Solutions Manual Physics of Vibrations and Waves
Solutions Manual Physics of Vibrations and Waves
Solutions Manual Physics of Vibrations and Waves
Compiled by
Dr Youfang Hu
Optoelectronics Research Centre (ORC), University of Southampton, UK
H. J. Pain
Formerly of Department of Physics, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, UK
4. Coupled Oscillations.
6. Longitudinal Waves.
8. Electromagnetic Waves.
1.1
In Figure 1.1(a), the restoring force is given by:
F = − mg sin θ
F = −mg x l
so the stiffness is given by:
s = − F x = mg l
so we have the frequency given by:
ω2 = s m = g l
Since θ is a very small angle, i.e. θ = sin θ = x l , or x = lθ , we have the restoring force
given by:
F = − mgθ
Now, the equation of motion using angular displacement θ can by derived from Newton’s
second law:
F = m&x&
i.e. − mgθ = mlθ&&
g
i.e. θ&& + θ = 0
l
which shows the frequency is given by:
ω2 = g l
In Figure 1.1(b), restoring couple is given by − Cθ , which has relation to moment of inertia I
given by:
− Cθ = Iθ&&
C
i.e. θ&& + θ =0
I
which shows the frequency is given by:
ω2 = C I
F = −2T x l
so Newton’s second law gives:
F = m&x& = − 2Tx l
In Figure 1.1(e), the displacement for liquid with a height of x has a displacement of x 2 and
G 2 ρAxg
s= = = 2 ρAg
x2 x
Newton’s second law gives:
− G = m&x&
i.e. − 2 ρAxg = ρAl&x&
2g
i.e. &x& + x=0
l
which show the frequency is given by:
ω 2 = 2g l
γ
In Figure 1.1(f), by taking logarithms of equation pV = constant , we have:
ln p + γ ln V = constant
dp dV
so we have: +γ =0
p V
dV
i.e. dp = −γp
V
The change of volume is given by dV = Ax , so we have:
Ax
dp = −γp
V
The gas in the flask neck has a mass of ρAl , so Newton’s second law gives:
Adp = m&x&
γpA
i.e. &x& + x=0
lρV
which show the frequency is given by:
γpA
ω2 =
lρV
In Figure 1.1 (g), the volume of liquid displaced is Ax , so the restoring force is − ρgAx . Then,
F = − ρgAx = m&x&
gρA
i.e. &x& + x=0
m
which shows the frequency is given by:
ω 2 = gρA m
1.2
Write solution x = a cos(ωt + φ ) in form: x = a cos φ cos ωt − a sin φ sin ωt and
compare with equation (1.2) we find: A = a cos φ and B = −a sin φ . We can also
find, with the same analysis, that the values of A and B for solution
x = a sin(ωt − φ ) are given by: A = −a sin φ and B = a cos φ , and for solution
i.e. φ = π 2 . When the pendulum swings to the position x = + a 2 for the first
time after release, the value of ωt is the minimum solution of equation
a sin(ωt + π 2) = + a 2 , i.e. ωt = π 4 . Similarly, we can find: for x = a 2 ,
ωt = π 3 and for x = 0 , ωt = π 2 .
i.e. φ = 0 . When the pendulum swings to the position x = + a 2 for the first
time after release, the value of ωt is the minimum solution of equation
a cos ωt = + a 2 , i.e. ωt = π 4 . Similarly, we can find: for x = a 2 , ωt = π 3
and for x = 0 , ωt = π 2 .
x = +a 2 for the first time after release, the value of ωt is the minimum
x = +a 2 for the first time after release, the value of ωt is the minimum
x = a 2 , ωt = π 3 and for x = 0 , ωt = π 2 .
x = +a 2 for the first time after release, the value of ωt is the minimum
x = +a 2 for the first time after release, the value of ωt is the minimum
x = +a 2 for the first time after release, the value of ωt is the minimum
1.4
The frequency of such a simple harmonic motion is given by:
s e2 (1.6 ×10 −19 ) 2
ω0 = = = ≈ 4.5 × 1016 [rad ⋅ s −1 ]
me 4πε 0 r 3me 4 × π × 8.85 ×10 × (0.05 ×10 ) × 9.1×10
−12 −9 3 −31
1.5
(a) If the mass m is displaced a distance of x from its equilibrium position, either
the upper or the lower string has an extension of x 2 . So, the restoring force of
the mass is given by: F = − sx 2 and the stiffness of the system is given by:
ωc2 = s′ m = 2s m .
1.6
At time t = 0 , x = x0 gives:
a sin φ = x0 (1.6.1)
x& = v0 gives:
aω cos φ = v0 (1.6.2)
1.7
The equation of this simple harmonic motion can be written as: x = a sin(ωt + φ ) .
the velocity of the particle at time t and is given by: vt = x& = aω cos(ωt + φ ) .
2dt 2π
by: η = where the period is given by: T = , so we have:
T ω
2dt 2ωdx dx dx dx
η= = = = =
T 2πaω cos(ωt + φ ) πa cos(ωt + φ ) πa 1 − sin (ωt + φ ) π a 2 − x 2
2
1.8
Since the displacements of the equally spaced oscillators in y direction is a sine
curve, the phase difference δφ between two oscillators a distance x apart given is
1.9
The mass loses contact with the platform when the system is moving downwards and
the acceleration of the platform equals the acceleration of gravity. The acceleration of
a simple harmonic vibration can be written as: a = Aω 2 sin(ωt + φ ) , where A is the
Aω 2 sin(ωt + φ ) = g
g
i.e. A=
ω sin(ωt + φ )
2
Therefore, the minimum amplitude, which makes the mass lose contact with the
platform, is given by:
g g 9.8
Amin = = = ≈ 0.01[m]
ω 2
4π f
2 2
4 × π 2 × 52
1.10
The mass of the element dy is given by: m′ = mdy l . The velocity of an element
dy of its length is proportional to its distance y from the fixed end of the spring, and
is given by: v′ = yv l . where v is the velocity of the element at the other end of the
spring, i.e. the velocity of the suspended mass M . Hence we have the kinetic energy
The total kinetic energy of the system is the sum of kinetic energies of the spring and
the suspended mass, and is given by:
KEtot = mv 2 + Mv 2 = (M + m 3)v 2
1 1 1
6 2 2
which shows the system is equivalent to a spring with zero mass with a mass of
M + m 3 suspended at the end. Therefore, the frequency of the oscillation system is
given by:
s
ω2 =
M +m 3
1.11
In Figure 1.1(a), the restoring force of the simple pendulum is − mg sin θ , then, the
d ⎛ 1 2 1 mg 2 ⎞
⎜ mx& + x ⎟=0
dt ⎝ 2 2 l ⎠
g
i.e. &x& + x=0
l
In Figure 1.1(b), the displacement is the rotation angle θ , the mass is replaced by the
moment of inertia I of the disc and the stiffness by the restoring couple C of the
wire. So the energy is given by:
1 1
E = Iθ& 2 + Cθ 2
2 2
The equation of motion is by setting dE dt = 0 , i.e.:
d ⎛ 1 &2 1 2⎞
⎜ Iθ + Cθ ⎟ = 0
dt ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
d ⎛1 2 1 2⎞
⎜ mx& + sx ⎟ = 0
dt ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
s
i.e. &x& + x=0
m
In Figure 1.1(c), the restoring force is given by: − 2 Tx l , then the stiffness is given
d ⎛1 2 T 2⎞
⎜ mx& + x ⎟ = 0
dt ⎝ 2 l ⎠
2T
i.e. &x& + x=0
lm
d ⎛1 2⎞
⎜ ρAlx& + ρgAx ⎟ = 0
2
dt ⎝ 2 ⎠
2g
i.e. &x& + x=0
l
1 2 1 2 1 1 γpA2 x 2
E= mv + sx = ρAlx& 2 +
2 2 2 2 V
d ⎛1 1 γpA2 x 2 ⎞
⎜⎜ ρAlx& 2 + ⎟=0
dt ⎝ 2 2 V ⎟⎠
γpA
i.e. &x& + x=0
lρV
In Figure 1.1(g), the restoring force of the hydrometer is − ρgAx , then the stiffness
d ⎛1 2 1 2⎞
⎜ mx& + ρgAx ⎟ = 0
dt ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
Aρg
i.e. &x& + x=0
m
1.12
The displacement of the simple harmonic oscillator is given by:
x = a sin ωt (1.12.1)
so the velocity is given by:
x& = aω cos ωt (1.12.2)
From (1.12.1) and (1.12.2), we can eliminate t and get:
x2 x& 2
+ 2 2 = sin 2 ωt + cos 2 ωt = 1 (1.12.3)
a 2
aω
1.13
The equations of the two simple harmonic oscillations can be written as:
y1 = a sin(ωt + φ ) and y2 = a sin(ωt + φ + δ )
i.e. I ∝ 4a 2 cos 2 (δ 2)
0 ≤ I ≤ 4a 2 cos 2 (δ 2)
1.14
2 2
⎛x y ⎞ ⎛ y x ⎞
⎜⎜ sin φ2 − sin φ1 ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ cos φ1 − cos φ2 ⎟⎟
⎝ a1 a2 ⎠ ⎝ a2 a1 ⎠
x2 y2 2 xy y2 x2 2 xy
= 2 sin 2 φ2 + 2 sin 2 φ1 − sin φ1 sin φ2 + 2 cos 2 φ1 + 2 cos 2 φ2 − cos φ1 cos φ2
a1 a2 a1a2 a2 a1 a1a2
x2 y2 2 xy
= 2
(sin 2
φ 2 + cos 2
φ 2 ) + 2
(sin 2 φ1 + cos 2 φ1 ) − (sin φ1 sin φ2 + cos φ1 cos φ2 )
a1 a2 a1a2
x 2 y 2 2 xy
= + − cos(φ1 − φ2 )
a12 a22 a1a2
On the other hand, by substitution of :
x
= sin ωt cos φ1 + cos ωt sin φ1
a1
1.15
By elimination of t from equation x = a sin ωt and y = b cos ωt , we have:
x2 y 2
+ =1
a 2 b2
which shows the particle follows an elliptical path. The energy at any position of x ,
y on the ellipse is given by:
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
E= mx& + sx + my& + sy
2 2 2 2
1 2 2 1 1 1
= ma ω cos 2 ωt + ma 2ω 2 sin 2 ωt + mb 2ω 2 sin 2 ωt + mb 2ω 2 cos 2 ωt
2 2 2 2
1 2 2 1 2 2
= ma ω + mb ω
2 2
1
= mω 2 (a 2 + b 2 )
2
The value of the energy shows it is a constant and equal to the sum of the separate
1
energies of the simple harmonic vibrations in x direction given by mω 2 a 2 and in
2
1
y direction given by mω 2b 2 .
2
At any position of x , y on the ellipse, the expression of m( xy& − yx& ) can be
written as:
1.16
All possible paths described by equation 1.3 fall within a rectangle of 2a1 wide and
1.17
In the range 0 ≤ φ ≤ π , the values of cos φi are − 1 ≤ cos φi ≤ +1 . For n random
0 ≤ cos φi ≤ 1 . The positive and negative values will tend to cancel each other and the
n n
sum of the n values: ∑ cos φi → 0 , similarly
i =1
∑ cos φ
j =1
j → 0 . i.e.
i≠ j
n n
∑ cos φ ∑ cos φ
i =1
i
j =1
j →0
i≠ j
1.18
The exponential form of the expression:
a sin ωt + a sin(ωt + δ ) + a sin(ωt + 2δ ) + L + a sin[ωt + ( n − 1)δ ]
is given by:
so we have:
sin nδ 2 sin nδ 2 sin 2 nδ 2
zz * = aeiωt ⋅ ae −iωt = a2
sin δ 2 sin δ 2 sin 2 δ 2
2.1
The system is released from rest, so we know its initial velocity is zero, i.e.
dx
=0
dt t =0
(2.1.1)
Now, rearrange the expression for the displacement in the form:
F + G ( − p + q ) t F − G ( − p −q ) t
x= e + e
2 2
(2.1.2)
Then, substitute (2.1.2) into (2.1.1), we have
⎡ F + G ( − p+q ) t F − G ( − p −q ) t ⎤
= ⎢(− p + q ) + (− p − q )
dx
dt t =0 ⎣ 2
e
2
e ⎥⎦ = 0
t =0
i.e.
qG = pF
(2.1.3)
By substitution of the expressions of q and p into equation (2.1.3), we have the ratio given by:
G r
=
F (
r 2 − 4ms
12
)
2.2
The first and second derivatives of x are given by:
⎡
x& = ⎢ B −
r
( A + Bt )⎤⎥e −rt 2m
⎣ 2m ⎦
⎡ rB r 2 ⎤
&x& = ⎢− + 2
( A + Bt )⎥e −rt 2m
⎣ m 4m ⎦
We can verify the solution by substitution of x , x& and &x& into equation:
m&x& + rx& + sx = 0
then we have equation:
⎛ r2 ⎞
⎜⎜ s − ⎟( A + Bt ) = 0
⎝ 4m ⎟⎠
which is true for all t, provided the first bracketed term of the above equation is zero, i.e.
i.e. r 2 4m 2 = s m
2.3
The initial displacement of the system is given by:
( )
x = e − rt 2 m C1eiω′t + C2e − iω′t = A cos φ at t = 0
So:
C1 + C2 = A cos φ
(2.3.1)
Now let the initial velocity of the system to be:
⎛ r ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞
x& = ⎜ − + iω ′ ⎟C1e (−r 2 m+iω′ )t + ⎜ − − iω ′ ⎟C2e(−r 2 m−iω′ )t = −ω ′A sin φ at t = 0
⎝ 2m ⎠ ⎝ 2m ⎠
so we have:
C1 − C2 = iA sin φ
(2.3.2)
A(cos φ + i sin φ ) A iφ
C1 = = e
2 2
A(cos φ − i sin φ ) A −iφ
C2 = = e
2 2
2.4
Use the relation between current and charge, I = q& , and the voltage equation:
q C + IR = 0
we have the equation:
Rq& + q C = 0
solve the above equation, we get:
q = C1e − t RC
i.e. q = q0e −t RC
which shows the relaxation time of the process is RC s.
2.5
Q = ω ′m r ≈ ω0 m r = 500
2π
Use τ′ = , we have:
ω′
r πr π π
δ= τ′ = = =
2m mω ′ Q 500
(b) The stiffness of the system is given by:
ω0 m 106 × 10−10
r= = = 2 × 10− 7 [ N ⋅ sm −1 ]
Q 500
(c) At t = 0 and maximum displacement, x& = 0 , energy is given by:
1 2 1 2 1 2 1
E= mx& + sx = sxmax = × 100 × 10− 4 = 5 × 10− 3[ J ]
2 2 2 2
−1
Time for energy to decay to e of initial value is given by:
m 10−10
t= = = 0.5[ms]
r 2 × 10− 7
(d) Use definition of Q factor:
E
Q = 2π
− ΔE
where, E is energy stored in system, and − ΔE is energy lost per cycle, so energy loss in the
E 5 × 10−3
− ΔE1 = −ΔE = 2π = 2π × = 2π × 10− 5[ J ]
Q 500
2.6
r2 r2 r2
ω ′2 = ω02 − => ω ′ 2
− ω 2
= => Δω = ω ′ - ω =
4m 2 (ω ′ + ω0 )
0 0
4m 2 4m 2
ω0 m
Use ω ′ ≈ ω and Q = we find fractional change in the resonant frequency is given by:
r
Δω ω ′ − ω0
= (8Q 2 )
r2 −1
= ≈
ω0 ω0 8m ω0
2 2
2.7
See page 71 of text. Analysis is the same as that in the text for the mechanical case except that
inductance L replaces mass m , resistance R replaces r and stiffness s is replaced by
2.8
Electrons per unit area of the plasma slab is given by:
q = −nle
When all the electrons are displaced a distance x , giving a restoring electric field:
xn 2e 2l
F = qE = −
ε0
Newton’s second law gives:
restoring force per unit area = electrons mass per unit area × electrons acceleration
i.e.
xn 2e 2l
F =− = nlme × &x&
ε0
ne 2
i.e. &x& + x=0
mε 0
From the above equation, we can see the displacement distance of electrons, x , oscillates with
angular frequency:
ne 2
ωe2 =
meε 0
2.9
As the string is shortened work is done against: (a) gravity (mg cosθ ) and (b) the centrifugal
force ( mv r = mlθ& ) along the time of shortening. Assume that during shortening there are
2 2
where the bar denotes the average value. For small θ , cosθ = 1 − θ 2 2 so:
The term − mgΔl is the elevation of the equilibrium position and does not affect the energy of
ml 2θ& 2 mglθ 2
E= +
2 2
ω = g l we may write:
ml 2ω 2θ 02 mglθ 02
E= =
2 2
and
3.1
The solution of the vector form of the equation of motion for the forced oscillator:
m&x& + rx& + sx = F0eiωt
is given by:
iF0ei (ωt −φ ) iF F
x= =− cos(ωt − φ ) + sin(ωt − φ )
ωZ m ωZ m ωZ m
Since F0eiωt represents its imaginary part: F0 sin ωt , the value of x is given by the
3.2
The transient term of a forced oscillator decay with e − rt 2 m to e- k at time t , i.e.:
− rt 2m = − k
By substitution of (3.2.1) and (3.2.2) into (3.2.3), we can find the average rate of
growth of the oscillations given by:
3.3
Write the equation of an undamped simple harmonic oscillator driven by a force of
frequency ω in the vector form, and use F0eiωt to represent its imaginary part
F0 sin ωt , we have:
We try the steady state solution x = Aeiωt and the velocity is given by:
F0
mω02
0 ω0 ω
3.4
In equation (3.3.2), x = 0 at t = 0 gives:
⎡ F sin ωt ⎤
x t =0 = ⎢ 0 2 + A cos ω0t + B sin ω0t ⎥ = A = 0 (3.4.1)
⎣ m(ω0 − ω )
2
⎦ t =0
In equation (3.3.2), x& = 0 at t = 0 gives:
dx ⎡ ωF0 cos ωt ⎤ ωF0
=⎢ − ω0 A sin ω0t + ω0 B cos ω0t ⎥ = + ω0 B = 0
dt t =0 ⎣ m(ω0 − ω )
2 2
⎦ t =0 m(ω0 − ω )
2 2
F0ω
i.e. B=− (3.4.2)
mω0 (ω02 − ω 2 )
F0 ⎛ Δω ⎞
i.e. x=− ⎜⎜ − sin ω0t + Δωt cos ω0t ⎟⎟
2mω0 Δω ⎝ ω0 ⎠
F0 ⎛ sin ω0t ⎞
i.e. x= ⎜⎜ − t cos ω0t ⎟⎟
2mω0 ⎝ ω0 ⎠
F0
i.e. x= (sin ω0t − ω0t cos ω0t )
2mω02
7 F0π
5F0π 2mω02
x
3F0π 2mω02
F0π 2mω02
F0t
2mω02
2mω0
0 ω0 t
F0t
−
F0π 2mω0
mω02 2 F0π
mω02 3F0π
mω02
graph:
3.5
The general expression of displacement of a simple damped mechanical oscillator
driven by a force F0 cos ωt is the sum of transient term and steady state term, given
⎛ ωm − s ω ⎞
φ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ , so the general expression of velocity is given by:
⎝ r ⎠
⎛ r ⎞ − +iωit F0 i (ωt −φ )
rt
v = x& = C ⎜ − + i ωt ⎟ e 2 m + e
⎝ 2m ⎠ Zm
and the general expression of acceleration is given by:
⎛ r2 iωt r ⎞ − 2 m +iωit iωF0 i (ωt −φ )
rt
v& = C ⎜⎜ 2 − ωt −
2
⎟e + e
⎝ 4m m ⎟⎠ Zm
From (3.5.1), we find the amplitude of acceleration at steady state is given by:
ωF0 ωF0
v& = =
Zm r + (ωm − s ω ) 2
2
dv&
At the frequency of maximum acceleration: =0
dω
d ⎡ ωF0 ⎤
i.e. ⎢ ⎥=0
dω ⎢ r 2 + (ωm − s ω ) 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2s 2
i.e. r − 2ms +
2
=0
ω2
2s 2
i.e. ω2 =
2sm − r 2
Hence, we find the expression of the frequency of maximum acceleration given by:
2s 2
ω=
2sm − r 2
3.6
The displacement amplitude of a driven mechanical oscillator is given by:
F0
x=
ω r 2 + (ωm − s ω ) 2
F0
i.e. x= (3.6.1)
ω 2 r 2 + (ω 2 m − s) 2
The displacement resonance frequency is given by:
s r2
ω= − (3.6.2)
m 2m 2
By substitution of (3.6.2) into (3.6.1), we have:
F0
x=
2
2⎛ s r2 ⎞ ⎛ r2 ⎞
r ⎜⎜ − ⎟+⎜
2 ⎟ ⎜
⎟⎟
⎝ m 2m ⎠ ⎝ 2m ⎠
F0
i.e. x=
s r2
r −
m 4m 2
which proves the exact amplitude at the displacement resonance of a driven
mechanical oscillator may be written as:
F
x= 0
ω ′r
where,
s r2
ω ′2 = −
m 4m 2
3.7
(a) The displacement amplitude is given by:
F0
x=
ω r 2 + (ωm − s ω ) 2
F0 F0 F0
vr = = =
r + (ωm − s ω )
2 2
ω= s m
r + ( sm − sm )
2 2 r
(c) From problem 3.5, we have the acceleration amplitude given by:
ωF0
v& =
r + (ωm − s ω ) 2
2
From (a), (b) and (c), we find lim x , vr and lim v& are all constants, i.e. they are all
ω →0 ω →∞
frequency independent.
3.8
The expression of curve (a) in Figure 3.9 is given by:
F0 X m F0 m(ω02 − ω 2 )
xa = − = (3.8.1)
ωZ m2 m 2 (ω02 − ω 2 ) 2 + ω 2 r 2
where ω0 = s m
dxa
xa has either maximum or minimum value when =0
dω
d ⎡ F0 m(ω02 − ω 2 ) ⎤
i.e. ⎢ 2 2 2 2⎥
=0
dω ⎣ m (ω0 − ω ) + ω r ⎦
2 2
ω0 r
ω1 = ω02 − (3.8.2)
m
ω0 r
2
⎛ r ⎞ r2 r
ω1 = ω − 2
0= ⎜ ω0 − ⎟ − ≈ ω0 −
⎝ 2m ⎠ 4m 2
m 2m
ω0 r
2
⎛ r ⎞ r2 r
ω2 = ω + 2
0= ⎜ ω0 + ⎟ − ≈ ω0 +
⎝ 2m ⎠ 4m 2
m 2m
The maximum and the minimum values of xa can found by substitution of (3.8.2)
F0 F
when ω = ω2 : xa = − ≈− 0
2ω0 r + ω0 r m
2
2ω0 r
3.9
The undamped oscillatory equation for a bound electron is given by:
&x& + ω02 x = (− eE0 m) cos ωt (3.9.1)
eE0
i.e. A=−
m(ω02 − ω 2 )
For an electron number density n , the induced polarizability per unit volume of a
nex ne 2
χe = − =
ε 0 E ε 0 m(ω02 − ω 2 )
3.10
The forced mechanical oscillator equation is given by:
m&x& + rx& + sx = F0 cos ωt
F0 r FX
x= sin ωt − 0 2m cos ωt (3.10.2)
ωZ m2
ωZ m
⎛ ωm − s ω ⎞
where, X m = ωm − s ω , Z m = r 2 + (ωm − s ω ) 2 , φ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ r ⎠
By taking the displacement x as the component represented by curve (a) in Figure
3.9, i.e. by taking the second term of equation (3.10.2) as the expression of x , we
have:
F0 X m F0 m(ω02 − ω 2 )
x=− cos ω t = cos ωt (3.10.3)
ωZ m2 m 2 (ω02 − ω 2 ) 2 + ω 2 r 2
The damped oscillatory electron equation can be written as:
m&x& + rx& + mω02 x = −eE0 cos ωt (3.10.4)
Comparing (3.10.1) with (3.10.4), we can immediately find the displacement x for a
damped oscillatory electron by substituting F0 = −eE0 into (3.10.3), i.e.:
eE0 m(ω02 − ω 2 )
x=− cos ωt (3.10.5)
m 2 (ω02 − ω 2 ) 2 + ω 2 r 2
3.11
The instantaneous power dissipated is equal to the product of frictional force and the
instantaneous velocity, i.e.:
F02
P = (rx& ) x& = r cos 2 (ωt − φ )
Z m2
The period for a given frequency ω is given by:
2π
T=
ω
Therefore, the energy dissipated per cycle is given by:
T 2π ω F02
E = ∫ Pdt = ∫ r 2
cos 2 (ωt − φ )dt
0 0 Zm
2π ω rF02
=∫ [1 − cos 2(ωt − φ )]dt
0 2 Z m2
(3.11.1)
2π rF02
=
ω 2Z m2
πrF02
=
ωZ m2
The displacement is given by:
F0
x= sin(ωt − φ )
ωZ m
so we have:
F0
xmax = (3.11.2)
ωZ m
By substitution of (3.11.2) into (3.11.1), we have:
E = πrωxmax
2
3.12
The low frequency limit of the bandwidth of the resonance absorption curve ω1
3.13
For a LCR series circuit, the current through the circuit is given by
I = I 0eiωt
by:
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
Z m = R + ⎜ ωL −
2
⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
V0
I0 = (3.13.3)
R
and the resonant frequency ω0 is given by:
3.14
In a resonant LCR series circuit, the potential across the condenser is given by:
I
VC = (3.14.1)
ωC
where, I is the current through the whole LCR series circuit, and is given by:
I = I 0eiωt (3.14.2)
V0
I0 = (3.14.3)
Ze
where, V0 is the voltage amplitude applied across the whole LCR series circuit and is
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
Z e = R 2 + ⎜ ωL − ⎟ (3.14.4)
⎝ ωC ⎠
From (3.14.1), (3.14.2), (3.14.3), and (3.14.4) we have:
V0
VC = eiωt = VC 0eiωt
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
Cω R 2 + ⎜ ωL − ⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
dVC 0
which has the maximum value when = 0 , i.e.:
dω
Cω R 2 + ⎜ ω L − ⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
i.e. R + ⎜ ωL −
2
⎟ +ω L − 2 2 = 0
2 2
⎝ ωC ⎠ ωC
L
i.e. R 2 + 2ω 2 L2 − 2 =0
C
1 R2 1
i.e. ω= − 2 = ω0 1 − Q02
LC 2 L 2
1 ωL
where ω02 = , Q0 = 0
LC R
3.15
In a resonant LCR series circuit, the potential across the inductance is given by:
VL = ωLI (3.15.1)
where, I is the current through the whole LCR series circuit, and is given by:
I = I 0eiωt (3.15.2)
V0
I0 = (3.15.3)
Ze
where, V0 is the voltage amplitude applied across the whole LCR series circuit and is
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
Z e = R + ⎜ ωL −
2
⎟ (3.15.4)
⎝ ωC ⎠
From (3.15.1), (3.15.2), (3.15.3), and (3.15.4) we have:
ωLV0
VL = eiωt = VL 0eiωt
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
R 2 + ⎜ ωL − ⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
dVL 0
which has the maximum value when = 0 , i.e.:
dω
R 2 + ⎜ ωL − ⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
i.e. R + ⎜ ωL −
2
⎟ −ω L + 2 2 = 0
2 2
⎝ ωC ⎠ ωC
2 L
i.e. R2 + −2 = 0
ωC
2 2
C
1 1 1 1 ω0
i.e. ω= = = ω0 =
R 2C 2 LC RC2
R 2
1
LC − 1− 1− 2 2 1 − Q02
2 2L 2 L ω0 2
1 ωL
where ω02 = , Q0 = 0
LC R
3.16
Considering an electron in an atom as a lightly damped simple harmonic oscillator,
we know its resonance absorption bandwidth is given by:
r
δω = (3.16.1)
m
On the other hand, the relation between frequency and wavelength of light is given
by:
c
f = (3.16.2)
λ
where, c is speed of light in vacuum. From (3.16.2) we find at frequency resonance:
c
δf = − δλ
λ20
angular frequency bandwidth δω and the width of spectral line δλ is given by:
2πc
δω = 2π δf = δλ (3.16.3)
λ20
From (3.16.1) and (3.16.3) we have:
λ20 r λr λ
δλ = = 0 = 0
2πcm ω0 m Q
So the width of the spectral line from such an atom is given by:
λ0 0.6 × 10 −6
δλ = = = 1.2 × 10 −14 [m]
Q 5 × 10 7
r2
ωr = ω02 −
2m 2
F0 F0
xmax = =
ωZ m ω =ωr
ω ′r
r2 s
where, Z m = r 2 + (ωm − s ω ) 2 , ω ′ = ω02 − , ω0 =
4m 2 m
Now, at half maximum displacement:
F0 x F
= max = 0
ωZ m 2 2ω ′r
i.e. ω r 2 + (ωm − s ω ) 2 = 2ω ′r
⎡ 2 ⎛ s⎞ ⎤
2
⎛s r2 ⎞
i.e. ω ⎢r + ⎜ ωm − ⎟ ⎥ = 4⎜⎜ − 2 ⎟⎟r 2
2
⎢⎣ ⎝ ω ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ m 4m ⎠
(r 2 − 2sm) 2 s 2 4sr 2 r 4
i.e. ω4 + ω + 2 − 3 + 4 =0
m2 m m m
2 2
⎛s r2 ⎞ 2 ⎛ s r 2 ⎞ 3r 2 ⎛ s r2 ⎞
i.e. ω − 2⎜⎜ − 2 ⎟⎟ω + ⎜⎜ − 2 ⎟⎟ − 2 ⎜⎜ − 2 ⎟⎟ = 0
4
⎝ m 2m ⎠ ⎝ m 2m ⎠ m ⎝ m 4m ⎠
2
⎛ 3r 2 ⎞
i.e. (ω − ω ) − ⎜⎜
2 2 2
r ω ′ ⎟⎟ = 0
⎝ m ⎠
3r 2
i.e. ω 2 − ωr2 = ± ω′ (3.17.1)
m
If ω1 and ω2 are the two solutions of equation (3.17.1), and ω2 > ω1 , then:
3r 2
ω22 − ωr2 = ω′ (3.17.2)
m
3r 2
ω12 − ω r2 = − ω′ (3.17.3)
m
r2
i.e. ω 02 >>
m2
i.e. ωr ≈ ω ′ ≈ ω0
Then, from (3.17.2) and (3.17.3) we have:
2 3r 2
(ω 2 − ω1 )(ω 2 + ω1 ) ≈ ω0
m
and ω1 + ω 2 ≈ 2ω 0
Therefore, the width of displacement resonance curve is given by:
3r
ω 2 − ω1 ≈
m
3.18
In Figure 3.9, curve (b) corresponds to absorption, and is given by:
F0 r F ωr
x= sin ωt = 2 2 0 2 2 sin ωt
ωZ m2
m (ω0 − ω ) + ω 2 r 2
eE0ω 2 r
v = x& = − cos ωt (3.18.1)
m 2 (ω02 − ω 2 ) 2 + ω 2 r 2
For an electron density of n , the instantaneous power supplied equal to the product
of the instantaneous driving force − neE0 cos ωt and the instantaneous velocity, i.e.:
⎛ eE0ω 2 r ⎞
P = (−neE0 cos ωt ) × ⎜ − 2 2
⎜ cos ωt ⎟⎟
⎝ m (ω 0 − ω 2 2
) + ω 2 2
r ⎠
ne E0 ω r
2 2 2
= 2 2 cos 2 ωt
m (ω0 − ω 2 ) 2 + ω 2 r 2
ω 2π ω ne 2 E02ω 2 r
=
2π ∫0 m (ω0 − ω ) + ω r
2 2 2 2 2 2
cos 2 ωt
ne 2 E02 ω 2r
=
2 m 2 (ω02 − ω 2 ) 2 + ω 2 r 2
which is also the mean rate of energy absorption per unit volume.
4.1
The kinetic energy of the system is the sum of the separate kinetic energy of the two
masses, i.e.:
1 2 1 2 1 ⎡1 1 ⎤ 1 1
Ek = mx& + my& = m ⎢ ( x& + y& ) 2 + ( x& − y& ) 2 ⎥ = mX& 2 + mY& 2
2 2 2 ⎣2 2 ⎦ 4 4
The potential energy of the system is the sum of the separate potential energy of the
two masses, i.e.:
1 mg 2 1 1 mg 2 1
Ep = x + s( y − x)2 + y + s( x − y)2
2 l 2 2 l 2
1 mg 2
= ( x + y 2 ) + s( x − y)2
2 l
1 mg ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
= ⎢ ( x + y ) 2
+ ( x − y)2 ⎥ + s( x − y)2
2 l ⎣2 2 ⎦
1 mg 2 ⎛ 1 mg ⎞
= X +⎜ + s ⎟Y 2
4 l ⎝2 l ⎠
Comparing the expression of Ek and E p with the definition of E X and EY given
4.2
The total energy of Problem 4.1 can be written as:
1 1 1 mg 2
E = Ek + E p = mx& 2 + my& 2 + ( x + y 2 ) + s( x − y) 2
2 2 2 l
The above equation can be rearranged as the format:
E = ( Ekin + E pot ) x + ( Ekin + E pot ) y + ( E pot ) xy
1 2 ⎛ mg ⎞ 1 ⎛ mg ⎞
where, ( Ekin + E pot ) x = mx& + ⎜ + s ⎟ x 2 , ( Ekin + E pot ) y = my& 2 + ⎜ + s ⎟ y2 ,
2 ⎝ 2l ⎠ 2 ⎝ 2l ⎠
4.3
x = −2a , y = 0 :
-X + Y
≡ +
-2a y=0 -a -a -a a
x = 0 , y = −2 a :
-X - Y
≡ +
x=0 -2a -a -a -a a
4.4
For mass m1 , Newton’s second law gives:
m1&x&1 = sx
m2 &x&2 = − sx
s s
− x− x = &x&
m2 m1
m1 + m2
i.e. &x& + sx = 0
m1m2
For a sodium chloride molecule the interatomic force constant s is given by:
(2πν ) 2 mNa mCl 4π 2 × (1.14 × 1013 ) 2 × (23 × 35) × (1.67 × 10−27 ) 2
s = ω 2μ = = ≈ 120[ Nm −1 ]
mNa + mCl (23 + 35) × 1.67 × 10 −27
4.5
If the upper mass oscillate with a displacement of x and the lower mass oscillate
with a displacement of y , the equations of motion of the two masses are given by
We may, by dividing through by me iωt , rewrite the above equations in matrix form
as:
⎡2 s m − ω 2 − s m ⎤ ⎡ A⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = 0 (4.5.1)
⎣ −s m s m − ω 2 ⎦ ⎣ B⎦
which has a non-zero solution if and only if the determinant of the matrix vanishes;
that is, if
(2s m − ω 2 )( s m − ω 2 ) − s 2 m 2 = 0
i.e. ω 4 − (3s m) ω 2 + s 2 m 2 = 0
s
i.e. ω 2 = (3 ± 5 )
2m
In the slower mode, ω 2 = (3 − 5 ) s 2m . By substitution of the value of frequency
into equation (4.5.1), we have:
A s s − mω 2 5 −1
= = =
B 2 s − mω 2
s 2
which is the ratio of the amplitude of the upper mass to that of the lower mass.
Similarly, in the slower mode, ω 2 = (3 + 5 ) s 2m . By substitution of the value of
frequency into equation (4.5.1), we have:
A s s − mω 2 5 +1
= = =−
B 2 s − mω 2
s 2
4.6
The motions of the two pendulums in Figure 4.3 are given by:
(ω − ω1 )t (ω + ω2 )t
x = 2a cos 2 cos 1 = 2a cos ωmt cos ωat
2 2
(ω − ω1 )t (ω + ω2 )t
y = 2a sin 2 sin 1 = 2a sin ωmt sin ωat
2 2
where, the amplitude of the two masses, 2a cos ωmt and 2a sin ωmt , are constants
Supposing the spring is very weak, the stiffness of the spring is ignorable, i.e. s ≈ 0 .
⎛ ω + ω2 ⎞
2
g
= ω12 ≈ ω22 ≈ ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ωa
2
l ⎝ 2 ⎠
Hence, the energies of the masses are given by:
Ex =
1
s x a x2 =
1 mg
(2a cos ωmt )2 = 2ma 2ωa2 cos 2 ωmt
2 2 l
1
E y = s y a y2 =
1 mg
(2a sin ωmt )2 = 2ma 2ωa2 sin 2 ωmt
2 2 l
The total energy is given by:
E = Ex + E y = 2ma 2ωa2 (cos2 ωmt + sin 2 ωmt ) = 2ma 2ωa2
E
E x = 2ma 2ωa2 cos 2 (ω2 − ω1 )t =
[1 + cos(ω2 − ω1 )t ]
2
E
E y = 2ma 2ωa2 sin 2 (ω2 − ω1 )t = [1 − cos(ω2 − ω1 )t ]
2
which show that the constant energy E is completed exchanged between the two
pendulums at the beat frequency (ω2 − ω1 ) .
4.7
By adding up the two equations of motion, we have:
m1&x& + m2 &y& = −(m1 x + m2 y )( g l )
m1 &x& + m2 &y& g m1 x + m2 y
=−
m1 + m2 l m1 + m2
m1 &x& + m2 &y& g m1 x + m2 y
i.e. + =0
m1 + m2 l m1 + m2
g ⎛ s s ⎞
&x& − &y& = − ( x − y ) − ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟( x − y )
l ⎝ m1 m2 ⎠
⎡g ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
i.e. &x& − &y& + ⎢ + s⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟⎥ ( x − y ) = 0
⎣l ⎝ m1 m2 ⎠⎦
which can be written as:
Y&& + ω22Y = 0 (4.7.2)
where,
g ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
Y = x− y and ω22 = + s⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
l ⎝ m1 m2 ⎠
Equations (4.7.1) and (4.7.2) take the form of linear differential equations with
constant coefficients and each equation contains only one dependant variable,
therefore X and Y are normal coordinates and their normal frequencies are given
by ω1 and ω2 respectively.
4.8
Since the initial condition gives x& = y& = 0 , we may write, in normal coordinate, the
equations, we have:
X 0 = ( m1 M ) A
Y0 = A
m1 x + m2 y m1
= A cos ω1t
m1 + m2 M
x − y = A cos ω2t
The solutions to the above equations are given by:
A
x= (m1 cos ω1t + m2 cos ω2t )
M
m
y = A 1 (cos ω1t − cos ω2t )
M
Noting that ω1 = ωa − ωm and ω2 = ωa + ωm , where ωm = (ω2 − ω1 ) 2 and
A
x= [m1 cos(ωa − ωm )t + m2 cos(ωa + ωm )t ]
M
A
= [m1 (cos ωmt cos ωa t + sin ωmt sin ωat ) + m2 (cos ωmt cos ωa t − sin ωmt sin ωat )]
M
A
= [(m1 + m2 ) cos ωmt cos ωa t + (m1 − m2 ) sin ωmt sin ωa t ]
M
A
= A cos ωmt cos ωat + (m1 − m2 ) sin ωmt sin ωat
M
and
m1
y=A [cos(ωa − ωm )t − cos(ωa + ωm )t ]
M
m
= 2 A 1 sin ωmt sin ωat
M
4.9
From the analysis in Problem 4.6, we know, at weak coupling conditions, cos ωmt
and sin ωmt are constants over one cycle, and the relation: ωa ≈ g l , so the energy
of the mass m1 , E x , and the energy of the mass m2 , E y , are the sums of their
[ ]
2
1 2 A
= m1ωa 2 (m1 + m2 ) 2 cos 2 ωmt + (m1 − m2 ) 2 sin 2 ωmt
2 M
=
1
2
A2
[
m1ωa2 2 m12 + m22 + 2m1m2 (cos 2 ωmt − sin 2 ωmt )
M
]
=
1
2
A2
[
m1ωa2 2 m12 + m22 + 2m1m2 cos 2ωmt
M
]
=
M
E
2
[m12 + m22 + 2m1m2 cos(ω2 − ω1 )t ]
and
2 2
1 ⎡ m ⎤ 1 ⎡ m ⎤
E y = m2 ⎢2 A 1 ωa sin ωmt cos ωat ⎥ + m1ωa2 ⎢2 A 1 sin ωmt sin ωa t ⎥
2 ⎣ M ⎦ 2 ⎣ M ⎦
= 2m12 m2ωa2
A2
M2
[
sin 2 ωmt (cos 2 ωat + sin 2 ωat ) ]
A2
= 2m12 m2ωa2 2 sin 2 ωmt
M
⎛1 ⎞⎛ 2m m ⎞
= ⎜ m1ωa2 A2 ⎟⎜ 1 2 2 ⎟[1 − cos 2ωmt ]
⎝2 ⎠⎝ M ⎠
⎛ 2m m ⎞
= E ⎜ 1 2 2 ⎟[1 − cos(ω2 − ω1 )t ]
⎝ M ⎠
where,
1
E= m1ωa2 A2
2
4.10
Add up the two equations and we have:
mg
m( &x& + &y&) + ( x + y ) + r ( x& + y& ) = F0 cos ωt
l
mg
i.e. mX&& + rX& + X = F0 cos ωt (4.10.1)
l
Subtract the two equations and we have:
mg
m( &x& − &y&) + ( x − y ) + r ( x& − y& ) + 2s( x − y ) = F0 cos ωt
l
⎛ mg ⎞
⎜ − mω + ⎟ X 0 cos ωt ≈ F0 cos ωt
2
⎝ l ⎠
⎛ mg ⎞
⎜ − mω + + 2 s ⎟Y0 cos ωt ≈ F0 cos ωt
2
⎝ l ⎠
These equations satisfy any t if
⎛ mg ⎞
⎜ − mω + ⎟ X 0 ≈ F0
2
⎝ l ⎠
⎛ mg ⎞
⎜ − mω + + 2 s ⎟Y0 ≈ F0
2
⎝ l ⎠
F0
X0 ≈
m( g l − ω 2 )
i.e.
F0
Y0 ≈
m( g l + 2 s m − ω 2 )
so the expressions of X and Y are given by:
F0
X = x+ y ≈ cos ωt
m( g l − ω 2 )
F0
Y = x− y ≈ cos ωt
m( g l + 2 s m − ω 2 )
By solving the above equations, the expressions of x and y are given by:
F0 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ 1 1
cos ωt ⎢ 2 + 2 2⎥ + 2
⎣ ω1 − ω ω2 − ω ⎦ = ω1 − ω ω2 − ω = ω22 − ω12
2 2 2 2
y 2m
≈
x F0 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ 1
−
1 ω22 + ω12 − 2ω 2
cos ωt ⎢ 2 − 2⎥
⎣ ω1 − ω ω2 − ω ⎦ ω1 − ω ω2 − ω
2 2 2 2 2 2
2m
y
x
1
ω −ω
2 2 ω22 + ω12
2 1
ω +ω
2
2 1
2 2
0 ω1 ω2 ω
-1
The figure shows y x is less than 1 if ω < ω1 or ω > ω2 , i.e. outside frequency
4.11
Suppose the displacement of mass M is x , the displacement of mass m is y ,
m&y& = −T (4.11.2)
s ( y − x) = T (4.11.3)
that is
F0
y=− cos ωt
s
Equation (4.11.2) and (4.11.3) now give:
m&y& + sy = 0
with ω 2 = s m , so M is stationary at ω 2 = s m .
This value of ω satisfies all equations of motion for x=0 including
T = − F0 cos ωt
4.12
Noting the relation: V = q C , the voltage equations can be written as:
q1 q2 dI
− =L a
C C dt
q2 q3 dI
− =L b
C C dt
so we have:
q&1 − q& 2 = LCI&&a
q& − q& = LCI&&
2 3 b
i.e.
q&1 − q&2 = LCI&&a
q& − q& = LCI&&
2 3 b
have:
− I a − I a + I b = LCI&&a
I − I − I = LCI&&
a b b b
i.e.
LCI&&a + 2 I a − I b = 0
LCI&&b − I a + 2 I b = 0
LC ( I&&a − I&&b ) + 3( I a − I b ) = 0
Supposing the solutions to the above normal modes equations are given by:
I a + I b = A cos ωt
I a − I b = B cos ωt
so we have:
(− Aω 2 LC + A) cos ωt = 0
(− Bω 2 LC + 3B) cos ωt = 0
which are true for all t when
1
ω2 = and B=0
LC
or
3
ω2 =
and A=0
LC
which show that the normal modes of oscillation are given by:
1
I a = I b at ω12 =
LC
and
3
I a = − I b at ω22 =
LC
4.13
From the given equations, we have the relation between I1 and I 2 given by:
iω M
I2 = I1
Z 2 + iωLs
so:
⎛ ω 2M ⎞
E = iωL p I1 − iωMI 2 = ⎜⎜ iωL p + ⎟ I1
⎝ Z 2 + iωLs ⎟⎠
i.e.
E ω 2M 2
= iωL p +
I1 Z 2 + iωLs
which shows that E I1 , the impedance of the whole system seen by the generator, is
the sum of the primary impedance, iωL p , and a ‘reflected impedance’ from the
4.14
Problem 4.13 shows the impedance seen by the generator Z is given by:
ω 2M 2
Z = iωL p +
Z 2 + iωLs
iωL p Z 2 − ω 2 L p Ls + ω 2 M 2 iω L p Z 2 − ω 2 M 2 + ω 2 M 2 iωL p Z 2
Z= = =
Z 2 + iωLs Z 2 + iωLs Z 2 + iωLs
so we have:
1 Z 2 + iωLs 1 1 1 1
= == + = + 2
Z iωL p Z 2 iωL p L p iωL p n p
Z2 Z2
Ls ns2
4.15
Suppose a generator with the internal impedance of Z1 is connected with a load with
the ratio of the number of primary and secondary transformer coil turns given by
n p ns , and the whole circuit oscillate at a frequency of ω . From the analysis in
1 1 1 1
= + 2 =
Z L iωL p n p Z1
2
Z2
ns
which is the relation used for matching a load to a generator.
E
i.e. I2 = I1
⎛ Z1Z 2 ⎞
⎜⎜ Z M − ⎟
⎝ Z M ⎟⎠
Noting that Z M = iωM and I 2 has the maximum value when X 1 = X 2 = 0 , i.e.
Z1 = R1 and Z 2 = R2 , we have:
E E E E
I2 = I1 = I1 ≤ I1 = I1
R1 R2 R1R2 R1 R2 2 R1R2
iωM − ωM + 2 ωM
iω M ωM ωM
E RR
which shows I 2 has the maximum value of I1 , when ωM = 1 2 , i.e.
2 R1R2 ωM
ωM = R1 R2
4.17
By substitution of j = 1 and n = 3 into equation (4.15), we have:
⎡ π⎤ ⎡ 2⎤
ω12 = 2ω02 ⎢1 − cos ⎥ = 2ω02 ⎢1 − ⎥ = (2 − 2 )ω0
2
⎣ 4 ⎦ 2 ⎣ ⎦
⎡ 2π ⎤
ω12 = 2ω02 ⎢1 − cos ⎥ = 2ω02
⎣ 4 ⎦
⎡ 3π ⎤ ⎡ 2⎤
ω12 = 2ω02 ⎢1 − cos ⎥ = 2ω02 ⎢1 + ⎥ = (2 + 2 )ω0
2
⎣ 4⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
⎛ ω2 ⎞
i.e. ⎜⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟⎟ A1 − A2 = 0 (4.17.1)
⎝ ω0 ⎠
⎛ ω2 ⎞
when r = 2 : − A1 + ⎜⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟⎟ A2 − A3 = 0 (4.17.2)
⎝ ω0 ⎠
⎛ ω2 ⎞
when r = 3 : − A2 + ⎜⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟⎟ A3 − A4 = 0
⎝ ω0 ⎠
⎛ ω2 ⎞
i.e. ⎜
− A2 + ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟⎟ A3 = 0 (4.17.3)
⎝ ω0 ⎠
Write the above equations in matrix format, we have:
⎛ 2 − ω 2 ω02 −1 0 ⎞⎛ A1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎜ −1 2 − ω 2 ω02 −1 ⎟⎜ A2 ⎟ = 0
⎜ 0 −1 2 2 ⎟⎜
2 − ω ω0 ⎠⎝ A3 ⎟⎠
⎝
which has non zero solutions provided the determinant of the matrix is zero, i.e.:
(2 − ω 2 ω02 )3 − 2(2 − ω 2 ω02 ) = 0
4.18
By substitution of ω12 = (2 − 2 )ω02 into equation (4.17.1), we have:
2 A1 − A2 = 0 i.e. A1 : A2 = 1 : 2
− A2 + 2 A3 = 0 i.e. A2 : A3 = 2 : 1
Hence, when ω12 = (2 − 2 )ω02 , the relative displacements are given by:
A1 : A2 : A3 = 1 : 2 : 1
− A1 + A3 = 0 i.e. A1 : A3 = 1 : −1
Hence, when ω22 = 2ω02 , the relative displacements are given by:
A1 : A2 : A3 = 1 : 0 : −1
− 2 A1 − A2 = 0 i.e. A1 : A2 = 1 : − 2
− A2 − 2 A3 = 0 i.e. A2 : A3 = − 2 : 1
Hence, when ω12 = (2 + 2 )ω02 , the relative displacements are given by:
A1 : A2 : A3 = 1 : − 2 : 1
The relative displacements of the three masses at different normal frequencies are
shown below:
As we can see from the above figures that tighter coupling corresponds to higher
frequency.
4.19
Suppose the displacement of the left mass m is x , and that of the central mass M
is y , and that of the right mass m is z . The equations of motion are given by:
4.20
In understanding the motion of the masses it is more instructive to consider the range
n 2 ≤ j ≤ n . For each value of the frequency ω j the amplitude of the r th mass is
rjπ
Ar = C sin where C is a constant. For j = n 2 adjacent masses have a π 2
n +1
phase difference, so the ratios: Ar −1 : Ar : Ar +1 = −1 : 0 : 1 , with the r th masses
Ar +1 Ar → 0
Ar
Ar −1
j→n
j=n 2
j is close to n each mass is anti-phase with respect to its neighbour, the amplitude
of each mass decreases until in the limit j = n no motion is transmitted as the cut off
frequency ω 2j = 4T ma is reached. The end points are fixed and this restricts the
motion of the masses near the end points at all frequencies except the lowest.
4.21
By expansion of the expression of ω 2j , we have:
If n >> 1 and j << n , jπ n + 1 has a very small value, so the high order terms of
ω =
2
⎥ = ma ⎜ n + 1 ⎟
ma ⎢⎣
j
2! ⎦ ⎝ ⎠
jπ T
i.e. ωj =
n + 1 ma
which can be written as:
jπ T
ωj =
l ρ
4.22
From the first equation, we have:
q& r −1 − q& r
LI&&r −1 =
C
By substitution of q& r = I r −1 − I r and q& r −1 = I r −2 − I r −1 into the above equation, we
have:
I r −2 − 2 I r −1 + I r
LI&&r −1 = (4.22.1)
C
If, in the normal mode, the currents oscillate at a frequency ω , we may write the
displacements as:
I r −2 = Ar −2eiωt , I r −1 = Ar −1eiωt and I r = Ar eiωt
Using these values of I in equation (4.22.1) gives:
A − 2 Ar −1 + Ar iωt
− ω 2 LAr −1eiωt = r −2 e
C
or
− Ar −2 + (2 − LCω 2 ) Ar −1 − Ar = 0 (4.22.2)
By comparison of equation (4.22.2) with equation (4.14) in text book, we may find
the expression of I r is the same as that of yr in the case of mass-loaded string, i.e.
rjπ iωt
I r = Ar eiωt = D sin
e
n +1
Where D is constant, and the frequency ω is given by:
where, j = 1,2,3...n
4.23
∂2 y
By substitution of y into , we have:
∂t 2
∂ 2 y ∂ 2 iωt ikx
= 2 (e e ) = −ω 2ei (ωt + kx )
∂t 2
∂t
∂2 y
By substitution of y into , we have:
∂x 2
∂ 2 y ∂ 2 iωt ikx
= (e e ) = − k 2ei (ωt +kx )
∂x 2 ∂x 2
If ω = ck , we have:
∂2 y 2 ∂2 y
−c = (−ω 2 + c 2 k 2 )ei (ωt +kx ) = 0
∂t 2
∂x 2
i.e.
∂2 y 2 ∂ y
2
= c
∂t 2 ∂x 2
5.1
∂2 y
Write u = ct + x , and try with y = f 2 (ct + x) , we have:
∂x 2
∂y ∂f 2 (u ) ∂ 2 y ∂ 2 f 2 (u )
= , and =
∂x ∂u ∂x 2 ∂u 2
1 ∂2 y
Try with y = f 2 (ct + x) , we have:
c 2 ∂t 2
∂y ∂f (u ) ∂2 y 2 ∂ f 2 (u )
2
=c 2 , and = c
∂t ∂u ∂t 2 ∂u 2
so:
1 ∂ 2 y 1 2 ∂ 2 f 2 (u ) ∂ 2 f 2 (u )
= c =
c 2 ∂t 2 c 2 ∂u 2 ∂u 2
Therefore:
∂2 y 1 ∂2 y
=
∂x 2 c 2 ∂t 2
5.2
Δt = Δx c , is given by:
Δt = − Δx c , is given by:
5.3
∂y ∂y
=c
∂t ∂x
5.4
The pulse shape before reflection is given by the graph below:
The pulse shapes after of a length of Δl of the pulse being reflected are shown below:
(a) Δl = l 4
1
l
2
3
l
© 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd 4
Z1 Z2 = ∞
(b) Δl = l 2
Z1 Z2 = ∞
(c) Δl = 3l 4
Z1 Z2 = ∞
3
l
4
1
l
2
(d) Δl = l
Z1 Z2 = ∞
l
5.5
A1 + B1 = A2 (5.5.1)
T T T
− ω 2 MA2 = −iω A2 + iω A1 − iω B1
c c c
T T ⎛ T⎞
i.e. i A1 − i B1 = ⎜ − ωM + i ⎟ A2
c c ⎝ c⎠
B1 − iq
=
A1 1 + iq
where q = ωM 2 ρc
iq
A1 − A1 = A2
1 + iq
i.e.
A2 1
=
A1 1 + iq
5.6
A2 1 1 cosθ
= = = = cosθe −iθ
A1 1 + iq 1 + i tan θ cosθ + i sin θ
and
B1 − iq − i tan θ − i sin θ
= = = = sin θe −i (θ +π 2)
which show that A2 lags A1 by θ and that B1 lags A1 by (π 2 + θ ) for 0 < θ < π 2
5.7
Suppose T is the tension of the string, the average rate of working by the force over one period
of oscillation on one-wavelength-long string is given by:
ω 2π ω 1 k ∂y ∂y
W =
2π ∫ ∫
0 0
−T
∂x ∂t
dxdt
ω 2π ω 1 k
2π ∫0 ∫0
W= − T [−ka sin(ωt − kx)][ωa sin(ωt − kx)]dxdt
ω 2 k 2 a 2T 2π ω 1 k 2
=
2π ∫0 ∫0 sin (ωt − kx)dxdt
ω 2 k 2 a 2T 2π ω 1 k 1 − cos(2ωt − 2kx)
=
2π ∫0 ∫0 2
dxdt
ω 2 k 2 a 2T 1 2π 1
= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
2π 2 ω k
ωka 2T
=
2
ω 2 a 2 ρc 2 ω 2 a 2 ρc
W= =
2c 2
which equals the rate of energy transfer along the string.
5.8
Suppose the wave equation is given by: y = sin(ωt − kx) . The maximum value of transverse
⎛ ∂y ⎞ ⎡∂ ⎤ TAω
Fmax = T ⎜ ⎟ = T ⎢ A sin(ωt − kx)⎥ = TAk =
⎝ ∂x ⎠ max ⎣ ∂x ⎦ max c
i.e.
ρcω 2 A2 1 T 2 2 1 0.3 3π
P= = ω A = × × (2π × 5) 2 × 0.12 = [W ]
2 2c 2 π 20
so the velocity of the wave c is given by:
2P 2 × 3π 20 30
c= = = [ms −1 ]
ρω A
2 2
0.01× (2π × 5) × 0.1
2 2
π
5.9
This problem is not viable in its present form and it will be revised in the next printing. The first
part in the zero reflected amplitude may be solved by replacing Z3 by Z1, which then equates r
with R′ because each is a reflection at a Z1Z 2 boundary. We then have the total reflected
amplitude as:
tTR′
R + tTR′(1 + R′2 + R′4 + L) = R +
1 − R′ 2
Stokes’ relations show that the incident amplitude may be reconstructed by reversing the paths of
the transmitted and reflected amplitudes.
Z2 .
R2
1 θ1 θ1 R
tT θ1 θ1 R
Z1
θ2 TR ′ θ2 θ2 Z2
T TR T
Z1
Fig Q.5.9(a) Fig Q.5.9(b)
5.10
The impedance of the anti-reflection coating Z coat should have a relation to the impedance of air
1
Z coat = Z air Z lens =
nair nlens
So the reflective index of the coating is given by:
1
ncoat = = nair nlens = 1.5 = 1.22
Z coat
and the thickness of the coating d should be a quarter of light wavelength in the coating, i.e.
λ 5.5 × 10 −7
d= = = 1.12 × 10 −7 [m]
4ncoat 4 × 1.22
5.11
∂y
By substitution of equation (5.10) into , we have:
∂x
∂y ωn ωt
= ( An cos ωnt + Bn sin ωnt ) cos n
∂x c c
so:
5.12
2
By substitution of the expression of ( yn ) max into the integral, we have:
5.13
5.14
The wave group has a modulation envelope of:
⎛ Δω Δk ⎞
A = A0 cos⎜ t− x⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
difference. At a certain time t , the distance between two successive zeros of the modulation
envelope Δx satisfies:
Δk
Δx = π
2
Noting that k = 2π λ , for a small value of Δλ λ , we have: Δk ≈ (2π λ2 )Δλ , so the above
equation becomes:
2πΔλ
Δx ≈ π
2λ2
i.e.
λ
Δx ≈ λ
Δλ
which shows that the number of wavelengths λ contained between two successive zeros of the
modulating envelop is ≈ λ Δλ
5.16
Noting that the group velocity of light in gas is given on page 131 as:
⎛ λ ∂ε r ⎞
Vg = v⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟
⎝ 2ε r ∂λ ⎠
we have:
⎛ λ ∂ε r ⎞ λ ∂ε r ⎞
Vg ε r = v⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ε r = v⎛⎜ ε r + ⎟
⎝ 2ε r ∂λ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ∂λ ⎠
⎡⎛ B ⎞ λ ∂ ⎛ B 2 ⎞⎤
= v ⎢⎜ A + 2 − Dλ2 ⎟ + ⎜ A + 2 − Dλ ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ λ ⎠ 2 ∂λ ⎝ λ ⎠⎦
⎡⎛ B ⎞ λ ⎛ 2B ⎞⎤
= v ⎢⎜ A + 2 − Dλ2 ⎟ + ⎜ − 3 − 2 Dλ ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ λ ⎠ 2⎝ λ ⎠⎦
⎡⎛ B ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞⎤
= v ⎢⎜ A + 2 − Dλ2 ⎟ + ⎜ − 2 − Dλ2 ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ λ ⎠ ⎝ λ ⎠⎦
= v( A − 2 Dλ2 )
5.17
⎛ω ⎞
2
c2
The relation ε r = 2 = 1 − ⎜ e ⎟ gives:
v ⎝ω⎠
ω 2c 2
2
= ω 2 − ωe2
v
As ω → ωe , we have:
⎛ω ⎞
2
c2
=1− ⎜ e ⎟ <1
⎝ω ⎠
2
v
i.e. v > c , which means the phase velocity exceeds that of light c .
From equation (5.17.1), we have:
d (ω 2 ) = d (ωe2 + c 2 k 2 )
dω k c2 c
vg = = c2 = = c<c
dk ω v v
i.e. the group velocity is always less than c .
5.18
From equation (5.17.1), we know that only electromagnetic waves of ω > ωe can propagate
through the electron plasma media.
20
For an electron number density ne ~ 10 , the electron plasma frequency is given by:
ne 10 20
ωe = e −19
= 1.6 × 10 × = 5.65 × 1011[rad ⋅ s −1 ]
meε 0 −31
9.1× 10 × 8.8 × 10 −12
Now consider the wavelength of the wave in the media given by:
−3
which shows the wavelength has an upper limit of 3 × 10 m .
5.19
d (ω 2 c 2 ) = d (k 2 + m 2c 2 h 2 )
2ω
i.e. dω = 2kdk
c2
2
equation shows their product is c .
5.20
The series in the problem is that at the bottom of page 132. The frequency components can be
expressed as:
sin(Δω ⋅ t 2)
R = na cos ω t
Δω ⋅ t 2
2π
which is a symmetric function to the average frequency ω0 . It shows that at Δt = , R = 0,
Δω
∴ Δt ⋅ Δω = 2π
In k space, we may write the series as:
5.21
The frequency of infrared absorption of NaCl is given by:
2T ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
⎟⎟ = 2 × 15 × ⎛⎜ ⎞
1 1
ω= ⎜⎜ + − 27
+ − 27 ⎟
= 3.608 × 1013[rad ⋅ s −1 ]
a ⎝ mNa mCl ⎠ ⎝ 23 × 1.66 × 10 35 × 1.66 × 10 ⎠
The corresponding wavelength is given by:
2πc
2π × 3 × 108
λ= = ≈ 52[ μm]
ω 3.608 × 1013
2T ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
⎟⎟ = 2 × 15 × ⎛⎜ ⎞
1 1
ω= ⎜⎜ + −27
+ −27 ⎟
= 3.13 × 1013[rad ⋅ s −1 ]
a ⎝ mK mCl ⎠ ⎝ 39 × 1.66 × 10 35 × 1.66 × 10 ⎠
The corresponding wavelength is given by:
2πc
2π × 3 × 108
λ= = ≈ 60[ μm]
ω 3.13 × 1013
⎛ c c ⎞ 2νcu
Δν = ν 2 −ν 1 = ⎜ − ⎟ν = 2
⎝ c−u c +u ⎠ (c − u 2 )
5.23
By superimposing a velocity of − v on the system, the observer becomes stationary and the
source has a velocity of u − v and the wave has a velocity of c − v . So the frequency registered
by the observer is given by:
c−v c−v
ν ′′′ = = ν
c − v − (u − v) c − u
5.24
The relation between wavelength λ and frequency ν of light is given by:
c
ν=
λ
νc
So the Doppler Effect ν′ = can be written in the format of wavelength as:
c −u
c c2
=
λ ′ λ (c − u )
c −u
i.e. λ′ = λ
c
Noting that wavelength shift is towards red, i.e. λ ′ > λ , so we have:
u
Δλ = λ ′ − λ = − λ
c
cΔλ 3 × 108 × 10 −11
i.e. u=− =− = −5[ Kms −1 ]
λ 6 × 10 −7
−1
which shows the earth and the star are separating at a velocity of 5 Kms .
5.25
−c −u c+u c+u
ν ′′ = ν ′ =ν ′ =ν
− c − u − ( −u ) c c −u
which gives:
ν ′′ −ν Δν 15 × 103
u= c= c= × 3 × 108 = 750[ms −1 ]
ν ′′ +ν 2ν + Δν 2 × 3 × 109
5.26
Problem 5.24 shows the Doppler Effect in the format of wavelength is given by:
c−u
λ′ = λ
c
where u is the velocity of gas atom. So we have:
u
Δλ = λ ′ − λ = λ
c
i.e.
Δλ
2 × 10 −12
u = λ′ − λ = c= × 3 × 108 = 1× 103[ms −1 ]
λ 6 × 10 −7
5.27
A point source radiates spherical waves equally in all directions.
⎛ vc ⎞
v′ = ⎜ ⎟ : Observer is at rest with a moving source.
⎝ c − u′ ⎠
s′ θ
u′ = u cos θ o′
⎛ c − v′ ⎞
v′′ = ⎜ ⎟ : Source at rest with a moving observer.
⎝ c ⎠
v
θ o′
s′
v′ = v cosθ
⎛ c − v′ ⎞
v′′′ = ⎜ ⎟ : Source and observer both moving.
⎝ c − u′ ⎠
u
v
s′ θ α o′
u′ = u cosθ v′ = v cosθ
5.28
By substitution of equation (2) into (3) and eliminating x′ , we can find the expression of t ′
given by:
1⎡x ⎤
t′ = ⎢ − k ( x − vt )⎥
v ⎣ k′ ⎦
Now we can eliminate x′ and t ′ by substituting the above equation and the equation (2) into
equation (1), i.e.
2
c2 ⎡ x ⎤
x 2 − c 2t 2 = k 2 ( x − vt ) 2 − 2 ⎢
− k ( x − vt )⎥
v ⎣ k′ ⎦
i.e.
⎡ c2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ 2
2
⎡ c2 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤ ⎡ 2 2 ⎛ c2 ⎞ 2 ⎤ 2
⎢1 − k + 2 ⎜ − k ⎟ ⎥ x + 2kv ⎢k + 2 ⎜ − k ⎟⎥ xt + ⎢k v ⎜⎜ 2 − 1⎟⎟ − c ⎥t = 0
2
⎣⎢ v ⎝ k′ ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎣ v ⎝ k′ ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝v ⎠ ⎦
which is true for all x and t if and only if the coefficients of all terms are zeros, so we have:
2
c2 ⎛ 1⎞
1− k = 2 ⎜ k − ⎟
2
v ⎝ k′ ⎠
⎛ c2 ⎞ c2
⎜⎜ 2 − 1⎟⎟kk ′ = 2
⎝v ⎠ v
1
k = k′ =
1− β 2
where, β =v c
5.29
where t 2 is later than t1 . O′ moving with velocity v with respect to O measures these
intervals as:
v
t2′ − t1′ = Δt ′ = k (Δt − Δx) with Δx = 0
c2
∴ Δt ′ = kΔt
l = ( x2 − x1 ) as seen by O , O′ sees it as ( x′2 − x1′ ) = k[( x2 − x1 ) − v(t 2 − t1 )] .
⎡ v ⎤ v
∴ Δt ′ = k ⎢Δt − 2 ( x2 − x1 )⎥ = 0 i.e. Δt = 2 ( x2 − x1 ) = t 2 − t1
⎣ c ⎦ c
⎡ v2 ⎤ x −x
′ ′ ′
∴ l = x2 − x1 = k[( x2 − x1 ) − v(Δt )] = k ⎢( x2 − x1 ) − 2 ( x2 − x1 )⎥ = 2 1
⎣ c ⎦ k
∴ l′ = l k
5.30
Two events are simultaneous (t1 = t 2 ) at x1 and x2 in O frame. They are not simultaneous
in O′ frame because:
⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞
t1′ = k ⎜ t1 − 2 x1 ⎟ ≠ t2′ = k ⎜ t 2 − 2 x2 ⎟ i.e. x1 ≠ x2
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
5.31
The order of cause followed by effect can never be reversed.
v ⎛ Δx ⎞ v
Δt ′ real requires k real that is v < c , Δt ′ is + ve if Δt > ⎜ ⎟ where is + ve
c⎝ c ⎠ c
Δx
but < 1 and is shortest possible time for signal to traverse Δx .
c
SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 6
6.1
Elementary kinetic theory shows that, for particles of mass m in a gas at temperature T , the
energy of each particle is given by:
1 2 3
mv = kT
2 2
where v is the root mean square velocity and k is Boltzmann’s constant.
Page 154 of the text shows that the velocity of sound c is a gas at pressure P is given by:
6.2
The intensity of sound wave can be written as:
I = P 2 ρ 0c
6.3
The intensity of sound wave can be written as:
1
I= ρ 0cω 2η 2
2
where η is the displacement amplitude of an air molecule, so we have:
6.4
The expression of displacement amplitude is given by Problem 6.3, i.e.:
6.5
The audio output is the product of sound intensity and the cross section area of the room, i.e.:
6.6
The expression of acoustic pressure amplitude is given by Problem 6.2, so the ratio of the pressure
amplitude in water and in air, at the same sound intensity, are given by:
6.7
If η is the displacement of a section of a stretched spring by a disturbance, which travels along it
∂η
in the x direction, the force at that section is given by: F = Y , where Y is young’s
∂x
modulus.
The relation between Y and s , the stiffness of the spring, is found by considering the force
required to increase the length L of the spring slowly by a small amount l << L , the force F
being the same at all points of the spring in equilibrium. Thus
∂η l ⎛Y ⎞
= and F = ⎜ ⎟l
∂x L ⎝L⎠
If l = x in the stretched spring, we have:
⎛Y ⎞
F = sx = ⎜ ⎟ x and Y = sL .
⎝L⎠
If the spring has mass m per unit length, the equation of motion of a section of length dx is
given by:
∂ 2η Y ∂ 2η sL ∂ 2η
or = =
∂t 2 m ∂x 2 m ∂x 2
sL
a wave equation with a phase velocity
m
6.8
At x = 0 ,
η = B sin kx sin ωt
At x = L ,
∂ 2η ∂η
M = − sL
∂t 2
∂x
ωL ωL sL2 ρL m
tan = 2
= = (6.8.1)
v v Mv M M
tan θ = θ + θ 3 3 + ...
and the left hand side of equation 6.8.1 becomes
ω 2 m s (1 + ω 2 m 3s + ...) = m M
or
ω 2 (1 + ω 2 m 3s) = s M (6.8.2)
6.9
The Poissons ratio σ = 0.25 gives:
λ
= 0.25
2(λ + μ )
i.e. λ=μ
So the ratio of the longitudinal wave velocity to the transverse wave velocity is given by:
vl λ + 2μ μ + 2μ
= = = 3
vt μ μ
In the text, the longitudinal wave velocity of the earth is 8kms −1 and the transverse wave
λ + 2μ 8
=
μ 4.45
i.e. λ = 1.23μ
so the Poissons ratio for the earth is given by:
λ 1.23μ
σ= = ≈ 0.276
2(λ + μ ) 2 × (1.23μ + μ )
6.10
At a plane steel water interface, the energy ratio of reflected wave is given by:
2 2
I r ⎛ Z steel − Z water ⎞ ⎛ 3.9 × 107 − 1.43 × 106 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ ≈ 86%
6 ⎟
I i ⎜⎝ Z steel + Z water ⎠ ⎝ 3.9 × 10 + 1.43 × 10 ⎠
7
At a plane steel water interface, the energy ratio of transmitted wave is given by:
6.11
Solution follow directly from the coefficients at top of page 165.
nr
Open end: = 1 (antinode, η is a max)
ni
pr
Pressure: closed end: = 1 . Pressure doubles at antinode
pi
pr
Open end : = −1 (out of phase – cancels to give zero pressure, i.e. node)
pi
6.12
∂η
(a) The boundary condition = 0 at x = 0 gives:
∂x
(− Ak sin kx + Bk cos kx) sin ωt x=0 = 0
∂η
The boundary condition = 0 at x = L gives:
∂x
− kA sin kx sin ωt x=l = 0
n = 1: 0
l 2 l x
n = 2: 0
l 4 l x
3l 4
n = 3: 0 l x
l 6 l 2 5l 6
∂η
(b) The boundary condition = 0 at x = 0 gives:
∂x
(− Ak sin kx + Bk cos kx) sin ωt x=0 = 0
n = 0: 0 l x
n = 1: 0
l 3 l x
n = 2: 0
l 5 l x
3l 5
6.13
The boundary condition for pressure continuity at x = 0 gives:
[ A1e i (ωt −k1x ) + B1e i (ωt −k1x ) ] x=0 = [ A2 ei (ωt −k2 x ) + B2 e i (ωt −k2 x ) ]x=0
i.e. A1 + B1 = A2 + B2 (6.13.1)
In acoustic wave, the pressure is given by: p = Zη& , so the continuity of particle velocity η& at
x = 0 gives:
A1ei (ωt −k1x ) + B1ei (ωt −k1x ) A2ei (ωt −k2 x ) + B2ei (ωt −k2 x )
=
Z1 x =0
Z2 x =0
i.e. Z 2 ( A1 − B1 ) = Z1 ( A2 − B2 ) (6.13.2)
[ A2ei (ωt −k2 x ) + B2ei (ωt −k2 x ) ]x=l = A3ei (ωt −k3x )
x =l
By comparison of the boundary conditions derived above with the derivation in page 121-124, we
can easily find:
Z1 A32 4r31
=
Z 3 A1 (r31 + 1) cos k 2l + (r21 + r32 ) 2 sin 2 k 2l
2 2 2
Z3 Z Z
where r31 = , r21 = 2 , and r32 = 3 .
Z1 Z1 Z2
Z1 A32 4r31
= =1
Z 3 A1 (r21 + r32 ) 2
2
Z2 Z3
when r21 = r32 , i.e. = or Z 22 = Z1Z 3 .
Z1 Z 2
6.14
The differentiation of the adiabatic condition:
γ
P ⎡ V0 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
P0 ⎣V0 (1 + δ ) ⎦
gives:
∂P ∂p ∂ 2η
= = −γP0 (1 + δ ) −(γ +1) 2
∂x ∂x ∂x
since δ = ∂η ∂x .
∂p ∂ 2η
= −γP0 (1 + s )γ +1 2
∂x ∂x
and from Newton’s second law we have:
∂p ∂ 2η
= − ρ0 2
∂x ∂t
so that
∂ 2η γ +1 ∂ η
2
γP
= c 2
(1 + s ) , where c0 = 0
2
∂t 2 0
∂x 2
ρ0
6.15
dω
2ω = 6aTk
dk
ω dω
i.e. = 3aT
k dk
where a represents Boltzmann constant, ω k is the phase velocity, dω dk is the group
velocity.
6.16
The fluid is incompressible so that during the wave motion there is no change in the volume of the
fluid element of height h , horizontal length Δx and unit width. The distortion η in the
element Δx is therefore directly translated to a change in its height h and its constant volume
requires that:
Because α << h and Δη << Δx , the second order term αΔη is ignorable, we then have
We see that for α + ve (or increase in height), we have ∂η ∂x − ve , that is, a compression.
On page 153 of the text, the horizontal motion of the element is shown to be due to the difference
in forces acting on the opposing faces of the element hΔx , that is:
∂F ∂ 2η
− Δx = ρh 2 Δx
∂x ∂t
where the force difference, dF is − ve when measured in the + ve x direction for a
compression.
Thus:
∂F ∂ 2η ∂P
− dx = ρh 2 dx = − h av dx (6.16.1)
∂x ∂t ∂x
where the pressure must be averaged over the height of the element because it varies with the
liquid depth. This average value is found from the pressure difference (to unit depth) at the liquid
surface to between the two values of α on the opposing faces of the element. This gives:
dPav = ρgdα
∂F ∂P dα ∂ 2η ∂ 2η
− dx = −h av dx = − hρg dx = h 2 ρg 2 dx = ρh 2 dx
∂x ∂x dx ∂x ∂t
The last two terms equate to give the wave equation. For horizontal motion as:
∂ 2η ∂ 2η
= gh
∂t 2 ∂x 2
∂ 2α ∂ 2α
= gh
∂t 2 ∂x 2
6.17
(a) Since h >> λ , i.e. kh >> 1 , we have: tanh kh ≈ 1 , therefore:
⎡ g Tk ⎤ g Tk g Tk gT
v 2 = ⎢ + ⎥ tanh kh ≈ + ≥2 ⋅ =2
⎣k ρ ⎦ k ρ k ρ ρ
i.e. the velocity has a minimum value given by:
4 gT
v4 =
ρ
g Tk gρ T
when = , i.e. k 2 = or λc = 2π
k ρ T ρg
(b) If T is negligible, we have:
g
v2 ≈ tanh kh
k
and when λ >> λc , k → 0 , and for a shallow liquid, h → 0 . Noting that when hk → 0 ,
tanh kh → kh , we have:
g g
v= tanh kh ≈ kh = gh
k k
(c) For a deep liquid, h → +∞ i.e. tanh kh → 1 , the phase velocity is given by:
g g g
v 2p = tanh kh ≈ i.e. v p =
k k k
kdv p 1 g g 1 g 1 g
vg = v p + = vp − k 3 = − =
dk 2 k k 2 k 2 k
g Tk
(d) For the case of short ripples dominated by surface tension in a deep liquid, i.e. <<
k ρ
and h → +∞ , we have:
Tk Tk Tk
v 2p = lim tanh kh = i.e. v p =
h→+∞ ρ ρ ρ
and the group velocity is given by:
kdv p Tk k T 3 Tk 3
vg = v p + = + = = v
dk ρ 2 ρk 2 ρ 2 p
7.1
The equation
d d
I r −1 − I r = qr = C0 dx Vr
dt dt
at the limit of dx → 0 becomes:
dI dV
= C0
dx dt
(7.1.1)
The equation
d
L0 dx I r = Vr − Vr +1
dt
at the limit of dx → 0 becomes:
∂V ∂I
= L0
∂x ∂t
(7.1.2)
The derivative of equation (7.1.1) on t gives:
∂2I ∂ 2V
= C0 2
∂x∂t ∂t
(7.1.3)
The derivative of equation (7.1.2) on x gives:
∂ 2V ∂2I
= L
∂x 2 ∂x∂t
0
(7.1.4)
Equation (7.1.3) and (7.1.4) give:
∂ 2V ∂ 2V
= L C
∂x 2 ∂t 2
0 0
∂2I ∂ 2V
= C
∂x 2 ∂x∂t
0
(7.1.5)
The derivative of equation (7.1.2) on t gives:
∂ 2V ∂2I
= L0 2
∂x∂t ∂t
(7.1.6)
Equation (7.1.5) and (7.1.6) give:
7.2
l
2a
I
2d
Fig Q.7.2.1
A pair of parallel wires of circular cross section and radius a are separated at a distance 2d
between their centres.
To find the inductance per unit length we close the circuit by joining the sides of a section of
length l .
The self inductance of this circuit is the magnetic flux through the circuit when a current of 1 amp
flows around it.
If the current is 1 amp the field outside the wire at a distance r from the centre is μ0 I 2πr ,
where μ0 is the permeability of free space. For a clockwise current in the circuit (Fig Q.7.2.1)
both wires contribute to the magnetic flux B which points downwards into the page and the total
flux through the circuit is given by:
2 d −2 a μ 0 Idr μ 0lI ⎛ 2d ⎞
2l ∫ = ln⎜ ⎟ for d >> a
a 2πr π ⎝ a ⎠
Hence the self inductance per unit length is:
μ 0 ⎛ 2d ⎞
L= ln⎜ ⎟
π ⎝ a ⎠
To find the capacitance per unit length of such a pair of wires we first find the electrostatic
potential at a distance r from a single wire and proceed to find the potential from a pair of wires
via the principle of electrostatic images.
If the radius of the wire is a and it carries a charge of λ per unit length then the electrostatic
flux E per unit length of the cylindrical surface is: 2πrE ( r ) = λ ε 0 , where ε 0 is the
permittivity of free space. Thus E ( r ) = λ 2πε 0 r for r > a and we have the potential:
y
p
r r r
−λ +λ θ
a o x
p p
d d
Fig Q.7.2.2
The conducting wires are now represented in the image system of Fig Q.7.2.2. The equipotential
surfaces will be seen to be cylindrical but not coaxial with the wires. Neither the electric field nor
the charge density is uniform on the conducting surface.
The surface charge is collapsed onto two line carrying charges ± λ per unit length. The y axis
The conducting wires, of radius a , are centred a distance d from the origin ο ( x = y = 0) .
The distances ± p can be chosen of the line charges so that the conducting surfaces lie on the
equipotentials of the image charge. Choosing the potential to be zero at ∞ on the y axis, the
potential at point p in the xy plane is given by:
λ ⎛1⎞ λ ⎛1⎞ λ ⎛ r2 ⎞
φp = ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ln⎜⎜ 22 ⎟⎟
2πε 0 ⎝ r1 ⎠ 2πε 0 ⎝ r2 ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎝ r1 ⎠
In Fig Q.7.2.2:
r22 = 2αγ + δ
r12 = 2βγ + δ
λ ⎛d + p⎞
φ (a) = ln⎜⎜ ⎟ , independent of θ , and the right-hand conductor is an equipotential of
4πε 0 ⎝ d − p ⎟⎠
the image charge. Symmetry requires that the potential at the surface of the other conductor is
λ ⎛d + p⎞
V= ln⎜⎜ ⎟
2πε 0 ⎝ d − p ⎟⎠
Gauss’s theorem applied to one of the equipotentials surrounding each conductor proves that the
surface charge on each conductor is equal to the image charge.
The capacitance per unit length is now given by:
λ 2πε 0 2πε 0
C= = ≈ for d >> a
V ⎛d + p⎞ ⎛ 2d ⎞
ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ln⎜ ⎟
⎝d − p⎠ ⎝ a ⎠
and
12
⎛ μ 0 ⎛ 2d ⎞ ⎞
⎜ ln⎜ ⎟ ⎟ 12
L ⎜ π ⎝ a ⎠⎟ ⎛ μ ⎞ ⎛ 2d ⎞
Z 0 for the parallel wires = = ≈ ⎜⎜ 2 0 ⎟⎟ ln⎜ ⎟
C ⎜ 2πε 0 ⎟ ⎝ π ε0 ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠
⎜ ln(2d a ) ⎟
⎝ ⎠
7.3
The integral of magnetic energy over the last quarter wavelength is given by:
2
0 1 0 1 ⎛ 2V0+ ⎞ 0 V02+ 1 + cos 4πx λ λL0V02+
∫−λ 4 2 0 = ∫−λ 4 2 0 ⎜⎝ Z 0
⎜ ⎟ = ∫−λ 4 0 Z 02 = −
2
L I dx L cos kx ⎟ dx 2 L dx
⎠ 2 4 Z 02
The integral of electric energy over the last quarter wavelength is given by:
0 1 λL0V02+ λC0V02+ 0 1
∫−λ 4 2 0 = = =∫
2
L I dx C0V 2 dx
2
4Z 0 4 −λ 4 2
7.4
The maximum of the magnetic energy is given by:
⎛1 ⎡ 1 ⎛ 2V ⎞ ⎤
2
2⎞ 2L V 2
( Em ) max = ⎜ L0 I ⎟ = ⎢ L0 ⎜⎜ 0+
cos kx ⎟⎟ ⎥ = 0 2 0 + = 2C0V02+
⎝2 ⎠ max ⎢⎣ 2 ⎝ Z 0 ⎠ ⎥⎦ max Z0
The maximum of the electric energy is given by:
⎛1 ⎞ ⎡1 2⎤
( Ee ) max = ⎜ C0V 2 ⎟ = ⎢ C0 (2V0 + sin kx ) ⎥ = 2C0V02+
⎝2 ⎠ max ⎣ 2 ⎦ max
The instantaneous value of the two energies over the last quarter wavelength is given by:
So we have:
7.5
For a real transmission line with a propagation constant γ , the forward current wave I x + at
I x + = I 0+ e −γx = Ae −γx
where I 0+ = A is the forward current wave at position x = 0 . So the forward voltage wave at
Vx+ = Z 0 I x + = Z 0 Ae −γx
I x − = I 0 − e + γx = Be + γx
where I 0 − = B is the backward current wave at position x = 0 . So the backward voltage wave
Vx − = − Z 0 I x − = − Z 0 Be + γx
Therefore the impedance seen from position x is given by:
If the line has a length l and is terminated by a load Z L , the value of Z L is given by:
VL Vl + + Vl − Ae −γl − Be + γl
ZL = = = Z0
I L Il+ + Il− Ae −γl + Be +γl
7.6
The impedance of the line at x = 0 is given by:
⎛ A−γx − Be +γx ⎞ A− B
Z i = ⎜⎜ Z 0 −γx ⎟ = Z0
+γx ⎟
⎝ Ae + Be ⎠ x=0 A+ B
Ae −γl − Beγl
Z L = Z0
Ae −γl + Beγl
we have:
( Z 0 − Z L ) Ae −γl = ( Z 0 + Z L ) Beγl
A ( Z 0 + Z L ) 2γl
i.e. = e
B (Z0 − Z L )
so we have:
7.7
If the transmission line of Problem 7.6 is short-circuited, i.e. Z L = 0 , The expression of input
Z 0 sinh γl
Z sc = Z 0 = Z 0 tanh γl
Z 0 cosh γl
If the transmission line of Problem 7.6 is open-circuited, i.e. Z L = ∞ , The expression of input
Z L cosh γl
Z oc = Z 0 = Z 0 coth γl
Z L sinh γl
By taking the product of these two impedances we have:
Z sc Z oc = Z 02 , i.e. Z 0 = Z sc Z oc
which shows the characteristic impedance of the line can be obtained by measuring the
impedances of short-circuited line and open-circuited line separately and then taking the square
root of the product of the two values.
7.8
The forward and reflected voltage waves at the end of the line are given by:
where V0+ is the forward voltage at the beginning of the line. So the reflected voltage wave at
where I 0+ is the forward current at the beginning of the line. So the reflected current wave at the
I 0− = I l − e − ikl = I 0+ e − i 2 kl
Therefore the input impedance of the line is given by:
Zi
L0 C0
… …
−λ 2 λ 4 3λ 4
0
− 3λ 4 −λ 4 λ 2 l
7.9
V0+ + V0− = Vm 0+ + Vm 0−
I 0+ + I 0− = I m 0+ + I m 0−
junction;
VmL+ + VmL− = VL
I mL+ + I mL− = I L
where VmL + , VmL − are the voltages of forward and backward waves on Z m side of Z m Z L
junction; I mL+ , I mL− are the currents of forward and backward waves on Z m side of Z m Z L
Vm 0+ = VmL+ e ikl
I m 0+ = I mL + e ikl
Vm 0− = VmL − e − ikl
I m 0− = I mL− e − ikl
In addition, we have the relations:
VL
= ZL
IL
V0
= Z0
I0
Vm 0 + V V V
= − m 0 − = mL + = − mL − = Z m
I m0+ I m 0 − I mL + I mL −
The above conditions yield:
VmL + = Vm 0+ e − ikl
I mL+ = I m 0+ e − ikl
Z L − Zm
VmL− = VmL+
ZL + Zm
ZL − Zm Z − Z m −i 2 kl
Vm 0− = VmL− e −ikl = VmL+ e −ikl = Vm 0+ L e
Z L + Zm ZL + Zm
Zm − ZL Z − Z L −i 2 kl
I m 0− = I mL− e −ikl = I mL+ e −ikl = I m 0+ m e
ZL + Zm ZL + Zm
V0+ = Vm 0+ + Vm 0−
I 0+ = I m 0+ + I m 0−
i.e.
⎛ Z − Z m −i 2 kl ⎞
V0+ = Vm 0+ ⎜⎜1 + L e ⎟⎟
⎝ Z L + Z m ⎠
⎛ Z − Z L −i 2 kl ⎞
I 0+ = I m 0+ ⎜⎜1 + m e ⎟⎟
⎝ Z L + Zm ⎠
By dividing the above equations we have:
Z m2 = Z 0 Z L
7.10
Analysis in Problem 7.8 shows the impedance of a short-circuited loss-free line has an impedance
given by:
2πl
Z i = iZ 0 tan
λ
so, if the length of the line is a quarter of one wavelength, we have:
2π λ π
Z i = iZ 0 tan = iZ 0 tan = ∞
λ 4 2
If this line is bridged across another transmission line, due to the infinite impedance, the
transmission of fundamental wavelength λ will not be affected. However for the second
harmonic wavelength λ 2 , the impedance of the bridge line is given by:
7.11
1
For Z 0 to act as a high pass filter with zero attenuation, the frequency ω2 > , where
2 LC
Z0 = L C .
k1 = 2π λ1 .
For a high frequency load Z L and a loss- free line, we have, for the input impedance:
⎛ Z cos kl + iZ 0 sin kl ⎞
Z in = Z 0 ⎜⎜ L ⎟⎟
⎝ 0
Z cos kl + iZ L sin kl ⎠
For n even, we have:
2π nλ1
cos k1l = cos = cos nπ = 1
λ1 2
For n odd, we have:
2π nλ1
cos k1l = cos = cos nπ = −1
λ1 2
The sine terms are zero.
So Z in = Z L for n odd or even, and the high frequency circuits, input and load, are uniquely
7.12
Z1 iω L ω 2 LC
cos β = 1 + = 1+ = 1−
2Z 2 2 iωC 2
ω 2 LC
i.e. 1 − cos β =
2
β ω 2 LC
i.e. 2 sin 2 =
2 2
⎛β ⎞ ω 2 LC
2
2⎜ ⎟ =
⎝2⎠ 2
i.e. β = ω LC = ω v = k
7.13
The propagation constant γ can be expanded as:
Since R0 ωL0 and G0 ωC0 are both small quantities, the above equation becomes:
⎛ R0 G ⎞
γ = ω L0C0 ⎜⎜ i + + 0 ⎟⎟ = α + ik
⎝ 2ωL0 2ωC0 ⎠
R0 C0 G0 L0
where α= + , and k = ω L0C0 = ω v
2 L0 2 C0
If G = 0 , we have:
k ω L0C0 ω L0C0 ωL
= = = 0
2α R0 C0 L0 + G0 L0 C0 R0 C0 L0 R0
which is the Q value of this transmission line.
7.14
R0 G0
Suppose = = K , where K is constant, the characteristic impedance of a lossless line is
L0 C0
given by:
7.15
∂ 2ψ 8π 2 m
+ 2 ( E − V )ψ = 0
∂x 2 h
we have:
8π 2 m
γ = 2 (V − E )
2
For E > V (inside the potential well), the value of γ is given by:
2π
γ in = ±i 2 m( E − V )
h
So the ψ has a standing wave expression given by:
2π 2π
i m (V − E ) x −i m (V − E ) x
ψ = Ae h
+ Be h
For E < V (outside the potential well), the value of γ is given by:
2π
γ out = ± 2m(V − E )
h
So the expression of ψ is given by:
2π 2π
m (V − E ) x − m (V − E ) x
ψ = Ae h + Be h
2π
γ = 2m(V − E )
h
7.16
Form the diffusion equation:
∂H 1 ∂2H
=
∂t μσ ∂x 2
we know the diffusivity is given by: d = 1 μσ . The time of decay of the field is approximately
given by Einstein’s diffusivity relation:
L2 L2
t= = = L2 μσ
d 1 μσ
where L is the extent of the medium.
7.17
r ∂f (α , t )
Try solution f (α , t ) = e −( rα ) in
2
, we have:
π ∂t
∂f (α , t ) ∂ ⎡ r −( rα )2 ⎤
= ⎢ e ⎥
∂t ∂t ⎣ π ⎦
r dr 1 dr −( rα )2
= e −( rα ) (−2rα )α +
2
e
π dt π dt
1 − 2r 2α 2 dr
= e −( rα )
2
π dt
2r α 2 − 1 −( rα )
2
=
2
e
4t πdt (A.7.17.1)
r ∂f (α , t )
Try solution f (α , t ) = e −( rα ) in
2
, we have:
π ∂x
∂f (α , t ) 2r 3α −( rα )2
=− e
∂x π
so:
∂ 2 f (α , t ) 2r 3 −( rα )2 2r 3α −( rα )2
=− e − e (−2rα )r
∂x 2 π π
2r 3
=− (1 − 2r 2α 2 )e −( rα )
2
π
2r α 2 − 1 −( rα )
2
=
2
e
4td πdt
(A.7.17.2)
By comparing the above derivatives, A.7.17.1 and 2, we can find the solution
r
f (α , t ) = e −( rα )
2
π
satisfies the equation:
∂f ∂2 f
=d 2
∂t ∂x
8.1
Write the expressions of E x and H y as:
2π
E x = E0 sin (v t − z )
λE E
2π
H y = H 0 sin (v t − z )
λH H
where λE and λH are the wavelengths of electric and magnetic waves respectively,
and vE and vH are the velocities of electric and magnetic waves respectively.
vH H 0 2π E0 2π
i.e. μ cos (v H t − z ) = cos (v E t − z )
λH λH λE λE
which is true for all t and z , provided:
E0
vH = vE =
μH 0
and λ H = λE
so, at any t and z , we have:
E0
φE = φH = t−z
μH 0
8.2
Energy Force ⋅ Distance Force
= = = pressure
Volume L3 Area
Currents in W into page. Field lines at A cancel. Those at C force wires together.
Reverse current in one wire. Field lines at A in same direction, force wires apart.
Fig Q.8.2.a
C W A Motion
8.3
The volume of a thin shell of thickness dr is given by: 4πr 2 dr , so the electrostatic
energy over the spherical volume from radius a to infinity is given
+∞ 1
by: ∫ ε 0 E 2 (4πr 2 )dr , which equals mc 2 , i.e.:
a 2
+∞ 1
∫a 2 ε 0 E (4πr )dr = mc
2 2 2
+∞ 1 e2
∫
a
ε0
2 (4πε 0 r 2 ) 2
(4πr 2 )dr = mc 2
e2 +∞ 1
i.e.
8πε 0 ∫a r 2
dr = mc 2
e2
i.e. = mc 2
8πε 0 a
Then, the value of radius a is given by:
e2 (1.6 × 10 −19 ) 2
a= = ≈ 1.41× 10 −15 [m]
8πε 0 mc 2 8π × 8.8 × 10 −12 × 9.1× 10−31 × (3 × 108 ) 2
8.4
The magnitude of Poynting vector on the surface of the wire can be calculated by
deriving the electric and magnetic fields respectively.
The vector of magnetic field on the surface of the cylindrical wire points towards the
azimuthal direction, and its magnitude is given by Ampere’s Law:
I
H = Hθ eθ = eθ
2πr
where r is the radius of the wire’s cross circular section, and I is the current in the
wire.
Ohm’s Law, J = σE , shows the vector of electric field on the surface of the
cylindrical wire points towards the current’s direction, and its magnitude equals the
voltage drop per unit length, i.e.:
V IR
E = Eze z = e z = e z
l l
where, l is the length of the wire, and the V is the voltage drop along the whole
length of the wire and is given by Ohm’s Law: V = IR , where R is the resistance of
the wire.
Hence, the Poynting vector on the surface of the wire points towards the axis of the
wire is given by:
S = E × H = E z e z × H θ eθ = − E z Hθ e r
which shows the Poynting vector on the surface of the wire points towards the axis of
the wire, which corresponds to the flow of energy into the wire from surrounding
space. The product of its magnitude and the surface area of the wire is given by:
IR I
S × 2πrl = E z Hθ × 2πrl = 2πrl = I 2 R
l 2πr
which is the rate of generation of heat in the wire.
8.5
By relating Poynting vector to magnetic energy, we first need to derive the magnitude
of Poynting vector in terms of magnetic field.
The electric field on the inner surface of the solenoid can be derived from the integral
format of Faraday’s Law:
∂H
∫ Edl = −μ ∫ ∂t dS
where S is the area of the solenoid’s cross section. E is the electric field on the
inner surface of the solenoid, and H is the magnetic field inside the solenoid.
For a long uniformly wound solenoid the electric field uniformly points towards
azimuthal direction, i.e. E = Eθ eθ , and the magnetic field inside the solenoid
becomes
∂H z 2
Eθ × 2πr = − μπr
∂t
μr ∂H z
i.e. Eθ = −
2 ∂t
where r is the radius of the cross section of the solenoid.
Hence, the Poynting vector on the inner surface of the solenoid is given by:
μr ∂H z
E × H = Eθ eθ × H z e z = − H z er
2 ∂t
which points towards the axis of the solenoid and corresponds to the inward energy
flow. The product of its magnitude and the surface area of the solenoid is given by:
μr ∂H z ∂H z
S × 2πrl = Hz × 2πrl = πr 2lH z
2 ∂t ∂t
where l is the length of the solenoid.
On the other hand, the time rate of change of magnetic energy stored in the solenoid
of a length l is given by:
d ⎛1 2 ⎞ ∂H z
⎜ μH × πr l ⎟ = πr lH z
2 2
dt ⎝ 2 ⎠ ∂t
which equals S × 2πrl
8.6
For plane polarized electromagnetic wave ( E x , H y ) in free space, we have the
relation:
Ex μ0
=
Hy ε0
Its Poynting vector is given by:
Ex ε0 2 1
S = Ex H y = Ex = Ex = ε 0 E x2 = cε 0 E x2
μ0 ε 0 μ0 μ0ε 0
2
we have:
1
S = × 3 × 108 × 8.8 × 10−12 × Emax
2
≈ 1.327 × 10 −3 Emax
2
2
2 12 2
Emax = S = S 1 2 ≈ 27.45S 1 2 [Vm −1 ]
cε 0 3 × 10 × 8.8 × 10
8 −12
ε0 2 12 2
H max = Emax = S = S 1 2 ≈ 7.3 × 10 −2 S 1 2 [ Am −1 ]
μ0 cμ0 3 × 10 × 4π × 10
8 -7
8.7
The average intensity of the beam and is given by:
Power Energy 0.3
I= = = = 1.53 × 108 [Wm − 2 ]
area area × pulse duration π × (2.5 × 10 ) × 10
−3 2 −4
Using the result in Problem 8.6, the root mean square value of the electric field in
the wave is given by:
I 1.53 × 108
E2 = = ≈ 2.4 × 105 [Vm −1 ]
cε 0 3 × 10 × 8.8 × 10
8 −12
8.8
Using the result of Problem 8.6, the amplitude of the electric field at the earth’s
surface is given by:
E0 = 27.45S 1 2 = 27.45 × 1350 ≈ 1010[Vm −1 ]
and the amplitude of the associated magnetic field in the wave is given by:
H 0 = 7.3 × 10 −2 × 1350 ≈ 2.7[ Am −1 ]
The radiation pressure of the sunlight upon the earth equals the sum of the electric
field energy density and the magnetic field energy density, i.e.
1 1
prad = ε 0 E02 + μ0 H 02 = ε 0 E02 = 8.8 × 10 −12 × 10102 = 8.98 × 10 −6 [ Pa]
2 2
8.9
The total radiant energy loss per second of the sun is given by:
Eloss = S × 4πr 2 = 1350 × 4π × (15 × 1010 ) 2 = 3.82 × 1026 [ J ]
8.11
The surface current in the strip is given by:
I = Qv
where Q is surface charge per unit area on the strip and is given by: Q = εE x , and
1 ε
I = Qv = εE x = E
με μ x
8.12
Write equation (8.6) in form:
8.13
Analysis in page 210 and 211 shows, in a conducting medium, the wave number of
electromagnetic wave is given by:
ωμσ
k=
2
dω 2ω 2 ω
i.e. =2 =2 ω=2
dk μσ ωμσ k
which shows, when a group of electromagnetic waves of nearly equal frequencies
propagates in a conducting medium, where the group velocity and the phase velocity
can be treated as fixed values, the group velocity, vg = dω dk , is twice the wave
velocity, v p = ω k .
8.14
σ σ 0.1
(a) = = × 36π × 109 = 720 > 100
ωε 2πνε r ε 0 2π × 50 ×103 × 50
which shows, at a frequency of 50kHz , the medium is a conductor
8.15
The Atlantic Ocean is a conductor when:
σ σ
= > 100
ωε 2πνε r ε 0
σ 4.3
i.e. ν< = × 36π × 109 ≈ 10[ MHz ]
2π × 100 × ε r ε 0 2π × 100 × 81
Therefore the longest wavelength that could propagate under water is given by:
v c
ν= = = 10× 106
λmax ε r λmax
c 3 × 108
i.e. λmax = = ≈ 3[m]
ε r × 10 × 106 81 × 10 × 106
8.16
When a plane electromagnetic wave travelling in air with an impedance of Z air is
Et 2Z c
Using the relations: Et = Z c H t , Ei = Z air H i , and = , the above equation
Ei Z c + Z air
becomes:
H t Et Z air Z air 2 Z c 2 Z air
TH = = = =
Hi Ei Z c Z c Z c + Z air Z c + Z air
2Z air
TH ≈ = 2 or H t ≈ 2 H i
Z air
After reflection from the air-conductor interface, standing waves are formed in the air
electric field.
Using the relations: H i + H r = H t , Ei + Er = Et , the standing wave ratio of magnetic
by:
V+ V− V+ − V+ V
It = Ii + I r = − = − = 2 + = 2Ii
Z0 Z0 Z0 Z0 Z0
2Z air
TE ≈ = 2 or Et ≈ 2 Ei
Z air
8.17
Analysis in page 215 and 216 shows, in a conductor, magnetic field H y lags electric
so the average value of the Poynting vector is the integral of the Poynting vector
E x H y over one time period T divided by the time period, i.e.:
1 T
T ∫0
S av = Ex H y
1 T
T ∫0
= E0 cos ωt H 0 cos(ωt − φ )dt
EH T1
= 0 0 ∫ [cos(2ωt − φ ) + cos φ ]dt
T 0 2
1 E0 H 0 1
= T cos φ = E0 H 0 cos 45o [Wm 2 ]
2 T 2
Noting that the real part of impedance of the conductor is given by:
E0 E
(real part of Z c ) = cos φ = 0 cos 45o
H0 H0
H0
i.e. E0 = × (real part of Z c )
cos 45o
so we have:
1
S av = E0 H 0 cos 45o
2
1 H 02
= × real part of Z c × cos 45o
2 cos 45o
1
= H 02 × (real part of Z c )[Wm 2 ]
2
We know from analysis in page 216 that, at a frequency ν = 3000 MHz , the value of
ωε σ for copper is 2.9 ×10−9 , hence, at of frequency of 1000 MHz , the value of
ωε σ for copper is given by 2.9 ×10−9 3 = 9.7 ×10 −10 , and μ r ≈ ε r ≈ 1 . So, the real
part of impedance of the large copper sheet is given by:
2
(real part of Z copper ) = Z copper
2
2 μr ωε 2
= × 376.6 × = 376.6 × × 9.7 × 10 −10 = 8.2 × 10 −3[Ω]
2 εr σ 2
Noting that, at an air-conductor interface, the transmitted magnetic field in copper
H copper doubles the incident magnetic field H 0 , i.e. H copper = 2H 0 , the average
8.18
Analysis in page 222 and 223 shows that when an electromagnetic wave is reflected
normally from a conducting surface its reflection coefficient I r is given by:
2ωε 0
I r = 1− 2
σ
8.19
Following the discussion of solution to problem 8.17, we can also find the average
value of Poynting vector in air.
The electric and magnetic field of plane wave in air have the same phase, so the
Poynting vector in air is given by:
S air = E x H y = E0 cos ωt × H 0 cos ωt = E0 H 0 cos 2 ωt
1 T
T ∫0
= E0 cos ωt H 0 cos ωtdt
E H T1
= 0 0 ∫ [1 + cos(2ωt )]dt
T 0 2
1 E0 H 0 1 1 E02 1
= T = E0 H 0 = × = = 1.33 × 10 −3[Wm −1 ]
2 T 2 2 376.6 2 × 376.6
8ωε
Ir = = 8 × 9.7 × 10 −10 = 8.81× 10 −5
σ
8.20
E x and H y are in complex expression, we have:
12
1 1 ⎛ σ ⎞ −kz −i (ωt −kz ) iπ
E x H y* = Ae −kz ei (ωt −kz ) A⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ e e e 4
2 2 ⎝ ωμ ⎠
12
1 ⎛ σ ⎞ −2 kz iπ
= A2 ⎜⎜ ⎟ e e 4
2 ⎝ ωμ ⎟⎠
So, the average value of the Poynting vector in the conductor is given by:
12
⎛1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ σ ⎞ −2 kz
S av = real part of ⎜ E x H y* ⎟ = A2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ e [Wm −2 ]
⎝2 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 2ωμ ⎠
The mean value of the electric field vector, E x , is a constant value, which contributes
to the same electric energy density at the same amount of time, i.e.:
1 1 T1
(average electric energy density) = ε E x = ∫ εE x2 dt
2
2 T 0 2
i.e.
1 T T 1 + cos 2ωt A2e −2 kz
2 − 2 kz 1
T ∫0 T ∫0
2
Ex = A e 2 − 2 kz
cos ωtdt = A e
2
dt =
2 2
2 −kz
or: Ex = Ae
2
Noting that:
12
∂S av 1 ⎛ σ ⎞ −2 kz
= −2k × A2 ⎜⎜ ⎟ e
∂z 2 ⎝ 2ωμ ⎟⎠
12
⎛ ωμσ ⎞ ⎛ σ ⎞ −2 kz
12
= −A ⎜ 2
⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ e
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2ωμ ⎠
A2σ −2 kz 2
=− e = −σ E x
2
the mean value of the electric field vector E x . The negative sign in the above
equation shows the energy is decreasing with distance.
8.21
Noting that the relation between refractive index n of a dielectric and its impedance
Z0
Z d is given by: n = , where Z 0 is the impedance in free space, so, when light
Zd
travelling in free space is normally incident on the surface of a dielectric, the reflected
intensity is given by:
2 2 2
⎛E ⎞ ⎛ Zd − Z0 ⎞ ⎛ 1 − Z0 Zd ⎞ ⎛ 1 − n ⎞
2
I r = ⎜⎜ r ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Ei ⎠ ⎝ Zd + Z0 ⎠ ⎝ 1 + Z0 Zd ⎠ ⎝ 1 + n ⎠
and the transmitted intensity is given by:
2 2
Z 0 Et2 Z 0 ⎛ 2Z d ⎞ Z ⎛ ⎞
2
⎟⎟ = n⎛⎜
2 2 ⎞ 4n
It = = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0 ⎜⎜ ⎟ =
Z d Ei2
Zd ⎝ Zd + Z0 ⎠ Z d ⎝ 1 + Z0 Z d ⎠ ⎝1+ n ⎠ (1 + n) 2
8.22
If the dielectric is a glass (nglass = 1.5) , we have:
2
⎛ 1 − nglass ⎞ ⎛ 1 − 1.5 ⎞ 2
=⎜ ⎟ = = 4%
⎜ 1 + n ⎟ ⎜⎝ 1 + 1.5 ⎟⎠
I r _ glass
⎝ glass ⎠
4nglass 4 × 1.5
I t _ glass = = = 96%
(1 + nglass ) 2
(1 + 1.5) 2
I r _ water = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 64%
⎝ 1 + nwater ⎠ ⎝ 1 + 9 ⎠
and transmittivity given by:
4nwater 4×9
I t _ water = = = 36%
(1 + nwater ) 2
(1 + 9) 2
8.23
where I t1 is the transmittivity from air to glass and I t 2 is the transmittivity from
8.24
Noting that c = 1 μ0ε 0 = λω 2π , the radiating power can be written as:
dE q 2ω 4 x02
P= =
dt 12πε 0c 3
ω 2 x02
= ω 2q 2
12πε 0c ⋅ c 2
4π 2ω 2 x02
= μ0ε 0 I 02
12πε 0λ ω
2 2
1 2π μ0 ⎛ x0 ⎞ 2
2
= × ⎜ ⎟ I
2 3 ε0 ⎝ λ ⎠ 0
2π μ0 ⎛ x0 ⎞
2 2
⎛x ⎞
i.e. R= ⎜ ⎟ = 787⎜ 0 ⎟ [Ω]
3 ε0 ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎝λ⎠
By substitution of given parameters, the wavelength is given by:
ν 3 × 108
λ= = = 600[m] >> x0 = 30[m]
c 5 × 105
So the radiation resistance and the radiated power are given by:
2 2
⎛x ⎞ ⎛ 30 ⎞
R = 787 × ⎜ 0 ⎟ = 787 × ⎜ ⎟ = 1.97[Ω]
⎝λ⎠ ⎝ 600 ⎠
1 2 1
P= RI 0 = × 1.97 × 20 2 ≈ 400[W ]
2 2
9.1
∂2 z ∂2 z
Substituting the expression of z into + , we have:
∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂2z ∂2z
+ 2 = −(k12 + k22 ) Aei[ωt −( k1x+k2 y )] = −(k12 + k22 ) z
∂x ∂y
2
∂2 z ∂2 z ω2
+ = − z
∂x 2 ∂y 2 c2
1 ∂2 z
Substituting the expression of z into , we have:
c 2 ∂t 2
1 ∂2 z ω 2 [ωt −( k1x+k2 y )] ω2
= − 2 Ae =− 2 z
c 2 ∂t 2 c c
So we have:
∂2 z ∂2 z 1 ∂2 z
+ =
∂x 2 ∂y 2 c 2 ∂t 2
9.2
z = A1{ei[ωt −( k1x+k2 y )] − ei[ωt −( k1x−k2 y )]} = A1[ei (ωt −k1x ) (e −ik2 y − eik2 y )] = −2iA1 sin( k 2 y )ei (ωt −k1x )
Therefore, the real part of z is given by:
As an analogy to discussion in text page 242, electric field E z between these two planes is the
superposition of the incident and reflected waves, which can be written as:
i[( k x x + k y y ) −ωt ] i [( − k x x + k y y ) −ωt ]
E z = E1e + E2 e
i ( k y y −ωt )
( E1 + E2 )e =0
i ( k y y −ωt )
Ez = E0 (eikxa − e − ikxa )e =0
i ( k y y −ωt )
i.e. sin k x ae =0
1 1
By substitution of the expressions for λc and λg into + , we have:
λ 2
c λ2g
k x2 + k y2
2
⎛ kx ⎞ ⎛ k y ⎞ ⎛ ω ⎞
2 2
1 1 k2 1
+ 2 =⎜ ⎜
⎟ +⎜ ⎟
⎟ = = =⎜ ⎟ = 2
λc λg ⎝ 2π ⎠ ⎝ 2π ⎠
2
(2π ) 2
(2π ) 2
⎝ 2πc ⎠ λ0
9.4
Electric field components in x, y , z directions in problem 9.3 are given by:
i ( k y y −ωt )
E x = E y = 0 and Ez = E0 (eikx x − e − ikx x )e
By substitution of these values into equation 8.1, we have:
∂ ∂ i ( k y −ωt )
−μ Hx = E z = ik y E0 (eikx x − e −ikx x )e y
∂t ∂y
∂ ∂ i ( k y −ωt )
− μ H y = − E z = −ik x E0 (eik x x + e −ikx x )e y
∂t ∂x
which yields:
where C and D are constants, which shows the magnetic fields in both x and y directions
9.5
line integral ∫ B ⋅ dl
Current into
paper
B a
Current out of
paper
b
∫ B ⋅ dl = μI ∴ B = μI b
9.6
Text in page 208 shows the time averaged value of Poynting vector for an electromagnetic wave in
a media with permeability of μ and permittivity of ε is given by:
1
I= cεE02
2
Noting that, in the waveguide of Problem 9.5, the area of cross section is given by: A = ab , and
the velocity of the electromagnetic wave is given by: c = 1 με , the power transmitted by a
single positive travelling wave is given by:
1 1 1 1 ε
P = IA = cεE02 ab = ab εE02 = abE02
2 2 με 2 μ
1 ∂ 2 E( y , z )
∇ 2E =
c2 ∂t 2
∂ 2E ∂ 2E ∂ 2E 1 ∂ 2E
i.e. + + =
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c 2 ∂t 2
⎡ 2 ∂ 2 E ( y, z ) ∂ 2 E ( y, z ) ⎤ ω 2 ∂2
−
⎢ x + + ω − = − E ( y, z ) cos(ωt − k x x)
∂z 2 ⎥⎦
k E ( y , z ) cos( t k x )
∂y 2 c 2 ∂t 2
x
⎣
which is true for any t and x if:
∂ 2 E ( y, z ) ∂ 2 E ( y, z ) ⎛ 2 ω 2 ⎞
+ = ⎜⎜ k x − 2 ⎟⎟ E ( y, z )
∂y 2 ∂z 2 ⎝ c ⎠
∂ 2 E ( y, z ) ∂ 2 E ( y, z )
or: + = −k 2 E ( y, z )
∂y 2
∂z 2
ω2
where k = − k x2
2
2
c
9.8
Using the result of Problem 9.7, the electric field in x direction can be written as:
E x = F ( y, z ) cos(ωt − k x z )
and equation:
∂ 2 F ( y, z ) ∂ 2 F ( y, z )
+ = − k 2 F ( y, z )
∂y 2
∂z 2
is satisfied.
1 ∂ 2G ( y ) 1 ∂ 2 H ( z)
+ = −k 2
G ( y ) ∂y 2
H ( z ) ∂z 2
where A is constant.
k y = mπ a , where m = 1,2,3,L .
k z = nπ b , where n = 1,2,3,L .
Finally, we have:
mπy nπz
E x = A sin sin cos(ωt − k x x)
a b
where
⎛ m2 n2 ⎞
k 2 = k y2 + k z2 = π 2 ⎜⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟⎟
⎝a b ⎠
9.9
From problem 9.7 and 9.8, we know:
⎛ m2 n2 ⎞
k x2 = ω 2 c 2 − k 2 = ω 2 c 2 − π 2 ⎜⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟⎟
⎝a b ⎠
⎛ m2 n2 ⎞
k x2 = ω 2 c 2 − π 2 ⎜⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟⎟ > 0
⎝a b ⎠
m2 n2
i.e. ω ≥ πc 2 + 2
a b
Therefore, when m = n = 1 , ω has the lowest possible value (the cut-off frequency) given by:
9.10
The dispersion relation of the waves of Problem 9.7 – 9.9 is given by:
⎛ m2 n2 ⎞
k x2 = ω 2 c 2 − π 2 ⎜⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟⎟
⎝a b ⎠
The differentiation of this equation gives:
2
2k x dk x = ωdω
c2
ω dω
i.e. = c 2 or v p vg = c 2
k x dk x
9.11
Using boundary condition z = 0 at x = 0 in the displacement equation gives:
A1 = − A4 and A2 = − A3
so we have:
z = A1{ei[ωt −( k1x+k2 y )] − ei[ωt −( − k1x+k2 y )]} + A2{ei[ωt −( k1x−k2 y )] − ei[ωt −( − k1x−k2 y )]
= −2 A1i sin k1 xei (ωt −k2 y ) + 2 A2i sin k1 xei (ωt +k2 y ) (9.11.1)
i ( ωt − k 2 y ) i ( ωt + k 2 y )
= −2i sin k1 x[ A1e − A2e ]
− 2i sin k1 x( A1 − A2 )eiωt = 0
which is true for any t and x if:
A1 = A2
Therefore, equation (9.11.1) becomes:
n2π
sin k 2b = 0 , i.e. k 2 = , where n2 = 1,2,3,L .
b
9.12
− hν kT
Multiplying the equation of geometric progression series by e on both sides gives:
e − hν kT
N = e − hν kT
∑N
n
n = N 0 [ e − hν kT
+ e −2 hν kT
+ e −3hν kT
+ L + e − ( n +1) hν kT
]
so we have:
N − e − hν kT
N = N 0 [1 − lim e − ( n+1) hν kT
] = N0
n→∞
i.e.
N0
N=
1 − e −hν kT
The total energy over all the n energy states is given by:
E = ∑ En = ∑ N n nhν = hν ∑ N n n
n n n
−hν kT −2 hν kT
= hνN 0 (e + 2e + 3e −3hν kT
+ L + ne −nhν kT
)
− hν kT
Multiplying the above equation by e on both sides gives:
Ee − hν kT
= hνN 0 [e −2 hν kT
+ 2e −3hν kT
+ 3e −4 hν kT
+ L + ne − ( n+1) hν kT
]
so we have:
E − Ee − hν kT
= hνN 0 lim[e − hν kT
+ e −2 hν kT
+ e −3hν kT
+ L + e − nhν kT
− ne − ( n+1) hν kT
]
n→∞
= hνN 0e −hν kT
lim[1 + e −hν kT
+ e − 2 hν kT
+ L + e −( n−1) hν kT
− ne −nhν kT
]
n→∞
⎛ 1 − e −nhν kT n ⎞
= hνN 0e −hν kT
lim⎜⎜ − ν
− nhν kT ⎟⎟
n→∞ 1 − e h kT
⎝ e ⎠
1
= hνN 0e −hν kT
1 − e −hν kT
hνe − hν kT
i.e. E = N0
(1 − e −hν kT ) 2
Hence, the average energy per oscillator is given by:
hνe − hν kT
N0
E (1 − e −hν kT ) 2 e −hν kT hν
ε = = = hν −hν kT
= hν kT
N N0 1− e e −1
−hν kT
1− e
By expanding the denominator of the above equation for hν << kT , we have:
∑ (nhνe −nhν kT
)
E = Nε = N nhν where nhν = n =0
∞
∑e
n =0
− nhν kT
∂ ∞
∴ nhν = −
∂ (kT ) −1
log ∑
n =0
e −nhν kT
∂ 1
=− log
∂ (kT ) −1
1 − e −hν kT
hνe −hν kT
=
1 − e −hν kT
N 0 hνe − hν kT
∴ E = N nhν =
(1 − e −hν kT ) 2
hν
and ε = nhν = −hν kT
e −1
9.13
One solution of this Schrodinger’s time-independent equation can be written as:
ψ = X ( x)Y ( y ) Z ( z )
Substituting this expression into the Schrodinger’s equation and dividing ψ on both sides of the
equation, we have:
1 ∂ 2 X ( x) 1 ∂ 2Y ( y ) 1 ∂ 2Z ( z) 8π 2 m
+ + = − E
X ( x) ∂x 2 Y ( y ) ∂y 2 Z ( z ) ∂z 2 h2
which yields:
∂ 2 X ( x)
+ E x X ( x) = 0
∂x 2
∂ 2Y ( y )
+ E yY ( y ) = 0
∂y 2
∂ 2Z ( z)
+ Ez Z ( z) = 0
∂z 2
8π 2 m
where E x , E y , E z are constants and satisfy: E x + E y + E z = E
h2
By solving the above three equations, we have:
−i E y y
Y ( y) = C y e + Dy e
i Ey y
−i Ez z
Z ( z) = Cz e + Dz e
i Ez z
and
− i Ex x −i Ey y − i Ez z
ψ = (C x ei + Dx e + Dy e + Dz e
Ex x i Ey y i Ez z
)(C y e )(C z e )
have:
− i Ex x −i Ey y − i Ez z
ψ = C x C y C z (e i −e −e −e
Ex x i Ey y i Ez z
)(e )(e )
= A sin E x x sin E y y sin E z z
2
⎛ lπ ⎞
Using the above expression ψ , boundary condition ψ = 0 at x = Lx gives: E x = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ,
⎝ x⎠
L
2
⎛ rπ ⎞
boundary condition ψ = 0 at x = Ly gives: E y = ⎜ ⎟ , boundary condition ψ = 0 at
⎜L ⎟
⎝ y ⎠
2
⎛ nπ ⎞
x = Lz gives: E z = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , where l , r , n = 0,1,2,L , so we have:
⎝ Lz ⎠
2
⎛ lπ ⎞ ⎛ rπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞
2 2
8π 2 m
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = E
⎜ ⎟ h2
⎝ Lx ⎠ ⎝ Ly ⎠ ⎝ Lz ⎠
h 2 ⎛⎜ l 2 r 2 n 2 ⎞⎟
i.e. E= + +
8m ⎜⎝ L2x L2y L2z ⎟⎠
When Lx = Ly = Lz = L , E =
8mL2
(l + r + n 2 ). If E = E0 for l = 1 , r = n = 0 , the
h2 2 2
E = 3E0 for l = r = n = 1 .
degenerate state.
degenerate state.
E = 12E0 for l = r = n = 2 .
E = 14E0 for l = 1, r = 2, n = 3 ; l = 1, n = 3, r = 2 ; l = 2, n = 1, r = 3 ;
9.14
Planck’s Radiation Law is given by:
8πν 2 hν
Eν dν = dν
c 3 e hν kT − 1
hν kT
At low energy levels hν << kT , by expansion of e in series, the above equation
becomes:
8πν 2 hν
Eν dν = dν
hν 1 ⎛ hν ⎞
2
c3
1+ + ⎜ ⎟ + L −1
kT 2 ⎝ kT ⎠
8πν 2 hν 8πν 2 kT
≈ 3 dν = dν
c hν kT c3
which is Rayleigh-Jeans expression
9.15
Using the variable x = ch λkT , energy per unit range of wavelength can be written as:
8πch(kTx)5 8π (kTx)5
Eλ = =
(ch)5 (e x − 1) (ch) 4 (e x − 1)
∞
Substitute the expression of Eλ into integral ∫
0
Eλ dλ and, we have:
8π 5 k 4
where a =
15c 3h3
9.16
d x5
=0
dx (e x − 1)
5 x 4 (e x − 1) − e x x 5
i.e. =0
(e x − 1) 2
⎛ x⎞ x
i.e. ⎜1 − ⎟e = 1
⎝ 5⎠
ch
where x =
λkT
9.17
The most sensitive wavelength to the human eye can be given by substituting the sun’s
9.19
As an analogy to the derivation of number of points in ν state shown in text page 250, 251, the
number of points in k space between k and k + dk is given by:
1 (volume of spherical shell)
8 volume of cell
4πk 2 dk ⎛ L ⎞
3
= ⋅⎜ ⎟
8 ⎝π ⎠
Noting that for each value of k there are two allowed states, the total number of states in k
space between k and k + dk is given by:
4πk 2 dk ⎛ L ⎞
3
P (k ) = 2 ⋅ ⋅⎜ ⎟
8 ⎝π ⎠
we get the number of states S ( E )dE in the energy interval dE given by:
4π (2m* h 2 )3 2 Ed E ⎛ L ⎞
3
S ( E )dE = 2 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
8 ⎝π ⎠
L3 (2m* h 2 )3 2 E L3 (2m* h 2 )3 2 E
= dE = dE
2π 2 E 2π 2
32
A ⎛ 2m ⎞
S (E) = ⎜ ⎟ E
2π 2 ⎝ h 2 ⎠
Since Fermi energy level satisfies the equation:
Ef
∫0
S ( E )dE = N
32
Ef A ⎛ 2m ⎞
∫0
⎜ ⎟
2π 2 ⎝ h 2 ⎠
E dE = N
i.e.
provided m ≈ m
*
10.1
The wave form in the upper figure has an average value of zero and is an odd function
of time, so its Fourier series has a constant of zero and only sine terms. Since the
wave form is constant over its half period, the Fourier coefficient bn will be zero if
n is even, i.e. there are only odd harmonics and the harmonics range from 1,3,5 to
infinity.
The wave form in the lower figure has a positive average value and is a even function
of time, so its Fourier series has a constant of positive value and only cosine terms.
Since τ T ≠ 1 2 , there are both odd and even harmonics. The harmonics range from
1,2,3 to infinity.
10.2
Such a periodic waveform should satisfy: f ( x) = − f ( x − T 2) , where T is the
period of the waveform. Its Fourier coefficient of cosine terms can be written as:
2 T 2πnx
an =
T 0 ∫ f ( x) cos
T
dx
2⎡ T2 2πnx T 2πnx ⎤
= ⎢ ∫ f ( x) cos dx + ∫ f ( x) cos dx ⎥
T⎣ 0 T T 2 T ⎦
2⎡ T2 2πnx T 2πnx ⎤
= ⎢ ∫ f ( x) cos dx + ∫ − f ( x − T 2) cos d ( x − T 2) ⎥
T⎣ 0 T T 2 T ⎦
If n is even, we have
2πn( x − T 2) ⎛ 2πnx ⎞ 2πnx
cos = cos⎜ − nπ ⎟ = cos
T ⎝ T ⎠ T
2⎡ T2 2πnx T 2 2πnu ⎤
an = ⎢
T⎣ ∫0
f ( x ) cos
T
dx − ∫0
f (u ) cos
T
du ⎥ = 0
⎦
Similarly, the coefficient of sine terms is given by:
2 T 2πnx
bn =
T ∫0
f ( x) sin
T
dx
2⎡ T2 2πnx T 2πnx ⎤
= ⎢ ∫ f ( x) sin dx + ∫ f ( x) sin dx ⎥
T⎣ 0 T T 2 T ⎦
2⎡ T2 2πnx T 2πnx ⎤
= ⎢ ∫ f ( x) sin dx + ∫ − f ( x − T 2) sin d ( x − T 2) ⎥
T⎣ 0 T T 2 T ⎦
© 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
If n is even, using u = x − T 2 , we have:
2⎡ T2 2πnx T 2 2πnu ⎤
bn = ⎢
T⎣0∫ f ( x) sin
T
dx − ∫ f (u ) sin
0 T
du ⎥ = 0
⎦
Therefore, if n is even, the Fourier coefficients of both cosine and sine terms are
zero, i.e. there are no even order frequency components.
10.3
The constant term of the Fourier series is given by:
1 1 2π 1 π h
2
a0 =
2π 0∫ ydx = ∫
2π 0
h sin xdx =
π
The Fourier coefficient of cosine term is given by:
1 2π h π
an = ∫ y cos nxdx = ∫ sin x cos nxdx
π 0 π 0
when n = 1 , we have:
h π h π
a1 =
π ∫ 0
sin x cos xdx =
2π ∫ 0
sin 2 xdx = 0
when n > 1 , we have:
h π
π∫
an = sin x cos nxdx
0
h π
=
2π ∫ 0
sin(1 + n) x + sin(1 − n) xdx
π
h ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
=− ⎢ cos(1 + n) x + cos(1 − n) x ⎥
2π ⎣1 + n 1− n ⎦0
which gives:
h 2 h 2 h 2
a2 = − , a3 = 0 , a4 = − , a5 = 0 , a6 = − ,…
π 1⋅ 3 π 3⋅5 π 5⋅7
The Fourier coefficient of sine term is given by:
1 2π h π
bn = ∫ y sin nxdx = ∫ sin x sin nxdx
π 0 π 0
when n = 1 , we have:
h π h π h
π∫ π∫
b1 = sin x sin xdx = sin 2 xdx =
0 0 2
when n > 1 , we have:
h π
bn =
π ∫
0
sin x sin nxdx
h π
=
2π ∫ 0
cos(1 − n) x − cos(1 + n) xdx
π
h ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
= ⎢ sin(1 − n) x + sin(1 + n) x ⎥
2π ⎣1 − n 1+ n ⎦0
=0
h⎛ π 2 2 2 ⎞
= ⎜1 + sin x − cos 2 x − cos 4 x − cos 6 x L⎟
π ⎝ 1⋅ 2 1⋅ 3 3⋅5 5⋅7 ⎠
10.4
Such a wave form is a even function with a period of π . Hence, there are only
constant term and cosine terms.
The constant term is given by:
1 1 π 2h
a0 = ∫ h sin xdx =
2 π 0 π
which doubles the constant shown in Problem 10.3
The coefficient of cosine term is given by:
4h π 2 2πnx
an =
π ∫ 0
sin x cos
π
dx
4h π 2
=
π ∫0
sin x cos 2nxdx
2h π 2
=
π ∫0
[sin(1 + 2n) x + sin(1 − 2n) x]dx
π 2
2h ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
=− ⎢ cos(1 + 2n) x + cos(1 − 2n) x ⎥
π ⎣1 + 2n 1 − 2n ⎦0
which gives:
h 2 h 2 h 2
a1 = −, a2 = − , a3 = − ,…
π 1⋅ 3 π 3⋅5 π 5⋅7
Therefore the Fourier series is given by:
1 ∞
2πnx
y= a0 + ∑ an cos
2 1 π
h⎛ 2 2 2 ⎞
= ⎜1 − cos 2 x − cos 4 x − cos 6 x L⎟
π ⎝ 1⋅ 3 3⋅5 5⋅7 ⎠
h
Compared with Problem 10.3, the modulating ripple of the first harmonic sin x
2
disappears.
10.5
f (x) is even function in the interval ± π , so its Fourier series has a constant term
given by:
1 1 π 1 π π2
2
a0 =
2π ∫π
−
f ( x)dx =
2π ∫π
−
x 2 dx =
3
2 ⎡ 2 π 4 π
x sin nx − ∫ sin nxdx 2 ⎤ = 2 ∫ xd cos nx
π
=
nπ ⎣ ⎢ 0 0 ⎥
⎦ nπ 0
π
= 2 ⎡ x cos nx 0 − ∫ cos nxdx ⎤ = 2 cos nπ = (−1) n 2
4 π 4 4
nπ⎣ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎦ n n
Therefore the Fourier series is given by:
1 ∞
2πnx 1 2 ∞ 4
f ( x) = a0 + ∑ an cos = π + ∑ (−1) n 2 cos nx
2 1 2π 3 1 n
10.6
The square wave function of unit height f (x) has a constant value of 1 over its first
f (π 2) = 1
10.7
It is obvious that the pulse train satisfies f (t ) = f (−t ) , i.e. it is an even function. The
10.8
2π 2π
As τ becomes very small, sin nτ → nτ , so we have:
T T
2 2π 2 2π 4τ
an = sin nτ ≈ ⋅ nτ =
nπ T nπ T T
We can see as τ → 0 , an → 0 , which shows as the energy representation in time
10.9
The constant term of the Fourier series is given by:
1 1 T2 1 1 τ 1 1
a0 = ∫ dt = ∫ dt =
2 T −T 2 2τ T −τ 2τ T
The coefficient of cosine term is given by:
τ
4 τ 1 2πnt 4 1 T 2πnt 1 2πnτ
an = ∫ cos = ⋅ ⋅ sin = sin
T 2τ
0 T T 2τ 2πn T 0 nπτ T
As τ → 0 , we have:
2πnτ 1 1 2πnτ 2
an = ≈ ⋅ =
sin
nπτ T nπτ T T
Now we have the Fourier series given by:
1 ∞
2πnt 1 2 ∞ 2πnt
f (t ) = a0 + ∑ an cos = + ∑ cos
2 n =1 T T T n=1 T
10.10
Following the derivation in the problem, we have:
1 +∞
f (t ) =
2π ∫− ∞
F (ω )eiωt dω
1 +∞ 1
∫−∞ iω (1 − e )e dω
iωT iωt
=
2π
1 +∞ 1
∫−∞ iω (1 − e )e dω
iωT iωt
=
2π
1 +∞⎡ 1 1 iω ( t −T ) ⎤
∫−∞ ⎢⎣ iω e − iω e ⎥⎦ dω
iωt
=
2π
Using the fact that for T very large:
+∞ 1 +∞ 1
∫−∞ iω e dω = ∫−∞ iω e dω = −π
iω ( t −T ) −iωT
we have:
1 1 +∞ 1 iωt
2 2π ∫−∞ iω
f (t ) = + e dω
10.11
Following the derivation in the problem, we have:
f0 +τ 2 −i 2π (ν −ν ) t ′
− i 2π (ν −ν 0 ) ∫−τ 2
= e 0
d [−i 2π (ν −ν 0 )t ′]
f0
= (e −i 2π (ν −ν 0 )τ 2 − ei 2π (ν −ν 0 )τ 2 )
− i 2π (ν −ν 0 )
sin[π (ν −ν 0 )τ ]
= f 0τ
π (ν −ν 0 )τ
which shows the relative energy distribution in the spectrum given by:
sin 2 [π (ν −ν 0 )τ ]
F (ν ) = ( f 0τ ) 2
2
[π (ν −ν 0 )τ ]2
follows the intensity distribution curve in a single slit diffraction pattern given by:
sin 2 (πd sin θ λ )
I = I0
(πd sin θ λ ) 2
10.12
The energy spectrum has a maximum when:
sin 2 [π (ν max −ν 0 )τ ]
=1
[π (ν max −ν 0 )τ ]2
Hence, the total width of the first maximum of the energy spectrum is given by:
2 1
2Δν = ν min
+1
−ν min
−1
= or Δν =
τ τ
c
Using the differentiation of the relation ν = :
λ
c
Δν = Δλ
λ2
we have
10.13
λ20
Use the relation Δλ = Δν , we have:
c
(6.936 × 10 −7 ) 2
Δλ = × 10 4 ≈ 1.6 × 10−17 [m]
3 × 10 8
Then, using the result in Problem 10.12, the coherence length is given by:
λ20 (6.936 ×10 −7 ) 2
l= = = 3 × 10 4 [m]
Δλ 1.6 × 10 −17
10.14
Referring to pages 46 and 47 of the text, and in particular to the example of the
radiating atom, we see that the energy of the damped simple harmonic motion:
E = E0e −ω 0 t Q = E0 e −1 where Q ω0 = t , the period for which the atom radiates
Since the coherence length is finite the radiation cannot be represented by a single
angular frequency ω0 but by a bandwidth Δω centred about ω0 .
ΔνΔt = 1 2π .
The bandwidth effect on the spectral line is increased in a gas of radiating atoms at
temperature T . Collisions between the atoms shorten the coherence length and the
Doppler effect from atomic thermal velocities adds to Δν .
10.15
The Fourier transform of f (t ) gives:
+∞ +∞ +∞
F (ν ) = ∫ f (t )e −i 2πνt dt = ∫ f 0ei 2πν 0t e −t τ e −i 2πνt dt = ∫ f 0e[ i 2π (ν 0 −ν )−1 τ ]t dt
−∞ −∞ −∞
=
f0
i 2π (ν 0 −ν ) − 1 τ
{
e[ i 2π (ν 0 −ν )−1 τ ]t
+∞
0
}
f0 f0
=− =
i 2π (ν 0 −ν ) − 1 τ 1 τ + i 2π (ν −ν 0 )
1 τ + i 2π (ν −ν 0 ) r (1 τ ) 2 + [2π (ν −ν 0 )]2 (1 τ ) 2 + (ω − ω0 ) 2
10.16
In the text of Chapter 3, the resonance power curve is given by the expression:
F02 F02 r F02 r
Pav = cos φ = =
2Z m 2Z m2 2[r 2 + (ωm − s ω ) 2 ]
F02 r F02 r f 02
Pav ≈ = = = F (ν )
2
F02 r m
where f 02 = 2
and τ =
2m r
f 02 ( f oτ ) 2
F (ν ) = =
2
(1 τ ) 2 + (ω − ω0 ) 2 2
i.e. ω − ω0 = ± 1 τ
so the frequency width at half maximum is given by:
Δω = 2 τ or Δν = 1 πτ
so we have the relation between the two respectively defined frequency spectrum
widths given by:
Δν ′
Δν =
π
If the spectrum line has a value Δλ = 3 ×10−9 m in Problem 10.12, the coherence
length is given by:
λ20 λ2 (5.46 × 10−7 ) 2
l= = 0 = ≈ 32 × 10 −6 [m]
Δλ ′ Δλπ 3 × 10 × π
−9
10.17
The double slit function (upper figure) and its self convolution (lower figure) are
shown below:
τ τ
2τ d −τ 2τ d −τ 2τ
Fig. A.10.17
10.18
The convolution of the two functions is shown in Fig. A.10.18.1.
⊗ =
d d d d
Fig. A.10.18.1
F( ) = 2d
d
1d
2d
F( ) =
d
1d
Fig. A.10.18.2
Hence, the Fourier transform of the convolution of the two functions is the product of
the Fourier transform of the individual function, which is shown in Fig. A.10.18.3
= F( ) × F( )
d
d
2d 2d
= ×
1d 1d
2d
1d
Fig. A.10.18.3
10.19
The area of the overlap is given by:
⎛1 1 ⎞
A = 2⎜ r ⋅ 2θ − ⋅ 2r sin θ ⋅ r cosθ ⎟
⎝2 2 ⎠
= r (2θ − 2 sin θ cos θ )
2
R R2
where cos θ = and sin θ = 1 − 2
2r 4r
Hence the convolution is given by:
⎡ 1
⎤
2⎢ R ⎛ R 2
⎞ 2 R
⎥
O( R) = r 2 cos −1
− 2⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
⎢ 2r ⎝ 4 r ⎠ 2 r ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
O(R)
πr 2
0 2r R
Fig. A.10.19
11.1
r2
2R1
z
A′ B′
r r2
2R2 A B O
d f
R2
R1
Fig A.11.1
In a bi-convex lens, as shown in Fig A.11.1, the time taken by the wavefront to travel
through path AB is the same as through path A′B′ , so we have:
nd r 2 1 ⎛ n ⎞⎛ r2 r 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ r2 ⎞
+ ⋅ = ⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ d + − ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ z + ⎟
c 2 R2 c ⎝ c ⎠⎝ 2 R2 2 R1 ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠⎝ 2 R1 ⎟⎠
which yields:
⎛1 1 ⎞ r2
z = (n − 1)⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ 2
1 ⎛1 1 ⎞
i.e. P= = (n − 1)⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
f ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
11.2
A′ z B′
A B O
d f
Fig A.11.2
As shown in Fig A.11.2, the time taken by the wavefront to travel through path AB
z = αr 2 d
1
i.e. f =
2αd
11.3
Choosing the distance PF = λ 2 then, for the path difference BF − BF ′ , the phase
difference is π radians.
Similarly for the path difference AF ′ − AF the phase difference is π radians.
Thus for the path difference AF ′ − BF ′ the phase difference is 2π radians and the
resulting amplitude of the secondary waves is zero.
x λ
Writing F ′F = x 2 , we then have in the triangle F ′FP : sin θ = , so the width of
2 2
λ
the focal spot is x = .
sin θ
11.4
If a man’s near point is 40cm from his eye, his eye has a range of accommodation of:
1
= 2.5[dioptres]
0.4
Noting that a healthy eye has a range of accommodation of 4 dioptres, he needs
spectacles of power:
P = 4 − 2.5 = 1.5[dioptres]
If anther man is unable to focus at distance greater than 2m, his eye’s minimum
accommodation is:
1
= 0.5[dioptres]
2
Therefore, he needs diverging spectacles with a power of -0.5 dioptres for clear image
of infinite distance.
11.5
y′ l ′ l′
Noting that = , we have the transverse magnification given by: M T = . The
y l l
β y l d
angular magnification is given by: M α = = = 0 . Using the thin lens power
γ y d0 l
11.6
The power of the whole two-lens telescope system is zero, so we have:
P = P1 + P2 − LP1P2 = 0
1 1
where L is the separation of the two lenses. Noting that P1 = and P2 = , we
f0 fe
have:
1 1 1 1
+ −L =0
f0 fe fo fe
which gives: L = f 0 + f e
11.7
As shown from Figure 11.20, the magnification of objective lens is given by:
x′ 1
Mo = − . Suppose the objective lens is a thin lens, we have: Po = i.e.
f o′ f o′
M o = − Po x′ .
do
Similarly, the magnification of eye lens is given by: M e = . Suppose the eye lens
f e′
1
is a thin lens, we have: Pe = i.e. M o = Pe d o .
f e′
P α
Air
I O C
n
Glass
Fig.A.11.8(a)
P α
Air
I O C B
Glass
n
⎡⎛ R ⎞ 2 ⎤
IP = (k + c) + d = n (OP) = n ⎢⎜ + l ⎟ + d 2 ⎥
2 2 2 2 2 2
⎣⎢⎝ n ⎠ ⎦⎥
that is k = IC = nR
11.9
(a) The powers of the two spherical surfaces are given by:
n′ − n 1.5 − 1 n′ − n 1 − 1.5
P1 = = = −0.5 and P2 = = =0
R −1 R ∞
Suppose a parallel incident ray (α1 = 0) strikes the front surface of the system at a
height of y1 . By using matrix method, we can find the ray angle α 2′ and height y2′
(b) The powers of the four spherical surfaces are given by:
n′ − n 1.5 − 1
P1 = = =0
R ∞
n − n′ 1 − 1.5
P2 = = =1
R − 0.5
n′ − n 1.5 − 1
P3 = = = −0.5
R −1
height of y1 . By using matrix method, we can find the ray angle α 4′ and height y4′
⎡ 0.6 y1 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
⎣0.71 y1 ⎦
So the focal length is given by:
y1 y
f = = 1 = 1.67[m]
α 4′ 0.6 y1
The principal plane is located at a distance d to the left side of the right-end surface
of the system, which is given by:
y4′ − y1 0.71y1 − y1
d= = = 0.48[m]
α 4′ 0.6 y1
(c) The powers of the four spherical surfaces are given by:
n′ − n 1.5 − 1
P1 = = =0
R ∞
n − n′ 1 − 1.5
P2 = = =1
R − 0.5
n′ − n 1.5 − 1
P3 = = =1
R 0.5
n − n′ 1 − 1.5
P4 = = =0
R ∞
Suppose a parallel incident ray (α1 = 0) strikes the front surface of the system at a
height of y1 . By using matrix method, we can find the ray angle α 4′ and height y4′
12.1
R1 R2
t2 t
t1
r
Fig.A.12.1
which yields the radius rn of the nth dark ring given by:
R1 R2 nλ
rn2 =
R1 − R2
12.2
The matrix relating reflection coefficient r and transmission coefficient t for the
λ 4 film is given by:
⎡ cos δ i sin δ n2 ⎤ ⎡ 0 i n2 ⎤
M =⎢ =
⎣in2 sin δ cos δ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣in2 0 ⎥⎦
Following the analysis in text page 352, we can find the coefficient A and B are
given by:
A = n1 ( M 11 + M 12 n3 ) = in1n3 n2
which gives:
n22 = n1n3
12.3
As shown in page 357 of the text, the intensity distribution of the interference pattern
is given by:
δ
I = 4a 2 cos 2
2
where δ is the phase difference between the two waves transmitted from the two
radio masts to a point P and is given by:
2π 2π
δ = kf sin θ = f sin θ = × 400 × sin θ = 4π sin θ
λ 3 × 10 1500 × 103
8
so we have:
4π sin θ
I = 4a 2 cos 2 = 2 I 0 [1 + cos(4π sin θ )]
2
where I 0 = a 2 represents the radiated intensity of each mast.
θ = 90o I max = 4I 0
I
θ = 150o θ = 30o
θ
θ = 180 o
θ = 0o
θ = 210o θ = 330o
θ = 270o
Fig.A.12.3
θ = 90o I max = 4 I s
θ
θ = 180 o
θ = 0o
θ = 270o
Fig.A.12.4(a)
(b)
In this case, the phase difference is given by:
π 2π λ π + π sin θ
δ = δ 0 + kf sin θ = + ⋅ sin θ =
2 λ 4 2
Hence, the intensity distribution is given by:
δ π + π sin θ ⎡ π ⎤
I = 4a 2 cos 2 = 4a 2 cos 2 = 4 I s ⎢cos 2 (1 + sin θ )⎥
2 4 ⎣ 4 ⎦
I = 2I s θ I = 2I s
θ = 180o θ = 0o
θ = 270o
Fig.A.12.4(b)
12.5
(a)
θ θ
d
Fig.A.12.5(a)
Fig.A.12.5(a) shows elements of a vertical column and a horizontal row of radiators in
a rectangular lattice with unit square cells of side d . Rays leave each lattice point at
an angle θ to reach a distant point P . If P is simultaneously the location of the
mth spectral order of interference from the column radiation and the nth spectral
order of interference from the row radiation, we have from pages 364/5 the relations:
d sin θ = mλ and d cosθ = nλ
Thus
sin θ m
= tan θ =
cosθ n
where m and n are integers.
(b)
d A C
d sin θ
B
Fig.A.12.5(b)
Waves scattered elastically (without change of λ ) by successive planes separated by
a distance d in a crystal reinforce to give maxima on reflection when the path
difference 2d sin θ = nλ . In Fig.A.12.5(b), the path difference ABC between the
incident and the reflected rays = 2d sin θ .
12.6
Using the Principal Maximum condition:
f sin θ = nλ
π
at θ = ± , we have: f = nλ , which shows the minimum separation of equal
2
sources is given by: f = λ .
θ = 90o I max = 16 I s
I
θ = 150o θ = 30o
θ
θ = 180 o
θ = 0o
θ = 210o θ = 330o
θ = 270o
12.7
The angular width of the central maximum δθ is the angular difference between +1
and -1 order zero intensity position and should satisfy:
2λ 2 × 0.21
sin δθ = = = 1.875 × 10− 3 or δθ = 6′
Nf 32 × 7
The angular separation between successive principal maxima Δθ is given by:
λ 0.21
sin Δθ = = = 0.03 or Δθ = 1o 42′
f 7
o
90 o o o
90 o
120 60 120 60 o
150 o 30 o 150 o 30 o
180 o 0 o 180 o 0o
o
90 o o o
90 o
120 60 120 60 o
150 o 30 o 150 o 30 o
180 o 0 o 180 o 0o
d λ =3 d λ =4
210 o 330 o 210 o 330 o
Fig.A.12.8
The above polar diagrams show the traces of the tip of the intensity of diffracted light
I for monochromatic light normally incident on a single slit when the ratio of slit
width to the wavelength d λ changes from 1 to 4. It is evidently shown that the
larger.
12.9
It is evident that α = 0 satisfies the condition: α = tan α .
By substitution of α = 3π 2 − δ into the condition: α = tan α we have:
3π 2 − δ = tan(3π 2 − δ )
δ2
(3π 2 − δ )δ = 1 −
2
The solution to the above equation is given by: δ = 0.7π .
Using the similar analysis for α = 5π 2 − δ and α = 7π 2 − δ , we can find
δ = 0.041π and δ = 0.029π respectively. Therefore the real solutions for α are
α = 0,±1.43π ,±2.459π ,3.471π , etc .
12.10
If only interference effects are considered the intensity of this grating is given by:
sin 2 3β
I = I0
sin 2 β
d ⎛ sin 2 3β ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0
dβ ⎜⎝ sin 2 β ⎠
i.e. sin 2 β = 1
π
i.e. β sec_ max = (2n + 1) , where n is integer
2
Hence, at the secondary maximum:
sin 2 3β sec_ max 1
I sec_ max = I 0 = I0 = I max
sin β sec_ max
2
9
12.11
Suppose a monochromatic light incident on a grating, the phase change dβ required
to move the diffracted light from the principal maximum to the first minimum is given
by:
⎛ πf sin θ ⎞ πf πf λ π
dβ = d ⎜ ⎟= d (sin θ ) = ⋅ =
⎝ λ ⎠ λ λ Nf N
principal maximum to the first minimum should be the same value as given above, so
we have:
⎛ πf sin θ ⎞ πf ⎛1⎞
dβ = d ⎜ ⎟= d (sin θ ) + πf sin θd ⎜ ⎟
⎝ λ ⎠ λ ⎝λ⎠
πf πf sin θ π
= cos θdθ − dλ = ≈ 0
λ λ2
N
which gives:
dθ = (nN cot θ ) −1
12.12
(a)
The derivative of the equation:
f sin θ = nλ
gives:
f cosθdθ = ndλ
(b)
Using the result given above, the change in linear separation per unit increase in
spectral order is given by:
dl Fdλ 2 × (5.2 × 10 −7 − 5 × 10 −7 )
= = = 2 × 10 −2 [m]
n f 2 × 10 −6
12.14
When the objects O and O′ are just resolved at I and I ′ the principal
maximum of O and the first minimum of O′ are located at I . Rayleigh’s criterion
thus defines the path difference:
O′BI − O′AI = O′B − O′A = 1.22λ ( BI = AI )
Also OB = OA giving
(O′B − OB) + (OA − O′A) = 1.22λ
O′
C C′
ii
i
O
SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 13
13.1
For such an electron, the uncertainty of momentum Δp roughly equals the magnitude of
momentum p , and the uncertainty of radius Δr roughly equals the magnitude of radius r . So
we have:
h h
p ≈ Δp = ≈
Δr r
By substitution of the above equation into the expression of electron energy, we have:
p2 e2 h2 r 2 e2
E= − = −
2m 4πε 0 r 2m 4πε 0 r
(13.1.1)
d ⎛ h2 r 2 e2 ⎞
⎜⎜ − ⎟=0
dr ⎝ 2m 4πε 0 r ⎟⎠
h2 e2
i.e. − + =0
mr 3 4πε 0 r 2
which yields the minimum Bohr radius given by:
4πε 0h 2 ε 0 h 2
r= =
me 2 πme 2
By substitution into equation 13.1.1, we find the electron’s ground state energy given by:
2
h 2 ⎛ πme 2 ⎞ e 2 πme 2 − me 4
E0 = ⎜⎜ ⎟ − =
2m ⎝ ε 0 h 2 ⎟⎠ 4πε 0 ε 0 h 2 8ε 02 h 2
13.2
h h
Δx ≈ ≥
Δp p
Photons’ energy converted from mass m is given by:
E = pc = mc 2
h 6.63 × 10 −34
λ= = ≈ 2.42 × 10 −12 [m]
me c 9.1× 10 −31 × 3 × 108
13.3
The energy of a simple harmonic oscillation at frequency ω should satisfy:
p2 1 Δp 2 1
E= + mω 2 x 2 ≥ + mω 2 Δx 2
2m 2 2m 2
h2 h2
The relation: ( Δx )(Δp ) ≈ gives: Δp ≈
2 2 2
, by substitution into the above equation,
4 4Δx 2
we have:
Δp 2 1 h2 1 h2 ⎛ 1 2⎞
E≥ + mω 2 Δx 2 = + mω 2
Δx 2
≥ 2 ⎜ mω Δx ⎟
2
2m 2 8mΔx 2
2 8mΔx ⎝ 2
2
⎠
1 1
= hω = hν
2 2
1
i.e. the simple harmonic oscillation has a minimum energy of hν .
2
13.4
When an electron passes through a slit of width Δx , the intensity distribution of diffraction
pattern is given by:
sin 2 α π
I = I0 , where α= Δx sin θ
α 2
λ
The first minimum of the intensity pattern occurs when α =π ,
π
i.e. α= Δx sin θ = π
λ
Noting that λ = h p , we have:
where Δp = p sin θ is the change of the electron’s momentum in the direction parallel to the
plane of the slit. This relation is in accordance with Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
13.5
The angular spread due to diffraction can be seen as the half angular width of the principal
maximum Δθ of the diffraction pattern. Use the same analysis as Problem 13.4, we have:
π π
α= d sin θ ≈ dΔθ = π
λ λ
λ 10 −5
i.e. Δθ = = = 0.1 ≈ 5o 44′
d 10 −4
13.6
The energy of the electron after acceleration across a potential difference V is given by:
h h 6.63 × 10 −34
λ= = =
−31 −19
= 1.23 × 10 −9V −1 2 [m]
p 2me eV 2 × 9.1× 10 × 1.6 × 10 V
13.7
From problem 13.6 we have:
1.23 × 10 −9 1.23 × 10 −9
V 12
= = = 4.1
λ 3 × 10 −10
∴V = 16.81[V]
13.8
1
The energy per unit volume of electromagnetic wave is given by: E = ε 0 E02 , where E0 is the
2
electric field amplitude. For photons of zero rest mass, the energy is given by: E = mc = pc ,
2
where p is the average momentum per unit volume associated with this electromagnetic wave.
So we have:
1
ε 0 E02 = pc
2
F ⋅ V 2 ⋅ m -2 C ⋅ V ⋅ m -2 C ⋅ W ⋅ m -2 A ⋅ s ⋅ kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ m -2
= = = = kg ⋅ m -1 ⋅ s -1
m ⋅ s -1 m ⋅ s -1 m ⋅ s -1 ⋅ A m ⋅ s -1 ⋅ s 3 ⋅ A
which is the dimension of momentum.
13.9
When the wave is normally incident on a perfect absorber, all the photons’ velocity changes from
c to 0, the radiation pressure should equal the energy density of the incident wave, i.e.:
1
P = cp − 0 = cp = ε 0 E02
2
When the wave is normally incident on a perfect reflector, all the photons’ velocity changes to the
opposite directing but keeps the same value, hence, the radiation pressure is given by:
13.10
Using the result of Problem 13.9, we have the radiation pressure from the sun incident upon the
perfectly absorbing surface of the earth given by:
1 1 1 I 1 1.4 × 103
P = × ε 0 E02 = × = × = 1.5 × 10− 6 [Pa ] ≈ 10−11[atm]
3 2 3 c 3 3 × 10 8
13.11
Using the result of Problem 13.3, we have the minimum energy, i.e. the zero point energy, of such
an oscillation given by:
1 1
hν = × 6.63 × 10 −34 × 6.43 × 1011 = 2.13 × 10 −22 [J ] = 1.33 × 10 −3[eV]
2 2
13.12
The probability of finding the mass in the box is given by the integral:
2
a a1 ⎛ π 2 x2 ⎞
∫−a ψ = ∫−a a ⎜⎜⎝1 − 8a 2 ⎟⎟⎠ dx
2
( x ) dx
a 1 ⎛ π 2 x2 π 4 x4 ⎞
=∫ ⎜1 − + ⎟dx
−a a ⎜ 4a 2 64a 4 ⎟⎠
⎝
2π 2 2π 4
= 2− + ≈ 0.96
12 320
The general expression of the wave function is given by: ψ = Ceikx + De −ikx , where A, B are
constants. Using boundary condition at x = a and x = − a , we have:
⎛ 1⎞π
k = ⎜ n + ⎟ , where n = 0,1,2,3,L
⎝ 2⎠ a
Hence, the ground state equation is given by letting n = 0 , i.e.:
⎛ πx ⎞
ψ = A cos⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2a ⎠
By normalization of the wave function, we have:
+∞
∫ ψ ( x) dx = 1
2
−∞
+∞ ⎛ πx ⎞
i.e. ∫−∞
A2 cos 2 ⎜ ⎟dx = 1
⎝ 2a ⎠
+a 1 + cos(πx a)
i.e. ∫
−a
A2
2
dx = 1
i.e. A =1 a
Therefore the normalized ground state wave function is:
ψ ( x) = (1 a ) cos(πx 2a )
which can be expanded as:
1 ⎡ 1 ⎛ πx ⎞ 2 ⎤ 1 ⎛ π 2 x2 ⎞
ψ ( x) = ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ + L⎥ ≈ ⎜1 − ⎟
a ⎢⎣ 2 ⎝ 2a ⎠ ⎥⎦ a ⎜⎝ 8a 2 ⎟⎠
13.13
∫∫∫ ψ ( xyz) dV = ∫
c b
∫∫
2 a
A sin sin sin dxdydz
0 0 0 a b c
πx ⎞ πy ⎞ πz ⎞
2 2 2
a⎛ a⎛ a⎛
= A2 ∫ ⎜ sin ⎟ dx ⋅∫ ⎜ sin ⎟ dy ⋅ ∫ ⎜ sin ⎟ dz
0
⎝ a⎠ 0
⎝ b ⎠ 0
⎝ c ⎠
a⎛ 1 1 2πx ⎞ b⎛ 1 1 2πy ⎞ c⎛ 1 1 2πz ⎞
= A2 ∫ ⎜ − cos ⎟ dx ⋅∫ ⎜ − cos ⎟ dy ⋅ ∫ ⎜ − cos ⎟dz
⎝
0 2 2 a ⎠ ⎝
0 2 2 b ⎠ ⎝
0 2 2 c ⎠
a b c
= A2 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = 1
2 2 2
i.e. A = 8 abc
13.14
Text in page 426 shows number of electrons per unit volume in energy interval dE is given by:
2 × 4π ( 2 m 3 )1 2 E 1 2
dn = dE
h3
and the total number of electrons given by:
13.15
Noting that Copper has one conduction electron per atom and one atom has a mass of
m0 = 1.66 × 10 −27 kg , the number of free electrons per unit volume in Copper is given by:
ρ
9 × 103
n0 = = − 27
≈ 8 × 10 28 [m -3 ]
64m0 64 × 1.66 × 10
Using the expression of number of electrons per unit volume in text of page 426, we have the
Fermi energy level of Copper given by:
23 23
⎛ n ⋅ 3h 3 ⎞ ⎡ 8 × 10 28 × 3 × (6.63 × 10 −34 )3 ⎤
EF = ⎜ 0 ⎟ =⎢ ⎥ ≈ 1.08 × 10 −18 [J] = 7[eV]
⎜ 16π 2m3 ⎟ ⎢⎣ 16π × 2 × (9.1× 10 −31 )3 ⎥⎦
⎝ e ⎠
For an electron:
−2 [ 2 me (V − E ) h x ] = e −2 ⎡⎢⎣ ( )
2×9.1×10−31×1.6×10−19 6.63×10−34 2π ⎤×2×10−10
e −2αx = e ⎥⎦
= e −2.05 ≈ 0.1
For a proton:
−2 [ 2 m p (V − E ) h x ] ( )
−2 ⎡ 2×1.67×10−27 ×1.6×10−19 6.63×10−34 2π ⎤×2×10−10
e −2αx = e =e ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
= e −87.4 ≈ 10 −38
13.17
Text in page 432-434 shows the amplitude reflection and transmission coefficients for such a
particle are given by:
B k1 − k 2 C 2k1
r= = and t = =
A k1 + k 2 A k1 + k 2
where,
2mE 2m( E − V )
k1 = and k2 =
h h
If V is a very large negative value at x > 0 , we have the amplitude reflection coefficient given
by:
2mE − 2m( E − V )
r = lim = −1
V →−∞ 2mE + 2m( E − V )
and the amplitude transmission coefficient given by:
2 2mE
t = lim =0
V →−∞ 2mE + 2m( E − V )
i.e. the amplitude of reflected wave tends to unity and that of transmitted wave to zero.
13.18
The potential energy of one dimensional simple harmonic oscillator of frequency ω is given by:
1
V = mω 2 x 2
2
By substitution into Schrödinger’s equation, we have:
d 2ψ 2m ⎡ 1 ⎤
+ 2 ⎢ E − mω 2 x 2 ⎥ψ = 0
dx 2
h ⎣ 2 ⎦
(13.18.1)
ψ ( x) = a π e −a x in dψ dx :
2 2
2
Try
2mE m 2ω 2
a = 2 and
2
2
= a4
h h
which yields:
h 2a 2 1
E0 = = hω
2m 2
ψ ( x) = a 2 π 2axe −a x in dψ dx :
2 2
2
Try
− a2 x2 − a2 x2 − a2 x2
dψ a a a
= 2a e 2
− 2a x 3 2
e 2
= ( 2a − 2a x ) 3 2
e 2
dx 2 π 2 π 2 π
so:
− a2 x2 − a2 x2 − a2 x2
d 2ψ a a a
= −4 a 3 x e 2
+ ( 2a x − 2a x )
5 3 3
e 2
= ( 2a x − 6a x )
5 3 3
e 2
2 π 2 π 2 π
2
dx
In order to satisfy the Schrödinger’s equation (13.18.1), we should have:
2mE m 2ω 2
3a 2 = and = a4
h2 h2
which yields:
3h 2 a 2 3
E1 = = hω
2m 2
13.19
When n = 0 :
N 0 = (a π 1 2 200!)1 2 = a π
H 0 (ax) = (−1) 0 e a x e − a x = 1
2 2 2 2
Hence:
ψ 0 = N 0 H 0 (ax)e −a x = a π e −a x
2 2 2 2
2 2
When n = 1 :
N1 = (a π 1 2 211!)1 2 = a 2 π
d (ax)
Hence:
When n = 2 :
a 2 π
N 2 = (a π 1 2 22 2!)1 2 = a 8 π =
2
d2
H 2 (ax) = (−1) 2 e a x e −a x = −2 + 4a 2 x 2
2 2 2 2
2
d (ax)
Hence:
When n = 3 :
a 3 π
N 3 = (a π 1 2 233!)1 2 = a 48 π =
4
d3
H 3 (ax) = (−1)3 e a x e −a x = 8a 3 x 3 − 12ax
2 2 2 2
3
d (ax)
Hence:
13.20
The reflection angle θ r and reflection wavelength λd should satisfy Bragg condition:
2a sin θ r = λr
where a is separation of the atomic plane of the nickel crystal. Hence the reflected electron
h h
pr = =
λr 2a sin θ r
Hence, the reflected electron energy is given by:
Er − Ei 55.5 − 54
= × 100% = 2.8% < 3.9%
Ei 54
13.21
For ψ = sin ka :
∫ψ Vψdx
2
* ∞ kxVm cos dx
ΔE = = −∑ a
0
∫ψ ψdx
a
∫ sin kxdx
* 2
m=1
0
1 − cos (2πnx a )
a 2πmx
∞ ∫ cos dx
= −∑Vm 2 a
0
a 1 − cos ( 2πnx a )
m =1
∫0 2
dx
1 a 2πnx 2πmx
∞ − ∫ cos ⋅ cos dx
= −∑ Vm 2 a a
0
m =1 a2
1 a⎡ 2π (m + n) x 2π (m − n) x ⎤
∞ ∫
2 ⎣ ⎢ cos + cos ⎥⎦dx
= ∑Vm
0 a a
m=1 a
The above equation has non-zero term only when m = n , so we have:
a ⎛ 4πnx ⎞
∫ ⎜⎝ cos
0 a
+ 1⎟dx
⎠ = V a = 1V
ΔE = Vn n n
2a 2a 2
For ψ = cos ka :
∫ψ Vψdx
2
* ∞ kxVm cos dx
ΔE = = −∑ a
0
∫ψ ψdx
a
∫ cos kxdx
* 2
m =1
0
1 + cos (2πnx a)
a 2πmx
∞ ∫ cos dx
= −∑Vm 2 a
0
a 1 + cos ( 2πnx a )
m =1
∫0 2
dx
1 a 2πnx 2πmx
∞ ∫ cos ⋅ cos dx
= −∑Vm 2 a a
0
m =1 a2
1 a⎡ 2π (m + n) x 2π (m − n) x ⎤
∫∞
2 0⎣ ⎢ cos + cos ⎥⎦dx
= −∑Vm
a a
m =1 a
The above equation has non-zero term only when m = n , so we have:
a ⎛ 4πnx ⎞
∫ ⎜⎝ cos
0 a
+ 1⎟dx
⎠ = −V a = − 1 V
ΔE = −Vn n n
2a 2a 2
14.1
For θ 0 < 30o , we have:
⎛ 1 30o ⎞
T < T0 ⎜⎜1 + sin 2 ⎟ = 1.017T0
⎝ 4 2 ⎟⎠
T − T0
i.e. = 1.7% < 2%
T0
⎛ 1 90o ⎞
T = T0 ⎜⎜1 + sin 2 ⎟ = 1.125T0
⎝ 4 2 ⎟⎠
T − T0
i.e. = 12.5%
T0
14.2
Multiplying the equation of motion by 2 dx dt and integrating with respect to t
gives:
2
⎛ dx ⎞ x
m⎜ ⎟ = A − 2 ∫ f ( x)dx
⎝ dt ⎠ 0
dx
where A is the constant of integration. The velocity is zero at the maximum
dt
x0
displacement x = x0 , giving A = 2 ∫ f ( x)dx .
0
2
⎛ dx ⎞ x0 x
i.e. m⎜ ⎟ = 2∫ f ( x)dx − 2∫ f ( x)dx = 2 F ( x0 ) − 2 F ( x)
⎝ dt ⎠ 0 0
dx 2
i.e. = [ F ( x0 ) − F ( x)]
dt m
Upon integration of the above equation, we have:
so we have:
m x0 dx
τ0 = 4
2 ∫0 F ( x0 ) − F ( x)
14.3
By substitution of the solution into &x& :
∞
⎡ n2 n n2 n ⎤
&x& = ∑ ⎢− an cos φ − bn sin φ ⎥
n =1 ⎣ 9 3 9 3 ⎦
∞ ⎡
⎛ n2 ⎞ n ⎛ n2 ⎞ n ⎤
&x& + s ( x) = ∑ ⎢an ⎜⎜ s1 − ⎟⎟ cos φ + bn ⎜⎜ s1 − ⎟⎟ sin φ ⎥ = F0 cos ωt
n =1 ⎣ ⎝ 9 ⎠ 3 ⎝ 9 ⎠ 3 ⎦
∞ ⎡ ⎛ n2 ⎞ n ⎛ n2 ⎞ n ⎤
i.e. ∑ ⎜
⎢ n⎜ 1
a s − ⎟
⎟ cos φ + b ⎜ s
n⎜ 1 − ⎟⎟ sin φ ⎥ = F0 cos φ
n =1 ⎣ ⎝ 9⎠ 3 ⎝ 9 ⎠ 3 ⎦
i.e.
The above equation is true only if bn = 0 and the even numbered cosine terms are
As we can see, only a3 and a9 are the main coefficients in the solution, i.e. the
fundamental frequency term and its third harmonic term are the significant terms in
the solution.
14.4
Since V = V0 at r = r0 , by expanding V at r0 , we have:
⎛ dV ⎞ ⎛ d 2V ⎞
V = V0 + ⎜ ⎟ (r − r0 ) + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ (r − r0 ) 2 + L
⎝ dr ⎠ r0 ⎝ dr ⎠ r0
⎛ d 2V ⎞ ⎛ 13r 12 7r 6 ⎞ V
⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = 12V0 ⎜⎜ 140 − 80 ⎟⎟ = 72 02
⎝ dr ⎠ r0 ⎝ r0 r0 ⎠ r0
We have:
72V0
V = V0 + (r − r0 ) 2 + L
r02
s 72V0
ω2 = =
m mr02
14.5
The restoring force of this oscillator is given by:
dV ( x)
F ( x) = − = − kx + ax 2
dx
Hence, the equation of motion is given by:
m&x& = F ( x)
k a
i.e. &x& + x − x2 = 0
m m
At ω02 = ω 2 = k m , using α = a m , the equation of motion becomes:
&x& + ω02 x − αx 2 = 0
A2
try the solution x = A cos ω0t + B sin 2ω0t + x1 in the above equation with x1 =
2ω02
αA 2 αx
and B = − 2 = − 1 , we have:
6ω0 3
4
&x& = &x&1 − ω02 A cos ω0t − 4ω02 B sin 2ω0t = &x&1 − ω02 A cos ω0t − αω02 x1 sin 2ω0t (a)
3
x 2 = x12 + A2 cos 2 ω0t + B 2 sin 2 2ω0t + 2 AB cos ω0t sin 2ω0t + 2( A cos ω0t + B sin 2ω0t ) x1
α2
− αB 2 sin 2 2ω0t = − x12 sin 2 2ω0t (e)
9
⎛2 ⎞
− 2αAB cos ω0t sin 2ω0t = ⎜ α 2 A cos ω0t sin 2ω0t ⎟ x1 (c)
⎝3 ⎠
− 2αAx1 cos ω0t − 2αBx1 sin 2ω0t = −2αAx1 cos ω0t (d)
2
+ α 2 x12 sin 2ω0t (f)
3
Using (a)(b)(c)(d) the coefficients of x1 are:
4
ω02 − αω02 sin 2ω0t − 2αω02 cos 2 ω0t − 2α 2 A cos ω0t sin 2ω0t − 2αA cos ω0t
3
which with α << ω02 leaves ω02 x1 as the only significant term.
α2 2
−α − sin 2ω0t + α 2 sin 2ω0t
9 3
1
with − αx12 the dominant term. (Note x12 ∝ ).
ω04
equation.
14.6
Extending the chain rule at the bottom of page 472 and noting that the fixed point x0
is the origin of the cycle: x1* → x2* → x1* → x2* which are fixed points for f 2 when
3
λ> and also noting that x1* = f ( x2* ) and x2* = f ( x1* ) , we have:
4
f 2 ( x2* ) = f ′( x1* ) f ′( x2* ) and f 2 ( x1* ) = f ′( x2* ) f ′( x1* )
' '
c = ad
where c is the number of copies(including the original) produced when a shape of
dimensions d has its side length increased by a factor a .
Thus, for a = 2
(i) a line d = 1 has c = 2
(ii) a square d = 2 has c = 4
(iii) a cube d = 3 has c = 8
(iv) an equilateral triangle with a horizontal base produces 3 copies to give
log 3
d= = 1.5849 (a fractal)
log 2
15.1
In the energy conservation equation the internal energy:
1 p
e = cV T =
γ −1 ρ
so the two terms:
p γ p
e+ =
ρ γ −1 ρ
γ p0 1 2
In the reservoir there is no flow energy, so its total energy is internal = = c ,
γ − 1 ρ0 γ −1 0
2
When the diaphragm where is flow along the tube of velocity u and energy 1 2 u so the total
1 2 γ p* 1 *2 1 *2 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ *2
u + = c + c = ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟c
2 γ −1 ρ *
2 γ −1 ⎝ 2 γ −1⎠
γp * *2
where u = c , u = c = * .
* 2
ρ
Hence,
1 2 2 + (γ − 1) *2 γ + 1 *2
c0 = c = c
γ −1 2(γ − 1) 2(γ − 1)
If the wavefront flows at a velocity u1 with a local velocity of sound c1 , the energy
1 2 1 2 γ + 1 *2
u1 + c1 = c
2 γ −1 2(γ − 1)
2 2
1 1 ⎛ c1 ⎞ γ + 1 ⎛ c* ⎞
+ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
2(γ − 1) ⎜⎝ u1 ⎟⎠
i.e.
2 γ − 1 ⎝ u1 ⎠
1 1 γ +1
i.e. + =
2 (γ − 1) M s 2(γ − 1) M *2
2
15.2
Energy conservation gives
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 γ + 1 *2
c1 + u1 = c2 + u2 = c from Problem 15.1
γ −1 2 γ −1 2 2(γ − 1)
So
γ −1 γ −1 γ +1
c12 + u12 = c22 + u22 = c* 2
2 2 2
(A)
Momentum conservation gives
ρ2 2 u
c12 + γu12 = (c2 + γu22 ) = 1 (c22 + γu22 )
ρ1 u2
(B)
2 2
Combine equations A and B to eliminate c1 and c2 and rearrange terms to give
γ +1 γ −1 u1 ⎡ γ + 1 *2 γ − 1 2 ⎤
c*2 − u12 + γu12 = ⎢ c − u2 + γu22 ⎥
2 2 u2 ⎣ 2 2 ⎦
γ +1 u1 ⎛ γ + 1 ⎞ *2
i.e. (c*2 + u12 ) = ⎜ ⎟ (c + u 2 )
2
2 u2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
15.3
The three conservation equations are given by:
ρ1u1 = ρ 2u2
(15.3.1)
p1 + ρ1u12 = p2 + ρ 2u22
(15.3.2)
1 2 p 1 p
u1 + e1 + 1 = u22 + e2 + 2
2 ρ1 2 ρ2
(15.3.3)
1 p
e = cV T =
γ −1 ρ
to eliminate u1 gives:
ρ 22 − ρ12 2 γ ⎛ p2 p1 ⎞
u2 = ⎜ − ⎟
2 ρ12
γ − 1 ⎜⎝ ρ 2 ρ1 ⎟⎠
(15.3.5)
ρ 2 + ρ1 γ
= (ρ1 p2 − ρ 2 p1 ) 1
2 γ −1 p2 − p1
ρ 2 ρ1 + 1 γ p2 p1 − ρ 2 ρ1
i.e. =
2 γ − 1 p2 p1 − 1
i.e. [ β (γ − 1) − (γ + 1)] p2 p1 = (γ − 1) − β (γ + 1)
which yields:
p2 β − α
=
p1 1 − βα
where α = (γ − 1) (γ + 1) and β = ρ 2 ρ1 .
15.4
Using the result of Problems 15.1 and 15.2, we have:
(γ + 1) M s2
2
*2 ⎛u ⎞ u2 u
M = ⎜ 1* ⎟ = 1 = 1 =
⎝c ⎠ u1u2 u2 (γ − 1) M s2 + 2
(15.4.1)
p1 − p2 u
= 1− 1
ρ 2u 2
2
u2
1 ⎛ u12 ⎞ 1 γ ⎛ u1 ⎞
⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ p1 − p2 ⎟⎟
2 ⎝ u 2 ⎠ ρ 2u 2 γ − 1 ⎝ u 2
2
⎠
(15.4.3)
⎛1 ⎞u y
⎜ + y ⎟ 1 = +1
⎝α ⎠ u2 α
(15.4.4)
where y = p2 p1 and α = (γ − 1) (γ + 1) .
u1 y +α
Ms = =
c1 1+ α
(15.4.5)
Frome equation 15.4.4 and 15.4.5 we have:
u2 1 + αy
=
c1 1+ α y + α
(15.4.6)
Hence, from equations 15.4.5 and 15.4.6 we have the flow velocity behind the shock give by:
c1 (1 − α )( y − 1)
u = u1 − u2 =
1(1 + α )( y + α )
15.5
In the case of reflected shock wave, as shown in Fig.(b), the shock strength is p3 p2 and the
velocity of sound ahead of the shock front is c2 . Hence, using the result of Problem 15.4, we
have the flow velocity ur behind the reflected wave given by:
ur (1 − α )( p3 p2 − 1)
=
c2 (1 + α )( p3 p2 + α )
(15.5.1)
In Fig.(a) the flow velocity u behind of the incident shock front is given by:
Using equation 15.5.1 and 15.5.2 together with the relation u + ur = 0 , c2 c1 = (T1 T2 )
12
and
T2 ⎛ 1 + αy ⎞
= y⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , where y = p2 p1 , we have:
T1 ⎝α + y ⎠
( y − 1) 2 ( p3 p2 + α )
= y (1 + αy )
( p3 p2 − 1) 2
which yields:
p3 (2α + 1) y − α
=
p2 αy + 1
15.6
p3 − p1 p3 p2 − p1 p2 p3 p2 − 1 y y p3 p2 − 1
= = =
p2 − p1 1 − p1 p2 1 −1 y y −1
p3 (2α + 1) y − α
By substitution of y = p2 p1 and = into the above equation, we have:
p2 αy + 1
(2α + 1) y 2 − αy
−1
p3 − p1 αy + 1 (2α + 1) y 2 − 2αy − 1
= =
p2 − p1 y −1 ( y − 1)(αy + 1)
p3 − p1 (2α + 1) y 2 1
≈ = 2+
p2 − p1 αy 2
α
15.7
ut = −(u + tut ) f ′
uf ′
i.e. ut = −
1 + tf ′
From equation 15.9 in the text, we have:
f′
ux =
1 + tf ′
uf ′ uf ′
ut + uu x = − + =0
1 + tf ′ 1 + tf ′
15.8
ψ xtψ −ψ tψ x
ut = −2ν
ψ2
ψ xxψ −ψ x2
u x = −2ν
ψ2
⎡ψ 3ψ ψ 2ψ 3 ⎤
u xx = −2ν ⎢ xxx − x 2 xx + 3x ⎥
⎣ψ ψ ψ ⎦
By substitution of the above expression into Burger’s equation, we have:
ψ xtψ −ψ tψ x 2 ψψ xψ xx −ψ x
3
2 ⎛ ψ xxx 3ψ xψ xx 2ψ x3 ⎞
− 2ν + 4ν + 2ν ⎜
⎜ ψ − + 3 ⎟⎟ = 0
ψ2 ψ3 ⎝ ψ2 ψ ⎠
ψψ xt −ψ tψ x ψψ xxx −ψ xψ xx
i.e. =ν
ψ 2
ψ2
⎛ψ t ⎞ ⎛ ψ xx ⎞
i.e. ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ν ⎟⎟
⎝ψ ⎠x ⎝ ψ ⎠x
which yields:
ψ t = νψ xx
15.9
Using the relation tanh′φ ≡ sech2φ and sech′φ = sechφtanhφ, where φ = α(x – ct), we have the
derivatives:
ut = 4α3 c sech2φ tanhφ = 2αuc tanhφ
uxx = –16α5 sech2φ tanhφ + 48α5 sech4φ tanhφ = –8α3u tanhφ + 12αu2 tanhφ
15.10
At the peak of Figure 15.5(a), φ = 2α ( x − ct ) = 0 , and near the base of Figure 15.5(a),
φ = 2α ( x − ct ) >> 0 , i.e. e −φ ≈ 0 . Hence, the solution of the KdV equation can be written as:
Therefore, if c = 4α ,
2
ut + u xxx = 0
15.11
Using the substitution z = x − ct and the relation tanh′φ ≡ sech2φ and sech′φ ≡ –sechφtanhφ,
uxx = –16α5 sech2φ tanhφ + 48α5 sech4φ tanhφ = –8α3u tanhφ – 12αu2 tanhφ
ut − 6uu x + u xxx
= 2αuc tanh φ + 12αu 2 tanh φ + 8α 3u tanh φ − 12αu 2 tanh φ
= −8α 3u tanh φ + 8α 3u tanh φ
=0
15.12
If v + v x = u , then:
2
u xxx = 2(2v x vxx + vvxxx + v x vxx ) + v xxxx = 6vx vxx + 2vvxxx + v xxxx
ut = 2vvt + vxt
⎝ ∂x ⎠
= vxt − 6(2vvx2 + v 2vxx ) + vxxxx + 2v(vt − 6v 2vx + v xxx )
= 2vvt − 12v 3vx + vxt − 12vvx2 − 6v 2vxx + 2vvxxx + v xxxx
The right side terms of equation mark in equation 15.13 give:
ut − 6uu x + u xxx
= 2vvt + vxt − 6(v 2 + vx )(2vvx + vxx ) + 6vx vxx + 2vvxxx + vxxxx
= 2vvt − 12v 3v x + vxt − 12vvx2 − 6v 2v xx + 2vvxxx + vxxxx
So we have:
⎛∂ ⎞
⎜ + 2v ⎟(vt − 6v vx + vxxx ) = ut − 6uu x + u xxx
2
⎝ ∂x ⎠
15.13
ψ xxψ − ψ x2 ψ x2 ψ xx
u ( x) = vx + v =
2
+ 2 =
ψ2 ψ ψ
hence,
ψ xx
ψ xx − u ( x)ψ = ψ xx −ψ =0
ψ
15.14
= α2A sechα(x – x0) – 2α2A sech3α (x – x0) + [–α2 sech2α (x – x0)]A sechα (x – x0)
=0
15.15
ut = (u * − λ )t = ut*
u x = (u * − λ ) x* xx∗ = u *x*
Using the above relations, equation ut + 6uu x + u xxx = 0 is transformed to its original form:
ut* + 6u *u *x * + u *x * x * x * = 0
15.16
y = a sin πx
D B
Fig.A.15.16
In Fig.A.15.16, A is the peak and B is the base point of the leading edge of the right going
wave: y = a sin πx . The phase velocity of any point on the leading edge is given by:
∂y ⎞ ⎛ 1 ∂y ⎞
12
⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞
v = c0 ⎜1 + εa ⎟ = c0 ⎜1 + εa ⎟ = c0 ⎜1 + εaπ cos πx ⎟
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ 2 ∂x ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
v A − vB = c0 − c0 ⎜1 − εaπ ⎟ = c0εaπ = du
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
dx π 1 1
= = [secs]
du 2 1 2 c0εaπ c0εa