Syntax

Theory:
● Category:​ It denotes what a word is.
● Function: It is something in relation to something else. What a word does. There are two
kind of functions:
1. Surface structure functions: ​determined by form (grammar).
2. Deep structure functions:​ determined by meaning.
● Subject:​ ​It tells who or what the sentence is about. It is a function.
● Predicate:​ It is the part of a sentence (or clause) that tells us what the subject does or is.
● Clause: It has a subject and a predicate. It can be: dependent (​subordinate - It provides
extra information that isn’t necessary to the understanding of the sentence​) ​and
independent (​main clause - It has to be stands on its own​)​. It is composed of one or more
phrases.There are different types of clauses:
a. ​Noun clauses: ​A noun clause is a dependent clause that acts as a noun. Noun clauses
begin with words such as ​how, that, what, whatever, when, where, whether, which, whichever,
who, whoever, whom, whomever​, and ​why​. Noun clauses can act as:
- Subject → ​Ex: ​What he said​ was not true.
- Direct Object → ​Ex: I believe​ what he says.
- Indirect Object → ​Ex: ​Tell whoever is knocking the door to stop doing it.
- Object to the preposition/ prepositional complement → ​Ex: It depends on ​how far you
are going.
- Subjective complement → ​Ex: That is ​what I wanted.
- Objective complement → ​Ex: They made him​ who he is​.
- In apposition to a Noun → ​Ex: The idea ​that he was going to kill me​ terrified me.
b. ​Relative/adjectival clause: ​It contains a subject and a predicate. It begins with a relative
pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. It will
function as an adjective, answering the questions What kind? How many? or Which one?
Ex: Snarling and skidding on the smooth tile, Oreo and Skeeter, Madison's two dogs,
competed for the hardboiled egg ​that bounced across the kitchen floor.
Relative clauses → Add information → Essential → We can use THAT.
→ Not essential
→ Sentencial → Referring to the whole sentence.
c. ​Adverbial clause: ​It is a dependent clause that function as an adverb. It can be placed at
the beginning, middle or end of a sentence. It has a subordinating conjunction to connect them
to the rest of the sentence. The subordinating conjunctions are:
When: ​after, when, until, soon, before, once, while, as soon as, whenever, by the time
How:​ if, whether or not, provided, in case, unless, even if, in the event
Why:​ because, as, since, so, in order that, now that, inasmuch as
Where:​ wherever, where

Non - defining relative clause:

It gives additional information about the person or the thing. In written English, there is always
a comma before a non-defining relative clause. You cannot use “that” instead of “who” or
“which” in non-defining relative clauses.
Defining relative clause:
It identifies or defines the person or object that we’re talking about. It is not separated by
commas.
● Sentences:​ It is a grammatical unit made up of a subject and a predicate. There are
different types of sentences:
a.​ Simple:​Those which have only one finite/conjugated verb. One independent clause (S + P).
Ex: I gave him the book.
b. ​Compound:​ ​Two or more independent clauses, they are joined by a coordinating
conjunction. Ex: I gave him the book and he left.
c. ​Complex: ​One main clause and one or more dependent or subordinate clauses. Ex: I gave
him the book when he arrived.
d.​ Compound-complex:​ ​Two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate
clauses. Ex: I gave him the book when he arrived and he left.
● Phrase:​ ​It has a head and modifiers (​pre-modifiers → ​Before the head and ​post
modifier → ​After the head). It is composed of one or more words. The phrases are
groups of words and the head determines the type of phrase.
a. ​Noun phrase:​ ​The head is a noun. Ex: A​ trip​ to Paris.
b. ​Adjectival phrase:​ ​I found a very​ big ​door.
c.​ Adverbial phrase:​ I did this very​ rapidly.
d.​Prepositional phrase:​ ​My sister, who was ​at​ home, screamed.
e.​Verbal phrase:​He​ admires​ Mr. Hewitt.
● Noun: ​A word used to name something. It refers to people, objects and others. It can be
modified by prepositional phrases, adjectives or articles. There are different kind of nouns:
common nouns - proper nouns abstract nouns - collective nouns.
● Adjective:​ A word used to describe a noun. It modifies a noun. There are different kind of
adjectives: descriptive adjectives - relative adjectives (what time) - interrogative adjectives
(which way) - demonstrative adjectives (that - this person) - possessive adjectives (my -
your - his - her - its -our - your - their).
● Adverb:​ A word used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
● Verbs:​ A word used to denote actions/states. It can express the action that the subject
performs. It can be:
a. Transitive:​ It can be turn into the passive voice. It take a direct object. It can be:
1. TVCP: ​It has a direct object and sometimes an indirect object.
2. TVIP:​ It has a direct object and an objective complement.
b. Intransitive:​ There are no objects. It can be:
1. ITCP
2. ITIP: ​It has a subjective complement.
c. Linking: ​A verb that link the subject to words that describe it.
● Articles:​ That announce the coming of a noun.
a. Definite article​ → THE
b. Indefinite article​ → A/AN
● Pronouns:​ It replaces nouns. There are different kind of pronouns:
a. Personal pronouns:​ I - you- he - she - it - we - you - they
b. Objective pronouns:​ me - you - him - her - it - us - you - them
c. Possessive pronouns: ​mine - yours - his - hers - its - ours - theirs
d. Reflexive pronouns:​ myself - yourself - himself - herself - itself - ourselves - themselves
e. Demonstrative pronouns: ​those - these - that - this
f. Indefinite pronouns:​ something - someone - somebody - anyone - anybody - anything -
everybody - everything .
g.Relative pronouns:
For people: who - that - whose - whom (formal)
For objects: which - that - whose
For places,times, and reason: where - when - why - that

● Prepositions:​ A word used to express a relationship or to show the position between one
thing and another. Always after a preposition we have a prepositional phrase.
Ex: about - above - according to - across - after - against - along - among - around - as - as to
- as well as - aside from - at - because of - before - behind - below - beneath - beside -
between - beyond - by - by means of - by way of - concerning - despite - down - due to -
during - except - except for - excluding - following - for - from - in - in addition to - in case of -
in place of - in regard of - in spite of - including - inside - inside of - into - like - near - next to -
of - off - on - on account of - onto - on top of - out - out of - outside - over - past - regarding -
round - since - through - throughout - till - to - toward - under - underneath - unlike - until - up -
upon - with - within - without.
● Conjunctions:​ A word used to connect one part of a sentence to another. It joins words,
phrases,clauses. A conjunction is a word used for joining or linking. They are linking
words. There are two types of conjunctions:
a. Coordinating conjunctions:​ It joins two independent clauses that contain related ideas of
equal importance. Ex: For - and - nor - but - or - yet - so
Cumulative: ​and - also - too - no less than
Alternative:​ either … or - otherwise - else - or
Adversative:​ but - still - yet - nevertheless - however
Illative:​ then - therefore - so far - that’s why
b. Subordinating conjunctions:​ It joins a subordinate clause to a main clause.
Ex: Although - while - though - whereas - even though (concession)
If - unless - until (condition)
As if - as - though (manner)
Where - wherever (place)
Because - since - so that - in order that (reason)
After - before - while - once - when (time)
c. Conjunctive adverbs:​ It is a linking word that demonstrates a relationship between two
independent clauses.
Ex: Also - besides - furthermore - additionally - so (additional or consequential)
Therefore - thus - consequently - so (consequential)
Alternatively - similarly (comparative)
However - nevertheless - otherwise (contrastive)
● Modifiers:​ It is a word or phrase that adds meaning to other words.
● Direct Object: ​It turns into the subject when you turn the phrase into the passive voice. It
is a surface structure function which may be defined as a noun phrase which has the
following characteristics:
1. It becomes the subject of the passive voice.
2. It answers the question what.
3. It usually follows the verb immediately.
● Indirect Object: ​It is a function. One person/object that receives something, the
something being the direct object.
● Subjective Complement:​ It follows the verb to be or intransitive verbs. It predicates
something about the subject.
● Objective Complement:​ It is a surface structure funcion. It adds information about the
object.
● Adverbial Adjunct:​ It is something that is not obligatory. It adds information about the
environment. There are different adverbial adjuncts:
Place - time - manner - purpose - reason - result
● Anticipatory subject (It/There):​ It doesn’t have any meaning in itself but is used to
comply with the principle of end-weight (short subject / long predicate).
1. Cleft sentence: It begins with empty it.
2. Relative clauses: It have the function of an adjective, and are placed after a
noun, qualifying it. It is introduced by a relative (pronoun, adjective or adverb)
which relates the clause to its antecedent.
3. Defining/restrictive: It is essential information to the meaning of the sentence.
4. Non-defining: It adds information to the sentence.

Analysis
1. What he said at school was a waste of time.
2. I will never forget what he told me.
3. Tell whoever comes to study the complete unit.
4. The truth was that he never read novels.
5. They made him what he is today.
6. He worked with what he bought at shop.
7. My friends say that her daughter always does what she wants but I believe that she doesn't
know the limits.
8. My uncle believes that it is ridiculous to dress in a casual fashion, but I consider it a silly
thought.
9. There is the lost cat which had disappeared yesterday.
10. It is essential to see how children learn; therefore, teachers can predict what will happen in
the class.
11. After I’d been here an hour I realized that I did not understand one word.
12. You will have your foreign accent all right, but many people like to mix it with something
else.
13. Many foreigners who have learnt latin and greek in school discover with amazement and
satisfaction that the English language has absorbed a huge amount of ancient latin and greek
expressions.
14. The neighbour who lives beside my flat tried to open his door violently.
15. My sister, who was at home screamed when she realized that I was the winner.
16. He walks every day, which would bored me.
17. He admires Mr. Hewitt, which surprises me.
18. While I was driving yesterday, I saw an accident which changed my life.
19. The car that was behind me crashed.
20. The man who opened the door was the doctor who assisted my family after the accident. +
21. The man who inherited the money has died.
22. That is the reason why he left.
23. Do you know the man whose horse finished last?
24. The boy who I saw yesterday is leaving for Miami.
25. Nobody that smoked was allowed at school.
26. The girl to whom I gave the doll smiled happily.
27. She is really selfish, which annoys me.
28. The family fulfills actions that are divided among many specialised institutions in modern
societies.
29.The largest and most complex group that sociologists study is society, which consist of
people who share a culture and a territory.
30. Groups that built their lives around the pasturing of animals remained nomadic, which is
understandable.
31. She came into a lot of money when her wealthy aunt died.
32. The boy fainted by, fortunately, he came round a few minutes later when the doctor
arrived.
33. The organisation has come face up against a lot of criticism for the way it spends its
money.
34. After he had lost his wife, he settled in France.
35. Where the fire had been we saw only ruins.
36. Do it as I told you.
37. She flung down on a couch as though she were exhausted.
38. She turned her head away so that he couldn’t see her tears.
39. As the train does not come till five thirty have plenty of time.
40. Before us is the salesman’s house.
41. As more light appears, we see a solid vault of apartment houses around the small
fragile-seeming home.
42.The kitchen at center seems actual enough for there is a kitchen table with three chairs and
a refrigerator.
43. Two beds are dimly seen, and at the back of the room a dormer window.
44. At the back of the kitchen there is a draped entrance, which leads to the living room.
45. There are the chocolates.
46. There are some chocolates here.
47. There was the town in the valley.
48. There was a town in the valley.
49. It has been a pleasure seeing you again.
50. It was the rule for men and women to sit apart.
51.It is no use crying over spilled milk.
52. You must find working here exciting.
53. It’s raining there.
54. It was important that she should congratulate him.
55. It’s very sad to hear her loss.
56. There comes Paul.
57. There are storms in spring, which makes it uncomfortable to stay in the area.
58. There was a big storm last week.
59. The storm made it impossible to take a plane that week.
60. Many delays were caused by the terrible weather conditions in North America.
61. It is a waste of time to try to convince my brother, who is always trying to excuse himself.
62. There comes my mother, to whom I had been waiting for hours.
63. My sister always consider it a sin to cut flowers from a garden, however, I think there is no
sin there.
64. There was a beautiful hotel there; so I believed it was a good idea to stay there that night.
65. Aldous Huxley was the grandson of Thomas Huxley, a well-known biologist who gained
his nickname, “Darwin’s bulldog”, for championing Darwin’s evolutionary ideas.
66. A utopia is an imaginary society organized to create ideal conditions for human beings,
eliminating hatred, pain, neglect, and other evils of the world.
67. The central London Hatching and conditioning centre was a place where the Director,
Henry Foster, gave tours to groups of boys, who learnt about different processes that allowed
that hatchery to produce nearly identical human embryos.
68. There were different kinds of embryos there, but only the Alpha embryos were destined to
become leaders.
69. It was the Director who explained that the conditioning helped to make Deltas docile and
eager customers.
70. Linda, who had lived in the brave new world when she was young, had a baby in the
reservation, but the father of the baby never knew about him.
71. The man to whom I gave the money yesterday was carrying a gun, which frightened me.
72. That was the reason why I called the police, who arrived after an hour.
1. Complex sentence - Declarative
What he said at school was a waste of time
Relative personal TVCP Prepositio common IVIP Indefinite common preposition common noun
pronoun pronoun n noun article noun

head head

Head Head Prepositional head Prepositional

complement complement
(noun (noun phrase)
phrase)

Direct object (noun Main Adverbial adjunct of place Pre modifier Head Post modifier
phrase) verb (prepositional phrase) Determiner

Predicate Subject Predicate (verbal phrase) Subjective complement (noun phrase)

(noun
phrase)

Subject (noun clause) Predicate (verbal phrase)

2. Complex
I will never forget what he told me
Auxiliar for Adverb TVCP Relative Personal BITVCP Objective
Personal future pronoun pronoun pronoun
pronoun
Direct object Head Main verb Indirect
(noun object (noun
phrase) phrase)

Predicate Subject Predicate (verbal phrase)

(verbal (noun
phrase) phrase)

Head Pre modifier main verb Direct object ( ​relative ​Noun​ clause)
Adverbial
adjunct of
frequency
(Adverbial
phrase)

Subject Predicate (verbal phrase)

(noun
phrase)