrachord, see next smaller in value, the coloration of three in succes-
Diatonic genus. sion caused each to undergo reduction to two-thirds of its
erstwhile value, so creating a triplet [... .] In the case
[9] Chromatic is from Greek χρωματικός (khrōmatikós), it- of any note that was equal in duration to three of that
self from χρῶμα (khrṓma), which means complexion, next smaller, the coloration of three together likewise ef-
hence colour – or, specifically as a musical term, “a mod- fected a proportional reduction in the value of each to two-
ification of the simplest music” (Liddell and Scott’s Greek thirds, so reducing perfect value to imperfect and com-
lexicon). For more information, especially concerning monly creating the effect called hemiola [... .] On oc-
the various exact tunings of the chromatic tetrachord, see casions coloured notes could appear singly to denote im-
Chromatic genus. perfect value, especially to inhibit unwanted perfection
and alteration,” Roger Bowers, “Proportional notation”,
[10] Occasionally, as in the Rollin excerpt shown in this sec- 2. Coloration, New Grove Dictionary of Music and Mu-
tion, spelt inharmonic; but in OED this is only given sicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John
as a distinct word with a distinct etymology (“Not har- Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001).
monic; not in harmony; dissonant,...”). The motiva-
tion and sources of the Greek term ἐναρμονικός (enar- [14] Parrish, Carl, The Notation of Medieval Music, Pendragon,
monikós) are little understood. But the two roots are ἐν New York, 1978, pp. 147ff.
(en: “in”) and ἁρμονία (harmonía: “good placement of
[15] Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed., “Chromatic”.
parts”, “harmony”, “a scale, mode, or τόνος [in one sense;
see notes above]"). So in some way the term suggests har- [16] Grout, Donald J, and Palisca, Claude, A History of West-
moniousness or good disposition of parts, but not in the ern Music, 6th ed., Norton, New York, 2001, pp. 188–
modern sense of harmony, which has to do with simul- 190.
taneous sounds. (See Solon Michaelides, The Music of
Ancient Greece: An Encyclopaedia (London: Faber and [17] “The root of the Italian term is that of 'colour', and it is
Faber, 1978); Liddell and Scott; etc.) For more informa- probably related through its use of diminution (the little
tion, especially concerning the various exact tunings of the notes that 'rush' to the next long note, as Bernhard writes)
enharmonic tetrachord, see Enharmonic genus. to the mensural practice of coloration” (New Grove, “Col-
oratura”).
[11] In practice tetrachord (τετράχορδον; tetrákhordon) also
meant the instrument itself. And it could also mean the [18] Rendered by many as Carmina chromatico, though this
interval of a perfect fourth between the pitches of the fixed is incorrect Latin; the title is given as Carmina chromat-
top and bottom strings; therefore the various tunings were ica (which is plural of Latin carmen chromaticum) in New
called divisions of the tetrachord (see OED, “Tetrachord”). Grove Online. The entire passage is relevant to present
points in this article:
[12] For general and introductory coverage of Greek theory
New Grove Online, “Musica Ficta”, I, ii
see Tuning and Temperament, A Historical Survey, Bar-
bour, J. Murray, 2004 (reprint of 1972 edition), ISBN 0- [19] Grout et al., 2001, p. 188.
486-43406-0. These meanings in Greek theory are the
ultimate source of the meanings of the words today, but [20] Some theorists derive such a scale from a certain series
through a great deal of modification and confusion in Me- of pitches rising by six perfect fifths: F–C–G–D–A–E–
dieval times. It would therefore be a mistake to consider B. These pitches are then rearranged by transposition to
the Greek system and the subsequent Western systems a single-octave scale: C–D–E–F–G–A–B[–C] (the stan-
(Medieval, Renaissance, or contemporary) as closely sim- dard C major scale, with the interval structure T–T–S–T–
ilar simply because of the use of similar terms: "... the T–T[–S]). A few theorists call the original untransposed
categories of the diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic gen- series itself a “scale”. Percy Goetschius calls that series
era developed within the framework of monodic musical the “natural scale” (The Theory and Practice of Tone-
culture and have little in common with the correspond- Relations, Schirmer, 1931 edition, p. 3; see further ci-
ing categories of modern music theory” (Chromaticism, tation below).
Barsky, Vladimir, Routledge, 1996, p. 2). There were
[21] Goetschius, as cited below, accepts only the major as di-
several Greek systems, in any case. What is presented
atonic.
here is merely a simplification of theory that spans several
centuries, from the time of Pythagoras (c. 580 BCE – c. [22] A very clear statement of the “exclusive” stance is given
500 BCE), through Aristoxenus (c. 362 BCE – after 320 in the excerpt from “The leading tone in direct chromati-
BCE), to such late theorists as Alypius of Alexandria (fl. cism: from Renaissance to Baroque”, Clough, John, 1957,
360 CE). Specifically, there are more versions of each of below. The excerpt acknowledges and analyses the diffi-
the three tetrachords than are described here. culties with logic, naming, and taxonomy in that stance.
[13] Details of the practice for certain periods: “The device [23] A few exclude only the harmonic minor as diatonic, and
that was both the simplest and the most stable and durable accept the ascending melodic, because it comprises only
was that known as coloratio. In principle, any note or tones and semitones, or because it has all of its parts
group of notes subjected to coloration or blackening was analysable as tetrachords in some way or other.
128 CHAPTER 27. DIATONIC AND CHROMATIC
[24] However, beyond analysis of common practice music, that everyone accepts as diatonic. (For example, the di-
even these writers do not typically consider non-standard minished fifth formed by B and F, which occurs in C ma-
uses of some familiar scales to be “diatonic”. For ex- jor.) There are even some writers who define all minor in-
ample, unusual modes of the melodic or harmonic minor tervals as chromatic (Goetschius, Percy, The Theory and
scale, such as used in early works by Stravinsky, are almost Practice of Tone-Relations, 1931, p. 6; Goetschius as-
never described as “diatonic”. sesses all intervals as if the lower note were the tonic,
and since for him only the major scale is diatonic, only
[25] The first “exclusive” usage seems to be gaining greater cur- the intervals formed above the tonic in the major are di-
rency. Certainly it is becoming close to standard in aca- atonic; see also, for example, Harrison, Mark, Contem-
demic writing, as can be seen by querying online archives porary Music Theory – Level Two, 1999, p. 5). Some
(such as JSTOR) for recent uses of the term diatonic. theorists take the diatonic interval to be simply a measure
Equally certainly, the second “inclusive” meaning is still of the number of “scale degrees” spanned by two notes
strongly represented in non-academic writing (as can be (so that F♯–E♭ and F♮–E♮ represent the same “diatonic in-
seen by online searches of practically oriented music texts terval": a seventh); and they use the term chromatic in-
at, for example, Amazon.com). Overall, considerable terval to mean the number of semitones spanned by any
confusion remains; on the evidence presented in the list of two pitches (F♯ and E♭ are “at a chromatic interval of nine
sources, there are very many sources in the third category: semitones”). Some theorists use the term diatonic inter-
Diatonic used vaguely, inconsistently, or anomalously. val to mean “an interval named on the assumption of the
diatonic system of Western music” (so that all perfect,
[26] Gould, M. (2000). “Balzano and Zweifel: Another Look major, minor, augmented, diminished intervals are “di-
at Generalized Diatonic Scales”. Perspectives of New atonic intervals”). It is not clear what chromatic interval
Music 38 (2): 88–105. doi:10.2307/833660. JSTOR would mean, if anything, in parallel with this usage for
833660. An explicit example of such an extended gen- diatonic. Some theorists use chromatic interval to mean
eral use of diatonic scale and related terms: simply semitone, as for example in the article Chromatic
fourth. See also Williams, Peter F., The Chromatic Fourth
Throughout this paper, I use the terms during Four Centuries of Music, OUP, 1997. Something
“diatonic,” “pentatonic” and “chromatic” in close to this usage may be found in print. For example, the
their generic senses, as follows: term chromatically, as used in: “The trill rises chromat-
(a) A “diatonic” scale is a scale formed ically by step above this harmonic uncertainty, forming
from two intervals of different sizes, a chromatic fourth, ...” (Robin Stowel, Beethoven: Violin
such that groups of several adjacent in- Concerto (Cambridge Music Handbooks), Cambridge and
stances of the larger interval are sepa- New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 66).
rated by single instances of the smaller The term as used in the phrase chromatic fourth itself per-
interval. haps means just what it means in chromatic scale, but here
applied to a melodic interval rather than a scale.
(b) A “pentatonic” scale is a scale formed
from two intervals of different sizes, [29] See for example William Lovelock, The Rudiments of Mu-
such that groups of several adjacent in- sic, 1971.
stances of the smaller interval are sepa-
rated by single instances of the larger in- [30] See for example the citation from Grove Music Online
terval. Therefore a generic “pentatonic” (“Diatonic”), below.
can contain more than five tones. [31] Helmholtz, Hermann, trans. Alexander Ellis, On the Sen-
(c) “Chromatic” refers to the interval sations of Tone, Dover, New York, 1954, pp. 433–435
formed between adjacent pitch-classes and 546–548. The two notes of a diatonic semitone have
of any equal-tempered scale. different letter-names; those of a chromatic semitone have
the same letter-name.
See also #Extended pitch selections, in this article. See
also an exceptional usage by Persichetti, in a note to [32] Kostka, Stefan, and Payne, Dorothy, Tonal Harmony,
#Diatonic_pentatonic_scale, below. McGraw-Hill, 5th edition, 2003, pp. 60–61.
[33] “Because of the variability of [scale degrees] 6 and 7,
[27] It is not usual for chromatic scale to be used in any differ- there are sixteen possible diatonic seventh chords in mi-
ent sense from this. A rare exception is found in Elements nor ... [One line in a table headed Common diatonic sev-
of Musical Composition, Crotch, William, 1830. (See the enth chords in minor:] __º7_____viiº7 __” (Tonal har-
quotation from this text, below. See also extensive anal- mony, Kostka, Stefan and Payne, Dorothy, McGraw-Hill,
ysis in the excerpt from “The leading tone in direct chro- 3rd edition 1995, pp. 64–65).
maticism: from Renaissance to Baroque”, Clough, John,
1957, in the same subsection below.) Outside of music [34] This is because the third of the triad does not belong to
altogether, chromatic scale may refer to Von Luschan’s the natural minor scale or Aeolian mode of C minor (C,
chromatic scale. D, E♭, F, G, A♭, B♭). This highly restrictive interpretation
is effectively equivalent to the idea that diatonic triads are
[28] There are several other understandings of the terms di- those drawn from the notes of the major scale alone, as
atonic interval and chromatic interval. There are theo- this source rather roughly puts it: “Diatonic chords are
rists who define all augmented and diminished intervals wholly contained within a major scale” (Harrison, Mark,
as chromatic, even though some of these occur in scales Contemporary Music Theory – Level Two, 1999, p. 7).
27.12. BIBLIOGRAPHY 129
[35] Often the content of “diatonic harmony” in this sense will [47] Zweifel, P. F. (1996). “Generalized Diatonic and Penta-
include such harmonic resources as diminished sevenths tonic Scales: A Group-Theoretic Approach”. Perspectives
on the leading note – possibly even in major keys – even if of New Music 34 (1): 140–161. doi:10.2307/833490.
the text uses a classification for chords that should exclude JSTOR 833490.
those resources.
[48] Rahn, J. (1996). “Turning the Analysis around:
[36] Some of these are chords “borrowed” from a key other Africa-Derived Rhythms and Europe-Derived Music The-
than the prevailing key of a piece; but some are not: they ory”. Black Music Research Journal 16 (1): 71–89.
are derivable only by chromatic alteration. doi:10.2307/779378. JSTOR 779378.
[40] “A chromatic progression is one between harmonies hav- • those that are ambiguous, inconsistent, or
ing no diatonic relationship, harmonies which do not co- anomalous.
exist in any single diatonic system of key and mode. For
this purpose, the harmonic form of the minor scale is • In cited text below, relevant portions have been high-
considered the tonal-harmonic basis of its diatonic sys- lighted in bold, which has been added for emphasis.
tem. A usual characteristic of the chromatic progression
is chromatic inflection – the change of one or more notes
from one form (sharp, natural, or flat) to another” Wallace Exclusive
Berry, Form in Music (Prentice-Hall, 1966), pp. 109–110,
note 5. Excluding harmonic and melodic minor scales:
Diatonic (from Gk. dia tonos: 'proceed- with C identified as the “keynote"; see p.
ing by whole tones’). 3], are not uniform, but differ as follows:
Based on or derivable from an octave of [A diagram is shown of a C major scale
seven notes in a particular configuration, with slurs pointing out the semitones be-
as opposed to chromatic and other forms tween scale steps 3 and 4, and 7 and 8.]
of scale. A seven-note scale is said [p. 33] The line of research and ar-
to be diatonic when its octave span is gument [above] proves that, of the two
filled by five tones and two semitones, modes recognized and employed in mod-
with the semitones maximally separated, ern music, that one known as major (be-
for example the major scale (T–T–S– cause its prin. triads have a major third)
T–T–T–S). The natural minor scale is the natural one.
and the church modes (see Mode) are The other, i.e., the minor mode, is con-
also diatonic. sequently to be regarded as an unnatural
[But see the same source, Grove Music or artificial mode, and is accounted for
Online, below also.] as an arbitrary modification of the natu-
ral major mode.
• The Harvard Dictionary of Music 4th edition, p.
239 ...
The scale thus obtained is called the har-
Diatonic: (1) A scale with seven pitches monic minor mode. It is the only theoret-
(heptatonic) that are adjacent to one an- ically accurate minor scale, [... .]
other on the circle of fifths; thus, one in [Goetschius’s stance is unusual in not
which each letter name represents only recognising any scale other than the ma-
a single pitch and which is made up of jor as diatonic; he does not mention the
whole tones and semitones arranged so-called “natural” minor scale as an en-
in the pattern embodied in the white tity in its own right, but considers the
keys of the piano keyboard; hence, any harmonic minor as the basic minor form,
major or pure minor scale and any derived directly from the major by alter-
church mode as distinct from the chro- ation of the third and sixth scale-steps.
matic scale. Later (pp. 104–106) he discusses the
melodic minor scale, and the fact that
• Elements of Musical Composition, Crotch,
the third scale-step is “the only distinc-
William, 1830 [reproduced 1991, Boethius Press,
tive tone between the major form and the
Aberystwyth, Wales], pp. 21–22
various minor forms” (p. 105).]
In modern music, the seventh note Si
• Clough, J. (1957). “The Leading Tone in Di-
is often made one semitone higher, and
rect Chromaticism: From Renaissance to Baroque”.
then the scale of the minor key becomes
Journal of Music Theory 1 (1): 2–21. JSTOR
chromatic. ... The sixth and seventh
843089.
notes are both occasionally altered at the
same time, and then also the scale is Chromaticism being essentially the
chromatic. ... This is the usual method antonymn [sic] of the more restrictive
of ascending the minor key, but in de- term diatonicism, its precise definition
scending, the ancient diatonic scale is rests on a series of definitions beginning
commonly used. with the concept diatonic system:
[A rare instance of classifying the har-
monic minor and the ascending melodic • diatonic system
minor as chromatic.] a succession of whole steps and
half steps, of indefinite compass, in
• The Theory and Practice of Tone-Relations,
which the half steps are separated
Goetschius, Percy, Schirmer, 1931 edition
alternately by two whole steps and
[p. 4] This diatonic scale comprises three whole steps
the tones of the major mode, so desig- • diatonic
nated for reasons given later. Upon ex- consisting entirely of tones from a single diatonic system
amination it is found that the contigu-
ous intervals of the diatonic scale, unlike
those of the natural scale [Goetschius’s • diatonicism
term for a series of pitches rising by the use of diatonic collections of
fifths, starting from F and ending and B, tones
27.12. BIBLIOGRAPHY 131
Inclusive
[... During] the past two hundred and fifty
years, when extensive deviation from it and
Including harmonic and melodic minor scales:
abandonment of it have become the norm of
practice, the [diatonic] system has persisted as
an important framework of tonal organization. • Scholes, Percy (1955). “Diatonic and chromatic”.
Without doubt, this simple succession of whole The Oxford Companion to Music (9th ed.). London:
and half steps is among the most deeply rooted Oxford University Press. p. 291.
facts of our musical culture.
In view of its historical pre-eminence alone, Diatonic and Chromatic: ... The diatonic
the system deserves to be represented in its scales are the major and minor, made up of
pure form by such a basic theoretical concept tones and semitones (in the case of the har-
as diatonic. Modern abstractions such as monic minor scale, also an augmented sec-
the harmonic minor and so called “ascend- ond), as distinct from the chromatic...
ing melodic” minor scales, which are some-
times referred to as diatonic, cannot be rec- • Oxford Concise Dictionary of Music (Online ;
onciled with the above definitions without current print edition is the same)
the term diatonic becoming an unwieldy
and theoretically useless catch-all. [Refer- For the older European scales, used in
ence to footnote.] the Church’s plainsong and in folk song,
see modes. Two of these ancient modes
[Footnote:] 1. In this connec- remained in use by composers, when the
tion much confusion derives from other 10 were almost abandoned, and
the accepted meaning of the ex- these are our major and minor scales
pression chromatic scale. (Clearly, – the latter, however, subject to some
the harmonic minor scale is not variations in its 6th and 7th notes.
the chromatic scale; it is there- Taking C as the keynote these scales
fore diatonic, or so the reasoning (which have provided the chief material
goes.) If the presently accepted of music from about AD 1600 to 1900)
meaning of chromatic scale is to run as follows: [than the first figure in
be retained, we must content our- the article, showing the major scale on
selves with the paradox that the C, then the harmonic minor on C, then
harmonic minor and “ascending- the ascending and descending melodic
melodic” minor scales, while inher- on C; text continues immediately with:]
ently chromatic, are not “chromatic The major and minor scales are spo-
scales”. ken of as DIATONIC SCALES, as
distinct from a scale using nothing
Here it might be stated also that, but semitones, which is the CHRO-
while I am entirely convinced of MATIC SCALE, ...
the soundness of the above defini-
tions, the reader must realize that • Music Notation and Terminology, Gehrkens, Karl
any doubts he may entertain regard- Wilson, Barnes, NY, 1914
ing them can be in no way dam-
aging to the principle to be de- [p. 79] There are three general classes
rived by their use. So long as the of scales extant at the present time, viz.:
concept of chromaticism, as de- (1) Diatonic; (2) Chromatic; (3) Whole-
fined above, is clearly understood, tone.
I have no essential objection to the [p. 80] The word diatonic means
reader’s substituting his own term “through the tones” (i.e., through the
for it throughout the article. Uni- tones of the key), and is applied to both
versally accepted nomenclature is major and minor scales of our modern
132 CHAPTER 27. DIATONIC AND CHROMATIC
tonality system. In general a diatonic the C major scale (Ex. 4) and of the C
scale may be defined as one which pro- harmonic minor scale (Ex. 5).] Other
ceeds by half-steps and whole-steps. forms of the minor scale frequently to be
There is, however, one exception to met with will be explained later. [The
this principle, viz., in the progression melodic is introduced and explained in
six to seven in the harmonic minor Chapter VII, pp. 80–83, §§ 206–210.]
scale, which is of course a step-and-a-
half. • Music History and Theory, Clendinnen, William,
Doubleday, 1965, p. 23
• Tonal Harmony in Concept and Practice, Forte,
Western music made from about 1680–
Allen, NY, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 3rd edi-
1880 made use of a system of diatonic
tion, 1979, p. 14
scales, comprising certain arrangements
of whole tones (T) and semitones (S)
The diatonic minor scale therefore such as the major ... the melodic minor
has three forms: natural, melodic, ... and the harmonic minor (T-S-T-T-S-
and harmonic. T½-S).
• The New Penguin Dictionary of Music, Jacobs, • Harmony, Piston, Walter, DeVoto, Mark, Norton,
Arthur, Penguin, 4th edition (1977) reprinted with 5th edition, 1987, pp. 4–5
revisions (1986) The tones that form the interval are
drawn from scales. The most famil-
[p. 108] diatonic, pertaining to a given
iar of these are the two diatonic scales
major or minor key (opposite of CHRO-
of seven notes each, called the major
MATIC); so diatonic scale, any one of
scale and the minor scale. Tonal mu-
the major or minor scales; ...
sic, which includes most music writ-
[pp. 246–247] major, minor, ... The ten between 1700 and 1900, is based
minor scale is divided for theoretical on diatonic scales.
purposes into three types, [followed by
The difference between the major and
an equal treatment of natural, melodic,
minor scales is found in the distribution
and harmonic minor scales, with figures
of whole steps and half steps above a
showing each form]
given starting point. [... C major scale
• Harmony: Its Theory and Practice, Prout, as one case; Example 1–2, showing the
Ebenezer, Augener, 16th edition 1901, Chapter I, scale and its steps and half steps.]
p. 3 There are three different forms of
the minor scale. The natural minor
8. A SCALE is a succession of notes ar- scale has three tones that are different
ranged according to some regular plan. from corresponding tones in the major
Many different kinds of scales have been scale. Some of these same tones are
used at various times and in various parts also found in the other forms, as shown
of the world; in modern European mu- here. [Example 1–3, showing five forms
sic only two are employed, which are of scales on C: major, natural minor,
called the diatonic and the chromatic harmonic minor, melodic minor ascend-
scale. ing (all shown ascending); and melodic
9. The word “diatonic” has already been minor descending.]
explained in §6 as meaning “through the All of the possible pitches in common
degrees”. A diatonic scale is a succes- use, considered together, constitute the
sion of notes in which there is one note, chromatic scale. [Example 1–4, showing
neither more nor less, on each degree of an ascending and descending chromatic
the staff – that is to say, on each line scale; explanation of the chromatic scale.
and space. [Reference to Chapter II, ...]
p. 17, where the sources of the modern Any particular diatonic scale is a seven-
scales in the old system of modes are ex- note subset of the twelve-note chromatic
plained.] There are two varieties of the scale.
diatonic scale, known as the major (or
greater) and minor (or less) scale from
the nature of the interval between the Other
first and third notes of the scale. [Two
figures, showing an ascending octave of Vague, inconsistent, or anomalous use:
27.12. BIBLIOGRAPHY 133
Diatonic scale
28.1 History
Diatonic scales are the foundation of the Euro-
pean musical tradition. Western harmony from the
Pythagorean diatonic scale on C Play . A plus sign (+) indicates
the syntonic comma. Renaissance until the late 19th century is based on the
diatonic scale and the unique hierarchical relationships,
In music theory, a diatonic scale (or heptatonia prima) or diatonic functionality, created by this system of orga-
is a scale composed of seven distinct pitch classes. The nizing seven notes.
diatonic scale includes five whole steps and two half steps The modern major and minor scales are diatonic, as were
for each octave, in which the two half steps are separated all of the 'church modes'. What are now called major and
from each other by either two or three whole steps, de- minor were in reality – during the medieval and Renais-
pending on their position in the scale. This pattern en- sance periods – only two of eight modes ('church modes’)
sures that, in a diatonic scale spanning more than one based on the same diatonic notes (but forming different
octave, all the half steps are maximally separated from scales when the starting note was changed). Depend-
each other (i.e. separated by at least two whole steps). ing on which of the seven notes is used as the begin-
The word “diatonic” comes from the Greek διατονικός, ning, the positions of the intervals, the half-steps, end
meaning progressing through tones.[1] at different distances from the starting tone, hence ob-
The seven pitches of any diatonic scale can be obtained taining seven different scales or modes that are, as al-
using a chain of six perfect fifths. For instance, the seven ready mentioned, deduced from the diatonic scale. By
natural pitches which form the C-major scale can be ob- the end of the Baroque period, the notion of musical key
tained from a stack of perfect fifths starting from F: was established—based on a central triad rather than a
central tone. Major and minor scales came to dominate
until at least the start of the 20th century, partly because
F—C—G—D—A—E—B
their intervallic patterns are suited to the reinforcement
of a central triad. Some church modes survived into the
This property of the diatonic scales was historically rele- early 18th century, as well as appearing occasionally in
vant and possibly contributed to their worldwide diffusion classical and 20th-century music, and later in modal jazz.
because for centuries it allowed musicians to tune musical
instruments easily by ear (see Pythagorean tuning).
Any sequence of seven successive natural notes, such as 28.1.1 Prehistory
C-D-E-F-G-A-B, and any transposition thereof, is a dia-
tonic scale. Piano keyboards are designed to play natural There is one claim that the 45,000 year-old Divje Babe
notes, and hence diatonic scales, with their white keys. Flute uses a diatonic scale, but there is no proof or con-
A diatonic scale can be also described as two tetrachords sensus it is even a musical instrument.[2]
separated by a whole tone. There is evidence that the Sumerians and Babylonians
135
136 CHAPTER 28. DIATONIC SCALE
used some version of the diatonic scale.[3] This derives In music of the broadly western classical tradition the pat-
from surviving inscriptions that contain a tuning system tern of seven intervals separating the eight notes of an
and musical composition. Despite the conjectural na- octave (see heptatonic scale) can be represented in three
ture of reconstructions of the piece known as the Hurrian ways, which are equivalent to each other. For instance,
songs from the surviving score, the evidence that it used for a major scale these intervals are:
the diatonic scale is much more soundly based. This is
because instructions for tuning the scale involve tuning • T-T-S-T-T-T-S: where S means semitone; T means
a chain of six fifths, so that the corresponding circle of tone
seven major and minor thirds are all consonant-sounding,
and this is a recipe for tuning a diatonic scale. See Music • 2–2–1–2–2–2–1: where 1 means semitone; 2 means
of Mesopotamia. tone (2 semitones)
9,000-year-old flutes found in Jiahu, China indicate the
evolution, over a period of 1,200 years, of flutes having 4, • whole-whole-half-whole-whole-whole-half: where
5 and 6 holes to having 7 and 8 holes, the latter exhibiting half means semitone (half a tone); whole means
striking similarity to diatonic hole spacings and sounds.[4] tone.
The degrees of the natural minor scale have the same [C-D-E-F]-[G-A-B-C]
names as those of the major scale, except the seventh de-
gree, which is known as the subtonic because it is a whole and the natural minor of A would be:
step below the tonic. The term leading tone is generally
reserved for seventh degrees that are a half step (semi- [A-B-C-D]-[E-F-G-A].
tone) away from the tonic, as is the case in the major scale
or the harmonic minor scale (and the melodic minor, as-
The set of intervals within each tetrachord comprises two
cending). In solfege the scale degrees are named in two
tones and a semitone.
different ways: either “La–Ti–Do–Re–Mi–Fa–Sol–La”
or “Do–Re–Me–Fa–Sol–Le–Te–Do.”
Besides the natural minor scale, five other kinds or modes 28.4 Properties
of scales can be obtained from the notes of a major scale,
by simply choosing a different note as the starting note
or tonic. All these scales meet the definition of diatonic The diatonic scale as defined above has specific properties
scale. that make it unique among seven-note scales. In other
words, no other kind of scale has the same properties:
0
Dorian Mode (II)
0
Phrygian Mode (III)
0
Lydian Mode (IV)
0
Mixolydian Mode (V)
0
Aeolian Mode (VI)
0
Locrian Mode (VII)
0
constitute the backbone of diatonic practice when taken
11 1 11 1 11 1 11 1 11 1 11 1 11 1
together.
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
2
2
3
3
9
9
4
4
8
7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
evenness, Myhill’s property, well formedness, the deep • Clough, John (1979). “Aspects of Diatonic Sets”,
scale property, cardinality equals variety, and structure Journal of Music Theory 23:45–61.
implies multiplicity.
• Ellen Hickmann, Anne D. Kilmer and Ricardo
Eichmann, (ed.) Studies in Music Archaeology III,
2001, VML Verlag Marie Leidorf GmbH., Ger-
28.5 Tuning many ISBN 3-89646-640-2.
In just intonation the diatonic scale is tuned (see • Franklin, John C. (2002). "Diatonic Music
Ptolemy’s intense diatonic scale): in Greece: a Reassessment of its Antiquity",
Mnemosyne 56.1:669–702
In Pythagorean tuning the diatonic scale is:
• Gould, Mark (2000). “Balzano and Zweifel: An-
other Look at Generalised Diatonic Scales”, “Per-
28.6 See also spectives of New Music” 38/2:88–105
[4] “Oldest playable musical instruments found at Jiahu • The diatonic scale on the guitar
early Neolithic site in China”, Nature 401, 366–368 (23
September 1999)()
Chromatic scale
29.1 Notation
The chromatic scale may be notated in a variety of ways.
Ascending and descending:[1]
139
140 CHAPTER 29. CHROMATIC SCALE
• Twelve-tone technique
• 20th century music - Classical
29.5 Sources
[1] Benward & Saker (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice,
Vol. I, p.47. Seventh Edition. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-0.
Major scale
C♯ D♯ F♯ G♯ A♯
C D♭ D E♭ E F G♭ G A♭ A B♭ B
D♭ 7 1 2 3 4 5 6
A♭ 3 4 5 6 7 1 2
E♭ 6 7 1 2 3 4 5
The pattern of whole and half steps characteristic of a major
B♭ 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 scale
F 5 6 7 1 2 3 4
F♯ 5 6 7 1 2 3 4
• whole, whole, half.
Major scales
30.1.1 Scale degrees
The major scale or Ionian scale is one of the most com-
monly used musical scales, especially in Western music.
It is one of the diatonic scales. Like many musical scales
it is made up of seven notes: the eighth duplicates the first
at double its frequency so that it is called a higher octave
of the same note (from Latin “octavus”, the eighth). Main article: Degree (music)
The simplest major scale to write is C major, the only
major scale not to require sharps or flats:
• 1st – Tonic- key note
• 2nd – Supertonic
C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C ( C major scale )
• 3rd – Mediant
The major scale had a central importance in European • 4th – Subdominant
music, particularly in the common practice period and in • 5th – Dominant
popular music, owing to the large number of chords that • 6th – Submediant
can be formed from it. In Hindustani classical music it is
• 7th – Leading tone
known as Bilaval.
• 8th – Tonic ( or Octave)
A major scale is a diatonic scale. The sequence of Main article: Circle of fifths
intervals between the notes of a major scale is:
The circle of fifths, first described in 1728 by Johann
• whole, whole, half, whole, whole, whole, half David Heinichen in his book Der General-bass, has been
141
142 CHAPTER 30. MAJOR SCALE
used ever since as a means of illustrating the relative The double harmonic major scale[7][8] has the second and
harmonic distance between musical keys.[1] the sixth degrees lowered. Example: C-D♭-E-F-G-A♭-B-
C. It is the fifth mode of the Hungarian minor scale.
30.4 References
[1] Drabkin, William. 2001. “Circle of Fifths”. The New
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edi-
tion, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London:
Macmillan Publishers.
[3] http://www.tonalcentre.org/Harmonicma.html
[5] http://www.tonalcentre.org/Melodic.html
The numbers inside the circle show the number of sharps
[6] http://www.musicstudents.com/archive01/093.html
or flats in the key signature, with the sharp keys going
clockwise, and the flat keys counterclockwise from C ma- [7] Stetina, Troy (1999). The Ultimate Scale Book, p.59.
jor (which has no sharps or flats.) The circular arrange- ISBN 0-7935-9788-9.
ment depends on enharmonic relationships in the circle,
usually reckoned at six sharps or flats for the major keys [8] http://www.tonalcentre.org/Doubleha.html
of F♯ = G♭ and D♯ = E♭ for minor keys.[1] Seven sharps or
flats make major keys (C♯ major or C♭ major) that may
be more conveniently spelled with five flats or sharps (as
D♭ major or B major).
30.5 Further reading
• Bower, Michael. 2007. "All about Key Signatures".
Modesto, CA: Capistrano School (K–12) website.
30.2 Broader sense (Accessed 17 March 2010)
The term “major scale” is also used in the names of some • Jones, George Thaddeus. 1974. Music Theory: The
other scales whose first, third, and fifth degrees form a Fundamental Concepts of Tonal Music Including No-
major triad. tation, Terminology, and Harmony. Barnes & No-
The harmonic major scale[2][3][4] has the sixth degree ble Outline Series 137. New York, Hagerstown,
lowered. Example: C-D-E-F-G-A♭-B-C. It differs from San Francisco, London: Barnes & Noble. ISBN
the harmonic minor scale only by the third degree. 9780064601375.
The melodic major scale[5] is the fifth mode of the jazz • Kennedy, Michael. 1994. “Key-Signature”. Oxford
minor scale. Example: C-D-E-F-G-A♭-B♭-C. It differs Dictionary of Music, second edition, associate edi-
from the Ionian scale by lowering the sixth and the sev- tor, Joyce Bourne. Oxford and New York: Oxford
enth degrees and from the natural minor scale by raising University Press. ISBN 0-19-869162-9.
the third degree. The combined scale that goes as Io-
nian ascending and as melodic major descending is also • Yamaguchi, Masaya. 2006. The Complete The-
called melodic major: C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C-B♭-A♭-G-F- saurus of Musical Scales, revised edition. New
E-D-C (differs from melodic minor only by raising the York: Masaya Music Services. ISBN 0-9676353-
third degree).[6] 0-6.
30.6. EXTERNAL LINKS 143
Minor scale
For the simulated nuclear detonation, see Minor Scale. minor scale differs from a natural minor scale in that
In music theory, minor scale may refer to: the seventh note is raised one semitone. Melodic
minor scales raise both the sixth and seventh notes
C# D# F# G# A# one semitone when ascending, but when descending,
C Db D Eb E F Gb G Ab A Bb B
the sixth and seventh notes are flattened, producing
Bbm 2 3 4 5 6 7 1
the natural minor scale.
Fm 5 6 7 1 2 3 4
Cm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Am 3 4 5 6 7 1 2
Em 6 7 1 2 3 4 5
Bm 2 3 4 5 6 7 1
G#m 4 5 6 7 1 2 3
D#m 7 1 2 3 4 5 6
144
31.2. HARMONIC MINOR SCALE 145
Each degree of the scale, starting with the tonic (the first, the raised seventh G♯ which would make a major triad in
lowest note of the scale), is represented by a number. Harmonic Minor.
Their difference from the major scale is shown. Thus
a number without a sharp or flat represents a major (or
perfect) interval. A number with a flat represents a mi-
nor interval, and a number with a sharp (though there are
none in this example) represents an augmented interval.
In this example, the numbers mean: 1=unison, 2=ma-
jor second, ♭3=minor third, 4=perfect fourth, 5=perfect
fifth, ♭6=minor sixth, ♭7=minor seventh, 8=octave. So,
the natural minor scale consists of: 1, the tonic, followed
by 2, a note a major second above the tonic, ♭3, a note a
minor third above the tonic, and so forth, up to 8, a note
an octave above the tonic.
In rock and popular music examples of songs in Minor
Keys include The Moody Blues' "Nights in White Satin", Play
Blondie's "Call Me", and Spinal Tap's "Lick My Love
Pump".[1] Chords on degrees other than V may also include
the raised seventh degree in minor keys, such as the
diminished triad on VII itself (viio ); and also the
augmented triad on III (iii+ ), which is not found in any
31.2 Harmonic minor scale “natural” harmony (that is, harmony based on notes of the
major scale only, or the natural minor scale only). This
augmented fifth chord (♯5 chord) played a part in the de-
velopment of modern chromaticism.
The inversions of an augmented triad introduce no inter-
The A harmonic minor scale. Its seventh note is raised by a semi- vals (allowing for enharmonic equivalents) that are absent
tone. Play from its root position. The first inversion is enharmoni-
cally equivalent to a new augmented triad in root position.
The notes of the harmonic minor scale are the same as For example, the triad E♭–G–B in first inversion is G–B–
the natural minor except that the seventh degree is raised E♭, enharmonically equivalent to the augmented triad G–
by one semitone, making an augmented second between B–D♯. The same is true for the second inversion. One
the sixth and seventh degrees. The seventh degree, in a chord, with various spellings, may therefore have various
similar way to major scales, becomes a leading tone to harmonic functions in various keys, which introduces am-
the tonic because it is now only a semitone lower than biguous tonality and opens the door to chromatic possibil-
the tonic, in contrast to the seventh degree in natural mi- ities exploited by J. S. Bach, for example, and of course
nor scales, which are a whole tone lower than the tonic by many later composers. A similar analysis applies to
(subtonic). A harmonic minor scale follows the sequence the diminished seventh chord, founded on the diminished
of steps: triad on VII in minor keys and ambiguous for the same
reasons as the augmented triad.
• whole, half, whole, whole, half, whole-and-a-half, While it evolved primarily as a basis for chords, the har-
half monic minor with its augmented second is sometimes
used melodically. Instances can be found in Mozart,
and notably in Schubert (for example, in movement 1 of
In semitones, this is
String Quartet 14, “Death and the Maiden”). In this role
it is used descending far more commonly than ascending.
• two, one, two, two, one, three, one (2 1 2 2 1 3 1)
The harmonic minor is also occasionally referred to as
the Mohammedan scale[2] as its upper tetrachord cor-
This can also be notated as: responds to the Hijaz jins, commonly found in Middle
Eastern music. The harmonic minor scale as a whole is
• 1 2 ♭3 4 5 ♭6 7 8. called Nahawand-Hijaz[3] in Arabic nomenclature, and
as Bûselik Hicaz[4] in Turkish nomenclature. And as an
The scale is so named because it is a common foundation Indian raga it is called Kirwani.
for harmonies (chords) used in a minor key. For example, The Hungarian minor scale is similar to the harmonic mi-
in the key of A-minor, the V chord (the triad built on nor scale but with a raised fourth degree. This scale is
the note E) is normally a minor triad, which includes the sometimes also referred to as “Gypsy Run”, or alterna-
seventh degree of the A-minor scale: G♮, as opposed to
146 CHAPTER 31. MINOR SCALE
tively “Egyptian Minor Scale”, as mentioned by jazz leg- Examples of the use of melodic minor in rock and popular
end Miles Davis who describes it in his autobiography as music include Elton John's "Sorry Seems To Be The
“something that I'd learned at Juilliard”.[5] Hardest Word", which makes, “a nod to the common
In popular music, examples of songs in harmonic minor practice...by the use of F♯ [the leading-tone in[6]
G minor]
include "Easy Please Me" by Katy B, which is a pop song, as the penultimate note of the final cadence.”
in rare instances, written in pure harmonic minor.
The A melodic minor scale. When ascending, the sixth and sev-
enth notes are both raised above the corresponding notes of the
natural minor scale. The descending melodic minor scale is the
same as the descending natural minor scale. Play
31.7 References
[1] Stephenson, Ken (2002). What to Listen for in Rock: A
Stylistic Analysis, p.39. ISBN 978-0-300-09239-4.
Pentatonic scale
For the record label, see Pentatone (record label). Tatars), the tuning of the Ethiopian krar and the Indone-
A pentatonic scale is a musical scale or mode with five sian gamelan, Philippine kulintang, Native American mu-
sic, melodies of China, Korea, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia,
Japan, and Vietnam (including the folk music of these
countries), the Andean music, the Afro-Caribbean tradi-
tion, Polish highlanders from the Tatra Mountains, and
Western Impressionistic composers such as French com-
poser Claude Debussy. Examples of its use include
Chopin's Etude in G-flat major, op. 10, no. 5, the “Black
The first two phrases of the melody from Stephen Foster's "Oh!
Susanna" are based on the major pentatonic scale[1] Play .
Key” etude,[1] in the major pentatonic.
Pentatonic scale in Debussy's Voiles, Preludes, Book I, no. 2, Minyō scale on D,[5] equivalent to yo scale on D,[6] with brackets
mm.43-45.[2] Play on fourths Play .
148
32.3. PYTHAGOREAN TUNING 149
32.2.2 Major pentatonic scale (A minor seventh can be 7:4, 16:9, or 9:5; a
major sixth can be 27:16 or 5:3. Both were
Anhemitonic pentatonic scales can be constructed in chosen to minimize ratio parts.)
many ways. The major pentatonic scale may be thought
of as a gapped or incomplete major scale.[9] However, Ricker assigned the major pentatonic scale mode I while
the pentatonic scale has a unique character and is there- Gilchrist assigned it mode III.[12]
fore complete in terms of tonality. One construction takes
five consecutive pitches from the circle of fifths;[10] start-
ing on C, these are C, G, D, A, and E. Transposing the
pitches to fit into one octave rearranges the pitches into 32.3 Pythagorean tuning
the major pentatonic scale: C, D, E, G, A.
Sorry, your browser either has JavaScript disabled or Ben Johnston gives the following [13]
Pythagorean tuning for
does not have any supported player. the minor pentatonic scale:
You can download the clip or download a player to play Play
the clip in your browser.
note an octave higher as 4), while nine is a major sec- popular scale for improvisation in the realm of blues and
ond above eight, and a major ninth above four. The 6:7:8 rock alike.[23] Rock guitar solo almost all over B mi-
bit includes two septimal ratios rarely found on western nor pentatonic For instance, over a C major triad (C, E,
staves (septimal minor third & septimal whole tone). G) in the key of C major, the note F can be perceived as
Composer Lou Harrison has been one of the most re- dissonant as it is a half step above the major third (E) of
cent proponents and developers of new pentatonic scales the chord. It is for this reason commonly avoided. Using
based on historical models. Harrison and William Colvig the major pentatonic scale is an easy way out of this prob-
tuned the slendro scale of the gamelan Si Betty to lem. The scale tones 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 (from the major pen-
tatonic) are either major triad tones (1, 3, 5) or common
overtones 16:19:21:24:28.[18] (1/1-19/16-21/16-3/2-7/4)
They tuned the Mills gamelan so that the intervals be- consonant extensions (2, 6) of major triads. For the cor-
responding relative minor pentatonic, scale tones 1, ♭3, 4,
tween scale steps are 8:7-7:6-9:8−8:7-7:6.[19] (1/1-8/7-
4/3-3/2-12/7−2/1 = 42:48:56:63:72) 5, ♭7 work the same way, either as minor triad tones (1,
♭3, 5) or as common extensions (4, ♭7), as they all avoid
being a half step from a chord tone.
U.S. military cadences, or “jodies,” which keep soldiers
32.4 Further pentatonic musical in step while marching or running, also typically use pen-
traditions tatonic scales.[24]
Hymns and other religious music sometimes use the pen-
The major pentatonic scale is the basic scale of the music tatonic scale. For example, the melody of the hymn
of China and the music of Mongolia. The fundamen- "Amazing Grace",[25] one of the most famous pieces in
tal tones (without meri or kari techniques) rendered by religious music.
the 5 holes of the Japanese shakuhachi flute play a minor The common pentatonic major and minor scales (C-
pentatonic scale. The Yo scale used in Japanese shomyo D-E-G-A and C-E♭-F-G-B♭, respectively) are useful in
Buddhist chants and gagaku imperial court music is an modal composing, as both scales allow a melody to
anhemitonic pentatonic scale[20] shown below, which is be modally ambiguous between their respective ma-
the fourth mode of the major pentatonic scale. jor (Ionian, Lydian, Mixolydian) and minor (Aeolian,
In Javanese gamelan music, the slendro scale is penta- Phrygian, Dorian) modes (Locrian excluded). With ei-
tonic, with roughly equally spaced intervals ( MIDI ther modal or non-modal writing, however, the harmo-
sample ). Another scale, pelog, has seven tones, but is nization of a pentatonic melody does not necessarily have
generally played using one of several pentatonic subsets to be derived from only the pentatonic pitches.
(known as pathets), which are roughly analogous to dif-
ferent keys or modes.
In Scottish music, the pentatonic scale is very common. 32.5 Use in education
The Great Highland bagpipe scale is considered three
interlaced pentatonic scales.[21] This is especially true The pentatonic scale plays a significant role in music ed-
for Piobaireachd which typically uses one of the penta-
ucation, particularly in Orff-based, Kodály-based, and
tonic scales out of the nine possible notes. It also fea- Waldorf methodologies at the primary/elementary level.
tures in Irish traditional music, either purely or almost so.
The Orff system places a heavy emphasis on develop-
The minor pentatonic is used in Appalachian folk music. ing creativity through improvisation in children, largely
Blackfoot music most often uses anhemitonic tetratonic
through use of the pentatonic scale. Orff instruments,
or pentatonic scales.[22] such as xylophones, bells and other metallophones, use
In Andean music, the pentatonic scale is used substan- wooden bars, metal bars or bells which can be removed by
tially minor, sometimes major, and seldom in scale. In the teacher leaving only those corresponding to the pen-
the most ancient genres of Andean music being per- tatonic scale, which Carl Orff himself believed to be chil-
formed without string instruments (only with winds and dren’s native tonality.[26] Children begin improvising us-
percussion), pentatonic melody is often leaded with par- ing only these bars, and over time, more bars are added at
allel fifths and fourths, so formally this music is hexatonic. the teacher’s discretion until the complete diatonic scale
Hear example: Pacha Siku . is being used. Orff believed that the use of the penta-
Jazz music commonly uses both the major and the minor tonic scale at such a young age was appropriate to the
pentatonic scales. For example, jazz pianists Art Tatum, development of each child, since the nature of the scale
Chick Corea and Herbie Hancock, blues, and rock. Pen- meant that it was impossible for the child to make any
tatonic scales are useful for improvisors in modern jazz, real harmonic mistakes.
pop, and rock contexts because they work well over sev- In Waldorf education, pentatonic music is considered to
eral chords diatonic to the same key, often better than be appropriate for young children due to its simplicity and
the parent scale. For example, the blues scale is predom- unselfconscious openness of expression. Pentatonic mu-
inantly derived from the minor pentatonic scale, a very sic centered around intervals of the fifth is often sung and
32.8. REFERENCES 151
played in early childhood; progressively smaller intervals [2] Bruce Benward and Marilyn Nadine Saker (2009), Music
are emphasized within primarily pentatonic as children in Theory and Practice, eighth edition (Boston: McGraw
progress through the early school years. At around nine Hill): vol. II, p.245. ISBN 978-0-07-310188-0.
years of age the music begins to center around first folk [3] M. L. West, “Ancient Greek Music”, Clarendon Press,
music using a six-tone scale, and then the modern dia- 1994,.
tonic scales, with the goal of reflecting the children’s de-
velopmental progress in their musical experience. Pen- [4] Anastasios-Phoibos Christides, A History of Ancient
tatonic instruments used include lyres, pentatonic flutes, Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity, revised
and tone bars; special instruments have been designed and and expanded translation of the Greek text edition (Cam-
built for the Waldorf curriculum.[27] bridge and New York: Cambridge University Press,
2007), .
• Jazz scale [14] Leta E. Miller and Fredric Lieberman (Summer 1999).
“Lou Harrison and the American Gamelan”, p.158, Amer-
• Quartal and quintal harmony ican Music, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp.146-178.
[17] "...in general, no two gamelan sets will have exactly the
[1] Bruce Benward and Marilyn Nadine Saker (2003), Music: same tuning, either in pitch or in interval structure. There
In Theory and Practice, seventh edition (Boston: McGraw are no Javanese standard forms of these two tuning sys-
Hill), vol. I, p.37. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-0. tems.” Lindsay (1992), p.39-41.
152 CHAPTER 32. PENTATONIC SCALE
Heptatonic scale
A heptatonic scale is a musical scale with seven pitches a descending form. Although each of these forms of it-
per octave. Among the most famous of these are the self comprises seven pitches, together they comprise nine,
major scale, C D E F G A B C; the melodic minor scale, which might seem to call into question the scale’s status
C D E♭ F G A B C ascending, C B♭ A♭ G F E♭ D C de- as a heptatonic scale. In certain twentieth-century mu-
scending; the harmonic minor scale, C D E♭ F G A♭ B C; sic, however, it became common systematically to use the
and a scale variously known as the Roman Byzantine, and ascending form for both ascending and descending pas-
Hungarian,[1] scale, C D E♭ F♯ G A♭ B C. Indian Classi- sages. Such a use has been notably ascribed to the works
cal theory postulates seventy-two seven-tone scale types, of Béla Bartók and to bop and post-bop jazz practice. The
whereas others postulate twelve or ten (depending on the traditional descending form of the melodic minor scale is
theorist) seven-tone scale types collectively called thaat. equivalent to the natural minor scale in both pitch collec-
Several heptatonic scales of Western, Roman, Spanish, tion (which is diatonic) and tonal center.
Hungarian, and Greek musics can be analyzed as juxta-
positions of tetrachords.[2] All heptatonic scales have all
intervals present in their interval vector analysis,[3] and 33.3 Harmonic minor scale
thus all heptatonic scales are both hemitonic and tritonic.
There is a special affinity for heptatonic scales in the
Western key signature system.
153
154 CHAPTER 33. HEPTATONIC SCALE
• Locrian mode s-t-t-s-t-t-t The Dorian is exactly the same descending as ascending.
The less common series is
The postulated number of melakarta derives from arith- [3] Hanson, Howard. (1960) Harmonic Materials of Modern
metical calculation and not from Carnatic practice, which Music, p. 362 ff. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
employs far fewer scale forms. Seven-pitch melakarta LOC 58-8138.
are considered subsets of a twelve-pitch scale roughly
analogous to the Western chromatic scale. The first and
fifth melakarta tones, corresponding to the first and sev-
enth chromatic tones, are invariable in inflection, and the
fourth melakarta tone, corresponding to the fifth or sixth
chromatic tone, is allowed one of two inflections only, a
natural (shuddah) position and a raised (tivra) position.
Thus the number of possible forms is equal to twice the
square of the number of ways a two-membered subset can
be extracted from a four-membered set:
( )2
4!
2· = 2 · 62 = 2 · 36 = 72
2! · 2!
33.8 Thaat
Main article: That (music)
33.11 References
[1] The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, sec-
ond edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell
(London, 2001)
34.2 Composition
The sequence of steps comprising the Phrygian dominant
scale is:
D Phrygian dominant scale. Play
157
158 CHAPTER 34. PHRYGIAN DOMINANT SCALE
• Misheberak scale
• Mixolydian mode#Moloch scale
34.5 Notes
[1] Dave Hunter (2005). Play Acoustic, San Francisco: Back-
beat, p.226. ISBN 978-0-87930-853-7.
[4] http://swaratala.blogspot.com/2007/05/
raga-basant-mukhari-carnatic-raga.html
159
160 CHAPTER 35. HUNGARIAN MINOR SCALE
Persian scale
• H WH H H W WH H
Beginning on C:
• C Db E F Gb Ab B
36.2 Sources
[1] Sternal, Mark John (2005). Guitar Total Scales Tech-
niques and Applications, p.156. ISBN 0-9762917-0-3.
161
Chapter 37
37.2 Sources
[1] Munro, Doug (2002). Jazz Guitar: Bebop and Beyond,
p.39. ISBN 978-0-7579-8281-1.
• Jazz scale
• Lydian chord
• Lydian mode
162
Chapter 38
38.2 References
[1] Wasson, Andrew. “GUITAR THEORY: The Aeolian
Dominant Scale”. Retrieved September 11, 2012.
[2] http://www.tonalcentre.org/Melodic.html
[3] http://www.musicstudents.com/archive01/093.html
163
Chapter 39
39.1 Applications
Locrian ♮2 is commonly used in jazz and some rock. It is
commonly practiced by such neoclassical metal guitarists
as Yngwie Malmsteen and Michael Romeo, and such jazz
pianists as Oscar Peterson and Jonah Cristall-Clarke.
The half diminished scales, although derived from classi-
cal scales, offer fresh potentials in harmonic and melodic
structure.
39.2 References
[1] Bruce Arnold. Music Theory Workbook for Guitar: Scale
construction and application. muse eek publishing. p. 17.
ISBN 1-890944-53-X. Retrieved Jul 10, 2009.
164
Chapter 40
Acoustic scale
The blue notes (B♭ and F[], 7 and 11) are noticeably out of
tune.[11] See: harmonic seventh and eleventh harmonic.
165
166 CHAPTER 40. ACOUSTIC SCALE
• Jazz scale
• Vachaspati (raga)
40.2 Sources
[1] Persichetti, Vincent (1961). Twentieth-Century Harmony.
New York City: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 44. ISBN
978-0-393-09539-5. OCLC 318260658.
Altered scale
• Jazz scale
167
168 CHAPTER 41. ALTERED SCALE
Mode (music)
This article is about modes as used in music. For other 42.2 Additional meanings
uses, see Mode (disambiguation).
In the theory of Western music, mode (from Latin
The word encompasses several additional meanings,
however. Authors from the ninth century until the early
eighteenth century (e.g. Guido of Arezzo) sometimes
employed the Latin modus for interval. In the theory
of late-medieval mensural polyphony (e.g. Franco of
Cologne), modus is a rhythmic relationship between long
and short values or a pattern made from them (Powers
2001, Introduction); in mensural music most often theo-
Modern Dorian mode on C Play rists applied it to division of longa into 3 or 2 breves.
169
170 CHAPTER 42. MODE (MUSIC)
42.4 Greek These names are derived from Ancient Greek subgroups
(Dorians), one small region in central Greece (Locris),
Early Greek treatises on music do not use the term and certain neighboring (non-Greek) peoples from Asia
“mode” (which comes from Latin), but do describe three Minor (Lydia, Phrygia). The association of these eth-
interrelated concepts that are related to the later, me- nic names with the octave species appears to precede
dieval idea of “mode": (1) scales (or “systems”), (2) Aristoxenus, who criticized their application to the tonoi
tonos—pl. tonoi—(the more usual term used in medieval by the earlier theorists whom he called the Harmonicists
theory for what later came to be called “mode”), and (3) (Mathiesen 2001a, 6(iii)(d)).
harmonia (harmony)—pl. harmoniai—this third term Depending on the positioning (spacing) of the interposed
subsuming the corresponding tonoi but not necessarily the tones in the tetrachords, three genera of the seven oc-
converse (Mathiesen 2001a, 6(iii)(e)). tave species can be recognized. The diatonic genus
(composed of tones and semitones), the chromatic genus
(semitones and a minor third), and the enharmonic genus
42.4.1 Greek scales (with a major third and two quarter tones or dieses)
(Cleonides 1965, 35–36). The framing interval of the
perfect fourth is fixed, while the two internal pitches are
movable. Within the basic forms, the intervals of the
chromatic and diatonic genera were varied further by
three and two “shades” (chroai), respectively (Cleonides
1965, 39–40; Mathiesen 2001a, 6(iii)(c)).
Greek Dorian octave species in the enharmonic genus, showing
the two component tetrachords Play In contrast to the medieval modal system, these scales and
their related tonoi and harmoniai appear to have had no
hierarchical relationships amongst the notes that could es-
tablish contrasting points of tension and rest, although the
mese (“middle note”) may have had some sort of gravita-
tional function (Palisca 2006, 77).
Greek Dorian octave species in the chromatic genus Play 42.4.2 Tonoi
The term tonos (pl. tonoi) was used in four senses: “as
note, interval, region of the voice, and pitch. We use it of
the region of the voice whenever we speak of Dorian, or
Phrygian, or Lydian, or any of the other tones” (Cleonides
1965, 44). Cleonides attributes thirteen tonoi to Aristox-
Greek Dorian octave species in the diatonic genus Play enus, which represent a progressive transposition of the
entire system (or scale) by semitone over the range of
an octave between the Hypodorian and the Hypermixoly-
The Greek scales in the Aristoxenian tradition were
dian (Mathiesen 2001a, 6(iii)(e)). Aristoxenus’s transpo-
(Barbera 1984, 240; Mathiesen 2001a, 6(iii)(d)):
sitional tonoi, according to Cleonides (1965, 44), were
named analogously to the octave species, supplemented
• Mixolydian: hypate hypaton–paramese (b–b′) with new terms to raise the number of degrees from seven
to thirteen. However, according to the interpretation of
• Lydian: parhypate hypaton–trite diezeugmenon (c′–
at least two modern authorities, in these transpositional
c″)
tonoi the Hypodorian is the lowest, and the Mixolydian
• Phrygian: lichanos hypaton–paranete diezeugmenon next-to-highest—the reverse of the case of the octave
(d′–d″) species (Mathiesen 2001a, 6(iii)(e); Solomon 1984, 244–
45), with nominal base pitches as follows (descending or-
• Dorian: hypate meson–nete diezeugmenon (e′–e″) der):
• Hypolydian: parhypate meson–trite hyperbolaion
(f′–f″) • f: Hypermixolydian (or Hyperphrygian)
42.4.4 Melos Latin modes were always grouped the other way, with the
authentics and plagals paired (Powers 2001, §II.1(ii)).
Some treatises also describe “melic” composition The 6th century scholar Boethius had translated Greek
(μελοποιΐα), “the employment of the materials subject music theory treatises by Nicomachus and Ptolemy into
to harmonic practice with due regard to the requirements Latin (Powers 2001). Later authors created confusion
of each of the subjects under consideration” (Cleonides by applying mode as described by Boethius to explain
1965, 35)—which, together with the scales, tonoi, and plainchant modes, which were a wholly different system
harmoniai resemble elements found in medieval modal (Palisca 1984, 222). In his De institutione musica, book 4
theory (Mathiesen 2001a, 6(iii)). According to Aristides chapter 15, Boethius, like his Hellenistic sources, twice
Quintilianus (On Music, i.12), melic composition is used the term harmonia to describe what would likely
subdivided into three classes: dithyrambic, nomic, and correspond to the later notion of “mode”, but also used
tragic. These parallel his three classes of rhythmic the word “modus”—probably translating the Greek word
composition: systaltic, diastaltic and hesychastic. Each τρόπος (tropos), which he also rendered as Latin tropus—
of these broad classes of melic composition may contain in connection with the system of transpositions required
various subclasses, such as erotic, comic and panegyric, to produce seven diatonic octave species (Bower 1984,
and any composition might be elevating (diastaltic), de- 253, 260–61), so the term was simply a means of describ-
pressing (systaltic), or soothing (hesychastic) (Mathiesen ing transposition and had nothing to do with the church
2001a, 4). modes (Powers 2001, §II.1(i)).
According to Mathiesen, music as a performing art was Later, 9th-century theorists applied Boethius’s terms tro-
called melos, which in its perfect form (μέλος τέλειον) pus and modus (along with “tonus”) to the system of
comprised not only the melody and the text (including its church modes. The treatise De Musica (or De harmon-
elements of rhythm and diction) but also stylized dance ica institutione) of Hucbald synthesized the three previ-
movement. Melic and rhythmic composition (respec- ously disparate strands of modal theory: chant theory, the
tively, μελοποιΐα and ῥυθμοποιΐα) were the processes of Byzantine oktōēchos and Boethius’s account of Hellenis-
selecting and applying the various components of melos tic theory (Powers 2001, §II.2). The later 9th-century
and rhythm to create a complete work. Aristides Quintil- treatise known as the Alia musica imposed the seven
ianus: species of the octave described by Boethius onto the eight
church modes (Powers 2001, §II.2(ii)). Thus, the names
And we might fairly speak of perfect me- of the modes used today do not actually reflect those used
los, for it is necessary that melody, rhythm by the Greeks.
and diction be considered so that the perfec-
tion of the song may be produced: in the case
of melody, simply a certain sound; in the case
of rhythm, a motion of sound; and in the case
of diction, the meter. The things contingent
to perfect melos are motion-both of sound and The introit Jubilate Deo, from which Jubilate Sunday gets its
body-and also chronoi and the rhythms based name, is in Mode 8.
on these. (Mathiesen 1983, 75).
The eight church modes, or Gregorian modes, can be di-
vided into four pairs, where each pair shares the "final"
42.5 Western Church note and the four notes above the final, but have differ-
ent ambituses, or ranges. If the “scale” is completed by
Tonaries, which are lists of chant titles grouped by mode, adding three higher notes, the mode is termed authentic,
appear in western sources around the turn of the 9th cen- if the scale is completed by adding three lower notes, it is
tury. The influence of developments in Byzantium, from called plagal (from Greek πλάγιος, “oblique, sideways”).
Jerusalem and Damascus, for instance the works of Saints Otherwise explained: if the melody moves mostly above
John of Damascus (d. 749) and Cosmas of Maiouma the final, with an occasional cadence to the sub-final, the
(Nikodēmos ’Agioreitēs 1836, 1:32–33; Barton 2009), mode is authentic. Plagal modes shift range and also ex-
are still not fully understood. The eight-fold division of plore the fourth below the final as well as the fifth above.
the Latin modal system, in a four-by-two matrix, was In both cases, the strict ambitus of the mode is one octave.
certainly of Eastern provenance, originating probably in A melody that remains confined to the mode’s ambitus is
Syria or even in Jerusalem, and was transmitted from called “perfect"; if it falls short of it, “imperfect"; if it ex-
Byzantine sources to Carolingian practice and theory dur- ceeds it, “superfluous"; and a melody that combines the
ing the 8th century. However, the earlier Greek model ambituses of both the plagal and authentic is said to be in
for the Carolingian system was probably ordered like the a “mixed mode” (Rockstro 1880, 343).
later Byzantine oktōēchos, that is, with the four principal Although the earlier (Greek) model for the Carolin-
(authentic) modes first, then the four plagals, whereas the gian system was probably ordered like the Byzantine ok-
42.5. WESTERN CHURCH 173
tōēchos, with the four authentic modes first, followed reassigned the six pairs of authentic–plagal mode num-
by the four plagals, the earliest extant sources for the bers to finals in the order of the natural hexachord, C
Latin system are organized in four pairs of authentic D E F G A, and transferred the Greek names as well,
and plagal modes sharing the same final: protus au- so that modes 1 through 8 now became C-authentic to
thentic/plagal, deuterus authentic/plagal, tritus authen- F-plagal, and were now called by the names Dorian to
tic/plagal, and tetrardus authentic/plagal (Powers 2001, Hypomixolydian. The pair of G modes were numbered
§II, 1 (ii)). 9 and 10 and were named Ionian and Hypoionian, while
Each mode has, in addition to its final, a "reciting tone", the pair of A modes retained both the numbers and names
(11, Aeolian, and 12 Hypoaeolian) of Glarean’s system.
sometimes called the “dominant” (Apel 1969, 166; Smith
1989, 14). It is also sometimes called the “tenor”, from While Zarlino’s system became popular in France, Ital-
ian composers preferred Glarean’s scheme because it re-
Latin tenere “to hold”, meaning the tone around which the
melody principally centres (Fallows 2001). The reciting tained the traditional eight modes, while expanding them.
Luzzasco Luzzaschi was an exception in Italy, in that he
tones of all authentic modes began a fifth above the final,
with those of the plagal modes a third above. However, used Zarlino’s new system (Powers 2001, §III.4(ii)(a),
the reciting tones of modes 3, 4, and 8 rose one step dur- (iii) & §III.5(i & ii)).
ing the tenth and eleventh centuries with 3 and 8 moving In the late-eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, some
from B to C (half step) and that of 4 moving from G to chant reformers (notably the editors of the Mechlin,
A (whole step) (Hoppin 1978, 67). Pustet-Ratisbon (Regensburg), and Rheims-Cambrai
After the reciting tone, every mode is distinguished by Office-Books, collectively referred to as the Cecilian
scale degrees called “mediant” and “participant”. The Movement) renumbered the modes once again, this time
mediant is named from its position between the final and retaining the original eight mode numbers and Glare-
reciting tone. In the authentic modes it is the third of the anus’s modes 9 and 10, but assigning numbers 11 and 12
scale, unless that note should happen to be B, in which to the modes on the final B, which they named Locrian
case C substitutes for it. In the plagal modes, its posi- and Hypolocrian (even while rejecting their use in chant).
tion is somewhat irregular. The participant is an auxil- The Ionian and Hypoionian modes (on C) become in this
iary note, generally adjacent to the mediant in authen- system modes 13 and 14 (Rockstro 1880, 342).
tic modes and, in the plagal forms, coincident with the Given the confusion between ancient, medieval, and
reciting tone of the corresponding authentic mode (some modern terminology, “today it is more consistent and
modes have a second participant) (Rockstro 1880, 342). practical to use the traditional designation of the modes
Only one accidental is used commonly in Gregorian with numbers one to eight” (Curtis 1997), using Roman
chant—B may be lowered by a half-step to B♭. This usu- numeral (I–VIII), rather than using the pseudo-Greek
ally (but not always) occurs in modes V and VI, as well naming system. Contemporary terms, also used by schol-
as in the upper tetrachord of IV, and is optional in other ars, are simply the Greek ordinals (“first”, “second”,
modes except III, VII and VIII (Powers 2001, §II.3.i(b), etc.), usually transliterated into the Latin alphabet: pro-
Ex. 5). tus (πρῶτος), deuterus (δεύτερος), tritus (τρίτος), and
tetrardus (τέταρτος), in practice used as: protus authen-
tus / plagalis.
Kyrie “orbis factor”, in mode 1 (Dorian) with B♭ on scale-degree The eight musical modes. f indicates “final” (Curtis 1997, ).
6, descends from the reciting tone, A, to the final, D, and uses the
subtonium (tone below the final).
42.5.1 Use
In 1547, the Swiss theorist Henricus Glareanus published
the Dodecachordon, in which he solidified the concept A mode indicated a primary pitch (a final); the organi-
of the church modes, and added four additional modes: zation of pitches in relation to the final; suggested range;
the Aeolian (mode 9), Hypoaeolian (mode 10), Ionian melodic formulas associated with different modes; loca-
(mode 11), and Hypoionian (mode 12). A little later in tion and importance of cadences; and affect (i.e., emo-
the century, the Italian Gioseffo Zarlino at first adopted tional effect/character). Liane Curtis writes that “Modes
Glarean’s system in 1558, but later (1571 and 1573) re- should not be equated with scales: principles of melodic
vised the numbering and naming conventions in a manner organization, placement of cadences, and emotional af-
he deemed more logical, resulting in the widespread pro- fect are essential parts of modal content” in Medieval and
mulgation of two conflicting systems. Zarlino’s system Renaissance music (Curtis 1997, in Knighton 1997).
174 CHAPTER 42. MODE (MUSIC)
Carl Dahlhaus (1990, 192) lists “three factors that form Ionian Mode (I)
0
Dorian Mode (II)
0
Phrygian Mode (III)
0
Lydian Mode (IV)
0
Mixolydian Mode (V)
0
Aeolian Mode (VI)
0
Locrian Mode (VII)
0
11 1 11 1 11 1 11 1 11 1 11 1 11 1
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
2
2
3
3
9
9
4
4
Aurelian of Réôme, Hermannus Contractus, and Guido
8
7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
• the relation of modal formulas to the comprehen- Pitch constellations of the modern musical modes
sive system of tonal relationships embodied in the
diatonic scale;
of each of the seven modern modes. The examples are
• the partitioning of the octave into a modal frame- provided in a key signature with no sharps or flats (scales
work; and composed of natural notes).
• the function of the modal final as a relational center.”
Ionian (I)
The oldest medieval treatise regarding modes is Musica
disciplina by Aurelian of Réôme (dating from around
850) while Hermannus Contractus was the first to de-
fine modes as partitionings of the octave (Dahlhaus 1990,
192–91). However, the earliest Western source using the
system of eight modes is the Tonary of St Riquier, dated
between about 795 and 800 (Powers 2001).
Various interpretations of the “character” imparted by
the different modes have been suggested. Three such in- Ionian mode on C Play
terpretations, from Guido of Arezzo (995–1050), Adam
of Fulda (1445–1505), and Juan de Espinosa Medrano Ionian may arbitrarily be designated the first mode. It
(1632–1688), follow: is the modern major scale. The example composed of
natural notes begins on C, and is also known as the C-
major scale:
42.6 Modern
• Tonic triad: C
The modern Western modes consist of seven scales re-
lated to the familiar major and minor keys. • Tonic seventh chord: CM7
Although the names of the modern modes are Greek and • Dominant triad: G (in modern tonal thinking, the
some have names used in ancient Greek theory for some fifth or dominant scale degree, which in this case is
of the harmoniai, the names of the modern modes are G, is the next-most important chord root after the
conventional and do not indicate a link between them tonic)
and ancient Greek theory, and they do not present the
sequences of intervals found even in the diatonic genus • Seventh chord on the dominant: G7 (a “dominant
of the Greek octave species sharing the same name. 7th” chord type, so-called because of its position in
Modern Western modes use the same set of notes as the this—and only this—modal scale)
major scale, in the same order, but starting from one of
• The major-minor 7th chord (“dominant 7th” type
its seven degrees in turn as a “tonic”, and so present a
chord) occurs on V, the one mode where the major-
different sequence of whole and half steps. The interval
minor 7th is actually a dominant 7th chord.
sequence of the major scale being T-T-s-T-T-T-s, where
“s” means a semitone and “T” means a whole tone, it is
thus possible to generate the following scales: Dorian (II)
For the sake of simplicity, the examples shown above
are formed by natural notes (also called “white-notes”,
as they can be played using the white keys of a piano
keyboard). However, any transposition of each of these
scales is a valid example of the corresponding mode. In
other words, transposition preserves mode.
Each mode has characteristic intervals and chords that Dorian is the second mode. The example composed of
give it its distinctive sound. The following is an analysis natural notes begins on D:
42.6. MODERN 175
The Dorian mode is very similar to the modern natural Lydian is the fourth mode. The example composed of
minor scale (see Aeolian mode below). The only differ- natural notes starts on F:
ence with respect to the natural minor scale is in the sixth The single tone that differentiates this scale from the
scale degree, which is a major sixth (M6) above the tonic, major scale (Ionian mode), is its fourth degree, which is
rather than a minor sixth (m6). an augmented fourth (A4) above the tonic (F), rather than
a perfect fourth (P4).
• Tonic triad: Dm
• Tonic triad: Em
• Tonic triad: G
• Tonic seventh chord: Em7
• Tonic seventh chord: G7 (the “dominant-seventh”
• Dominant triad: Bdim chord type in this mode is the seventh chord built on
the tonic degree)
• Seventh chord on the dominant: Bø, a "half-
diminished seventh" chord type. • Dominant triad: Dm
• The major-minor 7th chord (“dominant 7th” type • Seventh chord on the dominant: Dm7, a “minor-
chord) occurs on III. seventh” chord type.
Aeolian (VI)
The modes can be arranged in the following sequence, The Ionian mode ( listen ) corresponds to the major
which follows the circle of fifths. In this sequence, each scale. Scales in the Lydian mode ( listen ) are ma-
mode has one more lowered interval relative to the tonic jor scales with the fourth degree raised a semitone. The
than the mode preceding it. Thus taking Lydian as ref- Mixolydian mode ( listen ) corresponds to the major
erence, Ionian (major) has a lowered fourth; Mixolydian, scale with the seventh degree lowered a semitone.
42.7. OTHER TYPES 177
Minor modes Zoltán Kodály, Gustav Holst, Manuel de Falla use modal
elements as modifications of a diatonic background,
The Aeolian mode ( listen ) is identical to the natural while in the music of Debussy and Béla Bartók modal-
minor scale. The Dorian mode ( listen ) corresponds ity replaces diatonic tonality (Samson 1977, )
to the natural minor scale with the sixth degree raised a
semitone. The Phrygian mode ( listen ) corresponds to
the natural minor scale with the second degree lowered a 42.7 Other types
semitone.
While the term “mode” is still most commonly un-
Diminished mode derstood to refer to Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian,
Mixolydian, Aeolian, or Locrian scales, in modern mu-
The Locrian ( listen ) is neither a major nor a minor sic theory the word is sometimes applied to scales other
mode because, although its third scale degree is minor, than the diatonic. This is seen, for example, in "melodic
the fifth degree is diminished instead of perfect. For this minor" scale harmony, which is based on the seven rota-
reason it is sometimes called a “diminished” scale, though tions of the ascending melodic minor scale, yielding some
in jazz theory this term is also applied to the octatonic interesting scales as shown below. The “chord” row lists
scale. This interval is enharmonically equivalent to the tetrads that can be built from the pitches in the given mode
augmented fourth found between scale-degrees 1 and 4 (Levine 1995, 55–); see also Avoid note.
in the Lydian mode and is also referred to as the tritone. The number of possible modes for any intervallic set is
dictated by the pattern of intervals in the scale. For scales
built of a pattern of intervals that only repeats at the oc-
42.6.3 Use tave (like the diatonic set), the number of modes is equal
to the number of notes in the scale. Scales with a re-
Use and conception of modes or modality today is dif- curring interval pattern smaller than an octave, however,
ferent from that in early music. As Jim Samson ex- have only as many modes as notes within that subdivision:
plains, “Clearly any comparison of medieval and mod- e.g., the diminished scale, which is built of alternating
ern modality would recognize that the latter takes place whole and half steps, has only two distinct modes, since
against a background of some three centuries of harmonic all odd-numbered modes are equivalent to the first (start-
tonality, permitting, and in the nineteenth century re- ing with a whole step) and all even-numbered modes are
quiring, a dialogue between modal and diatonic proce- equivalent to the second (starting with a half step). The
dure” (Samson 1977, 148). Indeed, when 19th-century chromatic and whole-tone scales, each containing only
composers revived the modes, they rendered them more steps of uniform size, have only a single mode each, as
strictly than Renaissance composers had, to make their any rotation of the sequence results in the same sequence.
qualities distinct from the prevailing major-minor system. Another general definition excludes these equal-division
Renaissance composers routinely sharped leading tones scales, and defines modal scales as subsets of them: “If
at cadences and lowered the fourth in the Lydian mode we leave out certain steps of a[n equal-step] scale we get
(Carver 2005, 74n4). a modal construction” (Karlheinz Stockhausen, in Cott
The Ionian, or Iastian (Anon. 1896; Chafe 1992, 23, 41, 1973, 101). In "Messiaen’s narrow sense, a mode is any
43, 48; Glareanus 1965, 153; Hiley 2002, §2(b); Powers scale made up from the 'chromatic total,' the twelve tones
2001, §4.ii(a); Pratt 1907, 67; Taylor 1876, 419; Wiering of the tempered system” (Vieru 1985, 63).
1995, 25) mode is another name for the major scale used
in much Western music. The Aeolian forms the base of
the most common Western minor scale; in modern prac- 42.8 Analogues in different musi-
tice the Aeolian mode is differentiated from the minor
by using only the seven notes of the Aeolian scale. By cal traditions
contrast, minor mode compositions of the common prac-
tice period frequently raise the seventh scale degree by a • Echos
semitone to strengthen the cadences, and in conjunction
also raise the sixth scale degree by a semitone to avoid • Dastgah
the awkward interval of an augmented second. This is
• Maqam
particularly true of vocal music (Jones 1974, 33).
Traditional folk music provides countless examples of • Makam
modal melodies. For example, Irish traditional music
• Raga
makes extensive usage not only of the major mode, but
also the Mixolydian, Dorian, and Aeolian modes (Cooper • Thaat
1995, 9–20). Much Flamenco music is in the Phrygian
mode. • Melakarta
178 CHAPTER 42. MODE (MUSIC)
• Jowett, Benjamin (1937). The Dialogues of Plato, • Palisca, Claude V. (1984). “Introductory Notes
translated by Benjamin Jowett, third edition, 2 vols. on the Historiography of the Greek Modes”.
New York: Random House. OCLC 2582139 The Journal of Musicology 3, no. 3 (Summer):
221–28. doi:10.1525/jm.1984.3.3.03a00010
• Jowett, Benjamin (1943). Aristotle’s Politics, trans-
http://www.jstor.org/stable/763812 (subscription
lated by Benjamin Jowett. New York: Modern Li-
required).
brary.
• Kholopov, Yuri (2003). Гармония. • Palisca, Claude V. (2006). Music and Ideas in the
Теоретический курс. 2nd ed. Moscow; Saint Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Studies in the
Petersburg: Lan'. ISBN 5-8114-0516-2 (English: History of Music Theory and Literature 1. Urbana
Harmony. A Theoretical Course; the 1st ed. is and Chicago: University of Illinois Press. ISBN
Moscow, 1988) 9780252031564.
• Levine, Mark (1995). The Jazz Theory Book. • Porter, James (2001). “Mode §IV: Modal Scales
Petaluma, California: Sher Music Co. ISBN 1- and Traditional Music”. The New Grove Dictionary
883217-04-0. of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by
Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmil-
• Mathiesen, Thomas J. (1983). Aristides Quintil- lan Publishers.
ianus. On Music. Translated by Thomas J. Math-
iesen. New Haven and London: Yale University • Powers, Harold S. (2001). “Mode”. The New Grove
Press. Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition,
• Mathiesen, Thomas J. (1999). Apollo’s Lyre: Greek edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London:
Music and Music Theory in Antiquity and the Middle Macmillan Publishers.
Ages. Publications of the Center for the History of • Pratt, Waldo Selden (1907). The History of Music:
Music Theory and Literature 2. Lincoln: University A Handbook and Guide for Students. New York: G.
of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-3079-6. Schirmer.
• Mathiesen, Thomas J. (2001a). “Greece, §I: An-
cient”. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Mu- • Rockstro, W[illiam] S[myth] (1880). “Modes, the
sicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and Ecclesiastical”. A Dictionary of Music and Musi-
John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers. cians (A.D. 1450–1880), by Eminent Writers, En-
glish and Foreign, vol. 2, edited by George Grove,
• Mathiesen, Thomas J. (2001b). “Harmonia (i)". D. C. L., 340–43. London: Macmillan and Co.
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: • Samson, Jim (1977). Music in Transition: A Study of
Macmillan Publishers. Tonal Expansion and Atonality, 1900–1920. Oxford
& New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-
• Mathiesen, Thomas J. (2001c). “Tonos”. The New 460-86150-6.
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second
edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. • Smith, Charlotte (1989). A Manual of Sixteenth-
London: Macmillan Publishers. Century Contrapuntal Style. Newark: University
of Delaware Press; London: Associated University
• Meier, Bernhard (1974). Die Tonarten der klassis-
Presses. ISBN 978-0-87413-327-1.
chen Vokalpolyphonie: nach den Quellen dargestellt.
Utrecht. • Solomon, Jon (1984). “Towards a History of
• Meier, Bernhard (1988). The Modes of Classi- Tonoi". The Journal of Musicology 3, no. 3 (July):
cal Vocal Polyphony: Described According to the 242–51. doi:10.1525/jm.1984.3.3.03a00030
Sources, translated from the German by Ellen S. http://www.jstor.org/stable/763814 (subscription
Beebe, with revisions by the author. New York: required).
Broude Brothers. ISBN 978-0-8450-7025-3.
• Taylor, John (1876). The Student’s Text-book of the
• Meier, Bernhard (1992). Alte Tonarten: dargestellt Science of Music. London and Liverpool: George
an der Instrumentalmusik des 16. und 17. Jahrhun- Philip and Son.
derts. Kassel:
• Vieru, Anatol (1985). “Modalism – A 'Third
• Nikodēmos ’Agioreitēs [St Nikodemos of the Holy World'". Perspectives of New Music 24, no. 1 (Fall–
Mountain] (1836). ’Eortodromion: ētoi ’ermēneia eis Winter): 62–71.
tous admatikous kanonas tōn despotikōn kai theomē-
torikōn ’eortōn, edited by Benediktos Kralidēs. • Wellesz, Egon (1954). “Music of the Eastern
Venice: N. Gluku. Reprinted, Athens: H.I. Spanos, Churches”. The New Oxford History of Music,
1961. vol.2:14-57. L., N.Y.: Oxford University Press.
180 CHAPTER 42. MODE (MUSIC)
• Wiering, Frans. 1995. The Language of the • Meier, Bernhard (1974). Die Tonarten der klassis-
Modes: Studies in the History of Polyphonic Modal- chen Vokalpolyphonie: nach den Quellen dargestellt.
ity. Breukelen: Frans Wiering. Utrecht.
• Winnington-Ingram, Reginald Pepys (1936). Mode • Meier, Bernhard (1988). The Modes of Classi-
in Ancient Greek Music. Cambridge Classical Stud- cal Vocal Polyphony: Described According to the
ies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sources, translated from the German by Ellen S.
Reprinted, Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1968. Beebe, with revisions by the author. New York:
Broude Brothers. ISBN 978-0-8450-7025-3
Álvarez Martínez and José Sierra Pérez. Revista de • Nikolaos Ioannidis musician, composer has at-
musicología 27, no. 1 (June) 197–209. tempted to reconstruct ancient Greek music
from a combination of the ancient texts (to be
• Street, Donald (1976). “The Modes of Limited
performed) and his knowledge of Greek music.
Transposition”. The Musical Times 117, no. 1604
http://homoecumenicus.com/ioannidis_music_
(October): 819–23.
ancient_greeks.htm
• Vieru, Anatol (1992). "Generating Modal Se-
• relatively concise overview of ancient Greek musical
quences (A Remote Approach to Minimal Music)".
culture and philosophy http://arts.jrank.org/pages/
Perspectives of New Music 30, no. 2 (Summer):
258/ancient-Greek-music.html
178–200.
• Vincent, John (1974). The Diatonic Modes in Mod- • Ἀριστοξενου ἁρμονικα στοιχεια: The Harmonics
ern Music, revised edition. Hollywood: Curlew Mu- of Aristoxenus, edited with translation notes intro-
sic. OCLC 249898056 duction and index of words by Henry S. Macran.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1902.
• Wiering, Frans (1998). “Internal and External
Views of the Modes”. In Tonal Structures in Early • Monzo, Joe. 2004. "The Measurement of Aristox-
Music, edited by Cristle Collins Judd, 87–107. Gar- enus’s Divisions of the Tetrachord"
land Reference Library of the Humanities 1998; • Llorenç Balsach: Modes of the first eight 7-note
Criticism and Analysis of Early Music 1. New York: chord-mode classes http://www.lamadeguido.com/
Garland Publishing. ISBN 0-8153-2388-3. appendix2.htm
Dorian mode
182
43.2. MEDIEVAL AND MODERN DORIAN MODE 183
43.2.2 Modern Dorian mode • The D Dorian mode, which contains all notes the
same as the C major scale starting on D.
Modern Dorian scale on D Play . The Dorian mode is a symmetric scale, meaning that the
pattern of whole and half notes (W-H-W-W-W-H-W) is
the same ascending or descending.
The modern Dorian mode is equivalent to the natural mi-
nor scale (or the Aeolian mode) but with the sixth de-
gree raised a half step. Confusingly, the modern Dorian
mode resembles the Greek Phrygian harmonia in the di-
atonic genus. (It should also be noted that the diatonic
genus of the Greek Dorian harmonia resembles the mod-
ern Phrygian mode.)
The only difference between the Dorian and Aeolian
scales is whether or not the 6th is major (in the Aeolian
Dorian mode in Ernest Bloch's Chanty from Poems of the Sea, it is minor, in the Dorian it is major). The I, IV, and V
mm. 1-8.[8] Play triads of the Dorian mode are minor, major, and minor,
respectively (i-IV-v), instead of all minor (i-iv-v) as in
The modern Dorian mode (also called Russian minor Aeolian. In both the Dorian and Aeolian, strictly applied,
by Balakirev[9] ), by contrast, is a strictly diatonic scale the dominant triad is minor, in contrast to the tonal mi-
corresponding to the white keys of the piano from “D” to nor scale, where it is normally major (see harmonic mi-
“D”, or any transposition of its interval pattern, which has nor). It is also worth noting that the sixth scale degree
the ascending pattern of: is often raised in minor music, just as it is often low-
ered in the Dorian mode (see melodic minor). The ma-
Whole Step - Half Step - Whole Step - Whole jor subdominant chord gives the Dorian mode a brighter
Step - Whole Step - Half Step - Whole Step tonality than natural minor; the raised sixth is a tritone
away from the minor third of the tonic. The subdomi-
or abbreviated: nant also has a mixolydian ("dominant") quality.
The Dorian mode is harmonically similar to the ascend-
W-H-W-W-W-H-W ing melodic minor scale, except for the major seventh
degree in minor. This means that the dominant chord is a
Alternatively: minor triad in the Dorian but a major one in minor keys.
A second harmonic difference is the subdominant chord,
Tone - Semitone - Tone - Tone - Tone - Semi- which is major in the Dorian mode but minor in minor
tone - Tone keys, because of the minor sixth scale degree. It is be-
184 CHAPTER 43. DORIAN MODE
cause of the similarity that the Dorian is also known as 43.5 References
the jazz minor scale.
[1] Thomas J. Mathiesen, “Greece, §I: Ancient: 6. Music
Theory: (iii) Aristoxenian Tradition: (d) Scales”. The
43.3 Notable compositions in Do- New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second
edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (Lon-
rian mode don: Macmillan Publishers, 2001).
[2] Thomas J. Mathiesen, “Greece, §I: Ancient: 6. Music
43.3.1 Traditional Theory: (iii) Aristoxenian Tradition: (e) Tonoi and Har-
moniai”. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musi-
• "Drunken Sailor"[10] cians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John
Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001).
• "Scarborough Fair"[10]
[3] Harold S. Powers, “Mode, §II: Medieval modal theory,
2: Carolingian synthesis, 9th–10th centuries”, The New
43.3.2 Classical Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edi-
tion, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London:
Macmillan Publications; New York: Grove’s Dictionaries
• The “Et incarnatus est” in the Credo movement of
of Music, 2001). ISBN 978-1-56159-239-5
Beethoven's Missa Solemnis.[11]
[4] Peter Jeffery, “Oktōēchos”, The New Grove Dictionary of
Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley
43.3.3 Jazz Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publications;
New York: Grove’s Dictionaries of Music, 2001). ISBN
• "Maiden Voyage" by Herbie Hancock[12] – The 978-1-56159-239-5
composition takes an AABBA form with the “A”
[5] Harold S. Powers, “Dorian”, The New Grove Dictionary
sections in G Dorian and the “B” sections in A of Music and Musicians, second edition, 29 vols., edited
Aeolian.[13] by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan
Publishers, 2001): 7:507. ISBN 978-1-56159-239-5
• "Milestones" by Miles Davis[12]
[6] Harold S. Powers, “Hypodorian”, The New Grove Dic-
• "Oye Como Va" by Tito Puente, popularized by tionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, 29
Santana[14] vols., edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London:
Macmillan Publications, 2001): 12:36–37. ISBN 978-1-
• "So What" by Miles Davis[12] - The composition 56159-239-5
takes an AABA form with the “A” sections in D Do-
rian and the “B” section in E♭ Dorian.[15] [7] Felix Salzer and Carl Schachter, Counterpoint in Compo-
sition: The Study of Voice Leading (New York: Columbia
University Press, 1989): 10. ISBN 0-231-07039-X.
43.3.4 Popular [8] Bruce Benward and Marilyn Nadine Saker, Music in
Theory and Practice: Volume II, eighth edition (Boston:
• "Eleanor Rigby" by The Beatles is often cited as
[16]
McGraw-Hill, 2009): 243–44. ISBN 978-0-07-310188-
a Dorian modal piece, and while the melody line is a 0.
Dorian melody (excepting some portions), the chord
progression is in Aeolian (I–♭VI and ♭VI–I).[17] [9] Richard Taruskin, “From Subject to Style: Stravinsky and
the Painters”, in Confronting Stravinsky: Man, Musician,
• "Paradise" by Coldplay[18] and Modernist, edited by Jann Pasler, 16–38 (Berkeley,
Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press,
• "Stairway To Heaven" by Led Zeppelin - (mainly in 1986): 33. ISBN 0-520-05403-2.
middle section)[19]
[10] Ger Tillekens, "Marks of the Dorian Family" Sound-
• "Wicked Game by Chris Isaak[20] scapes, no. 5 (November 2002) (Accessed 30 June 2009).
• "Uptown Funk" by Bruno Mars [11] Michael Steinberg, “Notes on the Quartets”, in The
Beethoven Quartet Companion, edited by Robert Winter
and Robert Martin, (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1994): 270. ISBN 978-0-520-20420-1; OCLC
43.4 See also 27034831.
[12] Ronald Herder, 1000 Keyboard Ideas, (Katonah, NY:
• Kafi, the name used in Hindustani music for the Ekay Music, 1990): 75. ISBN 978-0-943748-48-1.
equivalent scale.
[13] Barry Dean Kernfeld, The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz
• Kharaharapriya, the name used in Carnatic music (New York: Macmillan Publishers, 2002): 785. ISBN
for the equivalent scale. 1-56159-284-6 OCLC 46956628.
43.5. REFERENCES 185
[20] , GuitarMasterClass.net
Chapter 44
Phrygian mode
186
44.5. EXAMPLES 187
that the fourth degree, A, could be so regarded instead 44.4.2 The Phrygian Mode in Jazz
(Powers 2001).
Placing the two tetrachords together, and the single tone In contemporary jazz, the Phrygian mode is used over
at bottom of the scale produces the Hypophrygian mode chords and sonorities built on the mode, such as the
(below Phrygian): sus4(♭9) chord (see Suspended chord), which is some-
times called a phrygian suspended chord. For example a
G | A B C D | (D) E F G soloist might play an E Phrygian over an Esus4(♭9) chord
(E-A-B-D-F).
44.4 Modern uses of the Phrygian • Orlando di Lasso's motet In me transierunt (Pesic
mode 2005, passim).
A Phrygian dominant scale is produced by raising the • Cipriano de Rore's 7-part Missa Praeter Rerum Se-
third scale degree of the mode: riem
E Phrygian dominant Mode: E F G♯ A B C D E Major:
1 ♭2 3 4 5 ♭6 ♭7 1 Minor: 1 ♭2 ♯3 4 5 6 7 1
44.5.3 Baroque
The Phrygian dominant is also known as the Spanish
gypsy scale, because it resembles the scales found in • Johann Sebastian Bach's keeps in his cantatas the
flamenco music (see Flamenco mode). Flamenco music Phrygian mode of some original chorale melodies,
uses the Phrygian scale, together with a modified scale such as Luther's Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir in
resembling the Arab maqām Ḥijāzī (like the Phrygian Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir, BWV 38, and Es woll
dominant but with a major sixth scale degree), and a bi- uns Gott genädig sein on a melody by Matthaeus Gre-
modal configuration using both major and minor second iter (c. 1490–1552), twice in Die Himmel erzählen
and third scale degrees (Katz 2001). die Ehre Gottes, BWV 76 (Braatz 2006).
188 CHAPTER 44. PHRYGIAN MODE
• John Coolidge Adams, Phrygian Gates (J. Adams • Comp, Nate. 2009. "The Moods of the Modes".
2010) The Fretlight Guitar Blog (cached) (Accessed 27
January 2012).
• Samuel Barber:
• Franklin, Don O. 1996. “Vom alten zum neuen
• Adagio for Strings, op. 11 (Pollock 2000, 191) Adam: Phrygischer Kirchenton und moderne
• “I Hear an Army”, from Three Songs, op. 10 Tonalität in J.S.Bachs Kantate 38”. In Von Luther
(Pollock 2000, 191) zu Bach: Bericht über die Tagung 22.–25. September
1996 in Eisenach, edited by Renate Steiger, 129–
• Philip Glass, the final aria from Satyagraha 44. Internationalen Arbeitsgemeinschaft für theol-
(Strickland 2001). ogische Bachforschung (1996): Eisenach. Sinzig:
Studio-Verlag. ISBN 3-89564-056-5.
• Karp, Theodore, Fabrice Fitch, and Basil Smallman. • Rifkin, Joshua, Eva Linfield, Derek McCulloch, and
2001. “Requiem Mass”. The New Grove Dictionary Stephen Baron. 2001. “Schütz, Heinrich [Henrich]
of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by [Sagittarius, Henricus]". The New Grove Dictionary
Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by
Publishers. Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan
Publishers.
• Karstädt, G. (ed.). 1985. Thematisch-systematisches
Verzeichnis der musikalischen Werke von Dietrich • Serna, Desi. 2011. "Phrygian Mode Song". Guitar
Buxtehude: Buxtehude-Werke-Verzeichnis, second Music Theory.com website blog (Accessed 27 Jan-
edition. Wiesbaden. French online adaptation, uary 2012).
"Dietrich Buxtehude, (c1637 - 1707) Catalogue des
oeuvres BuxWV: Oeuvres instrumentales: Musique • Solomon, Jon. 1984. “Towards a History of
pour orgue, BuxWV 136–225". Université du Tonoi". Journal of Musicology 3, no. 3:242–
Québec website (Accessed 17 May 2011). 51. http://www.jstor.org/stable/763814 (Subscrip-
tion access).doi:10.1525/jm.1984.3.3.03a00030
• Katz, Israel J. 2001. “Flamenco [cante flamenco]".
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, • Solomon, Jon D. 1986. “The Seikilos Inscription: A
second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Theoretical Analysis”. American Journal of Philol-
Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers. ogy 107 (Winter): 455–79.
• Novack, Saul. 1977. “The Significance of the Phry- • Snyder, Kerala J. 2001. “Buxtehude, Dieterich”.
gian Mode in the History of Tonality”. Miscellanea The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
Musicologica 9:82–177. ISSN 0076-9355 OCLC second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John
1758333 Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
• Ottaway, Hugh, and Alain Frogley. 2001. “Vaughan • Strickland, Edward. 2001. “Glass, Philip”. The
Williams, Ralph”. The New Grove Dictionary of New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John
Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmil- Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
lan Publishers.
• Partsch, Erich Wolfgang. 2007. “Anton Bruckn- 44.8 Further reading
ers phrygisches Pange lingua (WAB 33)". Singende
Kirche 54, no. 4:227–29. ISSN 0037-5721
• Hewitt, Michael. 2013. Musical Scales of the World.
• Pelletier-Bacquaert, Bruno. n.d. “Various The Note Tree. ISBN 978-0-9575470-0-1.
Thoughts: Sus Chords”. http://brunojazz.com/
• Tilton, Mary C. 1989. “The Influence of Psalm
vt-SusChords1.htm, accessed Dec. 10, 2009.
Tone and Mode on the Structure of the Phrygian
• Pesic, Peter. 2005. “Earthly Music and Cosmic Toccatas of Claudio Merulo”. Theoria 4:106–22.
Harmony: Johannes Kepler’s Interest in Practical ISSN 0040-5817
Music, Especially Orlando di Lasso”. Journal of
Seventeenth-Century Music 11, no. 1 http://www.
sscm-jscm.org/v11/no1/pesic.html 44.9 External links
• Pöhlmann, Egert, and Martin L. West. 2001. Docu-
ments of Ancient Greek Music: The Extant Melodies • The Phrygian mode mapped out for guitar in all po-
and Fragments, edited and transcribed with com- sitions
mentary by Egert Pöhlmann and Martin L. West.
Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815223-X.
• Pollack, Howard. 2000. “Samuel Barber, Jean
Sibelius, and the Making of an American Roman-
tic”. The Musical Quarterly 84, no. 2 (Summer)
175–205.
• Powers, Harold S. 2001. “Phrygian”, The New
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited
by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell, 19:634. 29
vols. London: Macmillan Publishers. ISBN 978-
1-56159-239-5; ISBN 978-0-19-517067-2. OCLC
46516598
Chapter 45
Lydian mode
45.1 Theory where " " signifies raising the pitch by approximately a
quarter tone.
45.1.1 Ancient Greek Lydian
190
45.3. SEE ALSO 191
more typically than B♮ in compositions in Lydian mode In the 20th century, composers began once again to ex-
(Powers 2001). ploit modal scales with some frequency. An example
from the middle of the century is the scherzo move-
ment of Carlos Chávez's Symphony No. 3 (1951–54).
45.1.3 Modern Lydian mode The movement opens with a fugue subject, featuring ex-
tremely wide leaps, in C Lydian with following entries in
F and G Lydian (Orbón 1987, 90–91).
45.2.3 Jazz
45.2.4 Popular
Triads within Lydian mode
• The Simpsons signature tune (Chase 2006, ).
In Lydian mode, the tonic, dominant, and supertonic
triads are all major. The subdominant is diminished. • Passage beginning at the words “Much as I defi-
The triads built on the remaining three scale degrees are nitely enjoy solitude” in the song "Possibly Maybe"
minor. by Björk (Hein 2012).
The Paean and Prosodion to the God, familiarly known • Lydian dominant scale
as the Second Delphic Hymn, composed in 128 BC
• Kalyani (raga), the equivalent scale in Indian classi-
by Athénaios Athenaíou is predominantly in the Lydian
cal music
tonos, both diatonic and chromatic, with sections also in
Hypolydian (Pöhlmann and West 2001, 85).
45.4 References
45.2.2 Classical (Modern)
• Anon. n.d. "Frequently Asked Questions about
A rare, extended use of the Lydian mode in the Classical
George Russell’s Lydian Chromatic Concept Of
repertoire is Simon Sechter's 1822 Messe in der lydischen
Tonal Organization". www.georgerussell.com (Ac-
Tonart (Mass in the Lydian Mode) (Carver 2005, 76). A
cessed 23 February 2012).
more famous example from around the same time is the
third movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's String Quar- • Barbera, André. 1984. “Octave Species”. Jour-
tet No. 15 in A minor, Op. 132 (1825), titled by the com- nal of Musicology 3, no. 3 (July): 229–
poser “Heiliger Dankgesang eines Genesenen an die Got- 41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/763813 (Subscrip-
theit, in der lydischen Tonart” (“Holy Song of Thanks- tion access). doi:10.1525/jm.1984.3.3.03a00020
giving by a Convalescent to the Divinity, in the Lydian
Mode”). The alternating passages in F use the Lydian • Barker, Andrew. 1984–89. Greek Musical Writ-
scale with sharp fourth scale degree exclusively. Anton ings. 2 vols. Cambridge Readings in the Literature
Bruckner employed the sharpened fourth of the Lydian of Music. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge
scale in his motet Os justi (1879) more strictly than Re- University Press.
naissance composers ever did when writing in this mode
(Carver 2005, 74–75). Charles-Valentin Alkan's Allegro • Benward, Bruce, and Marilyn Nadine Saker. 2009.
barbaro (Étude Op. 35, No. 5) is written strictly in F Music in Theory and Practice, eighth edition, vol. 2.
Lydian, with no B♭s present at all (Smith 2000,). Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-310188-0.
192 CHAPTER 45. LYDIAN MODE
Mixolydian mode
Mixolydian mode may refer to one of three things: the Enharmonic genus of the Greek Mixolydian scale on E: conjunct
name applied to one of the ancient Greek harmoniai or tetrachords a and b, with note of conjunction c, and interval of
tonoi, based on a particular octave species or scale; one disjunction d Play
of the medieval church modes; a modern musical mode
or diatonic scale, related to the medieval mode. (The Hy-
poet and musician.[2] However, what the ancient Greeks
pomixolydian mode of medieval music, by contrast, has
thought of as Mixolydian was very different from the
no modern counterpart.)
modern interpretation of the mode.
This mode is known as Harikambhoji in Carnatic music,
In Greek theory, the Mixolydian tonos (the term “mode”
the classical music form of southern India.
is a later Latin term) employs a scale (or "octave species")
corresponding to the Greek Hypolydian mode inverted:
in its diatonic genus, this is a scale descending from
46.1 Greek Mixolydian paramese to hypate hypaton: in the diatonic genus, a
whole tone (paramese to mese) followed by two conjunct
inverted Lydian tetrachords (each being two whole tones
followed by a semitone descending). This diatonic genus
of the scale is roughly the equivalent of playing all the
“white notes” of a piano from B to B, or B | A G F E
| (E) D C B, which is also known as modern Locrian
mode. (In the chromatic and enharmonic genera, each
tetrachord consists of a minor third plus two semitones,
Diatonic genus of the Greek Mixolydian scale on B Play . and a major third plus two quarter-tones, respectively).[3]
193
194 CHAPTER 46. MIXOLYDIAN MODE
in the anonymous treatise Alia Musica. A commentary • The G Mixolydian mode (Related to the key of C
on that treatise, called the Nova expositio, first gave it a major – on a piano it is all the white keys from one
new sense as one of a set of eight diatonic species of the G to the next. GABCDEFG)[1]
octave, or scales.[4] The name Mixolydian came to be ap-
plied to one of the eight modes of medieval church music: • The C Mixolydian mode (Related to the key of F
the seventh mode. This mode does not run from B to B major – CDEFGAB♭C)[1]
on white notes, as the Greek mode, but was defined in • The D Mixolydian mode (Related to the key of G
two ways: as the diatonic octave species from G up one major – DEF♯GABCD)[1]
octave to the G above, or as a mode whose final was G
and whose ambitus runs from the F below the final to the • The E Mixolydian mode (Related to the key of A
G above, with possible extensions “by licence” up to A major – EF♯G♯ABC♯DE)[1]
above and even down to E below, and in which the note
D (the tenor of the corresponding seventh psalm tone) • The A Mixolydian mode (Related to the key of D
had an important melodic function.[5] This medieval the- major – scale used on the Great Highland Bagpipes.
oretical construction led to the modern use of the term ABC♯DEF♯GA)
for the natural scale from G to G.
The seventh mode of western church music is an authentic
mode based on and encompassing the natural scale from
46.4 Moloch scale
G to G, with the perfect fifth (the D in a G to G scale) as
the dominant, reciting note or tenor.
The plagal eighth mode was termed Hypomixolydian (or
“lower Mixolydian”) and, like the Mixolydian, was de-
fined in two ways: as the diatonic octave species from D
to the D an octave higher, divided at the mode final, G
(thus D–E–F–G + G–A–B–C–D); or as a mode with a fi-
nal of G and an ambitus from C below the final to E above Moloch scale on C. Play .
it, in which the note C (the tenor of the corresponding
eighth psalm tone) had an important melodic function.[6] See also: Adonai malakh mode
46.5.1 Traditional
Modern Mixolydian scale on G Play . • "Old Joe Clark"[9][10]
semitones as the major scale, except the seventh degree is • "She Moved Through the Fair" – A traditional Irish
a semitone lower.[1] The Mixolydian mode is sometimes folk song.[11]
called the dominant scale,[7] because it is the mode built
• "As I Was Walking One Morning in May" is in an
on the fifth degree (the dominant) of the major scale. The
Irish air in C Mixolydian[12][13]
flattened seventh of the scale is a tritone away from the
mediant (major-third degree) of the key.
It is common in non-classical harmony, such as jazz, funk, 46.5.2 Popular
blues and rock music.
• "Let It Loose"[14] by The Rolling Stones
The order of tones and semitones in a Mixolydian scale is
TTSTTST (T = tone; S = semitone), while the major scale • "Marquee Moon" by Television[15][16]
is TTSTTTS. The key signature varies accordingly (it will
be the same as that of the major key a fifth below).[1] • Theme From Star Trek[17]
• "Sweet Child o' Mine" (solo is in E♭ natural minor) [5] Harold S. Powers and Frans Wiering, “Mixolydian”, The
by Guns N' Roses[18] New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second
edition, 29 vols., edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrell,
• "Norwegian Wood" by The Beatles (with some 16:766–67 (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001), 767.
verses in Dorian mode)[10][19][20] ISBN 978-1-56159-239-5.
• The Allman Brothers Band's "Ramblin' Man" (with [6] Harold S. Powers and Frans Wiering, “Hypomixolydian”,
blues flavoring)[20] The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, sec-
ond edition, 29 vols., edited by Stanley Sadie and John
• "Gloria" by Them[21] Tyrell, 12:38 (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001)
ISBN 978-1-56159-239-5.
• "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald" by Gordon
[7] Dan Haerle, Scales for Jazz Improvisation (Hialeah:
Lightfoot[22] Columbia Pictures Publications; Lebanon, Indiana: Stu-
dio P/R; Miami: Warner Bros, 1983), p. 15. ISBN 978-
• "Express Yourself" by Madonna[21]
0-89898-705-8.
• "You and I" by Lady Gaga[23] [8] Dick Weissman and Dan Fox, A Guide to Non-Jazz Im-
provisation: Guitar Edition (Pacific, Missouri: Mel Bay
• "Hey Jude" by the Beatles (“outro” section only) [24]
Publications, 2009): p. 130. ISBN 978-0-7866-0751-8.
• "Dark Star" by the Grateful Dead, modal in A [9] Wendy Anthony, "Building a Traditional Tune Repertoire:
Mixolydian[25] Old Joe Clark (Key of A-Mixolydian)", Mandolin Sessions
webzine (February 2007) |(Accessed 2 February 2010).
• “Morning Mr Magpie” by Radiohead[26]
[10] Ted Eschliman, "Something Old. Something New", Man-
• "Royals" by Lorde[27] dolin Sessions webzine (November 2009) (Accessed 2
February 2010).
[27] http://popmusictheory.com/
mixolydian-mode-in-royals-by-lorde/
Ionian mode
47.1 References
• Jones, George Thaddeus. 1974. “Medieval Church
Modes”, in his Music Theory: The Fundamental
Concepts of Tonal Music, Including Notation, Ter-
minology, and Harmony, 42–43. Barnes & No-
ble Outline Series 137. New York, Hagerstown,
San Francisco, London: Barnes & Noble Books;
Toronto: Fitzhenry & Whiteside Limited. ISBN 0-
06-460137-4 ISBN 0-06-467168-2 OCLC 834716
197
Chapter 48
Hypoionian mode
48.1 References
• Powers, Harold S. 2001. “Hypoionian”. The New
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second
edition, 29 vols., edited by Stanley Sadie and John
Tyrrell, 12:37–38. London: Macmillan Publishers.
ISBN 978-1-56159-239-5.
198
Chapter 49
Aeolian mode
199
200 CHAPTER 49. AEOLIAN MODE
49.2 Songs that use Aeolian mode [4] Harold S. Powers, “Mode, §II. Medieval Modal Theory,
2. Carolingian Synthesis, 9th–10th Centuries, (i) The
Boethian Double Octave and the Modes, (b) Tetrachordal
Aeolian mode as a scale is identical with the natural minor
Degrees and Modal Quality.” The New Grove Dictionary
scale. Thus, it is ubiquitous in minor-key music. The fol- of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John
lowing is a list of some examples that are distinguishable Tyrrell (London: Macmillan; New York: Grove’s Dictio-
from ordinary minor tonality. naries, 2001). ISBN 0-333-60800-3; ISBN 1-56159-239-
0; ISBN 978-0-333-60800-5; ISBN 978-1-56159-239-
• Bob Dylan - "All Along the Watchtower"[8] 5; ISBN 0-19-517067-9 (set); ISBN 978-0-19-517067-2
(set).
• R.E.M. - "Losing My Religion"[8]
[5] Harold S. Powers, “Is Mode Real? Pietro Aron, the Octe-
nary System, and Polyphony”, Basler Jahrbuch für his-
49.3 See also torische Musikpraxis 16 (1992): 9–52.
Hypoaeolian mode
50.1 References
• Dickson, Douglas. 1937. “Palestrina’s 'Song of
Solomon'". Music & Letters 18, no. 2 (April): 150–
57.
• Powers, Harold S. 2001. “Hypoaeolian”. The New
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second
edition, 29 vols., edited by Stanley Sadie and John
Tyrrell, 12:36. London: Macmillan Publishers.
ISBN 978-1-56159-239-5.
• Rockstro, W[illiam] S[myth]. 1880. “Modes, the
Ecclesiastical”. A Dictionary of Music and Musi-
201
Chapter 51
Locrian mode
202
51.6. FURTHER READING 203
The name “Locrian” is taken from music theory of [3] W[illiam] S[myth] Rockstro, “Locrian Mode”, A Dictio-
ancient Greece. However, what is now called the Locrian nary of Music and Musicians (A.D. 1450–1880), by Emi-
mode was what the Greeks called the Diatonic Mixoly- nent Writers, English and Foreign, vol. 2, edited by George
dian tonos. The Greeks used the term “Locrian” as an Grove, D. C. L. (London: Macmillan and Co., 1880):
alternative name for their “Hypodorian”, or “Common” 158.
tonos, with a scale running from mese to nete hyperbo- [4] Charlotte Smith, A Manual of Sixteenth-Century Contra-
laion, which in its diatonic genus corresponds to the mod- puntal Style (Newark: University of Delaware Press; Lon-
ern Aeolian mode.[6] In his reform of modal theory in don: Associated University Presses, 1989): 14. ISBN
the Dodecachordon (1547), Heinrich Glarean named this 978-0-87413-327-1.
division of the octave “Hyperaeolian” and printed some [5] W[illiam] S[myth] Rockstro “Modes, the Ecclesiastical”,
musical examples (a three-part polyphonic example spe- A Dictionary of Music and Musicians (A.D. 1450–1880),
cially commissioned from his friend Sixtus Dietrich, and by Eminent Writers, English and Foreign, vol. 2, edited
the Christe from a mass by Pierre de La Rue), though by George Grove, D. C. L., 340–43 (London: Macmillan
he did not accept Hyperaeolian as one of his twelve and Co., 1880): 342.
modes.[7] The usage of the term “Locrian” as equivalent
[6] Thomas J. Mathiesen, “Greece, §1: Ancient; 6: Music
to Glarean’s Hyperaeolian or the ancient Greek (diatonic) Theory”. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Mu-
Mixolydian, however, has no authority before the 19th sicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John
century.[8] Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001).
[7] Harold S. Powers, “Hyperaeolian”, The New Grove Dic-
tionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie
51.4 Usage and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan, 2001.
[8] Harold S. Powers, “Locrian”, The New Grove Dictionary
There are brief passages in works by Rachmaninov of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley
(Prelude in B minor, op. 32, no. 10), Hindemith (Ludus Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers,
Tonalis), and Sibelius (Symphony no. 4 in A minor, op. 2001).
63) that have been, or may be, regarded as in the Locrian
mode.[9] [9] Vincent Persichetti, Twentieth Century Harmony (New
York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1961): 42.
Debussy’s Jeux has three extended passages in the Locrian
[10] Eduardo Larín, "'Waves’ in Debussy’s Jeux", Ex Tempore
mode.[10]
12, no. 2 (Spring/Summer 2005).
The theme of the second movement (“Turandot
[11] Gene Anderson, “The Triumph of Timelessness over
Scherzo”) of Hindemith’s Symphonic Metamorphosis
Time in Hindemith’s 'Turandot Scherzo' from Symphonic
of Themes by Carl Maria von Weber (1943) alternates Metamorphosis of Themes by Carl Maria von Weber", Col-
sections in Mixolydian and Locrian modes, ending in lege Music Symposium 36 (1996): 1–15. Citation on 3.
Locrian.[11]
[12] Anon. no title. English Dance and Song 62 [or possibly
English folk musician John Kirkpatrick's song “Dust to 63] (2000?) (Accessed 23 June 2012)
Dust” was written in the Locrian mode, backed by his
accordion.[12] The Locrian mode is not at all traditional in [13] Allan F. Moore, Song Means: Analysing and Interpreting
English music, but was used by Kirkpatrick as a musical Recorded Popular Song Ashgate Popular and Folk Music
Series (Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.; Burlington,
innovation.
VT: Ashgate Publishing Co., 2012): 169. ISBN 978-
Icelandic singer-songwriter Björk used the Locrian mode 1-4094-2864-0 (cloth); ISBN 978-1-4094-3802-1 (pbk);
for the bass part of her 1995 hit "Army of Me".[13] ISBN 9781409428657 (ebook) (Accessed 24 June 2012).
Hypolocrian mode
52.1 References
• Fellerer, Karl Gustav. 1982. “Kirchenmusikalische
Reformbestrebungen um 1800”. Analecta musico-
logica: Veröffentlichungen der Musikgeschichtlichen
Abteilung des Deutschen Historischen Instituts in Rom
21:393–408.
• Rockstro, W[illiam] S[myth]. 1880a. “Locrian
Mode”. A Dictionary of Music and Musicians (A.D.
1450–1880), by Eminent Writers, English and For-
eign, vol. 2, edited by George Grove, D. C. L., 158.
London: Macmillan and Co.
205
Chapter 53
Byzantine music
Byzantine music (Modern Greek: Βυζαντινή μουσική) the official religion. The Pythagorean sect and music
is the music of the Medieval Roman Empire. The eccle- as part of the four “cyclical exercises” (οἱ ἐγκυκλικοί
siastical forms of Byzantine music, composed to Greek μαθήματα) which preceded the Latin quadrivium and
texts as ceremonial, festival, or church music,[1] are, to- science today based on mathematics, established mainly
day, the most well-known forms. Greek and foreign his- among Greeks in southern Italy (at Tarent and Croton).
torians agree that the ecclesiastical tones and in general Greek anachoretes of the early Middle Ages did still fol-
the whole system of Byzantine music is closely related to low this education. The Calabrian Cassiodorus founded
the ancient Greek system.[2] It remains the oldest genre Vivarium where he translated Greek, and John of Dam-
of extant music, of which the manner of performance and ascus who learnt Greek from a Calabrian monk Kosmas,
(with increasing accuracy from the 5th century onwards) a slave in the household of his privileged father at Dam-
the names of the composers, and sometimes the particu- ascus, mentioned mathematics as part of the speculative
lars of each musical work’s circumstances, are known. philosophy.[3] The mathematic science of harmonics was
never mixed with the concrete topics of a chant manual.
Nevertheless, Byzantine music is modal and entirely de-
53.1 Early years pendent on the Ancient Greek concept of harmonics. Its
tonal system is based on a synthesis with ancient Greek
The term Byzantine music is commonly associated with models,[4] but we have no sources left which explain us,
the medieval sacred chant of Christian Churches fol- how this synthesis was done. Carolingian cantors could
lowing the Constantinopolitan Rite. The identification mix the science of harmonics with a discussion of church
of “Byzantine music” with “Eastern Christian liturgical tones, named after the ethnic names of the octave species
chant” is a misconception due to historical cultural rea- and their transposition tropes, because they invented an
sons. Its main cause is the leading role of the Church own octoechos on the basis of the Byzantine one. But
as bearer of learning and official culture in the Eastern they made no use of earlier Pythagorean concepts which
Roman Empire (Byzantium), a phenomenon that was not had been fundamental for Byzantine music like:
always that extreme but that was exacerbated towards It is not evident by the sources, when exactly the position
the end of the empire’s reign (14th century onwards) of the minor or half tone moved between the devteros and
as great secular scholars migrated away from a declin- tritos. It seems that the fixed degrees (hestotes) became
ing Constantinople to rising western cities, bringing with part of a new concept of the echos as melodic mode (not
them much of the learning that would spur the devel- simply octave species), after the echoi had been called by
opment of the European Renaissance. The shrinking of the ethnic names of the tropes.
Greek speaking official culture around a church nucleus
The tradition of eastern liturgical chant, encom-
was even more accentuated by political force when the
passing the Greek-speaking world, developed in the
official culture of the court changed after the capture of
Byzantine Empire from the establishment of its capital,
Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire on May 29, 1453.
Constantinople, in 330 until its fall in 1453. It is unde-
niably of composite origin, drawing on the artistic and
technical productions of the classical Greek age and in-
53.1.1 The Pythagorean and the Neo- spired by the monophonic vocal music that evolved in
Pythagorean concept of cyclical the early Greek Christian cities of Alexandria, Antioch
mathematics and Ephesus.[5] It was imitated by musicians of the 7th
century to create Arab music as a synthesis of Byzantine
Despite censorship and the decline of knowledge which and Persian music, and these exchanges were continued
marks the rise of Christian civilization within Hellenism, through the Ottoman Empire until Istanbul today.
certain concepts of knowledge and education did still sur-
vive during the imperial age, when Christianity became
206
53.1. EARLY YEARS 207
53.1.2 Instruments between the Byzantine 53.1.3 Acclamations at the court and the
and the Carolingian court Book of Ceremonies
Another genre which lies between liturgical chant and
court ceremonial are the so-called polychronia and
acclamations. The acclamations by the choir to announce
the entrance of the Emperor in the court or in the cathe-
dral can be distinct from polychronia, prayers of the
deacon for present political rulers which are usually an-
swered by a choir with formulas like “Lord have mercy
on us/them” (κύριε ἐλέησον).[11] The documented poly-
chronia in books of the cathedral rite allow a geographical
and a chronological classification of the manuscript and
they are still used during ektenies of the divine liturgies
of national Orthodox ceremonies today.
liturgy for the local cathedral rite. the akolouthiai and some psaltika also contain the elabo-
The notion of angelic chant is certainly older than the rated psalmody, when a protopsaltes recited just one or
Apocalypse account (Revelation 4:8-11), for the musi- two psalm verses. Between the recited psalms and canti-
cal function of angels as conceived in the Old Testa- cles troparia were recited according to the same more or
ment is brought out clearly by Isaiah (6:1-4) and Ezekiel less elaborated psalmody. This context relates antiphonal
(3:12). Most significant in the fact, outlined in Exodus chant genres like antiphona (kind of introits), trisagion
25, that the pattern for the earthly worship of Israel and its substitutes, prokeimenon, allelouiarion, the later
was derived from heaven. The allusion is perpetuated cherubikon and its substitutes, the koinonikon cycles as
they were created during the 9th century. In most of the
in the writings of the early Fathers, such as Clement of
Rome, Justin Martyr, Ignatius of Antioch, Athenagoras cases they were simply troparia and their repetitions or
segments were given by the antiphonon, whether it was
of Athens, John Chrysostom and Pseudo-Dionysius the
Areopagite. It receives acknowledgement later in the sung or not, its three sections of the psalmodic recitation
were separated by the troparion.
liturgical treatises of Nicolas Kavasilas and Symeon of
Thessaloniki.[12]
The second, less permanent, concept was that of koinonia The recitation of the biblical odes
or "communion". This was less permanent because, after
the fourth century, when it was analyzed and integrated
into a theological system, the bond and “oneness” that
united the clergy and the faithful in liturgical worship was
less potent. It is, however, one of the key ideas for under-
standing a number of realities for which we now have dif-
ferent names. With regard to musical performance, this
concept of koinonia may be applied to the primitive use
of the word choros. It referred, not to a separate group
within the congregation entrusted with musical responsi-
bilities, but to the congregation as a whole. St. Ignatius
wrote to the Church in Ephesus in the following way:
53.4.2 The kontakarion of the Peninsula 53.5.3 The synthesis between harmonikai
Athos and papadikai
amples such as that of the eminent composer and the- the apparently lost tradition. His work is continued by
orist Prince Cantemir of Romania learning music from Lycourgos Angelopoulos and other psaltai (“cantors”) of
the Greek musician Angelos, indicate the continuing par- Byzantine music. Two major styles of interpretation have
ticipation of Greek speaking people in court culture. The evolved, the Hagioritic, which is simpler and is mainly
influences of ancient Greek basin and the Greek Chris- followed in monasteries, and the Patriarchal, as exem-
tian chants in the Byzantine music as origin, are con- plified by the style taught at the Great Church of Con-
firmed. Music of Turkey was influenced by Byzantine stantinople, which is more elaborate and is practised in
music, too (mainly in the years 1640-1712).[20] It seems parish churches. Nowadays the Orthodox churches main-
also remarkable that Ottoman music is a synthesis, carry- tain chanting schools in which new cantors are trained.
ing the culture of Greek and Armenian Christian chant. Each diocese employs a protopsaltes (“first cantor”), who
It emerged as the result of a sharing process between the directs the diocesan cathedral choir and supervises mu-
many civilizations which met together in the Orient, con- sical education and performance. The protopsaltes of
sidering the breadth and length of duration of these em- the Patriarchates are given the title Archon Protopsaltes
pires and the great number of ethnicities and major or (“Lord First Cantor”), a title also conferred as an hon-
minor cultures that they encompassed or came in touch orific to distinguished cantors and scholars of Byzantine
with at each stage of their development. music.
53.7.1 Konstantinos Byzantios’ renuncia- For more on the theory of Byzantine music and its cultural
tion of the new method relatives in Greek-speaking peoples see:
• Octoechos
53.7.3 The modern school of the patriar-
chate For collections of Byzantine hymnography see:
For contemporary works featuring Byzantine chant see:
53.8 The Simon Karas school at
Athens • Prayer Bells
53.11 References [18] Frøyshov, Stig Simeon R. (2012). “The Georgian Wit-
ness to the Jerusalem Liturgy: New Sources and Stud-
ies”. In Bert Groen, Steven Hawkes-Teeples, Stefanos
[1] The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. 2007 -
Alexopoulos (eds.). Inquiries into Eastern Christian Wor-
“Byzantine music”
ship: Selected Papers of the Second International Congres-
[2] Ecumenical Patriarchate sof the Society of Oriental Liturgy (Rome, 17–21 Septem-
ber 2008). Eastern Christian Studies 12. Leuven, Paris,
[3] John of Damascus (1958). Πηγή Γνώσεως. New York. Walpole: Peeters. pp. 227–267.
p. 12.
[19] Raasted, Jørgen, ed. (1983). The Hagiopolites: A Byzan-
[4] "The Byzantine music and notation system" according to tine Treatise on Musical Theory. Cahiers de l'Institut du
the Institute for Research on Music and Acoustics. Moyen-Âge Grec et Latin 45. Copenhagen: Paludan.
[13] Troelsgård, Christian. “Psalm, § III Byzantine Psalmody”. • Troelsgård, Christian (ed.). “Monumenta Musicae
Grove Music Online. Retrieved 20 April 2012. Byzantinae”. University of Copenhagen, Saxo In-
stitute, Dept. of Greek and Latin.
[14] Strunk, William Oliver (1956). “The Byzantine Office at
Hagia Sophia”. Dumbarton Oaks Papers 9/10: 175–202. • “A Handbook on Theoretical and Practical Music”
Retrieved 11 April 2012. from 1825 (handwritten copy of Chrysanthos’ Mega
Theoretikon, first volume, by Basileios Nikolaḯdes
[15] Koder, Johannes (2008). “Imperial Propaganda in the Byzantios).
Kontakia of Romanos the Melode”. Dumbarton Oaks Pa-
pers 62: 275–291. ISSN 0070-7546. JSTOR 20788050. • Conomos, Dimitri E. “A Brief Survey of the History
of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Chant”. Text re-
[16] See the marble screen of Veliko Tarnovo which is close produced with permission from Dr. Conomos’ text
to the reconstruction based on a marble fragment of the at the website of the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese
6th century. Tschilingirov, Assen (1978). Die Kunst des of America.
christlichen Mittelalters in Bulgarien. Berlin: Union. p.
18.
Leading-tone
215
216 CHAPTER 54. LEADING-TONE
54.2 Sources
According to Ernst Kurth (1913) the major and minor
thirds contain “latent” tendencies towards the perfect • Benward, Bruce, and Marilyn Nadine Saker (2003).
fourth and whole-tone, respectively, and thus establish Music: In Theory and Practice, Vol. I, seventh
tonality. However, Carl Dahlhaus (1990) shows that this edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-
drive is in fact created through or with harmonic func- 294262-0.
tion, a root progression in another voice by a whole-tone
or fifth, or melodically (monophonically) by the context • Berger, Karol (1987). Musica Ficta: Theories
of the scale. For example, the leading note of alternating of Accidental Inflections in Vocal Polyphony from
C chord and F minor chords is either the note E leading Marchetto da Padova to Gioseffo Zarlino. Cam-
to F, if F is tonic, or A♭ leading to G, if C is tonic. In bridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
works from the 14th and 15th century Western tradition, ISBN 0-521-32871-3 (cloth); ISBN 0-521-54338-
the leading-note is created by the progression from im- X (pbk).
perfect to perfect dissonances, such as a major third to a
perfect fifth or minor third to a unison. The same pitch • Coker, Jerry (1991). Elements of the Jazz Lan-
outside of the imperfect consonance is not a leading note. guage for the Developing Improvisor. Miami, Fla.:
CCP/Belwin, Inc. ISBN 1-57623-875-X.
As a diatonic function the leading-note is the seventh
scale degree of any diatonic scale when the distance be- • Dahlhaus, Carl (1990). Studies in the Origin of
tween it and the tonic is a single semitone. In diatonic Harmonic Tonality, trans. Robert O. Gjerdingen,
scales where there is a whole tone between the seventh pp.184-85. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
scale degree and the tonic, such as the Mixolydian mode, ISBN 0-691-09135-8.
the seventh degree is called instead, the subtonic.
• Kurth, Ernst (1913). Die Voraussetzungen der theo-
retischen Harmonik und der tonalen Darstellungssys-
teme, pp. 119ff. Bern: Akademische Buchhandlung
M. Drechsel. Unaltered reprint edition, with an af-
terword by Carl DahlhausMunich: E. Katzbichler,
1973. ISBN 3-87397-014-7.
55.1 Terminology
217
218 CHAPTER 55. HARMONIC SERIES (MUSIC)
Typical pitched instruments are designed to have partials the vibrating medium and/or the resonator it vibrates
that are close to being whole-number ratios, harmonics, against often alter these frequencies. (See inharmonicity
with very low inharmonicity; therefore, in music theory, and stretched tuning for alterations specific to wire-
and in instrument tuning, it is convenient to speak of the stringed instruments and certain electric pianos.) How-
partials in those instruments’ sounds as harmonics, even ever, those alterations are small, and except for precise,
if they have some inharmonicity. Other pitched instru- highly specialized tuning, it is reasonable to think of the
ments, especially certain percussion instruments, such as frequencies of the harmonic series as integer multiples of
marimba, vibraphone, tubular bells, and timpani, contain the fundamental frequency.
mostly inharmonic partials, yet may give the ear a good
The harmonic series is an arithmetic series (1×f, 2×f,
sense of pitch. Unpitched, or indefinite-pitched instru- 3×f, 4×f, 5×f, ...). In terms of frequency (measured in
ments, such as cymbals, gongs, or tam-tams make sounds
cycles per second, or hertz (Hz) where f is the fundamen-
(produce spectra) rich in inharmonic partials. tal frequency), the difference between consecutive har-
An overtone is any partial except the lowest. Overtone monics is therefore constant and equal to the fundamen-
does not imply harmonicity or inharmonicity and has no tal. But because human ears respond to sound nonlin-
other special meaning other than to exclude the funda- early, higher harmonics are perceived as “closer together”
mental. This can lead to numbering confusion when com- than lower ones. On the other hand, the octave series is a
paring overtones to partials; the first overtone is the sec- geometric progression (2×f, 4×f, 8×f, 16×f, ...), and peo-
ond partial. ple hear these distances as “the same” in the sense of mu-
Some electronic instruments, such as theremins and sical interval. In terms of what one hears, each octave in
synthesizers, can play a pure frequency with no overtones, the harmonic series is divided into increasingly “smaller”
although synthesizers can also combine frequencies into and more numerous intervals.
more complex tones, for example to simulate other instru- The second harmonic, whose frequency is twice of the
ments. Certain flutes and ocarinas are very nearly without fundamental, sounds an octave higher; the third har-
overtones. monic, three times the frequency of the fundamental,
sounds a perfect fifth above the second. The fourth har-
monic vibrates at four times the frequency of the funda-
55.2 Frequencies, wavelengths, mental and sounds a perfect fourth above the third (two
octaves above the fundamental). Double the harmonic
and musical intervals in ex- number means double the frequency (which sounds an
octave higher).
ample systems
The simplest case to visualise is a vibrating string, as
in the illustration; the string has fixed points at each
end, and each harmonic mode divides it into 1, 2, 3, 4, An illustration of the harmonic series in musical notation. The
etc., equal-sized sections resonating at increasingly higher numbers above the harmonic indicate the number of cents dif-
frequencies.[4] Similar arguments apply to vibrating air ference from equal temperament (rounded to the nearest cent).
columns in wind instruments, although these are compli- Blue notes are flat and red notes are sharp.
cated by having the possibility of anti-nodes (that is, the
air column is closed at one end and open at the other),
conical as opposed to cylindrical bores, or end-openings
that run the gamut from no flare (bell), cone flare (bell),
or exponentially shaped flares (bells).
In most pitched musical instruments, the fundamen-
tal (first harmonic) is accompanied by other, higher-
frequency harmonics. Thus shorter-wavelength, higher-
frequency waves occur with varying prominence and give
each instrument its characteristic tone quality. The fact
that a string is fixed at each end means that the longest Harmonic series as musical notation with intervals between har-
monics labeled. Blue notes differ most significantly from equal
allowed wavelength on the string (giving the fundamen-
temperament. You can listen to A2 (110 Hz) and 15 of its partials
tal frequency) is twice the length of the string (one round
trip, with a half cycle fitting between the nodes at the two
ends). Other allowed wavelengths are 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5,
1/6, etc. times that of the fundamental. 55.3 Harmonics and tuning
Theoretically, these shorter wavelengths correspond to
vibrations at frequencies that are 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc., times If the harmonics are transposed into the span of one
the fundamental frequency. Physical characteristics of octave, they approximate some of the notes in what the
55.4. TIMBRE OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 219
The frequencies of the harmonic series, being integer Variations in the frequency of harmonics can also affect
multiples of the fundamental frequency, are naturally re- the perceived fundamental pitch. These variations, most
lated to each other by whole-numbered ratios and small clearly documented in the piano and other stringed instru-
whole-numbered ratios are likely the basis of the con- ments but also apparent in brass instruments, are caused
sonance of musical intervals (see just intonation). This by a combination of metal stiffness and the interaction of
objective structure is augmented by psychoacoustic phe- the vibrating air or string with the resonating body of the
nomena. For example, a perfect fifth, say 200 and 300 instrument.
Hz (cycles per second), causes a listener to perceive a
combination tone of 100 Hz (the difference between 300
Hz and 200 Hz); that is, an octave below the lower (actual
sounding) note. This 100 Hz first-order combination tone
then interacts with both notes of the interval to produce
second-order combination tones of 200 (300 – 100) and 55.5 Interval strength
100 (200 – 100) Hz and all further nth-order combination
tones are all the same, being formed from various sub-
traction of 100, 200, and 300. When one contrasts this David Cope (1997) suggests the concept of interval
with a dissonant interval such as a tritone (not tempered) strength,[6] in which an interval’s strength, consonance, or
with a frequency ratio of 7:5 we get, for example, 700 – stability (see consonance and dissonance) is determined
500 = 200 (1st order combination tone) and 500 – 200 = by its approximation to a lower and stronger, or higher
300 (2nd order). The rest of the combination tones are and weaker, position in the harmonic series. See also:
octaves of 100 Hz so the 7:5 interval actually contains 4 Lipps–Meyer law.
notes: 100 Hz (and its octaves), 300 Hz, 500 Hz and 700 Thus, an equal-tempered perfect fifth ( play ) is stronger
Hz. Note that the lowest combination tone (100 Hz) is a than an equal-tempered minor third ( play ), since they
17th (2 octaves and a major third) below the lower (actual approximate a just perfect fifth ( play ) and just minor
sounding) note of the tritone. All the intervals succumb third ( play ), respectively. The just minor third appears
to similar analysis as has been demonstrated by Paul Hin- between harmonics 5 and 6 while the just fifth appears
demith in his book The Craft of Musical Composition. lower, between harmonics 2 and 3.
220 CHAPTER 55. HARMONIC SERIES (MUSIC)
55.7 References
[1] William Forde Thompson (2008). Music, Thought, and
Feeling: Understanding the Psychology of Music. p. 46.
ISBN 978-0-19-537707-1.
[3] Martha Goodway and Jay Scott Odell (1987). The His-
torical Harpsichord Volume Two: The Metallurgy of 17th-
and 18th- Century Music Wire. Pendragon Press. ISBN
978-0-918728-54-8.
Harmonic
This article is about the components of periodic signals. frequency, i.e. if the fundamental frequency is f, the har-
For other uses, see Harmonic (disambiguation). monics have frequencies 2f, 3f, 4f, . . . etc. The har-
A harmonic of a wave is a component frequency of monics have the property that they are all periodic at the
fundamental frequency, therefore the sum of harmonics
is also periodic at that frequency. Harmonic frequencies
are equally spaced by the width of the fundamental fre-
1/2
quency and can be found by repeatedly adding that fre-
quency. For example, if the fundamental frequency (first
harmonic) is 25 Hz, the frequencies of the next harmon-
1/3 2/3 ics are: 50 Hz (2nd harmonic), 75 Hz (3rd harmonic),
100 Hz (4th harmonic) etc.
1/4 3/4
56.1 Characteristics
1/6 5/6
221
222 CHAPTER 56. HARMONIC
• Electronic tuner
• Formant
• Fourier series
• Harmonic oscillator
• Harmony
• Pinch harmonic
• Pure tone
• Pythagorean tuning
• Scale of harmonics
• Spherical harmonics
• Stretched octave
• Subharmonic
• Tap harmonic
• Xenharmonic
56.6 References
[1] Acoustical Society of America - Large grand and small
upright pianos by Alexander Galembo and Lola L. Cuddly
AByrd, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Sevilledade, 718 Bot, DragonBot, Excirial, Libermann, Butamironin, Estirabot, Jayan-
tanth, Cenarium, Arjayay, Muro Bot, Versus22, XLinkBot, Koolabsol, Ajcheema, Nepenthes, Little Mountain 5, Ilikepie2221, Luoli-
mao, Vianello, ZooFari, Ec0000, Tayste, Addbot, Kcg7526, Shirtwaist, MrOllie, AnnaFrance, LinkFA-Bot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Teles,
Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Playclever, Againme, MinorProphet, AnomieBOT, Musicalnotation, Andreibanc, Piano non troppo,
Eternallyjess, Quangsang, Coloradorun3, ImperatorExercitus, Peterkp, DareNotBecause, 19DrPepper91, Citation bot, Another Stickler,
ArthurBot, Ginstar, Xqbot, Juri Koll, Spidern, Haostaff, RibotBOT, Sophus Bie, Vedabit, Kat384, Shadowjams, Samwb123, FrescoBot,
LucienBOT, Platonykiss, MathHisSci, Martin strid, Izzedine, Rigaudon, Citation bot 1, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, Sluffs, Number Googol, ES-
Sch, GreenZeb, 3jcnguyen, MastiBot, Be good silverster, Hbj200, Lotje, Reidiiius, Baunaa, Daphne Hughes, Waltztime, Nascar1996,
Altes2009, Charles.slade, EmausBot, JCRules, Milkunderwood, MrFawwaz, Akin kay, Lamb99, John Cline, Knight1993, Waterfalls12,
Aeonx, Gz33, TK5610L, Tolly4bolly, Sakura-iro no namida, CountMacula, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Scotland-inch, Michalis Meli-
donis, Justlettersandnumbers, Byzelectro, EnekoGotzon, O.Koslowski, B Melo B, Lashuto, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, MusikAnimal, Mark
Arsten, Koolbeansbrosky68, Toccata quarta, Fdizile, Nicomiller10, Jiffystiffy, Jc1326, Noman mnbvcxz, ChrisGualtieri, Jihadcola, Dexbot,
Gurbajneo, Mogism, Reatlas, Scli2000, Hongov13, Theo’s Little Bot, Inglok, Keunwoochoi, E3, Cudc, Kmiyashiro, Dcmo, Seehos, Stud-
iesWorld, Russellambrose, Kingpiewashere, Dwheedon and Anonymous: 388
• Pitch (music) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch%20(music)?oldid=634613483 Contributors: Derek Ross, Lee Daniel Crocker,
The Anome, Tarquin, -- April, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, PierreAbbat, Camembert, Youandme, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Menchi, Flamurai,
Ahoerstemeier, TUF-KAT, JWSchmidt, Andrewa, Julesd, Andres, Bemoeial, Dysprosia, WhisperToMe, Jessel, Hyacinth, Saltine, Omega-
tron, Opus33, Denelson83, PuzzletChung, Fredrik, Merovingian, Academic Challenger, Ojigiri, Intangir, Dave Bass, Wile E. Heresiarch,
Adam78, Gershom, Graeme Bartlett, Michael.chlistalla, No Guru, Ajgorhoe, Abu badali, Glogger, Fg2, Abdull, Flyhighplato, Discospin-
ster, Rich Farmbrough, Stereotek, ESkog, Kjoonlee, Mwanner, Alberto Orlandini, Rcsheets, Gyll, Bobo192, Marco Polo, Longhair, Func,
Gruntbuggly, Eric Kvaalen, Comrade009, Dtcdthingy, Gpvos, Pethr, Woodstone, Gene Nygaard, Arent, Mindmatrix, WadeSimMiser, SDC,
Graham87, Deltabeignet, BD2412, Kbdank71, Wahoofive, SMC, Thenthorn, Anskas, RexNL, Glenn L, Ben Tibbetts, Roboto de Ajvol,
Wavelength, Jimp, Peter S., Anomalocaris, NawlinWiki, Twin Bird, Howcheng, Juanpdp, Nick C, Kenkoo1987, David Underdown, Tlevine,
Light current, Zero1328, Paul Magnussen, Pb30, Chrishmt0423, Pjwhams, Nick Michael, Crystallina, SmackBot, Pfly, Gilliam, Jpascher,
Cobain, OrphanBot, MDCollins, Acepectif, Just plain Bill, ILike2BeAnonymous, Daniel.Cardenas, Yevgeny Kats, Will Beback, The under-
tow, Esrever, Eliyak, Wvbailey, Rigadoun, Gobonobo, Regan123, Special-T, Dicklyon, Dalstadt, Mets501, Vashtihorvat, Kvng, Iridescent,
Impy4ever, FelisSchrödingeris, GregFox, Tawkerbot2, JForget, KdubbG, Rambam rashi, JohnCD, MaxEnt, Lesqual, Arturocl, Chasingsol,
Pascal.Tesson, DavidRF, Friera, Fernandopascullo, GideonF, Jcrabb, ThomasPusch, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, PhJ, Sluzzelin, JAnD-
bot, Agrestis, Arnold Go, CMUJoiseyBoy, VoABot II, Ralph Dancis, Jerome Kohl, Kaiserkarl13, SwiftBot, Vanished user ty12kl89jq10,
MartinBot, Nono64, Boston, Jargon777, Kakahiaka, Chromana, Sigmundpetersen, SharkD, Revoranii, Warut, Red Buttons, JHeinonen,
Lyctc, Sparafucil, Vbrover, B.haynes, Thisisborin9, Nicodeamuz, BotKung, Houtlijm, Tomaxer, Sapphic, HiDrNick, Bitbut, Gerrywright,
Stepwrong, dumbass, BotMultichill, Lucasbfrbot, Happysailor, Universalcosmos, Paolo.dL, Yerpo, Oxymoron83, Ddxc, Steven Zhang,
Sanya3, Fratrep, Anchor Link Bot, Pagen HD, Eebahgum, Angel caboodle, ClueBot, Binksternet, Narom, The Thing That Should Not
Be, FABilsen, Inala, JonPowles, Mate2code, Rinotallsox, Kmaster, Redthoreau, SchreiberBike, Thehelpfulone, La Pianista, Aitias, Marc
van Leeuwen, Facts707, Memoryboy, Tayste, Addbot, Xp54321, Fgnievinski, Redheylin, LAAFan, Tassedethe, Newfraferz87, Lightbot,
Cesiumfrog, Vasiľ, ماني, Num43, Matt.T, WikiDan61, VengeancePrime, Ofiachain, Intothewoods29, AnomieBOT, Andreibanc, Yachts-
man1, Flewis, Materialscientist, Rtrsr, Balkan Sasieni, Another Stickler, Nickkid5, Br77rino, Polemyx, Susannah Dingley, Frankie0607,
Samwb123, FrescoBot, Rigaudon, I dream of horses, Elockid, NarSakSasLee, PeterFlannery, RjwilmsiBot, Timbliboo, DASHBot, Im-
munize, GoingBatty, RA0808, Western Pines, مانفی, Wikipelli, Fæ, 256 C, Eparker15, PapLorinc, Atlantictire, Emmanems, Spicemix,
ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Jack Greenmaven, Poolpeggy, Widr, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, TheGeneralUser,
MusikAnimal, Toccata quarta, Anbu121, Tutelary, NGC 2736, Eflatmajor7th, GoShow, Saxophilist, Hucbald.SaintAmand, , Mark viking,
Epicgenius, Ruby Murray, Ginsuloft, K.zoya, Monkbot and Anonymous: 344
• Pitch circularity Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch%20circularity?oldid=629377741 Contributors: Hyacinth, Rjwilmsi, Then-
thorn, SteveBaker, Bhny, R'n'B, Bigdumbdinosaur, Pdcook, Dianadeutsch, 7&6=thirteen, Citation bot, RjwilmsiBot, EuroFlounder, Bib-
code Bot, Monkbot and Anonymous: 3
• Interval (music) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interval%20(music)?oldid=640385383 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Zundark,
Jeronimo, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, PierreAbbat, SimonP, Merphant, Heron, Karl Palmen, Camembert, J.F.Quackenbush, Michael Hardy,
Tim Starling, Wshun, Mic, CatherineMunro, AugPi, Nikai, Jimregan, Dcoetzee, Maximus Rex, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Omegatron, Rob-
bot, Fredrik, Naddy, Stewartadcock, Arseni, Bkell, Giftlite, Gwalla, Gene Ward Smith, Abu badali, Karol Langner, Sharavanabhava,
Icairns, Goh wz, Neutrality, DaveSeidel, Jcw69, MakeRocketGoNow, El C, Army1987, Viames, Dungodung, Knucmo2, Jumbuck, Alan-
sohn, Keenan Pepper, Burn, Woodstone, HGB, Netkinetic, Nudas veritas, Znusgy, Sterio, Georgia guy, Gerd Breitenbach, Miaow Miaow,
StradivariusTV, Noetica, Taestell, Mendaliv, Wahoofive, Missmarple, Roivas, The wub, JRBliss, FlaBot, RobertG, Mathbot, Glenn L,
Chobot, Gdrbot, YurikBot, Wavelength, Dsmouse, Yrithinnd, Tastemyhouse, Tony1, Mattks, Wknight94, JoanneB, ABehrens, Smack-
Bot, Pfly, SaxTeacher, KocjoBot, Mscuthbert, Eskimbot, Ema Zee, Chris the speller, Bluebot, CSWarren, Patriarch, Pliny, Ksn, Breno,
Dicklyon, Aeternus, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, MrFizyx, Myasuda, Musicalantonio, Cydebot, Matt.kaner, JohnClarknew, Thijs!bot, Epbr123,
Jaxelrod, WinBot, Aruffo, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Nannus, Prof.rick, Jerome Kohl, Faizhaider, Vanished user ty12kl89jq10, Ours18, Dan
Pelleg, Jtir, MartinBot, Dormous, Telos, Adavidb, Squids and Chips, VolkovBot, Thewolf37, Philip Trueman, David Condrey, Houtlijm,
Billinghurst, Feetonthedesk, Barkeep, TorLillqvist, Paolo.dL, BartekChom, Hobartimus, Gunmetal Angel, SoundOfNumbers, Anchor Link
Bot, Chrisswan23, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons, Auntof6, Estirabot, Ravenna1961, Sarindam7, XLinkBot, Tayste, Addbot, Download,
Redheylin, Tassedethe, Lavdal, Luckas-bot, Nallimbot, AnomieBOT, MattTait, Bunnylaughing, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Erigenia,
Leirbag.arc, Jubileeclipman, Mcoupal, Braybaroque, Smxw, Alexander.hugh.george, FrescoBot, Rigaudon, Ultimarko, HamburgerRadio,
Arpadkorossy, DarrenGuitarGuy, Turian, Gnathan87, John of Reading, BarretS, Emdelrio, CountMacula, TYelliot, ClueBot NG, This
lousy T-shirt, Satellizer, Justlettersandnumbers, Lanthanum-138, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, DustyComputer, Chrysalifour-
four, PhnomPencil, SuperMau, Hmainsbot1, Dimaug, Ncwarrin, IdGnomes, Lagoset, Köwpix and Anonymous: 158
• Note Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Note?oldid=640646347 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Sodium, Bryan Derksen, Tarquin,
Jeronimo, Karl E. V. Palmen, Christian List, Gianfranco, Merphant, Camembert, J.F.Quackenbush, Hephaestos, Bdesham, Michael Hardy,
Menchi, Goatasaur, Anders Feder, CatherineMunro, Andrewa, AugPi, Johan Magnus, Andrewman327, WhisperToMe, Hyacinth, Omega-
tron, Indefatigable, Stormie, Donarreiskoffer, Robbot, R3m0t, Ojigiri, SoLando, Guy Peters, Alan Liefting, Matt Gies, JamesMLane,
Xorx77, Utcursch, Quadell, Noe, Antandrus, MFNickster, Zfr, Sam Hocevar, Rsvk, Cwitschy, Valmi, Corti, Mike Rosoft, SimonEast,
Mani1, Paul August, Stereotek, Goochelaar, Kwamikagami, Bobo192, NetBot, .:Ajvol:., Haham hanuka, Espoo, LtNOWIS, Arthena,
Viridian, DreamGuy, Wtmitchell, Woodstone, Gene Nygaard, HenryLi, Georgia guy, Dbolton, Pictureuploader, Noetica, Essjay, A3r0,
Graham87, FreplySpang, Dvyost, Rjwilmsi, Wahoofive, Missmarple, OneWeirdDude, Bill37212, Eyu100, Vegaswikian, FayssalF, Ni-
226 CHAPTER 56. HARMONIC
hiltres, RexNL, Gurch, Drumguy8800, YurikBot, Wavelength, Woseph, AVM, NawlinWiki, Ozzykhan, ONEder Boy, Rbarreira, RL0919,
Wknight94, Nippoo, RenegadeMinds, DVD R W, SmackBot, Kurochka, David Kernow, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, KocjoBot, Natrix,
Eskimbot, Bromskloss, D39, SergeantBolt, Chris the speller, OAS, FordPrefect42, Octahedron80, Javalenok, Springeragh, AussieLegend,
Ioscius, Jennica, TonySt, MDCollins, A.R., Rhkramer, Andeggs, Kukini, Platonides, Microchip08, Rigadoun, Jim.belk, 16@r, Avs5221,
Dicklyon, MTSbot, Blehfu, Generalcp702, Dgw, AndrewHowse, Jac16888, MC10, Synergy, Jono4174, JamesAM, Wikid77, Berria,
ClosedEyesSeeing, Marek69, Mentifisto, WinBot, Seaphoto, Aruffo, Joachim Michaelis, Gdead, Thuber, Mdz, N64349, Sluzzelin, JAnD-
bot, Struthious Bandersnatch, Hut 8.5, Thasaidon, VoABot II, Fallon Turner, Tachypaidia, JMyrleFuller, Jtir, MartinBot, Penpen, Anaxial,
CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, Mange01, Acalamari, FrummerThanThou, It Is Me Here, Mufka, Whateverist, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot,
Xenonice, VolkovBot, AdamSommerton, DoorsAjar, Kotiarr, Martin451, MarshallKe, Cremepuff222, Njarl, Canada-kawaii, Sauronjim,
SieBot, TJRC, Brkress, Ferbr1, Caltas, TorLillqvist, Oda Mari, Paolo.dL, JSpung, Macy, DancingPhilosopher, Lulu Margarida, ClueBot,
Binksternet, GorillaWarfare, The Thing That Should Not Be, Boing! said Zebedee, ParisianBlade, Chininazu12, Computer97, Gemini.liz,
Ottawa4ever, Versus22, Heyzeuss, SoxBot III, GhettoPappi144, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Gnowor, Koumz, Fede.Campana, Weitzhandler,
Addbot, Tcncv, Ronhjones, Electron, CarsracBot, Glane23, Ganjasmuggler69, Squandermania, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Legobot,
Yobot, Guocuozuoduo, Ptbotgourou, TaBOT-zerem, Nallimbot, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Felipe Gonçalves Assis, Jim1138, Blaz-
erKnight, Kingpin13, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, McSush, Taeshadow, ArthurBot, LovesMacs, Dany 123, Cureden, Capricorn42,
Inyrface, Ruy Pugliesi, GrouchoBot, Doulos Christos, Sophus Bie, Deni42, Shadowjams, Thehelpfulbot, Spongefrog, FrescoBot, Tan-
gent747, Rigaudon, Razornylon, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, PrincessofLlyr, The Arbiter, A8UDI, Number Googol, RedBot, Hellzies,
Jauhienij, Double sharp, Peregrin Falcon, PointyEars, LilyKitty, RocK&terpretation, Minimac, Brambleclawx, DRAGON BOOSTER,
EmausBot, John of Reading, Heracles31, 3dec3, Ida Shaw, Makecat, Wayne Slam, Tolly4bolly, Esimon221, Δ, Captain Pouch, ClueBot
NG, Pradeep717, Widr, Electriccatfish2, Strike Eagle, Titodutta, BG19bot, Hallows AG, Wiki13, Sowsnek, Mark Arsten, GreyAlien502,
Gurinder62, Basemetal, Heterodoxa, Torp105, TowerOfBricks, Graphium, SteenthIWbot, Faizan, Jamesmcmahon0, BamanPiderman, The
Black Notes, Ankurkshwh, Tentinator, TCMemoire, Kmiyashiro, Chrisrak11, S405388, BethNaught, Mierb, Garettracey, LadyLeodia and
Anonymous: 356
• Semitone Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitone?oldid=624353922 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Tarquin, Michael Hardy, Mpolo,
Salsa Shark, AugPi, Dysprosia, Hyacinth, Bkell, Gwalla, Crculver, Gene Ward Smith, Gilgamesh, Antandrus, Olivier Debre, Jag123, Nsaa,
Keenan Pepper, Malber, Woodstone, HGB, Noetica, Melesse, RobertG, Intgr, Glenn L, ENeville, Wknight94, SmackBot, JörgenMoorlag,
Monz, Nscheffey, Cazort, Bluebot, CSWarren, Octahedron80, Hgrosser, Fretsource, A.R., Andeggs, Lambiam, Žiga, Carneyfex, Rain-
warrior, Dicklyon, Big Smooth, MTSbot, Di4gram, Cydebot, Kupirijo, Rracecarr, After Midnight, Epanalepsis, The Wednesday Island,
Ozzieboy, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Magioladitis, Prof.rick, Jerome Kohl, Faizhaider, Gabriel Kielland, Spellmaster, Jtir, CommonsDelinker,
Violask81976, Knverma, Gwib, Houtlijm, Paolo.dL, Allmightyduck, Fratrep, SoundOfNumbers, ClueBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Alexbot,
BassHistory, Tjako, Tayste, Addbot, Sushiyum, Wii Man420, Yobot, JackieBot, LilHelpa, TinucherianBot II, Jubileeclipman, Composer-
jude, Rigaudon, Lizziebit, RedBot, FoxBot, Double sharp, John of Reading, Tolly4bolly, Δ, ClueBot NG, Justlettersandnumbers, Helpful
Pixie Bot, CitationCleanerBot, Aristoxenos, Monkbot and Anonymous: 68
• Octave Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octave?oldid=641326932 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, AxelBoldt, Eloquence, Tarquin,
Malcolm Farmer, Andre Engels, Karl E. V. Palmen, Merphant, Camembert, ASchoenhofer, Bdesham, Michael Hardy, Menchi, Sannse,
Ahoerstemeier, Darkwind, AugPi, Nikai, Guaka, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Saltine, Shizhao, Denelson83, PuzzletChung, Robbot, Reytan, Matt
Gies, DocWatson42, Michael Devore, Andycjp, LucasVB, Vina, MisterSheik, Kwamikagami, Shanes, Larry V, Andrewbadr, Jumbuck,
Alansohn, Raboof, Keenan Pepper, Zippanova, Malo, Norgaard, Velella, Cburnett, Computerjoe, SteinbDJ, Alai, Macronyx, WadeSim-
Miser, Denismattos, Noetica, Jbarta, Wahoofive, Hiberniantears, Thenthorn, FlaBot, Glenn L, Chobot, Sbrools, YurikBot, Wavelength,
Jimp, Pigman, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas, Wimt, Pagrashtak, Chick Bowen, Mareklug, Wknight94, Light current, Zzuuzz,
PTSE, Thesleepwalker, Junglecat, Yakudza, SmackBot, Unyoyega, LVC, Monz, Chris the speller, Octahedron80, Alphathon, Amber388,
MDCollins, Addshore, Melbournian, Just plain Bill, DohCam, Bdiscoe, Andeggs, Rigadoun, Rainwarrior, Dicklyon, Cinnamon Apple,
MTSbot, Sonic3KMaster, Shandris, Apus, Jono4174, CieloEstrellado, Thijs!bot, James086, Nick Number, Dawnseeker2000, Camper-
Strike, Михајло Анђелковић, Qubixrube, JEH, MikeLynch, JAnDbot, Sonics, Husond, Oxinabox, MSBOT, .anacondabot, Bongwarrior,
VoABot II, Avjoska, Jerome Kohl, Starryharlequin, MartinBot, Avsharath, Mårten Berglund, R'n'B, Toenh, Axhahariel, Frank Zamjatin,
PepperWhipple, Joeinwap, ABF, AlnoktaBOT, Knverma, Red Act, Houtlijm, Spinningspark, Rock Soldier, Bitbut, The Random Edi-
tor, SieBot, Friendly person, Flyer22, Paolo.dL, SoundOfNumbers, Anchor Link Bot, Efe, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be,
Keithbowden, RRG356, Feline Hymnic, Computer97, ClintGoss, Addbot, LuK3, Yobot, WikiDan61, AnomieBOT, Helixer, ArthurBot,
Xqbot, TinucherianBot II, Capricorn42, Fewskulchor, Dear cobain, Joey0001, 2ndAccount, FrescoBot, Rigaudon, Pinethicket, Adlerbot,
Jauhienij, TBloemink, Nataev, Aquagirl360, Tbhotch, RjwilmsiBot, Kpufferfish, WikitanvirBot, 3dec3, MikeyMouse10, Werieth, Donder-
vogel 2, Sahimrobot, CountMacula, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Cj005257-public, CitationCleanerBot, Jbailhe, Lagoset, Heyooooo08,
FW1947 and Anonymous: 134
• Tritone Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritone?oldid=636098468 Contributors: Matthew Woodcraft, The Anome, Tarquin, Koy-
aanis Qatsi, Camembert, J.F.Quackenbush, Bdesham, Zeno Gantner, Emperor, AugPi, Andres, Pladask, Joshk, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Ed
g2s, Bkell, Gwalla, Gene Ward Smith, Varlaam, Jrc, Krupo, Hugh7, Roo72, Rajah, Anthony Appleyard, Keenan Pepper, Sabrebattletank,
BRW, Franz Michaelis, HGB, Dismas, Japanese Searobin, Zanaq, Jftsang, Catachresis, Deltabeignet, BorgHunter, Rjwilmsi, Roivas, FlaBot,
Thebeatlesanthol, Vilcxjo, DannyDaWriter, Glenn L, Sharkface217, YurikBot, RobotE, Red Slash, Hede2000, Kvuo, Bovineone, Welsh,
Yahya Abdal-Aziz, Tastemyhouse, Peter Delmonte, Wknight94, Light current, Ninly, Patrick Loiseleur, GLmathgrant, SmackBot, RDBury,
Pfly, Mscuthbert, Pika132, Petteroes, Chris the speller, Campcase, Durinthal, Gracenotes, Shunpiker, Andeggs, Lambiam, Cpratt, Erga-
tive rlt, Johanna-Hypatia, Adagio Cantabile, Rigadoun, Tlesher, Backstabb, Carneyfex, Rainwarrior, Laogeodritt, Ryouga, Aeternus, Ble-
hfu, Jake381, Alpha Ursae Minoris, Mapsax, Dycedarg, Demockracy, KyraVixen, Nunquam Dormio, ShelfSkewed, Pstarbuck, Paulgear,
Tooltroll, Apus, After Midnight, Thijs!bot, DanielLevitin, Klausness, MegX, Helge Skjeveland, VoABot II, Jerome Kohl, Faizhaider,
Catgut, Zelator, Upholder, MarcusMaximus, Padillah, Blue Dinosaur Jr, Jmm6f488, DandyDan2007, Jazzedge, Skullketon, Gibsonin-
side, Lamp90, Vyn, Regenspaziergang, Kyle the bot, NoisySerg, DISEman, Broadbot, Argenpani, Oldwes, StillOfTheNight Band, Russ-
Martin4154, Tacoekkel, Paolo.dL, Yerpo, Ase8913, AMCKen, Evelyncor, Pequeniosaltamontes, Czarkoff, M.J.E., Orlando098, Nfort049,
Jim Sniper, Florin zeitblom, XLinkBot, Tayste, JazzyBunny, Addbot, Jafeluv, Mac Dreamstate, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-
zerem, AnomieBOT, Billlyons, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Fewskulchor, J04n, FrescoBot, Rigaudon, I dream of horses, Gingermint, Der
Elbenkoenig, NimbusWeb, Pollinosisss, Aemerkel, Diannaa, Aurora Illumina, Galloping Moses, Keluan, ZéroBot, Josve05a, Mcg182m,
DipCup101, Teo Orlando, ClueBot NG, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, PhnomPencil, Toccata quarta, Tmoney12346, Meganesia, Jaydubya93,
Dylhunn, Suspender guy and Anonymous: 221
• Major second Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major%20second?oldid=632910818 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Merphant, Camem-
bert, Michael Hardy, AugPi, Disdero, Hyacinth, Frazzydee, Robbot, Bkell, Gene Ward Smith, Clawed, Timsabin, Jag123, Keenan Pep-
56.8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 227
per, HGB, Koavf, Glenn L, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, Dissolve, Wknight94, SmackBot, Ursatz, Pkirlin, Cazort, Just plain Bill,
Andeggs, Rigadoun, Žiga, Stefan2, Carneyfex, Rainwarrior, Joseph Solis in Australia, Cydebot, After Midnight, Escarbot, JAnDbot,
Battaglia01, MegX, VoABot II, Jtir, VolkovBot, SieBot, BotMultichill, Paolo.dL, SoundOfNumbers, Ltd224, Tjako, Addbot, Download,
Yobot, Eumolpo, Jmisic, Spiros71, Jkbw, Fewskulchor, AmphBot, Racerx11, مانفی, CountMacula, Rezabot, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Mahlerlover1 and Anonymous: 28
• Minor second Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor%20second?oldid=624303887 Contributors: Tarquin, PierreAbbat, Merphant,
Camembert, Tim Starling, Hyacinth, JamesMLane, Gene Ward Smith, Dpotter, Arthena, Keenan Pepper, Firsfron, The Rumour, Ya-
mamoto Ichiro, Titoxd, RobertG, Acyso, Krun, Ben Tibbetts, Bisqwit, Volunteer Sibelius Salesman, KnightRider, Baronnet, Fretsource,
Carneyfex, Rainwarrior, Mets501, ShakespeareFan00, Cydebot, Professor.rick, Prof.rick, Faizhaider, AnomieBOT, Fewskulchor, ClueBot
NG, Justlettersandnumbers and Anonymous: 33
• Major third Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major%20third?oldid=636245515 Contributors: AxelBoldt, AugPi, Raven in Orbit,
Hyacinth, Robbot, Yelyos, Bkell, Gene Ward Smith, Clawed, Prsephone1674, Bobo192, Keenan Pepper, Phillipsacp, Noetica, Wahoofive,
Koavf, The Rumour, Glenn L, Bota47, Wknight94, Amcbride, Pfly, BiT, Kleinzach, Fretsource, Andeggs, Rigadoun, Žiga, Carneyfex,
Atakdoug, JPadron, Cydebot, Rracecarr, After Midnight, Thijs!bot, Gligeti, Escarbot, Sabbetius, JAnDbot, Penpen, Numbo3, Mealnor,
Broadbot, SieBot, Paolo.dL, SoundOfNumbers, Tjako, SilvonenBot, Addbot, SamatBot, Luckas-bot, KamikazeBot, Xqbot, RibotBOT,
M0tty, FrescoBot, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, ZéroBot, CountMacula, Lanthanum-138, Editorinator, 4epenOK, Vi-
nosaurus81, Innerwonderninja and Anonymous: 26
• Minor third Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor%20third?oldid=639107256 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Gabbe, AugPi, Hyacinth,
Bkell, Gene Ward Smith, Kareeser, Clawed, Tgies, TheParanoidOne, Keenan Pepper, BD2412, Koavf, Glenn L, Wknight94, Smack-
Bot, Cazort, Andeggs, Rigadoun, Carneyfex, Rainwarrior, Iridescent, Cydebot, After Midnight, WinBot, Sluzzelin, Kayau, Jtir, R'n'B,
Synthebot, Paolo.dL, Tjako, CPGACoast, Addbot, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Another Stickler, MauritsBot, CXCV, Fewskulchor, Erik9bot,
Composerjude, Uncopy, ZéroBot, CountMacula, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Monkbot, Whygreen44 and Anonymous: 35
• Perfect fourth Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect%20fourth?oldid=634733688 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Ellywa, CatherineMu-
nro, AugPi, Hyacinth, Opus33, Fredrik, Bkell, Dave Bass, Tobias Bergemann, Gene Ward Smith, Anton Mravcek, Andycjp, Tothebarri-
cades.tk, Atemperman, Perey, Flying Hamster, PWilkinson, Keenan Pepper, Laug, Koavf, FlaBot, DannyDaWriter, YurikBot, Zwobot, Ad-
dps4cat, Wknight94, Reyk, SmackBot, Pfly, Berland, Hoof Hearted, Just plain Bill, Andeggs, Rigadoun, Žiga, Carneyfex, Dicklyon, Maerin,
Cydebot, Rracecarr, After Midnight, Thijs!bot, Dawnseeker2000, ThomasPusch, Escarbot, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, A4, Jerome Kohl, Longi-
nus876, Penpen, Bissinger, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, Adavidb, Pmbcomm, TXiKiBoT, SieBot, Paolo.dL, Scoggles, SoundOfNumbers,
Mild Bill Hiccup, PixelBot, Tjako, Addbot, Jafeluv, LaaknorBot, Tassedethe, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Пика Пика, LilHelpa, Jubileeclip-
man, Fewskulchor, ItJustSaysGumbo, Citation bot 1, LadybugInvasion, FilePeter, Double sharp, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty,
ZéroBot, H3llBot, Norah1977, Snaevar-bot and Anonymous: 38
• Perfect fifth Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect%20fifth?oldid=624354526 Contributors: Zundark, Michael Hardy, Julesd,
AugPi, Vargenau, Bemoeial, Kaare, Hyacinth, Opus33, Robbot, Fredrik, Bkell, Gene Ward Smith, Jtg, Andycjp, Army1987, Marco Polo,
DannyMuse, Espoo, Keenan Pepper, Ashley Pomeroy, Pion, Hq3473, Woohookitty, Bellhalla, Palica, Deltabeignet, Rachel1, Aiueorder,
Kbdank71, Mana Excalibur, Wahoofive, Koavf, Glenn L, Spencerk, YurikBot, Red Slash, Sasuke Sarutobi, Sam Evaskitas, Johnbojaen,
Bota47, Wknight94, Thom8o, GrinBot, Nationalparks, SmackBot, Uthanc, Pfly, Chris the speller, Iapetus, Just plain Bill, Andeggs, Ten-
PoundHammer, Rigadoun, Žiga, Carneyfex, Dicklyon, Violncello, Bottesini, Wafulz, Angelsfreeek, Cydebot, Rracecarr, Koterpillar, Ssil-
vers, After Midnight, Raoul NK, Thijs!bot, ThomasPusch, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Anthraxrulz, Jerome Kohl, Bissinger, Entropy, Jevansen,
Dongiovannibaritone, NoisySerg, TXiKiBoT, Houtlijm, AlleborgoBot, AdRock, Paolo.dL, Smilesfozwood, Rachel W. Hall, SoundOfNum-
bers, ClueBot, DragonBot, Nottaken90, Tjako, DumZiBoT, InternetMeme, Addbot, Jafeluv, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, WikiDan61,
Eric-Wester, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Jschnur, Mgclapé, WikitanvirBot, Dr clave, Laneways, CountMacula, ClueBot NG, Jack Green-
maven, Justlettersandnumbers, Helpful Pixie Bot, Snaevar-bot, CitationCleanerBot, Justintone, Childs123 and Anonymous: 62
• Supertonic Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supertonic?oldid=588628666 Contributors: Bdesham, Hyacinth, 75th Trombone, Facto-
tum, Icairns, Viames, Schnolle, Alansohn, Arthena, Georgia guy, Wahoofive, YurikBot, Red Slash, Chris Capoccia, DavidConrad, Smack-
Bot, Bluebot, Fretsource, NickPenguin, Rigadoun, Adj08, DChapii, WinBot, Sluzzelin, GiantBucket, Synthebot, Schizodelight, Bielle,
Hxhbot, , Obelix83, Fede.Campana, SilvonenBot, Addbot, Squandermania, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, CXCV, FrescoBot, Ph-
nomPencil, Fauban, Chicagosage and Anonymous: 21
• Submediant Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submediant?oldid=629326599 Contributors: Hyacinth, Viames, TheParanoidOne,
Arthena, Georgia guy, Rachel1, Wahoofive, YurikBot, Chris Capoccia, Avitya, Rigadoun, Zxjams, DavidRF, WinBot, MegX, Cham-
paign, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Schizodelight, Lucasbfrbot, SlubGlub, Addbot, Jafeluv, Yobot, AnomieBOT, CXCV, Purplebackpack89,
Aclamicela, Lanthanum-138, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jonadin93, Davenolan014 and Anonymous: 15
• Mediant Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediant?oldid=624236448 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Charles Matthews, Hyacinth,
Icairns, FraKctured, Bobo192, Viames, Arthena, Wahoofive, Eubot, YurikBot, Chris Capoccia, Rigadoun, Sameboat, MightyWarrior,
Apus, WinBot, MegX, Champaign, Sjforman, TXiKiBoT, Schizodelight, Lucasbfrbot, Hxhbot, Ddxc, Addbot, SpBot, Enduser, Luckas-
bot, Yobot, CXCV, GrouchoBot, FrescoBot, ZéroBot, CountMacula, ClueBot NG, Aaronloughlin, Qwertyxp2000 and Anonymous: 15
• Subdominant Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdominant?oldid=601410585 Contributors: Camembert, Bdesham, Tim Starling,
Billbc, Zoicon5, Hyacinth, Opus33, Laudaka, Eranb, Viames, Arthena, Muffin, Woohookitty, Georgia guy, Dbolton, Hermione1980,
FlaBot, YurikBot, RobotE, Al Silonov, Chris Capoccia, Bota47, SmackBot, Avitya, KenFehling, Rigadoun, MightyWarrior, ST47, Wiki-
dan81, Thijs!bot, WinBot, JAnDbot, Avjoska, Thegreenj, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, A4bot, Schizodelight, Hxhbot, Addbot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, ZéroBot, CountMacula, Rocketrod1960, ClueBot NG, TotalFailure, In chinatown with toby and Anonymous: 17
• Subtonic Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtonic?oldid=567441667 Contributors: Hyacinth, TheParanoidOne, Arthena, SteinbDJ,
Wahoofive, Missmarple, Chris Capoccia, Glenn Magus Harvey, Pkirlin, Canthusus, Rigadoun, Paul Foxworthy, WinBot, Jerome Kohl,
Jazz+, Petitprince, TXiKiBoT, Synthebot, Schizodelight, Hxhbot, Matt Hellige, Gregory dj, Addbot, Yobot, Xqbot, Baltro, Txebixev,
Levidaviscolorado, Bib-lost, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mahlerlover1, ChrisGualtieri, BobbyBoykin and Anonymous: 11
• Tonic (music) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonic%20(music)?oldid=603177738 Contributors: Karl E. V. Palmen, Merphant, Karl
Palmen, Camembert, Jaknouse, Looxix, Dysprosia, Hyacinth, Wst, Fjarlq, Random account 47, Cmdrjameson, Schnolle, Arthena, Muffin,
Zanaq, Georgia guy, Spettro9, StradivariusTV, WadeSimMiser, Laurel Bush, Missmarple, Pasky, Sango123, FlaBot, Matt314, Roboto de
Ajvol, YurikBot, RobotE, Chris Capoccia, SmackBot, BiT, Cobain, Ioscius, Dthem 2000, Makemi, SeanAhern, Avitya, Rigadoun, Javit,
Adambiswanger1, Tawkerbot2, OktoberStorm, Pr0t0type, Alton, JAnDbot, Stephenchou0722, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Thisisborin9, Eky-
w-, SieBot, Ttony21, Lucasbfrbot, Hxhbot, ClueBot, PaulEGirard, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Goregore,
228 CHAPTER 56. HARMONIC
Luckas-bot, Yobot, Citation bot, FrescoBot, Rigaudon, OgreBot, Citation bot 1, Jauhienij, Keegscee, EmausBot, L Kensington, Count-
Macula, Mentibot, ClueBot NG, Rezabot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mahlerlover1, Devin.chaloux, ChrisGualtieri, Fauban, Taohinton, Monkbot
and Anonymous: 35
• Chord (music) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord%20(music)?oldid=637355869 Contributors: Zundark, The Anome, Andre
Engels, Camembert, Bdesham, Mdebets, TUF-KAT, Dwo, Pladask, Dysprosia, Hyacinth, David Shay, Denelson83, Robbot, Chris 73,
Altenmann, Modulatum, AaronS, Ojigiri, Sethoeph, AstroNox, Bfinn, Jdavidb, Mboverload, JonLS, Andycjp, Telso, Phe, Pale blue dot,
Ary29, Zfr, Sam Hocevar, Jh51681, Rosarino, Reflex Reaction, Spiffy sperry, Imroy, Discospinster, Ebelular, Luqui, El C, Zenohockey,
Tjic, Bobo192, Unused0022, Blotwell, Helix84, Haham hanuka, TobyRush, Espoo, Jcsutton, M7, Muffin, MoraSique, Danhash, Garzo,
Dzhim, Woodstone, Rocastelo, Spettro9, Noetica, Matiashf, Palica, Driftwoodzebulin, Floydgeo, Deltabeignet, BD2412, DePiep, Wa-
hoofive, Missmarple, Krash, The Rumour, FlaBot, Wegsjac, SchuminWeb, Weebot, Tijuana Brass, GreyCat, Chobot, YurikBot, Wave-
length, SkyCaptain, D.keenan, RussBot, Kgentes, Splash, Jellypuzzle, Polyvios, Gaius Cornelius, Stephen Burnett, Jaxl, Yahya Abdal-
Aziz, Joelr31, MidoriKid, Tony1, Bota47, Mütze, Ninly, Closedmouth, Chrishmt0423, SmackBot, David Kernow, Haza-w, Steve carl-
son, DCGeist, KocjoBot, Underwater, Ohnoitsjamie, Richfife, Andy M. Wang, Chris the speller, Apeloverage, SchfiftyThree, Klichka,
Jerome Charles Potts, Veggies, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Learjeff, Chlewbot, Mr.Z-man, Hammer1980, DMacks, Just plain Bill,
ILike2BeAnonymous, Andeggs, Vina-iwbot, TenPoundHammer, SashatoBot, Nathanael Bar-Aur L., Esrever, Beekum, JackLumber, Ada-
gio Cantabile, Drs 29, Cielomobile, Yovi, Yms, ACA, Tee Owe, Clq, Es330td, Twunchy, Jmui, OnBeyondZebrax, Iridescent, Tymoczko,
Splitpeasoup, Wfructose, Blehfu, Doceddi, WeggeBot, MeekMark, Red Rooster 69, Cydebot, Warhorus, Ash.furrow, Tbird1965, ST47,
DaddyTwoFoot, Yeanold Viskersenn, B, Thijs!bot, Martin Hogbin, Pjvpjv, Brand s, Adw2000, Nick Number, Maestro.gandhi, Escarbot,
Sidasta, WinBot, DPoon, Steve Bob, Duo Gravis, Fabrictramp, Indon, Drm310, Black Stripe, Lrpelkey, MartinBot, Kostisl, Azer Red, Ob-
scurans, EscapingLife, Adavidb, Bapho, Carlco, JNShutt, SharkD, TomyDuby, DorganBot, Lyricsp, T prev, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, Iyb,
Luthier67, Philip Trueman, Martin451, LeaveSleaves, Maxim, Kilmer-san, Rory737-800, Synthebot, Living under a rock, AlleborgoBot,
Drufin, Easymusiclessons, Restre419, BotMultichill, Strumr91, RadicalOne, Paolo.dL, Reddevil 221, Tombomp, Seaniedan, Anchor Link
Bot, , ClueBot, Mylemans, The Thing That Should Not Be, Pre10s, AllAroundGeek, Μάριος Ζηντίλης, Sarindam7, ArloLeach,
Fivetilkeys, AlanM1, Ost316, Mitch Ames, Jeharris56, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Jafeluv, Tanhabot, Sushiyum, MrOllie, Jskell,
Redheylin, Yala0, Bassbonerocks, Debresser, West.andrew.g, Lavdal, MissAlyx, Bpapa2, Yobot, Themfromspace, Synchronism, McSush,
Nuffink, Eumolpo, Xqbot, TudorTulok, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Amaury, Tnfros, Guitar chords, FrescoBot, Dobsonaa29, Rigaudon,
OgreBot, Citation bot 1, Sluffs, Steveprimatic, James Hogg, RandomStringOfCharacters, Jauhienij, Seechord1, Di gama, Miracle Pen,
Weedwhacker128, Keegscee, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Kpufferfish, Stevec71, Musicindia1, PancakesMan, GoingBatty, Zagoury, Che2007,
Oldjasd5150, ZéroBot, Ajrdileva, Bgbq, ClueBot NG, Justlettersandnumbers, Zmckowen, Helpful Pixie Bot, Vagobot, Zottles, Phnom-
Pencil, Mahlerlover1, MusikAnimal, QuazarGuy, BattyBot, Timothy Gu, ChrisGualtieri, Mrboggins, Thayercdemay, Oknate, RotlinkBot,
DESMUSIN, GuitarN, Dangshnizzle, Wppudfdsfd, Danieljones013, Iya Ephrem Paulin, SpyroFan123, Asukakenji, SongMavenLLC, Dav-
enolan014 and Anonymous: 289
• Scale (music) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale%20(music)?oldid=637878004 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Tarquin, -- April,
Andre Engels, Karl E. V. Palmen, Enchanter, Miguel, Merphant, Karl Palmen, Camembert, J.F.Quackenbush, Nealmcb, Michael Hardy,
Jptwo, Suisui, BigFatBuddha, Glenn, Nikai, Andres, PS4FA, Guaka, Zoicon5, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Ed g2s, PuzzletChung, Robbot, Gwalla,
Ferdinand Pienaar, Utcursch, Pgan002, Antandrus, Karol Langner, Thincat, Icairns, Mindspillage, Discospinster, Qutezuce, Jnestorius,
Dpotter, Prsephone1674, Vervin, Viames, Wordie, PeterisP, Nihil, Eritain, Jakew, Musiphil, Keenan Pepper, Balster neb, Burn, Denniss,
Garzo, Woodstone, Bookandcoffee, Dan100, Abanima, Pol098, SDC, Noetica, Kbdank71, Wahoofive, Missmarple, Wipfeln, Oblivious,
Matt Deres, Yamamoto Ichiro, Thenthorn, FayssalF, FlaBot, Anskas, Who, Common Man, Kjlewis, Wavelength, Hairy Dude, Jimp, Russ-
Bot, Pigman, Ozzykhan, Stephen Burnett, Wiki alf, ONEder Boy, E Wing, Fram, Richardj311, Junglecat, GrinBot, AndrewWTaylor,
SmackBot, Bobet, Gilliam, Hmains, Richfife, Bluebot, Timneu22, No-Bullet, FordPrefect42, Nomenclator, Meepster, Jillzilla, Sault, EPM,
Nakon, Sljaxon, Just plain Bill, Andeggs, Mion, Nathanael Bar-Aur L., Michael Bednarek, Mr. Lefty, Rainwarrior, Noah Salzman, Androl,
Mr Stephen, Dicklyon, Hikitsurisan, User At Work, Tymoczko, Shoeofdeath, Bottesini, Woodshed, Timrem, Flubeca, CmdrObot, Furs-
day, Chrumps, Badseed, Abeg92, Rabidsnakemonkey, Keyplyr, Christian75, Roberta F., Robertinventor, Raoul NK, Thijs!bot, Epbr123,
Luigifan, John254, AntiVandalBot, Shirt58, IGGR, JAnDbot, MER-C, MSBOT, VoABot II, Jerome Kohl, Rivertorch, Soulbot, Styro-
foam1994, AliaGemma, AndrewGastler, Anaxial, AstroHurricane001, Numbo3, Uranium grenade, The Transhumanist (AWB), Frank Za-
mjatin, Inter16, Idioma-bot, Celtic Minstrel, Hyteqsystems, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, Noblegoose, Josieandthepussycats, Houtlijm, Piuskerala,
Njarl, Commator, Cgettel, Insanity Incarnate, Kehrbykid, NHRHS2010, SieBot, Paolo.dL, Hobartimus, Fratrep, Hubbadubbadoobadubba,
Svick, Skusek, 48states, Denisarona, Explicit, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Mild Bill Hiccup, Blue bear sd, MC Scared
of Bees, Mate2code, Feline Hymnic, Xic667, Versus22, EdChem, XLinkBot, Delicious carbuncle, Fede.Campana, BodhisattvaBot, Rror,
Avoided, Mifter, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Sakhal, NjardarBot, Redheylin, Yala0, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Jozyaltidore101, Yobot,
Ptbotgourou, TaBOT-zerem, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Backfromquadrangle, Nallimbot, 81403sk, Tempodivalse, Jonargue, AnomieBOT,
Killiondude, Jim1138, EryZ, Bluerasberry, Spada2, Another Stickler, Tosar, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Txebixev, Loonatyk, Invent2HelpAll,
Bradfordalderman, Outdepth, GrouchoBot, Tnfros, Look Busy, FrescoBot, SBN4004, Rigaudon, Wikihelpdesk, Pinethicket, TobeBot,
Nezonis, Andrea105, EmausBot, Emmagcohen, Jenks24, Access Denied, FinalRapture, Erget2005, AndyTheGrump, 28bot, ClueBot NG,
Justlettersandnumbers, Scalelore, Loginnigol, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Iste Praetor, Mentroiez, Btcurrell, Olorulus, Mahlerlover1, Coolal-
gie, Cooltae, Frze, Pallekar, Leonardo bachtiar, Jonadin93, Aerist, Lugia2453, Elocutus, Faizan, The Black Notes, MJHAT, V44sandy and
Anonymous: 280
• Dominant (music) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominant%20(music)?oldid=625637742 Contributors: Merphant, Camembert,
Karada, Ellywa, Zoicon5, Hyacinth, Robbot, Antandrus, HorsePunchKid, LudwigVan, Eranb, [email protected], Mindspillage, Aranel,
Phlake, Arthena, Muffin, Dbolton, Tabletop, Wahoofive, MapsMan, FlaBot, Spencerk, YurikBot, Zwobot, Ramix, SmackBot, Canthusus,
BiT, Rheostatik, Avitya, WinBot, Luna Santin, JAnDbot, Avjoska, Wlodzimierz, LordAnubisBOT, Ignatzmice, A4bot, Martin451, Alle-
borgoBot, Dan Polansky, YonaBot, Schizodelight, Lucasbfrbot, Hxhbot, Paolo.dL, Sfan00 IMG, PipepBot, Mikaey, Jan D. Berends, Ad-
dbot, LaaknorBot, CarsracBot, Zorrobot, AnomieBOT, Spada2, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Rigaudon, OgreBot, EmausBot, Vinculon, Fæ,
CountMacula, Shwong1990, ClueBot NG, BG19bot, Mahlerlover1, Devin.chaloux, Babitaarora and Anonymous: 30
• Sequence (music) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence%20(music)?oldid=633683882 Contributors: Andres, Hyacinth, Mar-
tijn, Eubot, Kummi, YurikBot, Welsh, Mllefifi, SmackBot, Rigadoun, JAnDbot, TXiKiBoT, RGB2, Henry Merrivale, Lukasdoro, Bukaj,
Addbot, Redheylin, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Rubinbot, Erik9bot, Krumply, Gerda Arendt, Accbridge, WikitanvirBot, Dieter1119, ClueBot
NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Alan, Tal Brenev, Brandon rose8976 and Anonymous: 13
• List of musical scales and modes Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20musical%20scales%20and%20modes?oldid=
640500840 Contributors: Hyacinth, Koavf, Luokehao, Geezerbill, Sreejithk2000, Faizhaider, CommonsDelinker, ImageRemovalBot,
OgreBot, Diannaa, Cntras and Anonymous: 9
56.8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 229
Andeggs, Matthew hk, Lambiam, Joey-das-WBF, Rigadoun, A. Parrot, Ace Class Shadow, David Souther, Lunisneko, W123, Fdssdf,
ShelfSkewed, Cydebot, Peterdjones, Omicronpersei8, PanLover, Raoul NK, RJSchmitt, Möchtegern, Ufwuct, Elert, Seaphoto, Norman-
margolus, Abbabash, Myanw, Figma, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Sigurd Dragon Slayer, Neonkick, Ff1959, Jerome Kohl, Soulbot, Hbent, Mar-
tinBot, Garkbit, Midwestmax, J.delanoy, Captain panda, Leon math, AstroHurricane001, Deceptionpassfoundation, Charlesjustice, Plas-
ticup, TheScotch, Robertgreer, VolkovBot, Macedonian, Edwatson1971, Vpadmana, Shmacka, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Dardanos,
Bdudman, LeaveSleaves, P1h3r1e3d13, Tomaxer, Turangalila, Insanity Incarnate, Why Not A Duck, AlleborgoBot, AndyNewton, SieBot,
BotMultichill, J. Marshall Bevil, Ph.D., Ha Hyun Joon, BenoniBot, Skusek, Jongleur100, Capitalismojo, Ken123BOT, Guitaristhelp, Clue-
Bot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Garyzx, Kaneyboi-12, Feline Hymnic, Hrdinský, Lwyx, Muro Bot, ChrisHodgesUK, Atilano I, Chief-
manzzz, Ixkeys, Qwfp, XLinkBot, Avoided, Ringurrangu, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, OldSpot61, Fladrif, Ronhjones, Redheylin, SamatBot,
Watergoose, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Gernreich, AnomieBOT, Dsw4, OllieFury, Garrettk, LilHelpa, Unimath, Xqbot, Mussapedia,
Christyfisher, Apengineering, TheSeanWilson, Mishka.medvezhonok, FrescoBot, Rigaudon, BenzolBot, Lady Lotus, Pinethicket, Dou-
ble sharp, Weedwhacker128, Minimac, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, BoydellandBrewer, Anthiety, Tolly4bolly, Thine Antique
Pen, L Kensington, Brumleygap, Ctone36, ClueBot NG, Scalelore, Helpful Pixie Bot, ColinKinloch, Ihartnyc, ChrisGualtieri, Ameobea,
Basemetal, Ajinkyaj, Webclient101, Epicgenius, MJHAT, Synthwave.94, Danieljones013, Jjveloria, Melcous, Monkbot, Sdnowell, Axe-
Chops and Anonymous: 277
• Heptatonic scale Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptatonic%20scale?oldid=640308546 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Darkwind,
Hyacinth, DannyMuse, Keenan Pepper, MrDarcy, Noetica, Mandarax, Wahoofive, Bgwhite, Ksyrie, Carabinieri, ABehrens, Ornette,
ERcheck, Crazy Guitar, Andeggs, Kukini, MusicMaker5376, Rigadoun, Sreejithk2000, Simonxag, S.dedalus, Maurice Carbonaro,
TheScotch, Joemaffei, SieBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Yed79, Feline Hymnic, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, DougsTech, Aathrey, Barak Sh, Sergei
semenovich, Yobot, FrescoBot, Diannaa, Kpufferfish, WikitanvirBot, Hnjang810, 28bot, BG19bot, Dexbot and Anonymous: 26
• Phrygian dominant scale Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygian%20dominant%20scale?oldid=638782091 Contributors:
William Avery, Bdesham, Ixfd64, GCarty, Alex S, Hyacinth, Ed g2s, Mordomo, Jni, Urhixidur, Autiger, Walden, SidP, Garzo,
Woohookitty, Mgolden, Wahoofive, Common Man, RussBot, Chris Capoccia, Cryptic, Zzuuzz, SmackBot, Lando zeus bermudez, Siorse,
Huji, Just plain Bill, Djwings, Esn, ShelfSkewed, DavidRF, BobTheBuilderCanWeFixIt, Dserafin, Dr. Blofeld, Sluzzelin, Neonkick, Jerome
Kohl, Kameejl, JMyrleFuller, Zoukboy, Jnbek, Jeff G., MusicScience, Mgard7331, Funbuns, Fartherdpeabody, James599, Fratrep, Gui-
taristhelp, Martarius, ArdClose, Shredyourfaceoff, XLinkBot, SlubGlub, Addbot, Negativecreep187, Dagargo, Mabengoa, JackieBot, Jael-
liot, AnotherOnymous, Leonardo Da Vinci, MerlLinkBot, Inasilentway, FrescoBot, Rigaudon, Alan.poindexter, RedBot, NKanngaz, Island-
musicpro, Helpful Pixie Bot, CitationCleanerBot, Stefanos6, Justincheng12345-bot, Ktheman21, MJHAT, Semper ortus and Anonymous:
116
• Hungarian minor scale Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian%20minor%20scale?oldid=636091835 Contributors: Hyacinth,
Discospinster, Fenevad, RobertStar20, Sbp, Salix alba, Schmancy47, Crystallina, SmackBot, Cor anglais 16, CDarklock, Peterdjones,
Erechtheus, Dr. Blofeld, Jacqke, Neonkick, AndrewGastler, Katharineamy, Thumbdropper, SieBot, Splittingfield, Feline Hymnic, De-
licious carbuncle, Addbot, AnomieBOT, Jennfinan, FrescoBot, Jikybebna, Jesse V., Helpful Pixie Bot, Vanished user sdij4rtltkjasdk3,
Sean2776, MJHAT and Anonymous: 23
• Persian scale Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian%20scale?oldid=636095747 Contributors: Hyacinth, Somejeff, SmackBot,
Rigadoun, Signo, Neonkick, Cranberryjuice10, JL-Bot, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Yobot, Helpful Pixie Bot, AK456, MJHAT and Anony-
mous: 5
• Lydian augmented scale Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydian%20augmented%20scale?oldid=636232489 Contributors: Hy-
acinth, Ninly, SmackBot, Spinningspark, BassHistory, CPGACoast, Lightlowemon, Niklas R, Helpful Pixie Bot, MJHAT, MicahBMusic
and Anonymous: 1
• Aeolian dominant scale Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolian%20dominant%20scale?oldid=599551526 Contributors: Hyacinth,
LadyofShalott, CPGACoast, BG19bot, Burzuchius and Meganesia
• Half diminished scale Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half%20diminished%20scale?oldid=635932543 Contributors: Selket, Hy-
acinth, SchuminWeb, Chris Capoccia, Crystallina, SmackBot, Ryan Roos, Blehfu, Prof.rick, TheScotch, Oh Snap, Freddiemas, BassHis-
tory, Jafeluv, Yobot, Hearfourmewesique, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Northamerica1000, PhnomPencil and BattyBot
• Acoustic scale Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic%20scale?oldid=634932655 Contributors: Zundark, Michael Hardy, Hy-
acinth, Mandarax, Martin Hinks, SmackBot, Mystic eye, Rhebus, Impy4ever, Blehfu, KazKylheku, MessedRobot, Neonkick, Jerome
Kohl, Njarl, Feline Hymnic, Addbot, Betterusername, Luckas-bot, Yobot, LilHelpa, Lukenji, Double sharp, RjwilmsiBot, Helpful Pixie
Bot, BG19bot, Khazar2, MJHAT, Itsalleasy, Monkbot, Blueclaude and Anonymous: 13
• Altered scale Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altered%20scale?oldid=630480504 Contributors: Merphant, HarmonicSphere, Hy-
acinth, VeryVerily, Robbot, Benwing, Klemen Kocjancic, Ponder, Keenan Pepper, SteinbDJ, Japanese Searobin, Vegaswikian, Dkcycov-
ery, Ninly, Sgmanohar, SmackBot, Khazar, Rigadoun, Blehfu, Thijs!bot, Kalasfan, Neonkick, Jerome Kohl, Ormaaj, STBotD, ArdClose,
Feline Hymnic, Addbot, Yobot, Another Stickler, Andyyso, Lightlowemon, Double sharp, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Mightypants and
Anonymous: 24
• Mode (music) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode%20(music)?oldid=640501979 Contributors: The Anome, Magnus, Karl E. V.
Palmen, PierreAbbat, Merphant, Camembert, J.F.Quackenbush, Bdesham, Michael Hardy, Kwertii, Iluvcapra, Mpolo, Ellywa, Ams80,
TUF-KAT, PS4FA, Charles Matthews, Guaka, Zoicon5, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Bhuston, VeryVerily, Shizhao, Mackensen, HarryHenryGebel,
.mau., King Art, Naddy, UtherSRG, Diberri, Bmschmidt, Gwalla, Smjg, Paul Richter, Falstaft, Chinasaur, Maroux, 9ign, Chad.netzer,
Andycjp, Antandrus, Oscar, Glogger, Sam Hocevar, Joyous!, Random account 47, Mindspillage, Vague Rant, Flapdragon, MBisanz, El
C, Summer Song, Ogg, Johnkarp, Yourcelf, Alphax, Polylerus, Officiallyover, DannyMuse, Methegreat, Keenan Pepper, Blahedo, Garzo,
Dirac1933, Woodstone, Someoneinmyheadbutit’snotme, Japanese Searobin, Brookie, Simetrical, Woohookitty, Georgia guy, Rictus, Vree-
jack, Noetica, Neutralrobotboy, Gimboid13, RuM, Dvyost, Missmarple, Bubba73, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, Locrian, John Baez, RexNL,
Chobot, DTOx, Naruto137, Bgwhite, Ben Tibbetts, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Chris Capoccia, Epolk, C777, Phil Bastian, Cholmes75, Warp-
starRider, Jogers, Nae'blis, Phil Holmes, Kungfuadam, Brentt, Luk, Joshbuddy, SmackBot, Tom Lougheed, Kilo-Lima, Tcolgan001, Arny,
ERcheck, Bluebot, Timneu22, FordPrefect42, Cralize, Sct72, Riggwelter, Pax85, Fretsource, Chrylis, Just plain Bill, Bdiscoe, Andeggs,
Nathanael Bar-Aur L., Rigadoun, Brennan Milligan, Michael Bednarek, Frokor, Rainwarrior, Yms, Grandpafootsoldier, Belizefan, Vio-
lncello, Hu12, Blehfu, P4limpsest, Scarymonsters85, CmdrObot, Jordanotto, Ken Gallager, Yopienso, Pinkfloyd5040, DavidRF, Shiru-
lashem, SpK, Robert.Allen, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, MarkBuckles, Nick Number, ExecutorElassus, Justinmeister, Dougher, RuED, JAnDbot,
Narssarssuaq, Kakugo, RainbowCrane, A4, Neonkick, Jerome Kohl, Animum, JMyrleFuller, Msgrjosh, Zoukboy, Tiuks, Greenwoodtree,
56.8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 231
MidnightBlue, Lrpelkey, Shimwell, R'n'B, J.delanoy, Acalamari, Sparafucil, MishaPan, CWii, TXiKiBoT, Hucbald, Elphion, Anarchangel,
Billinghurst, Sue Rangell, Paolo.dL, Ddxc, H.Sdraulig, Martinuddin, Retroguy90, Guitaristhelp, ClueBot, ArdClose, GoPlayerJuggler,
Arunsingh16, Vardos, Destern, Acarva1, Mwasheim, Feline Hymnic, Simon D M, Goethe1990, Catalographer, Kikos, Jmclark56, CPGA-
Coast, Antti29, EdChem, WikHead, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Ronhjones, Kaustin6969, MrOllie, Redheylin, Wikipeditor40, Lightbot,
Legobot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Ensibemol, South Bay, AnomieBOT, Michaelscales, Glenfarclas, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Lufthansa1978,
FrescoBot, Platonykiss, Martin strid, Tavernsenses, Rigaudon, Mr. Scholarly Guy, OgreBot, Alphonserdv, Trelawnie, Creatavision, Recon-
sider the static, Cwunch, Jesse V., Kethvan Karleitz, Jhoughton3, Zimmermanstein, CountMacula, Tot12, Reubenbsr, Exteravical, Clue-
Bot NG, Nikolidas, Chester Markel, Supermusicmaniac13, Helpful Pixie Bot, Natedean, Olorulus, Mahlerlover1, Bplohr, Petrusdecruce,
Mnemolyst, TheMrDunny, ChrisGualtieri, Basemetal, Dexbot, Tomas0132, SFK2, Leviathon7 and Anonymous: 294
• Dorian mode Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorian%20mode?oldid=636650260 Contributors: The Anome, Wwwwolf, Mdebets,
Andres, Andrewman327, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Finlay McWalter, Glogger, Mussklprozz, Mike Rosoft, Rich Farmbrough, FrickFrack, Xez-
beth, Zenohockey, Redlentil, MAdaXe, Keenan Pepper, Ayeroxor, Garzo, TenOfAllTrades, Kyouketsusha, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, Spet-
tro9, Miss Madeline, Johan Lont, Setver, Graham87, Deltabeignet, Rjwilmsi, Fred Hsu, Thomas Arelatensis, Srleffler, YurikBot, Chris
Capoccia, Mirko Raner, Bota47, 21655, Jogers, Cobblet, CharlesHBennett, Yakudza, SmackBot, Monz, Hmains, Jprg1966, MalafayaBot,
DHN-bot, Scwlong, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Banjolin, Andeggs, Tom holroyd, Rigadoun, Me2NiK, Maelor, WeggeBot, Torc2,
Thijs!bot, Sieurfill, Ericjs, Zchris87v, LiberalPhan, MegX, Prof.rick, Clcrhiggaeeermo, Jerome Kohl, Sarahj2107, Oafah, Mwvandersteen,
STBot, R'n'B, Ixionid, J.delanoy, RaffleFour, VolkovBot, Musicman888, TXiKiBoT, CheesePlease NL, DrRandal, Broadbot, Veggieburg-
erfish, Billinghurst, Captain Cusack, Rackabello, Arturs Licis, Dick burns, SieBot, Iamthedeus, GlassCobra, ImageRemovalBot, Clue-
Bot, Psdie, Saatwik Katiha, Niceguyedc, Danny Wooten II, Feline Hymnic, Catalographer, CPGACoast, Delicious carbuncle, Addbot,
Jafeluv, Yobot, Legobot II, AnomieBOT, Waterfallsrus, Xqbot, Punkyfish3000, GrouchoBot, Rigaudon, Singingdaisies, Cmchammer,
Hache Ele, Fcy, ShanghaiVonA, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty, Mforssner, RainbeauxFamily, ClueBot NG, AlexGTV, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Thejuiceweasel, Carolinalabbe, TheMrDunny, 074061a, Dexbot, Kunalkorgaonkar, MJHAT, All(an) knowing, Baccalv, Eman235 and
Anonymous: 170
• Phrygian mode Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygian%20mode?oldid=626384401 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Crenner, An-
dres, GCarty, Hyacinth, Flockmeal, Jorge Stolfi, ClockworkLunch, Glogger, Austin Hair, WhiteCrow, Larrybob, Paul August, Kwamik-
agami, Alxndr, Bobo192, Smalljim, Linuxlad, Jumbuck, Keenan Pepper, Garzo, Alai, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, Charmii, Stevekeiretsu,
Ianthegecko, Darcyj, YurikBot, Logixoul, Chris Capoccia, Hellbus, Gaius Cornelius, Bota47, Pr1268, Jogers, Seasonsinthesky, Nick
Michael, SmackBot, DHN-bot, CharlesJS, Banjolin, Just plain Bill, Andeggs, Rigadoun, Mr Stephen, Tmcw, Yip1982, Provocateur, Blehfu,
GiantSnowman, Disambiguator, WeggeBot, Torc2, Epanalepsis, Robert.Allen, Thijs!bot, Java13690, Yellowarcher, Sreejithk2000, MegX,
Neonkick, Jerome Kohl, Ibanez RYM, Erusse estelinya, Eliz81, Carlco, SeaNova, NoisySerg, CheesePlease NL, 4004BC, Billinghurst,
Swanstone, GuitarPirate7, Cyfal, Chexpeare, Pre10s, Midavos, Pallida Mors, M.J.E., Feline Hymnic, Eaglestriker147, Tomer 070, Cata-
lographer, CPGACoast, WikHead, Addbot, Jafeluv, Omnipedian, Squandermania, Avono, Luckas-bot, Code Remover, Saemikneu, Keep
your fork, there’s pie, Citation bot, Waterfallsrus, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Replydance, Strenshon, Gerda Arendt, Shawnlindsay, Danielwork,
AlexGTV, Dgljr5121973, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calwood1, Mahlerlover1, TheMrDunny, Basemetal, Hittingal, MJHAT and Anonymous: 156
• Lydian mode Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydian%20mode?oldid=640909456 Contributors: Paul A, AugPi, Andres, GCarty,
Raven in Orbit, Pladask, Hyacinth, Graeme Bartlett, WhiteCrow, Marblespire, Keenan Pepper, Garzo, Alai, Mel Etitis, Koavf, Margosbot,
YurikBot, Chris Capoccia, EngineerScotty, Robertvan1, AppaAliApsa, Yakudza, SmackBot, Pfly, Rajah9, Monz, DHN-bot, Bobraingod,
Kalatix, Vanis314, Davidchrisprice, Banjolin, CWesling, PieRRoMaN, IrisKawling, Just plain Bill, Amphion, Andeggs, TenPoundHam-
mer, Ergative rlt, JackLumber, Rigadoun, Jperrylsu, Hyenaste, HisSpaceResearch, Blehfu, Jordanotto, WeggeBot, Karenjc, Hemlock Mar-
tinis, Torc2, Thijs!bot, Dark dude, JAnDbot, Aquatiki, Denn333, MegX, Magioladitis, Neonkick, Jerome Kohl, Inertiatic076, Day and
Nite, Carlco, Fluteboy, DeFaultRyan, Idioma-bot, Alydiancreation, Reagar, JhsBot, Willangus, StAnselm, James599, WereSpielChequers,
Dawn Bard, Zanders5k, Oceantracks, ClueBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Florestanova, M.J.E., Feline Hymnic, Dana boomer, CPGACoast, Wik-
Head, Addbot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Lordfrobisher, Sorsoup, Citation bot, Waterfallsrus, Xqbot, Drummerdg, EZeFr, FrescoBot, Plus4db,
Rigaudon, Sterik1, Arctanb, Gerda Arendt, Double sharp, PiRSquared17, Quindall, Diannaa, Tbhotch, Joshwah, Lanthanum-138, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Natedean, Mahlerlover1, Jimijames100, William Darkos, TheMrDunny, LegacyOfValor, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, MJHAT,
Amadeus42, Liquidityinsta, Manish2542, Pobzie and Anonymous: 135
• Mixolydian mode Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixolydian%20mode?oldid=637366808 Contributors: Ubiquity, Andres, GCarty,
Ptoniolo, Hyacinth, Mackensen, Flockmeal, Tremolo, MagdaBudzynowska, Sam Hocevar, WhiteCrow, Thorwald, Rich Farmbrough, Lin-
uxlad, Keenan Pepper, Garzo, Gpvos, Mel Etitis, Georgia guy, Dah31, Bluemoose, Jacj, Karam.Anthony.K, Iggy Koopa, YurikBot, Hairy
Dude, Chris Capoccia, C777, CLW, Pr1268, Yakudza, SmackBot, LaurenBrns, Mscuthbert, Rajah9, Hurricane Andrew, Shaneaproduc-
tions, DHN-bot, Banjolin, Just plain Bill, Andeggs, Rigadoun, Dl2000, ADogNamedPhaedo, Wfructose, Tanthalas39, The ed17, Wegge-
Bot, Kronecker, Peterdjones, DavidRF, Torc2, Robertinventor, Thijs!bot, Dserafin, JAnDbot, Matthew Fennell, Geniac, Jerome Kohl,
Miketm, Mwvandersteen, Aladdin Sane, FMAFan1990, Skullketon, Plasticup, SJP, Burzmali, Niightkrawler, Gnebulon, PGSONIC, Ph-
jellming, DrRandal, Captain Cusack, Zkellington, KaraiBorinquen, SieBot, SE7, Irober02, Stfg, Altosaxgeek5, AndrePeltier, MalwareS-
marts, Flobadobrob, Petehatch, Mild Bill Hiccup, M.J.E., Feline Hymnic, Phoneee, Elizium23, Matthew Desjardins, CPGACoast, Puff-
coat, Addbot, Tassedethe, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Citation bot, Waterfallsrus, The sock that should not be, Aaron Kauppi, FrescoBot, Rigaudon,
Alex299006, OgreBot, Portvalesourbutts, RedBot, Trappist the monk, AmideLanval, Allanlatch, Thecheesinator, Aminor7, GoingBatty,
Ichthyoid, CountMacula, AlexGTV, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lionhead99, Mahlerlover1, AdventurousSquirrel, TheMrDunny, StarryGrandma,
MJHAT, Robert F Leder, Meganesia and Anonymous: 143
• Ionian mode Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionian%20mode?oldid=622844657 Contributors: Hyacinth, Jor, Icairns, Rich Farm-
brough, Keenan Pepper, Garzo, Col.Kiwi, Epioinopaponton, Chris Capoccia, Yakudza, SmackBot, FordPrefect42, Mensuur, Kalatix,
Clorox, Banjolin, Just plain Bill, Andeggs, WeggeBot, Thijs!bot, JAnDbot, Jerome Kohl, PatPeter, Spellcast, VolkovBot, Broadbot, SieBot,
Mild Bill Hiccup, Wikijens, Niceguyedc, M.J.E., Feline Hymnic, Addbot, Waterfallsrus, GrouchoBot, Rigaudon, Strenshon, Helpful Pixie
Bot, MJHAT and Anonymous: 18
• Hypoionian mode Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoionian%20mode?oldid=622983602 Contributors: Hyacinth, Jerome Kohl,
Aaron Kauppi, OgreBot and Helpful Pixie Bot
• Aeolian mode Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolian%20mode?oldid=640951955 Contributors: AugPi, Pedant17, Hyacinth,
Diberri, Pwroberts, Glogger, Peritus, Keenan Pepper, Garzo, YurikBot, RussBot, Chris Capoccia, Anomalocaris, Kisch, Mikeblas, Bota47,
Yabbadab, Yakudza, SmackBot, FordPrefect42, Sct72, Banjolin, Cameron Nedland, Jmlk17, Chrylis, Just plain Bill, Razorhead, Andeggs,
Ceoil, Ohconfucius, Rigadoun, Fvasconcellos, WeggeBot, Torc2, Thijs!bot, Milton Stanley, Zondran, Helge Skjeveland, Prof.rick, Jerome
232 CHAPTER 56. HARMONIC
Kohl, TechnoFaye, VolkovBot, Safemariner, Anna Lincoln, Snigbrook, M.J.E., Feline Hymnic, CPGACoast, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-
bot, AnomieBOT, McSush, Waterfallsrus, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Rigaudon, Alex299006, Mullr, CountMacula, Helpful Pixie
Bot, LouisAlain, TheMrDunny, ChrisGualtieri, MJHAT, Marcel Veloo, Meganesia and Anonymous: 38
• Hypoaeolian mode Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoaeolian%20mode?oldid=622845423 Contributors: Hyacinth, Josh Parris,
Jerome Kohl and Helpful Pixie Bot
• Locrian mode Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locrian%20mode?oldid=640615951 Contributors: Andres, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Cen-
trx, Smjg, Falstaft, WhiteCrow, Metahacker, Rich Farmbrough, Keenan Pepper, Garzo, Woohookitty, Rammstein, Rjwilmsi, Quale, Heah,
YurikBot, Chris Capoccia, Nick123, Show no mercy, Ninly, SmackBot, Jim62sch, Mscuthbert, Commander Keane bot, Colonies Chris,
Derekt75, Ioscius, Banjolin, Just plain Bill, Zadignose, Andeggs, Ergative rlt, Rigadoun, Richardbates2002, Stevennic, WeggeBot, DavidRF,
Torc2, Wikidan81, Thijs!bot, WinBot, JAnDbot, Prof.rick, Jerome Kohl, Dwineman, JMyrleFuller, Rock Soldier, Ronald S. Davis, M.J.E.,
Feline Hymnic, CPGACoast, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, RandySavageFTW, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Eric-Wester, AnomieBOT, Waterfall-
srus, GrouchoBot, TLMKRM, Rigaudon, Sonnenberg42, Simonwds, OnekiKai, EmausBot, H3llBot, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lionhead99,
Utar Sigmal, PhnomPencil, Mahlerlover1, Andreashaydn, TheMrDunny, Kentaku, Myxomatosis57, Cerabot, Reasonably certain, MJHAT,
BloodBird01, Tagotango and Anonymous: 70
• Hypolocrian mode Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypolocrian%20mode?oldid=622983924 Contributors: Hyacinth, Michael
Bednarek and Jerome Kohl
• Byzantine music Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine%20music?oldid=639173756 Contributors: Derek Ross, Andre Engels,
DopefishJustin, Adam Bishop, Grendelkhan, Robbot, Altenmann, Tom harrison, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Murtasa, Walden, John
Vandenberg, Giraffedata, Gwalarn, Guthrie, Magda, Alai, IJzeren Jan, Kelly Martin, Woohookitty, Sburke, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Koavf,
Tixity, Bcwright, Miskin, Sean WI, Valentinian, YurikBot, TodorBozhinov, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Iani, NickOfCyprus, SmackBot, Ki-
mon, Betacommand, Buddhagazelle, Bluebot, TimBentley, Stevepeterson, BALawrence, Scwlong, Cplakidas, OrphanBot, Clinkophonist,
Pkeets, Vasiliy Faronov, Yannismarou, Rigadoun, Adriatikus, Esn, Hemlock Martinis, Cydebot, Kupirijo, Future Perfect at Sunrise, DBaba,
Missvain, Hut 8.5, Kingcom, TheCormac, Aalexandros, Eusebius12, Ans-mo, Ajcfreak, Warut, MishaPan, VolkovBot, Paterakis, Pjoef,
StAnselm, WereSpielChequers, Wikigator, CharlesGillingham, Secgen89, Witchwooder, Drmies, Alladir, DragonBot, Elizium23, Catalog-
rapher, FeodorBezuhov, Kbdankbot, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, K kokkinos, Kliment.A.K., Redheylin, Glane23, Favonian, Тиверополник,
Lightbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Erud, Omnipaedista, Platonykiss, Dimosmusic, Winifred Lake, Чаховіч Уладзіслаў, DrilBot, Greco22,
Hæggis, John of Reading, Look2See1, Slightsmile, Malcolm77, SporkBot, ClueBot NG, VinculumMan, Byzelectro, Khakhalin, BG19bot,
Olorulus, Wookhcit, Desposius, IluvatarBot, Vvven, ΚΕΠΕΜ, Piledhighandeep and Anonymous: 68
• Leading-tone Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leading-tone?oldid=629994731 Contributors: Zundark, J.F.Quackenbush, Dysprosia,
Zoicon5, Hyacinth, Josh Cherry, Glogger, Rdb, FraKctured, Viriditas, Arthena, Georgia guy, Jacj, Wahoofive, YurikBot, SmackBot,
Pkirlin, Rigadoun, Janus303, WinBot, MegX, Jerome Kohl, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Lucasbfrbot, Quesoman87,
ClueBot, Addbot, Jafeluv, Luckas-bot, CXCV, RibotBOT, BenzolBot, Double sharp, EmausBot, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 15
• Harmonic series (music) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic%20series%20(music)?oldid=637745950 Contributors: Axel-
Boldt, Zundark, Karl E. V. Palmen, PierreAbbat, Merphant, Mjb, Camembert, Nevilley, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Julesd, Dcoet-
zee, Yonash, Wik, Hyacinth, VeryVerily, Omegatron, Cholling, 75th Trombone, Jleedev, Chinasaur, Guanaco, Wmahan, Zeimusu,
HorsePunchKid, Glogger, TonyW, Horndude77, Qef, Guanabot, Smyth, Kwamikagami, Army1987, Rbj, Rsholmes, Atlant, Keenan Pep-
per, Woodstone, Gene Nygaard, Kbdank71, Mathbot, Sborsody, Gdrbot, Ben Tibbetts, YurikBot, Zimbricchio, Biopresto, Fang Aili,
Veg0matic, SmackBot, Reedy, Vald, Ddcampayo, Pasajero, Happylobster, Kungming2, Just plain Bill, Qmwne235, MusicMaker5376,
Rigadoun, Dicklyon, DabMachine, JHP, Chetvorno, Neelix, AndrewGenus, Namrevlis, Milton Stanley, Tahome, Magioladitis, Evildoc-
torcow, Josephfeinstein, S.dedalus, SharkD, LordCodeman, NProch, Houtlijm, Masterofpsi, SieBot, Flyer22, David Be, Pilchardmusic,
Robertcurrey, Marquetry28, YuriLandman, Binksternet, Ohedland, Mild Bill Hiccup, PixelBot, Mbrsart, Q Valda, Addbot, Wildgriffin,
Kaustin6969, CarsracBot, Dayfield, Alfie66, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Rachip, Another Stickler, Xqbot, Invent2HelpAll, Highfield1369,
SassoBot, Prari, FrescoBot, Rigaudon, I dream of horses, Houbysoft, WikitanvirBot, HiW-Bot, Adrien1018, Helpful Pixie Bot, Citation-
CleanerBot, Sam River, Lugia2453 and Anonymous: 115
• Harmonic Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic?oldid=636322583 Contributors: Tarquin, Nevilley, Michael Hardy, Gnomon,
Stevenj, Charles Matthews, MatrixFrog, Wik, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Omegatron, Moriori, Altenmann, CompUTOSer, Giftlite, Gwalla, Art
Carlson, Mark Richards, Ds13, Mcapdevila, Alexander.stohr, Zhen Lin, Karl Naylor, Mckaysalisbury, CALR, Discospinster, Jpgordon,
Schnolle, RainbowOfLight, Linas, Ylem, BillC, LexCorp, Wahoofive, Ncc1701zzz, Erebus555, Rbeas, Soundguy99, Mathbot, Margos-
bot, RexNL, Sborsody, Riki, GreyCat, Srleffler, Stephenb, ENeville, Albedo, Xdenizen, Daniel Mietchen, Cowpie, RL0919, Enormous-
dude, Deville, Allens, SmackBot, Ohnoitsjamie, Landen99, Geevee, Frap, MichaelBillington, MortalMadMan, Just plain Bill, LDHan,
Dragonfly298, JzG, Breno, Frokor, Dicklyon, Chetvorno, CRGreathouse, David s graff, Foyster, R.christie, Rocket000, MesserWoland,
WinBot, Darklilac, Zondran, Sluzzelin, Tahome, Vekou, David Eppstein, Josephfeinstein, Patstuart, Robin S, B9 hummingbird hover-
ing, Black Stripe, Anaxial, R'n'B, Steve98052, Maurice Carbonaro, Acalamari, SharkD, Uranium grenade, Sparafucil, Jfinsf, Fluffy89,
Knverma, Tomaat, MusicScience, Slinto, Michelet, Anonymous Dissident, Wassermann, Houtlijm, Gerrywright, Scottywong, David Be,
Chridd, YuriLandman, Kenanjabr, ClueBot, Binksternet, Bradsm01, Hongthay, Bremerenator, MelonBot, RMFan1, Addbot, GyroMagi-
cian, Kaustin6969, Couposanto, W axell, Yobot, 2D, Backfromquadrangle, Mmxx, Jim1138, Another Stickler, Bob Burkhardt, Maxis ftw,
Dodove, Mnmngb, Lookang, Oliverlyc, Dewritech, PBS-AWB, ClueBot NG, Chester Markel, Vitashaomi, AlexGTV, MerlIwBot, Sam
River, Khazar2, Er.Shalin, Vivekhpandya, V.sureshkumar6160, Katie Henry and Anonymous: 120
56.8.2 Images
• File:'Oh,_Susanna'_pentatonic_melody.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/%27Oh%2C_Susanna%
27_pentatonic_melody.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work using Sibelius 5. Original artist: Hyacinth at en.wikipedia
• File:16-hole_chrom_10-hole_diatonic.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/16-hole_chrom_10-hole_
diatonic.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: George Leung
• File:1649._Пакроў.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/1649._%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%
80%D0%BE%D1%9E.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://pawet.net/collections/icons/17/17_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%
B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5.html Original artist: not specified
56.8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 233