Human sexuality

Human sexuality is the capacity to have erotic experiences and responses. A person's sexual
orientation may influence their sexual interest and attraction for another person. [1] Sexuality can have
biological, physical, emotional, or spiritual aspects. The biological and physical aspects of sexuality
largely concern the reproductive functions of the sexes (including the human sexual response cycle),
[2]
and the basic biological drive that exists in all species. Physical, as well as emotional, aspects of
sexuality also include the bond that exists between individuals, and is expressed through profound
feelings or physical manifestations of emotions of love, trust, and caring. Spiritual aspects of
sexuality concern an individual's spiritual connection with others. Sexuality additionally impacts and
is impacted by cultural, political, legal, and philosophical aspects of life. It can refer to issues of
morality, ethics and theology, or religion.

Interest in sexual activity typically increases when an individual reaches puberty.[3] Some
researchers assume that sexual orientation, or sexual behavior as a result of it, is determined
by genetics, and others assert that it is molded by the environment, or is a combination of both
biology and environment.[1] This is the nature versus nurture debate, in which one can define nature
as those behavioral traits that are due to innate characteristics, such as instincts and drives. The
concept of nurture can be defined as the environmental factors or external stimuli that influence
behavior, emotions, and thinking.

Evolutionary perspectives on human coupling and/or reproduction, including the sexual strategies
theory, provide another perspective on sexuality,[4] as does social learning theory.[5] Socio-cultural
aspects of sexuality include historical developments and religious beliefs, including Jewish views on
sexual pleasure within the marriage and certain Christian or other religious views on avoidance of
sexual pleasures.[2] Some cultures have been described as sexually repressive. The study of
sexuality also includes human identity within social groups, sexually transmitted
infections (STIs/STDs) and birth control methods.

Nature-versus-nurture debate[edit]
Main article: Nature versus nurture

Certain characteristics are believed to be innate in humans, although they may be modified by
interactions with the physical and social environment.[6] Human sexuality is driven by genetics and
mental activity. Normative characteristics, as well as social, cultural, educational, and environmental
characteristics of an individual also moderate the sexual drive. [7]The sexual drive affects the
development of personal identity[7] and many social activities.[8] There are two well-known theorists
who formed the opposing positions in the nature versus nurture debate. Sigmund Freud, a firm
supporter of the nature argument, believed that sexual drives are instinctive and viewed sexuality as
the central source of human personality. John Locke, on the other hand, believed in the nurture
argument, using his theory of the mind being seen as a "tabula rasa" or blank slate, the environment
in which one develops drives their sexuality.[9]

Thomas Aquinas[edit]
Medieval philosopher Thomas Aquinas held sexuality in accordance with virtues such
as temperance and charity not to be evil in itself:
"If we suppose the corporeal nature to be created by the good God we cannot hold that those things
which pertain to the preservation of the corporeal nature and to which nature inclines, are altogether evil;
wherefore, since the inclination to beget an offspring whereby the specific nature is preserved is from
nature, it is impossible to maintain that the act of begetting children is altogether unlawful, so that it be
impossible to find the mean of virtue therein; unless we suppose, as some are mad enough to assert, that
corruptible things were created by an evil god, whence perhaps the opinion mentioned in the text is
derived (Sent. iv, D, 26); wherefore this is a most wicked heresy." [10]

The virtue of temperance tempers excess in acts and habits according to Aristotle and
Aquinas's virtue ethics, where the aim is not necessarily total abstinence (although Aquinas holds
this as easier to achieve), but a perfect mean according to good (i.e. such things as virtue,
reason, natural law, Divine Law, and intelligence). Hence, chastity[11] and the habit of virginity,
defined as "the continual meditation on incorruption in a corruptible flesh" are the parts of the virtue
temperance related to sexuality,[12] and are opposed by excess by lust. Aquinas argues that a
reasoned use of sexuality should be according to its end, which is human procreation, again in
accordance with charity and other virtues, i.e. "true good":
"A sin, in human acts, is that which is against the order of reason. Now the order of reason consists in its
ordering everything to its end in a fitting manner. Wherefore it is no sin if one, by the dictate of reason,
makes use of certain things in a fitting manner and order for the end to which they are adapted, provided
this end be something truly good. Now just as the preservation of the bodily nature of one individual is a
true good, so, too, is the preservation of the nature of the human species a very great good. And just as
the use of food is directed to the preservation of life in the individual, so is the use of venereal acts
directed to the preservation of the whole human race. Hence Augustine says (De Bono Conjug. xvi):
"What food is to a man's well being, such is sexual intercourse to the welfare of the whole human race."
Wherefore just as the use of food can be without sin, if it be taken in due manner and order, as required
for the welfare of the body, so also the use of venereal acts can be without sin, provided they be
performed in due manner and order, in keeping with the end of human procreation." [citation needed]

Aquinas reckons lust to be a "mortal sin" and a "capital vice." The daughters, or consequences, of
lust are described as "blindness of mind, thoughtlessness, inconstancy, rashness, self-love, hatred
of God, love of this world and abhorrence or despair of a future world." [13] Moreover, as with any
"mortal sin," Aquinas reckons that lust destroys the charity, and consequently also the happiness, in
humans.[14]

Sigmund Freud[edit]
Freud's theory assumed that behavior was rooted in biology. He proposed that instincts are the
principal motivating forces in the mental realm, and held that there are a large number of instincts
but that they are reduced into two broad groups; Eros (the life instinct), which covers all the self-
preserving and erotic instincts, and Thanatos (the death instinct), which covers instincts toward
aggression, self-destruction, and cruelty.[15] Freud gave sexual drives a centrality in human life,
actions, and behaviors that had not been accepted before his proposal. His instinct theory suggested
that humans are driven from birth by the desire to acquire and enhance bodily pleasures, thus
supporting the nature debate. Freud successfully redefined the term "sexuality" to make it cover any
form of pleasure that can be derived from the human body, [15] raised the notion that the pre-genital
zones are primitive areas of preliminary enjoyment preceding sexual intercourse and orgasm.[16] He
reasoned that pleasure lowers tension, while displeasure raises it, influencing the sexual drive in
humans. His developmentalist perspective was governed by inner forces, especially biological drives
and maturation, and his view that humans are biologically inclined to seek sexual gratification
demonstrates the nature side of the debate.[9]

John Locke[edit]
Locke (1632–1704) rejected the assumption that there are innate differences among people, and
argued that people are shaped strongly by their social environments, especially by education. [9] He
believed that it would be accurate to view a child’s mind as a tabula rasa or blank slate; whatever
goes into the mind will come from the surrounding environment.[9] As the person develops, they
discover their identity. Locke proposed to follow a child from its birth and observe the changes that
time makes, saying that one will find that as the mind, through sensory information, becomes
furnished with ideas, it becomes more awake and aware. He said that after some time, the child’s
mind begins to know the objects which are most familiar. As the child’s brain develops, he or she
begins to know the people and social surroundings of daily life and can then distinguish the known
from the unknown. This view supports the nurture side of the debate. [17] Locke believed that there are
no natural obstructions that would block the development of children's inherent potential for acting
freely and rationally and that everyone is born to become independent beings and benefit from the
environment.[18]

Human sexual behavior is different from the sexual behavior of most other animal species, in that it
seems to be affected by several factors. For example, while most non-human species are driven to
partake in sexual behavior when reproduction is possible, humans are not sexually active just for the
sake of reproduction.[19] The environment, culture, and social setting play major roles in the
perception, attitudes, and behaviors of sexuality. Sexual behavior is also affected by the inability to
detect sexual stimuli, incorrect labeling, or misattribution. This may in turn impede an individual’s
sexual performance.[19]

Evolutionary aspects[edit]
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Sex in private distinguishes humans from bonobos, chimpanzees, and gorillas. Testis and penis
size are related to family structure: monogamy or promiscuity, harem, in human,chimpanzee,
and gorilla, respectively (see The Third Chimpanzee and Why is Sex Fun? by Jared Diamond).
Involvement of the father in education, concealed ovulation, andmenopause in women, are quite
unique to our species, at least when compared to other hominins. Concealed (or “hidden”) ovulation
means that the phase of fertility is not detectable in humans, whereas chimpanzees advertise
ovulation by an obvious swelling of the genitals. Women can be partly aware of their ovulation, along
the menstrual phases, but men are essentially unable to detect ovulation in women. Most primates
have semi-concealed ovulation; thus, one can think that the common ancestor had semi-concealed
ovulation, that she transmitted to gorillas, but that later evolved into concealed ovulation in humans
and advertised ovulation in chimpanzee (see "Why is Sex Fun?").

Biological and physiological aspects[edit]

Like other mammals, humans are dioecious, primarily composed of male or female sexes,[20] with
small proportions of intersex individuals (around 1%) for whom sexual classification may not be as
clear.[21] The biological aspects of humans' sexuality deal with the human reproductive
system and human sexual response cycle and the factors that affect these processes. They also
deal with the influence of biological factors on other aspects of sexuality, such as organic and
neurological responses,[22] heredity, hormonal issues, gender issues, and sexual dysfunction. [23]

Physical anatomy and reproduction[edit]

Males and females are anatomically similar; this extends to some degree with regard to
the development of the reproductive system. As adults, they have different reproductive mechanisms
that enable them to perform sexual acts and reproduce. Both men and women react to sexual stimuli
in somewhat of the same fashion with only minor differences. Women have a monthly reproductive
cycle and the male sperm production cycle is more continuous.[2]

Brain[edit]

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The brain is the structure that translates nerve impulses from the skin into pleasurable sensations. It
controls nerves and muscles used during sexual behavior. The brain regulates the release
of hormones which are believed to be the physiological origin of sexual desire. The cerebral cortex,
which is the outer layer of the brain and allows for thinking and reasoning is believed to be the origin
of sexual thoughts and fantasies. Beneath the cortex is the limbic system, which consists of
the amygdala, hippocampus,cingulate gyrus, and septal area. These structures are where emotions
and feelings are believed to originate from and are important for sexual behavior.
The hypothalamus is the most important part of the brain for sexual functioning. This is the small
area at the base of the brain consisting of several groups of nerve cell bodies that receives input
from the limbic system. Studies have shown that within lab animals, destruction of certain areas of
the hypothalamus causes complete elimination of sexual behavior. One of the reasons for the
importance of the hypothalamus is its relation to the pituitary gland which lies right beneath it. The
pituitary gland secretes hormones that are produced in the hypothalamus and itself. The four
important sexual hormones secreted are oxytocin, prolactin, follicle-stimulating hormone,
and luteinizing hormone.[2] Oxytocin is also known as the “Hormone of Love.” Oxytocin is released in
both men and women during sexual intercourse when an orgasm is achieved. It is believed that
oxytocin is involved with maintaining close relationships. The hormone is also released in women
when they give birth or are breastfeeding.[24] Both prolactic and oxytocin stimulate milk production in
women. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FHS) is responsible for ovulation in women by triggering egg
maturity and in men it stimulates sperm production.[25] Luteinizing hormone (LH) triggers ovulation
which is the release of a mature egg.[2]

Female anatomy and reproductive system[edit]

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Main article: Human female reproductive system

Women have both external (genitalia) and internal reproductive organs. For the women, their
genitalia can be collectively known as the vulva. The vulva includes the mons veneris, labia
majora, labia minora, clitoris, vaginal opening, and urethral opening. Women’s genitalia vary in
appearance from person to person, differing in size, shape, and color. A woman’s feelings towards
her genitalia are directly related to her participation and enjoyment of anything sexual.
External female anatomy[edit]

External female genitals

The mons veneris is also known as the "Mound of Venus." This area is the soft layer of fatty tissue
overlaying the area where the pubic bone comes together. [26] Following puberty, this area grows in
size. It is sensitive to stimulation due to many nerve endings gathering in this area. [2]

The labia (minora and majora) are collectively known as the lips. The labia majora are two elongated
folds of skin extending from the mons to the perineum in women. Its outer surface becomes covered
with hair after puberty. Labia majora would also be known as the outer lips. In between the labia
majora are the labia minora. These two hairless folds of skin meet above the clitoris to form the
clitoral hood, which is highly sensitive to touch. The labia minora become engorged with blood
during sexual stimulation, causing them to swell and turn bright red or wine colored. [2] Near the anus,
the labia minora merge with the labia majora. The labia minora are composed of connective tissues
that are richly supplied with blood vessels which cause the pinkish appearance. [27] The purpose of
the labia minora is to protect the vaginal and urethral opening by covering them in a sexually
unstimulated state. Located at the base of the labia minora are the Bartholin's glands which
contribute a few drops of an alkaline fluid to the vagina via ducts which helps to counteract acidity of
the outer vagina since sperm cannot live in an acidic environment.[2]

The clitoris is developed from the same embryonic tissue as the penis; it or its glans alone harbors
as many (or more in some cases) nerve endings as the human penis or glans penis, making it
extremely sensitive to touch.[28][29][30][31] The clitoral glans, which is a small, elongated erectile
structure, has only one known function—sexual sensations. The clitoris is also the main source of
orgasm in women.[32][33][34][35] The thick secretions that collect in the clitoris are called smegma.[2]
The vaginal opening and the urethral opening are only visible when the labia minora are parted. This
opening has many nerve endings that make it sensitive to touch. It is surrounded by the
bulbocavernosus muscle which is a ring of sphincter muscles that contract and relax. Underneath
this muscle and on opposite sides of the vaginal opening are the vestibular bulbs which help the
vagina grip the penis by swelling with blood during arousal. Within the vaginal opening, there is
something called the hymen which is a thin membrane that partially covers the opening in
many virgins. To rupture the hymen is considered to be losing one’s virginity. The urethral opening
expels urine from the bladder. This is located below the clitoris and above the vaginal opening. This
opening connects to the bladder with the urethra.[2]

The last part of the external organs used for sexual pleasure are the breasts. Western culture is one
of the few that find breasts to be erotic.[2] The breasts are the subcutaneous tissues on the front
thorax of the female body.[27] Their purpose is to provide milk to a developing infant. They develop
during puberty due to an increase in estrogen, and each adult breast consists of 15 to 20 mammary
glands, which are milk producing glands. It is the more fatty tissue one has that determines the size
of breasts, and heredity plays a huge role in determining size. [2] “A mammary gland is composed of
fifteen to twenty irregularly shaped lobes, each of which includes alveolar glands, and a duct
(lactiferous duct) that leads to the nipple and opens to the outside. The lobes are separated by
dense connective tissues that support the glands and attach them to the tissues on the underlying
pectoral muscles. Other connective tissue, which forms dense strands called "suspensory
ligaments," extends inward from the skin of the breast to the pectoral tissue to support the weight of
the breast. The breasts are really modified sweat glands, which are made up of fibrous tissues and
fat that provide support and contain nerves, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. [27]

Internal female anatomy[edit]

The female reproductive system

The female's internal reproductive organs consist of the vagina, uterus, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries.
The vagina is the sheath-like canal in women that extends from the vulva to the cervix. The vagina
receives the penis during intercourse and serves as a depository for sperm. This is also known as
the birth canal and can expand to 10 centimeters during labor and delivery. The vagina is located
behind the bladder but in front of the rectum. The vagina is normally collapsed, but during sexual
arousal it opens, lengthens, and produces lubrication, which allows the penis to be inserted. The
vagina has three layered walls, and is a self-cleaning organ with natural important bacterium within it
to keep the production of yeast down.[2] The G-spot, named after the Ernst Gräfenberg, who first
reported it in 1950, may be located in the front wall of the vagina and may cause orgasms. This area
may vary in size and location from woman to woman, or be non-existent in some women, and
various researchers dispute its structure, existence or hypothesize that it is an extension of the
clitoris.[36][37][38][39]

The uterus is also known as the womb; a hollow, muscular organ where a fertilized egg, called
a zygote, will implant itself and grow into a fetus.[2] The uterus lies in the pelvic cavity behind the
bladder, in front of the bowel, and above the vagina. Normally, it is positioned in a 90-degree angle
tilting forward, although in about 20% of women it tilts backwards. [27] The uterus consists of three
layers with the innermost layer being the endometrium. The endometrium is where the egg is
implanted. During ovulation, this thickens up for implantation, but if implantation does not occur, it is
sloughed off during menstruation. The cervix is the narrow end of the uterus. The broad part of the
uterus is the fundus.[2]

The Fallopian tubes are the passageways that an egg travels down to the uterus during ovulation.
These extend about four inches from both sides of the uterus. There are finger like projections at the
end of the tubes that brush the ovaries and pick up the egg once it is released. The egg then travels
for about three to four days down to the uterus.[2] "After sexual intercourse, sperm swim up this
funnel from the uterus. The lining of the tube and its secretions sustain both the egg and the sperm,
encouraging fertilization and nourishing the egg until it reaches the uterus. If an egg splits in two
after fertilization, identical twins are produced. If separate eggs are fertilized by different sperm, the
mother gives birth to non-identical or fraternal twins."[27]

The ovaries are the female gonads, and they are developed from the same embryonic tissue as the
male gonads (testicles). These are suspended by ligaments and are the source where the egg or
ova are stored and developed before ovulation. The ovaries are also responsible for producing
female hormones: progesterone and estrogen. Within the ovaries, each egg is surrounded by other
cells and contained within a capsule called a primary follicle. At puberty, one or more of these
follicles are stimulated to mature on a monthly basis. Once matured these are now called Graafian
follicles.[2] "The female, unlike the male, does not manufacture the sex cells. A girl baby is born with
about 60,000 of these cells." Only about 400 eggs in a women’s lifetime will mature. [27]

A female's ovulation is based on a monthly cycle with the fourteenth day being the most fertile. Days
five through thirteen are known as the Preovulatory stages. During this stage, the pituitary gland in
the brain secretes follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Then a negative feedback loop is enacted
when estrogen is secreted to inhibit the release of FSH. This estrogen thickens the endometrium of
the uterus. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) surge triggers ovulation. Day fourteen, ovulation, the LH surge
causes a Graafian follicle to surface the ovary. Once the follicle ruptures, the ripe ovum is expelled
into the abdominal cavity where the fallopian tubes pick up the ovum with the fimbria. The cervical
mucus changes to aid in the movement of sperm. Days fifteen to twenty-eight, the Post-ovulatory
stage, the Graafian follicle that once held the ovum is now called the corpus luteum, and it now
secretes estrogen. Progesterone increases inhibiting LH release. The endometrium thickens to get
ready for implantation, and the ovum travels down the Fallopian tubes to the uterus. If the egg does
not become fertilized and does not implant menstruation begins. Days one to four, menstruation,
estrogen and progesterone decreases and the endometrium starts thinning. Now the endometrium is
sloughed off for the next three to six days. Once menstruation ends the cycle begins again with an
FSH surge from the pituitary gland.[2]

Male anatomy and reproductive system[edit]

Main article: Human male reproductive system

Men also have both internal and external (genitalia) structures that are responsible for procreation
and sexual intercourse. Men produce their sperm on a cycle, but unlike the female’s ovulation cycle,
the male sperm production cycle is constantly producing millions of sperm daily. [2]

External male anatomy[edit]

External male genitals on an uncircumcised male.

The male genitalia are the penis (which has both internal and external structures) and the scrotum
(holds the testicles). The penis's purpose is for sexual intercourse and is a passageway for sperm
and urine. An average sized unstimulated penis is about 3.75 inches in length and 1.2 inches in
diameter. When erect on average, men are most between 4.5 to 6 inches in length and 1.5 inches in
diameter; 4.5 inches in circumference. The penis's internal structures consist of the shaft, glans, and
the root.[2]

The shaft of the penis consists of three cylinder-shaped bodies of spongy tissue filled with tiny blood
vessels, which run the length of the organ. Two of these bodies lie side by side in the upper portion
of the penis called corpora cavernosa. The third is a tube which lies centrally beneath the others and
expands at the end to form the tip of the penis (glans) called the corpus spongiosum. [40] The raised
rim at the border of the shaft and glans is called the corona. The urethra runs through the shaft so
that sperm and urine have a way out the body. The root consists of the expanded ends of the
cavernous bodies, which fan out to form the crura, and attach to the pubic bone and the expanded
end of the spongy body also known as the bulb. The root is also surrounded by two
muscles:bulbocavernosus muscle and ischiocavernosus muscle which aid in urination
and ejaculation. The penis has a foreskin that usually covers the glans, and in many cultures, is
removed at birth in a controversial procedure called circumcision.[2] Circumcision is one of the oldest
forms of body modification known to exist. The second external structure is the scrotum. Here the
testicles are held away from the body so that sperm can be produced in an environment several
degrees lower than normal body temperature. Sweat glands are also located in this region to aid in
temperature control.

Internal male anatomy[edit]

The male reproductive system

Males also have internal reproductive structures as well, and these consist of the testicles, the duct
system, the prostate and seminal vesicles, and the Cowper’s gland.[2]
The testicles are the male gonads. This is where sperm and male hormones (androgens) are
produced. Millions of sperm are produced daily in several hundred seminiferous tubules that
altogether measure over a quarter of a mile. Cells called the Leydig cells or interstitial cells of Leydig
are between the tubules and produce hormones. The hormones that are produced are called
androgens, and they consist of testosterone and inhibin. The testicles are held by the spermatic
cord, which is a tubelike structure which contains blood vessels, nerves, the vas deferens, and a
muscle that helps to raise and lower the testicles in response to temperature changes and sexual
arousal in which the testicles are drawn closer to the body. [2]

The next internal structure is the four part duct system that transports sperm. The first part of this
system is theepididymis. The seminiferous tubules are the testicles converging to form coiled tubes
that are felt at the top and back of each testicle. Each tubule uncoiled is about twenty feet long. The
second part of the duct system is the vas deferens.[2] The vas deferens is also known as “ductus
deferens,” and is a muscular tube that begins at the lower end of the epididymis. The vas deferens
also passes upward along the side of the testicles to become part of the spermatic cord. [40] The
expanded end is the ampulla which stores sperm before ejaculation. The third part of the duct
system are the ejaculatory ducts which are one inch long paired tubes that pass through the prostate
gland. This is where semen is produced.[2] The prostate gland is a solid, chestnut-shaped organ that
surrounds the first part of the urethra (tube which carries the urine and semen and the fourth part of
the duct system[2]) in the male.[40]

The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles help produce seminal fluid that gets mixed with sperm
to create semen.[2] The prostate gland lies under the bladder, in front of the rectum. It consists of two
main zones: the inner zone which produces secretions to keep the lining of the male urethra moist
and the outer zone which produces seminal fluids to facilitate the passage of semen. [40] The seminal
vesicles secrete fructose for sperm activation and mobilization, prostaglandins to cause uterine
contractions which aids in movement through the structure, and bases which help neutralize the
acidity of the vagina because sperm cannot survive in an acidic environment. The last internal
structure is the Cowper’s glands, or bulbourethral glands, which are two pea sized structures
beneath the prostate. These structures

Sexual response cycle[edit]

The sexual response cycle is a model that describes the physiological responses that take place in
men and women during sexual activity. This model was created by William Masters and Virginia
Johnson. According to Masters and Johnson, the human sexual response cycle consists of four
phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. The excitement phase is the phase in which
one attains the intrinsic motivation to pursue sex. The plateau phase sets the stage for orgasm.
Orgasm may be more biological for men and more psychological for women. Orgasm is the release
of tension, and the resolution period is the unaroused state before the cycle begins again. [2]
The male sexual response cycle starts out in the excitement phase where two centers in the spine
are responsible for an erection. Vasoconstriction begins in the penis, the heart rate increases,
scrotum thickens, spermatic cord shortens, and the testicles become engorged in blood. The second
phase, plateau, the penis increases in diameter, the testicles become even more engorged, and the
Cowper’s glands secrete preseminal fluid. The third stage, orgasm, during which rhythmic
contractions occur every 0.8 seconds[verification needed], consists of two phases in men. The first phase of
orgasm is the emission phase in which contractions of the vas deferens, prostate, and seminal
vesicles encourage ejaculation which is the second phase of orgasm. This phase of orgasm is called
the expulsion phase and this phase cannot be reached without an orgasm. Finally, the resolution
phase is when the male is now in an unaroused state which consists of a refractory period (rest
period) before the cycle can begin. This rest period may increase with a man’s age. [2]

The female sexual response begins with the excitement phase which can last from several minutes
to several hours. Characteristics of this phase include increased heart and respiratory rate and an
elevation of blood pressure. Flushed skin or blotches of redness may occur on the chest and back;
breasts increase slightly in size and nipples may become hardened and erect. The onset
of vasocongestion results in swelling of the woman's clitoris and labia minora and the woman's
vagina begins to swell. The muscle that surrounds the vaginal opening grows tighter and her uterus
elevates and grows in size. The vaginal walls begin to produce a lubricating liquid. The second
phase, called the plateau phase, is characterized primarily by the intensification of all of the changes
begun during the excitement phase. The plateau phase extends to the brink of orgasm, which
initiates the resolution stage, the reversal of all of the changes begun during the excitement phase.
During the orgasm stage the heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension, and breathing rates reach
maximum peaks. The pelvic muscle near the vagina, the anal sphincter and the uterus contract.
While muscle contractions in the vaginal area create a high level of pleasure, all orgasms are
centered in the clitoris, whether they result from direct manual stimulation applied to the clitoris or
indirect pressure resulting from the thrusting of penis during sexual intercourse.[2][41][42][43]

Sexual dysfunction and sexual problems[edit]

Main article: Sexual dysfunction

Men and women have many sexual problems which frequently arise because of other problems
within a relationship or simply because of individual differences. These differences consist of
differences in expectations, assumptions, desire, preferred behaviors, and relationship conflicts.
Although these differences create sexual problems in both men and women, problems among men
and women are different. The World Health Organization’s International Classifications of Diseases
defines sexual problems as “the various ways in which an individual is unable to participate in a
sexual relationship as he or she would wish.” Sexual disorders, according to the DSM-IV-TR, are
disturbances in sexual desire and psycho-physiological changes that characterize the sexual
response cycle and cause marked distress, and interpersonal difficulty. There are four major
categories of sexual problems: desire disorders, arousal disorders, orgasmic disorders, and sexual
pain disorders.[2]

1. Hypoactive sexual desire

1. Low sexual drive

2. Occurs at the excitement phase

2. Sexual aversion

1. Anticipation of any kind of sexual interactions causes great anxiety

3. Sexual arousal disorder

1. In men, erectile dysfunction

2. In women, the difficulty of becoming aroused

4. Orgasmic disorders

1. In men, premature ejaculation and ejaculatory incompetence

2. In women, the inability to have an orgasm

5. Hypersexuality (sexual addiction)

6. Sexual pain disorders

1. In men, four different disorders:

1. Dyspareunia (pain during intercourse due to a physical problem)

2. Post-ejaculatory syndrome (pain in the genitals during or after orgasm)

3. Priapism (prolonged erection)

4. Coital cephalalgia (migraine headaches during and after orgasm)

2. In women, three different disorders:

1. Dyspareunia (recurrent genital pain during intercourse)

2. Vaginismus (vagina involuntarily closes)

3. Noncoital sexual pain disorder (genital pain due to arousal)

Psychological aspects[edit]

Sigmund Freud with daughter Anna

Sexuality in humans generates profound emotional and psychological responses. Some theorists
identify sexuality as the central source of human personality.[44] Psychological studies of sexuality
focus on psychological influences that affect sexual behavior and experiences. [23]Early psychological
analyses were carried out by Sigmund Freud, who believed in a psychoanalytic approach. He also
conjectured the concepts of erogenous zones, psychosexual development, and the Oedipus
complex, among others.[45]

Behavior theorists such as John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner examine the actions and
consequences and their ramifications. These theorists would, for example, study a child who is
punished for sexual exploration and see if they grow up to associate negative feelings with sex in
general.[46] Social-learning theorists use similar concepts, but focus on cognitive activity
and modeling.

Gender identity is a person's own sense of identification as female, male, both, neither, or
somewhere in between. The social constructionof gender has been discussed by a wide variety of
scholars, Judith Butler notable among them. Recent contributions consider the influence of feminist
theory and courtship research.[47][48]

Sexual behavior and intimate relationships are strongly influenced by a person's sexual orientation.
[49]
Sexual orientation refers to your degree of emotional and physical attraction to members of the
opposite sex, same sex, or both sexes.[49] Heterosexual people are attracted to the members of the
opposite sex. Homosexual people are attracted to people of the same sex. Those who are bisexual
are attracted to both men and women.

Before the High Middle Ages, homosexual acts appear to have been ignored or tolerated by the
Christian church.[50] During the 12th century however, hostility toward homosexuality began to spread
throughout religious and secular institutions. By the end of the 19th century, homosexuality was
viewed as a pathology.[50] Havelock Ellis and Sigmund Freud adopted more accepting stances. Ellis
argued that homosexuality was inborn and therefore not immoral, that it was not a disease, and that
many homosexuals made significant contributions to society.[50] Freud believed all human beings as
capable of becoming either heterosexual or homosexual; neither orientation was assumed to be
innate.[51] Freud claimed that a person’s orientation depended on how the Oedipus complex was
resolved. He believed that male homosexuality resulted when a young boy had an authoritarian,
rejecting mother and turned to his father for love and affection and later to men in general. He
believed female homosexuality developed when a girl loved her mother and identified with her father
and became fixated at that stage.[51]

Freud and Ellis thought homosexuality resulted from reversed gender roles. This view is reinforced
today by the media’s portraying male homosexuals as effeminate and female homosexuals as
masculine.[51] Whether a person conforms or does not conform to gender stereotypes does not
always predict sexual orientation. Society believes that if a man is masculine he is heterosexual, and
if a man is feminine he must be homosexual. There is no strong evidence that a homosexual or
bisexual orientation must be associated with atypical gender roles. Today, homosexuality is no
longer considered to be a pathology. In addition, many factors have been linked to homosexuality
including: genetic factors, anatomical factors, birth order, and hormones in the prenatal environment.
[51]

Other than the need of extending one's family tree, there are many other reasons people have sex.
According to one study conducted on college students (Meston & Buss, 2007), the four main
reasons for sexual activities are: physical attraction, as a means to an end, to increase emotional
connection, and to alleviate insecurity.[52]

Sexuality and age[edit]

Child sexuality[edit]
Main article: Child sexuality

In the past, children were often assumed not to have sexuality until later development. Sigmund
Freud was one of the first researchers to take child sexuality seriously. His ideas, such
as psychosexual development and the Oedipus conflict, have been highly debated but regardless,
acknowledging the existence of child sexuality was a huge milestone. [53]Freud gave sexual drives an
importance and centrality in human life, actions, and behavior arguing that sexual drives exist and
can be discerned in children from birth. He explains this in his theory of infantile sexuality, and
claims that sexual energy (libido) is the single most important motivating force in adult life.[15] Freud
wrote about the importance of interpersonal relationships to one's sexual
and emotional development. From the initial days of life, the mother's connection to the infant has an
effect on the infant's later capacity for pleasure and attachment.[54] Freud described two currents of
emotional life in all of us: an affectionate current, including our bonds with the important people in
our lives, and a sensual current, including our wish to gratify sexual impulses. During adolescence, a
young person tries to integrate these two emotional currents. This is a difficult task and the risks are
many. There are numerous inner conflicts and failures of development that may keep a person
repeating immature sexual patterns; this is evident in much that we see on the news. [54] The real
challenge is to bring about a convergence of the two currents; the affectionate and the sensual. The
sexual over excitement often characteristic of adolescent experimentation is not adaptive in a grown
adult.

Freud's work led him to establish the stages of psychosexual development where he describes
infantile sexuality through steps.[9] From the moment of birth an infant is driven in their actions by the
desire for bodily and sexual pleasure. This is seen by Freud as the desire to release mental energy.
At first, infants gain such release, and derive pleasure from the act of sucking. Freud terms this the
oral stage of development. It’s followed by a stage in which the center of pleasure or energy release
is the anus, mainly in the act of defecation. This is termed the anal stage. Then, the young child
develops an interest in its genitalia as a site of pleasure known as the phallic stage. According to
Freud, the child then develops a deep sexual attraction for the parent of the opposite sex, and a
hatred of the parent of the same sex. This is known as the Oedipus complex. However, this gives
rise to socially derived feelings of guilt in the child, who eventually recognizes that it can never
supersede the stronger parent. A male child also perceives himself to be at risk, he fears that if he
persists in pursuing the sexual attraction for his mother, he may be harmed by the father. Both the
attraction for the mother and the hatred are usually repressed, and the child typically resolves the
conflict of the Oedipus complex by coming to identify with the parent of the same sex. This happens
at the age of five, whereupon the child enters a latency period in which sexual motivations become
much less pronounced. This lasts until puberty when mature genital development begins and the
pleasure drive refocuses around the genital area.[15] Freud believed that this is the progression
inherent in normal human development, and is to be observed beginning at the infant level. The
instinctual attempts to satisfy the pleasure drive are frequently checked by parental control and
social influencing. For the child, the developmental process is in essence a movement through a
series of conflicts. The successful resolution of these conflicts is crucial to adult mental health.
Many mental illnesses, particularly hysteria, Freud held, can be traced back to unresolved conflicts
experienced at this stage, or to events which otherwise disrupt the normal pattern of infantile
development. For example, homosexuality is seen by some Freudians as resulting from a failure to
resolve the conflicts of the Oedipus complex, particularly a failure to identify with the parent of the
same sex; the obsessive concern with washing and personal hygiene which characterizes the
behavior of some neurotics is seen as resulting from unresolved conflicts or repressions occurring at
the anal stage.[15]

Alfred Kinsey also examined child sexuality in his Kinsey Reports. Children are naturally curious
about their bodies and sexual functions. For example, they wonder where babies come from, they
notice the differences between males and females, and many engage in genital play (often mistaken
for masturbation). Child sex play includes exhibiting or inspecting the genitals. Many children take
part in some sex play, typically with siblings or friends (playing doctor).[53] Sex play with others
usually decreases as children go through their elementary school years, yet they still may possess
romantic interest in their peers. Curiosity levels remain high during these years, but it is not until
adolescence that the main surge in sexual interest occurs.[53]

Sexuality in late adulthood[edit]

Main article: Sexuality in older age

Adult sexuality originates in childhood. However, like many other human capacities, sexuality is not
fixed, but matures and develops. A common stereotype suggests that people tend to lose interest in
and ability to engage in sexual acts once they reach late adulthood. This stereotype is reinforced by
Western pop culture, which often ridicules older adults that try to engage in sexual activities. Men are
shown suffering heart attacks from over-excitement, and women are depicted as grateful if anyone
shows an interest in them. The term "dirty old man" is applied to older men who show an interest in
sex beyond a level the speaker considered appropriate . The language for older women, by contrast,
is sexless,[55] and older women are portrayed as sexually unattractive and undesirable. Sexuality,
however, is similar to most other aspects of aging. Age does not necessarily change the need or
desire to be sexually expressive or active. If a couple has been in a long-term relationship, the
frequency of sexual activity may decrease, but not necessarily their satisfaction with each other.
Many couples find that the type of sexual expression may change, and that with age and the term of
relationship there is increased intimacy and love. If sex and sexual intimacy are important aspects in
one's life during young and middle adulthood they will continue to be factors in older adulthood. [55]

Physical changes do, however, occur with age. One aspect of aging that is particular to a woman's
experience is the menopause. This process, which occurs toward the late forties or early fifties, is
dependent on a woman’s biological makeup. Common signs of the menopause include lengthening
or shortening of the menstrual cycle and blood loss that becomes either heavier or lighter than usual.
Hot flashes may occur up to two years prior to menopause and continue for several years after.
[56]
Night sweats are a common symptom for women who are approaching menopause. Loss of
muscle tone in the urinary tract may cause more frequent urination, while some women become
more prone to urinary tract infections. Skin may also become more dry or oily than usual. Hormonal
changes may also be the reason for vaginal dryness, joint pain and abdominal weight gain. [56][dead
link]
Many women are made to feel that because they are no longer able to reproduce, they are no
longer able to be sexually active. Some women may experience a decline in sexual desire because
of the decline in production of the hormone estrogen. However, many other women report an
increase in desire and activity. This is likely because there is no longer a concern about pregnancy,
and children are generally self-sufficient; postmenopausal woman may even be more assertive in
expressing their needs.[55]

Although men do not experience an equivalent process to the menopause, they may experience the
male climacteric. This occurs between the ages of 35 and 60. Although remaining fertile, climacteric
men may feel unsatisfied with their achievements and lifestyles. They may also experience a range
of unpleasant emotions and physical symptoms that are linked to the aging process. [56][dead link] A
gradual decrease in testosterone production may cause physical symptoms such as a lack of
energy, erectile dysfunction, and muscle deterioration. These changes may also coincide with
weakening health in the heart, prostate, kidneys, hearing and digestive systems, due to aging. [56][dead
link]
One out of every four men between the ages of 65 to 80 has severe problems getting or keeping
erections, and this percentage increases with men over 80 years of age. These changes can be
accommodated by increased manual stimulation and other modes of sexual expression in addition to
normal intercourse.[55] Drugs are also available to treat erectile dysfunction.

Two other factors that may have an increasing impact on sex and sexual activity as an individual
ages are partner availability and health problems, including the effects of medication. [55] A recent
interview study involving 3,000 adults between the ages of 57 and 85 found that the percentage of
sexually active older adults is higher for those that are in good health than those in poor health.
Older women may also be less sexually active as a result of outliving their partners or men's
tendency to marry younger women. Older adults who engage in sexual activity, intimacy, and
companionship tend to be more satisfied with life. [53] For older women, partner availability is a
particularly serious issue. Women outnumber men by increasingly larger numbers as they age. Many
divorced, widowed, or never-married older women may find themselves alone and looking more
towards masturbation for sexual gratification.[55]

Sociocultural aspects[edit]

Women's liberationdemonstration, 1970

Human sexuality can also be understood as part of the social life of humans, governed by implied
rules of behavior and the status quo. This focus narrows the view to groups within a society. [23] The
socio-cultural context of society places major influences on and form social norms, including the
effects of politics and the mass media. In the past people fought for their civil rights, and such
movements helped to bring about massive changes in social norms – examples include the sexual
revolution and the rise of feminism.[57][58]

The link between constructed sexual meanings and racial ideologies has been studied in the past. It
is found sexual meanings are constructed to maintain racial-ethnic-national boundaries, by
denigration of "others," and regulation of sexual behavior within the group. "Both adherence to and
deviation from such approved behaviors, define and reinforce racial, ethnic, and nationalist
regimes."[59][60]

The age and manner in which children are informed of issues of sexuality is a matter of sex
education. The school systems in almost all developed countries have some form of sex education,
but the nature of the issues covered varies widely. In some countries (such as Australia and much of
Europe) "age-appropriate" sex education often begins in pre-school, whereas other countries leave
sex education to the pre-teenage and teenage years.[61] Sex education covers a range of topics,
including the physical, mental, and social aspects of sexual behavior. Where one is geographically
placed also plays a role in when society feels it is appropriate for a child to learn about sexuality. In
the United States, sexuality is on the “hush-hush” or is unspoken of which happens to limit sources
of sexual knowledge. According to TIME magazine and CNN, 74% of teenagers reported that their
major source of sexual information were their peers and the media compared to only 10% naming
their parents or a sex education course;[2] therefore society makes a huge impact on people’s views
when it comes to the acceptable and unacceptable behaviors and attitudes towards sexuality.
Society’s views on sexuality have many influences from the past and the present. Even religion and
philosophy make an impact. One theorist, Vygotsky states that a child’s development cannot be
understood only by the individual alone. The only way to truly understand development is by looking
at the individual and the environment or external social world in which the development is occurring.
[62]

Religious sexual morality[edit]

Main article: Religion and sexuality

Most world religions have sought to address the moral issues that arise from people's sexuality in
society and in human interactions. Each major religion has developed moral codes covering issues
of sexuality, morality, ethics etc., which have sought to guide people's sexual activities and practices.
The influence of religion on sexuality is especially apparent in the long debated issue of gay
marriage versus civil union.
When it comes to Judaism it is said that sex is sacred between man and women, within marriage,
and should be enjoyed. Celibacy is sinful.[2] Actually, the Jewish do not believe that sex is shameful,
sinful, or obscene, although the Jewish faith emphasizes that sexual desire should be controlled and
channeled only to be satisfied at the proper time, place, and manner, between husband and wife, out
of mutual love and desire for one another. This means that all sexual contact is permissible only
within marriage because it is believed that all sexual contact leads to intercourse; therefore sex
requires commitment and responsibility. The primary purpose of sex according to the Jewish is to
reinforce the marital bond and to procreate making any sexual act permissible as long as it does not
involve ejaculation outside the vagina. Sex is the right of the woman, not the man and it is should
only be experienced in times of joy because it is a selfish personal satisfaction that must be
pleasurable for both parties. Men cannot force women to have sex, and women cannot take away
sex as punishment because it is an offense to use sex to manipulate or as a weapon. Finally, sex
cannot be experienced while intoxicated or quarreling. [63]

Traditionally, Christianity has viewed human sexuality as primarily though not exclusively aimed at
reproduction and as tainted by concupiscence after the Fall. Saint Paul spoke of the flesh as at war
with the spirit and struggled to control it, though he saw the body itself as holy and a temple of the
Holy Spirit (I Cor 6:19). He stated that a celibate lifestyle was preferable for serving God
undistracted, which was later cited as a reason for priests having to give up sex and marriage. Saint
Augustine believed that sex was only justified in marriage with a view toward procreation, and that
when aimed exclusively at pleasure it was tainted by sin. Saint Augustine speaks of the three goods
of marriage, the good of fidelity (fidei), of offspring (prolis), and of the sacramental bond
(sacramenti).

The Bible states within the first commandment to procreate, but the misconception about sex being
shameful or sinful is contradicted. In the book of Genesis 2:24-25, it states that a husband must stick
to his wife and they shall become one flesh. And the man and his wife were both naked and were not
ashamed. The becoming one flesh is the sexual act which according to this, does not lead into
shame. On the other hand, both husband and wife are supposed to be submissive sexually to their
partner, no longer having authority over their own bodies, and cannot deny each other sex in order to
refrain from satisfying in temptation from out the marriage since fidelity (faithfulness to a sexual
partner) is important. The bible may permit sexual activity within a marriage between man and
women; it is a sin to engage in homosexuality, bestiality (sexual relations with animals), incest
(sexual relations within the immediate family structure), fornication (sex outside marriage), adultery
(cheating on husband or wife), rape, and viewing pornography. It is believed that those who are
sexually immoral are separated from God and will not share in God’s inheritance upon death. To
engage in any of these sinful sexual activities in the past, punishment was death. [64]

The Catholic Church teaches that sexuality is "noble and worthy"[65] but that it must be used in
accordance with natural law. For this reason, all sexual activity must occur in the context of a
marriage between a man and a woman and must not be divorced from the possibility of conception.
All forms of sex not open to conception are considered intrinsically disordered and sinful, such as
any sex with contraceptives, autosexual activity (e.g. masturbation), and homosexual acts. Recent
currents of Catholic thought, such as John Paul II's Theology of the Body, have placed special
emphasis on the dignity and beauty of human sexuality, calling it a special gift of God that is
preserved and respected by reserving it for marriage. Sex is sanctified by the rebirth of Christ. It
helps us to grow and create bonds of love.

Within the Islamic faith, sexual desire is considered to be a natural urge that should not be
suppressed, although, the concept of free sex is not accepted; therefore these urges should be
fulfilled responsibly. Marriage is considered to be a good deed and it does not hinder spiritual
wayfaring. The term used for marriage within the Quran is nikah which literally means sexual
intercourse.[66] Although, Islam was sexually restrained, the Islamic faith emphasized sexual pleasure
within marriage. It is acceptable for a man to have more than one wife, but he must take care of that
wife physically, mentally, emotionally, financially, and spiritually.[67] They oppose celibacy and
monasticism (withdrawing from society to devote one’s self to prayer, solitude, and contemplation). [66]

The views on sexuality in Hinduism emphasizes that sex is only appropriate between husband and
wife in which satisfying sexual urges through sexual pleasure is an important duty of marriage. Any
sex before marriage is considered to interfere with their intellectual development, especially between
birth and the age of 25 which is said to be brahmacharya; therefore, this should be
avoided. Kama (sensual pleasures) is one of the four purusharthas or aims of life (dharma, artha,
kama, and moksha).[68] One of the sacred texts which happen to be popular within Western culture,
the Kama Sutra, was created by the Hindus as manual for love making in marriage. This text
emphasizes pleasure being the aim of intercourse and even goes in depth about homosexual
desires which are believed to be the same as heterosexual desires. Even within Hindu temples
(places of worship) there were depictions of sexuality within the sculptures. Such temples are
at Khajuraho and Konarak, but due to colonialism, Hindus became more rigid in their views about
sexuality, and then internalized Victorian ideals of heterosexual monogamy.[69]

Buddhism emphasizes the "Middle Way," which is never reaching the extremes. According to this
religion, moderation in everything is key to enlightenment or nirvana; therefore, human sexuality
should fall in the middle on a continuum from extreme Puritanism to extreme permissiveness.
Buddhist also emphasize kama which is a sign that their basis of belief uses Hinduism as their
foundation. But all in all, Buddhism does not have an specific rules to break that has horrible
consequences as other religions do because Buddhists do not believe in sin, there is only the skilled
and unskilled, and the feeling of pleasure is neither.[70]

Sexuality in history[edit]
Main article: History of human sexuality
The prehistoric Venus of Willendorf

Min: the ancient Egyptian god of fertility

Sexuality has always been a vital part of the human existence and in societies from the long hunting
and gathering phases of history to the rise of agriculture, the long centuries of the agricultural period
of history,[71] as well as during modern times (44). For all civilizations throughout time, there have
been a few common, special characteristics of how sexuality was managed through sexual
standards, representations, and behavior.[71] Art and artifacts from past eras help portray human’s
perceptions of sexuality throughout time.

Before the rise of agriculture there were groups of hunter/gatherers (H/G) or nomads inhabiting the
world. Within these groups, some implications of male dominance existed, but there were also ample
signs that women were active participants in sexuality with bargaining power of their own. These H/G
groups had less restrictive sexual standards that emphasized sexual pleasure and enjoyment, but
with definite rules and constraints. Some underlying continuities or key regulatory standards
contended with the tension between recognition of pleasure, interest, and the need, for the sake of
social order and economic survival. H/G groups also place high value on certain types of sexual
symbolism. Two common tensions of H/G societies are expressed in their art which emphasizes
male sexuality and prowess with equally common tendencies to blur gender lines in sexual matters.
Some examples of these male dominated portrayals is the Egyptian creation myth when the sun
god Atum masturbates in the water creating the Nile River, or in the Sumerian myth of the Gods’
semen filling the Tigris.[71]

Once agricultural societies emerged, the sexuality framework shifted in many ways that persist for
many millennia in much of Asia, Africa, Europe, and parts of the Americas. One common
characteristic that became new to these societies was the collective supervision of sexual behavior
due to the population increases and more concentrated communities due to urbanization. It was a
normal event for a child to witness parents having sex because many parents shared the same
sleeping quarters with other relatives. Also, due to landownership, determining a child’s paternity
became important, and society became patriarchal in family life. These changes in sexual ideology
were used to try to control female sexuality and to differentiate standards by gender. With these
ideologies, sexual possessiveness and increases in jealousy emerged. With the domestication of
animals, new opportunities for bestiality (sex with animals) flourished. Mostly males performed these
types of sexual acts and many societies acquired firm rules against it. These acts also explain the
many depictions of the half-man, half-animal mythical creatures, and the sports of gods and
goddesses with animals.[71] While still holding onto earlier precedents of earlier civilizations, each
classical civilization established a somewhat distinctive approach to gender, artistic expression of
sexual beauty, and to particular behaviors such as homosexuality. Some of these distinctions are
portrayed in sex manuals which were also common among these civilizations. These civilizations
consist of China, Greece/Rome, Persia, and India, and each has their own history in the sexual
world.[71]

During the 18th and 19th centuries, during the beginning of the industrial revolution, many changes
in sexual standards have occurred. New dramatic artificial birth control devices are introduced such
as the condom and diaphragm. Doctors started claiming a new role in sexual matters urging that
their advice was crucial to sexual morality and health. A significant new pornographic industry
blossomed, and Japan adopted its first ever laws against homosexuality. On the other hand, in
western societies, the definition of homosexuality is constantly changing, and western influence on
others is increasing in strength. New contacts created serious issues around sexuality and sexual
traditions. There were also major shifts in sexual behavior. During this period, the ages at
which puberty starts to decrease, so a new focus on adolescence as a time of sexual confusion and
danger emerges. Finally, there was a new focus on the purpose of marriage being for love rather
than just economics and reproduction.[71]

With regard to other modern advances, Alfred Kinsey initiated the modern era of sex research. He
collected data by giving questionnaires to his students at Indiana University, but then switched to
personal interviews interested in male and female sexual behaviors. Kinsey and his colleagues
sampled a total of 5,300 men and 5,940 women. His findings found that most people masturbate,
that many engaged in oral sex, women are capable of having multiple orgasms, and that many men
had had some type of homosexual experience in their lifetime. Many believe that he was the major
influence in changing 20th century attitudes about sex, and Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex,
Gender, and Reproduction at Indiana University continues to be a major center for the study of
human sexuality.[2] Before William Masters, a physician, and Virginia Johnson, a behavioral scientist,
the study of anatomy and physiological studies of sex was still limited to experiments with lab
animals. Masters and Johnson started to directly observe and record the physical responses in
humans that are engaged in sexual activity under laboratory settings. They covered 10,000 episodes
of sexual acts consisting of 312 men and 382 women. This led to methods of treating clinical
problems and abnormalities. Masters and Johnson opened the very first sex therapy clinic in 1965.
In 1970, they described their therapeutic techniques in their book Human Sexual Inadequacy.[2]

Sexuality of today is not only influenced by human ancestry or religions. Sexuality of today is also
influenced by the internal commercial society within societies—mainly western. According to a Time
Magazine/CNN survey, 74% of teenagers said that friends and television were their main sources of
sexual education. The fact that the average American child spends six to eight hours a day watching,
listening to, or reading some form of media explains their reasoning behind these findings. [2] In
addition to television, contemporary women's magazines contain a number of scripts about sexual
relationships and women's sexual roles that research has shown to have both empowering and
problematic effects on women's developing sexual identities and sexual attitudes. [72]

Reproductive and sexual rights[edit]

Further information: Reproductive health and Reproductive rights

Reproductive and sexual rights encompass the concept of applying human rights to issues related to
reproduction and sexuality.[73] This concept is a modern one, and remains controversial, especially
outside the West, since it deals, directly and indirectly, with issues such as contraception, LGBT
rights, abortion, sex education, freedom to choose a partner, freedom to decide whether to be
sexually active or not, right to bodily integrity, freedom to decide whether or not, and when, to have
children.[74][75][76][77] According to the Swedish government,"sexual rights include the right of all people
to decide over their own bodies and sexuality" and "reproductive rights comprise the right of
individuals to decide on the number of children they have and the intervals at which they are
born."[78] Such rights are not accepted in all cultures, with practices such criminalization of
consensual sexual activities (such as those related to homosexual acts and sexual acts outside
marriage), acceptance of forced marriage and child marriage, failure to criminalize all non-
consensual sexual encounters (such as marital rape), female genital mutilation, or restricted
availability of contraception, being common around the world.[79][80]

Sexual behavior[edit]
General activities and health[edit]
Main article: Human sexual activity

See also: Sexual intercourse § Health effects and Sexually active life expectancy

Human sexual behavior, driven by the desire for pleasure, encompasses the search for a partner or
partners, interactions between individuals, whether physical or emotional intimacy, or sexual contact
that may lead to foreplay, masturbation and ultimately orgasm.

Human sexual activity, human mating strategies, human sexual practice, or human sexual behavior,
is the manner in which humans experience and express their sexuality. People engage in a variety of
sexual acts from time to time, and for a wide variety of reasons. Sexual activity normally results
in sexual arousal and physiological changes in the aroused person, some of which are pronounced
while others are more subtle. Sexual activity also includes conduct and activities which are intended
to arouse the sexual interest of another, such as strategies to find or attract partners
(mating and display behavior), and personal interactions between individuals, such
as flirting and foreplay.

Human sexual activity has sociological, cognitive, emotional, behavioral and biological aspects,
including personal bonding and shared emotions during sexual activity and physiological processes
such as the reproductive system, the sex drive and sexual intercourse and sexual behavior in all its
forms.

In humans, sexual intercourse and sexual activity in general have been reported as producing health
benefits as varied as improved sense of smell,[81] stress and blood pressure reduction,[82]
[83]
increased immunity,[84] and decreased risk of prostate cancer.[85][86][87] Sexual intimacy, as well as
orgasms, increases levels of the hormone oxytocin, also known as "the love hormone", which helps
people bond and build trust.[88][89][90] A long-term study of 3,500 people between 30 and 101 by clinical
neuropsychologist David Weeks, MD, head of old age psychology at the Royal Edinburgh Hospital in
Scotland, found that "sex helps you look between four and seven years younger", according to
impartial ratings of the subjects' photos. Exclusive causation, however, is unclear, and the benefits
may be indirectly related to sex and directly related to significant reductions in stress, greater
contentment, and better sleep that sex promotes.[91][92][93]

In contrast to its benefits, sexual intercourse can also be a disease vector.[94] There are 19 million
new cases of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) every year in the U.S., [95] and worldwide there are
over 340 million STDs a year.[96] More than half of all STDs occur in adolescents and young adults
aged 15–24 years.[97] At least one in four U.S. teenage girls has a sexually transmitted disease. [95]
[98]
In the U.S., about 30% of 15–17-year old adolescents have had sexual intercourse, but only
about 80% of 15–19-year old adolescents report using condoms for their first sexual intercourse.
[99]
More than 75% of young women age 18–25 years felt they were at low risk of acquiring an STD in
one study.[100]

Birth control[edit]
Main article: Birth control

The birth control pill was introduced in 1960 however, until recently condoms and other birth control
options that did not require a visit to the doctor were kept behind the counter in drugstores. This
inhibited many people from purchasing them. Today, there are numerous contraceptive devices for
males as well as females that are sold openly.

1. Relatively Ineffective Methods

1. Withdrawal (coitus interruptus): One of the most popular ways in which young people
try to avoid pregnancy. This method involves the man withdrawing his penis just
before reaching orgasm and ejaculating outside his partner’s vagina. [51]

2. Douching: Some women believe douching is an effective method because it washes

out the contents of the vagina (doing it after sex would get rid of sperm). Many do
not know that no matter how rapidly a woman douches after sex some sperm have
already traveled into the cervix.[51]

3. Lactational amenorrhea (breast-feeding): When a woman is breast-feeding the

sucking response of the baby on her nipple inhibits the pituitary from releasing FSH
and LH. This prevents ovulation and normal menstrual cycles.

2. Fertility awareness methods

1. Calendar method: This method has been promoted by the Catholic Church as a
morally acceptable form of family planning. The calendar method is based on 3
assumptions:[101]

 Ovulation occurs 14 days before a woman’s menstrual cycle, plus or minus 2 days

 Sperm can remain alive for up to 3 days

 The ovum can be fertilized 24 hours after it has been released from the ovary

Using those 3 concepts, a woman with a regular cycle can count backwards from the first day of her
period to figure out when she will be ovulating and avoid having sex during that time in the following
month.
 1.

1. Basal body temperature method: This method involves recording a woman’s body
temperature throughout her menstrual cycle. A woman’s basal (resting) temperature
rises just before ovulation. The rise in temperature tells a woman when she is most
fertile.[102]

2. Billings method: Mucus is discharged from the cervix throughout a woman’s

menstrual cycle. It changes from white and sticky to clear and stretchy (like an egg
white) a day or two before ovulation.[51] The billings method is a form of natural birth
control that teaches a woman to recognize when she is fertile by examining her
cervical mucus.[103] To prevent pregnancy, a woman should refrain from sex during
the time when she is most fertile.

3. Sympto-thermal method: Combination of the basal body temperature method and the
billings method to prevent pregnancy.

2. Spermicides: Substances that Kill Sperm

A spermicide is a chemical product that comes in the form of a foam, jelly, or cream. [104] The purpose
of a spermicide is to kill any sperm before it reaches the cervix. In order to increase the effectiveness
of them, spermicides should be used with other barrier forms of birth control (condoms, diaphragms,
cervical cap, etc.).

1. Barrier methods: Preventing Sperm from Meeting Egg

1. Male condoms: Thin sheaths made from lamb intestine, latex rubber, synthetic or
polyurethane elastomers that fit over the penis and trap sperm.[51] Condoms are
highly effective in preventing the transmission of STIs.

2. Female condoms: Thin sheath or pouch that a woman wears during sex. It lines the
vagina entirely and helps prevent STIs as well.[105]

3. Diaphragm: A shallow, dome-shaped, silicone cup inserted into the vagina to prevent
pregnancy.[106]

4. Cervical cap: A cervical cap resembles a small thimble and is inserted into the vagina
to prevent pregnancy

5. Lea’s shield: Similar to the cervical cap this method is cup-shaped and made of
silicone. It has a 1-way valve that allows the passage of cervical secretions. [51]

6. Contraceptive sponge: A soft, disk-shaped device that is made of polyurethane foam

that covers the cervix.[107]

2. Intrauterine devices (IUD)

An IUD is a small t-shaped piece of plastic or metal that is placed in the uterus to prevent
fertilization. There are 2 types: one is covered with copper, and the other releases the hormone
progesterone.[108] IUDs have not been extremely popular in the United States. In the past, IUDs had
a thread hanging outside of a woman’s body which easily spread bacteria causing pelvic
inflammatory disease. Now, IUDs are very safe. They have polyethylene strings which are not as
likely to cause infection.[51]

1. Hormonal methods

1. Oral contraception: Medications taken by women to prevent pregnancy. These pills

may contain a combination of the hormones estrogen, progestin, or progestin alone.
Combinations of estrogen and progestin prevent pregnancy by inhibiting the release
of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).[109]Pills are taken
for 21 days followed by a 7 day break when a woman menstruates. The pill is highly
effective if taken every day at the same time.[51]

2. Injectable contraception: A hormonal method for those who cannot remember to take
the pill every day at the same time. Depo-Provera is an injectable medicine that
prevents pregnancy for up to 3 months with each injection. [110] It contains progestin
and works by preventing ovulation by inhibiting the release of LH and FSH.
Sexual attraction[edit]

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help
improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources.
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2014)

Sexual attraction is an important aspect of the sexuality of the person being observed, as well as of
the person observing. Each person determines the qualities that they find attractive, which vary from
person to person. A person's sexual orientation has a significant influence on which qualities they will
find attractive. The qualities that people can find sexually attractive may depend on the physical
quality, including both looks and movements of a person but can also be influenced by voice or smell
as well as by individualpreferences resulting from a variety of genetic, psychological, and cultural
factors.

Creating a relationship[edit]
The Flirt, by Eugene de Blaas

People both consciously and subconsciously seek to attract others with whom they can form deeper
relationships. This may be for companionship, forprocreation, for an intimate relationship, besides
other possible purposes. This involves interactive processes whereby people find and attract
potential partners, and maintain a relationship. These processes, which involve attracting one or
more partners, and maintaining sexual interest, can include:

 Flirting can be used to attract the sexual attention of another in order to encourage romance
or sexual relations, and can involve body language, conversation, joking or brief physical
contact.[111]

 Seduction is the process whereby one person deliberately entices another to engage in
some sort of human sexual behavior.[112] The medium of communication of sexual interest can be
verbal or visual.

 Dating is the process of arranging meetings or outings with a potential partner to investigate
or enhance their suitability for an intimate partnership.

 The prospect of physical intimacy is, at times, the most effective means of sexual attraction.
This can be by way of an expression of feelings such as close friendship or love,
including holding hands, hugging, kissing, or caressing.
Legal issues[edit]
Main articles: Human sexual activity § Legal issues and Sex and the law

There are many laws and social customs which prohibit, or in some way have an impact on sexual
activities. These laws and customs vary from country to country, and have varied over time. They
cover, for example, a prohibition to non-consensual sex, to sex outside of marriage, to sexual activity
in public, besides many others. Many of these restrictions are non-controversial, but some have
been the subject of public debate.

Most societies consider it a serious crime to force someone to engage in sexual acts or to engage in
sexual activity with someone who does not consent. This is called sexual assault, and if sexual
penetration occurs it is called rape, the most serious kind of sexual assault. The details of this
distinction may vary among different legal jurisdictions. Also, what constitutes effective consent in
sexual matters varies from culture to culture and is frequently debated. Laws regulating the minimum
age at which a person can consent to have sex (age of consent) are frequently the subject of
debate, as is adolescent sexual behavior in general.
 Human Sexuality

By Ludwin Molina
Spring, 1999
Introduction

Human sexuality plays a major role in everyone's life. Regardless, whether we are
young or old, man or woman, American or Japanese, it is an integral part of what we
do and who we are. There has been much done by way of research and scholarly
writing examining human sexuality (e.g., Abramson & Pinkerton, 1995; Beach, 1976;
Diamond, 1997; Reinisch et al., 1990; Stalcup, 1995; Tiefer, 1995). This paper will
explore the topic of human sexuality as a motivation. Of course, there are many
emotions associated with human sexuality, but the primary aim of this particular paper
will be a general overview of sexuality with special attention to the various
perspectives, including the: 1) biological perspective, 2) cognitive perspective, and 3)
learning perspective. All the while, the lens through which we summarize these
perspectives will be with the understanding that human sexual behavior is a
motivation.

Next to sleeping and eating, it seems that it is one of the most important drives we
have to deal with as humans. That is, it takes up so much of our time in thought and
behavior that it sometimes seems that every facet of our life revolves around this to a
certain extent.

Human sexual behavior is different from the sexual behavior of other animals, in that,
it seems to be governed by a variety and interplay of different factors. That is, while
"lower" animals or species are driven by a "force" to reproduce and therefore partake
in sexual behavior. Humans are not sexually active just for the sake of reproduction,
rather, there are a variety of complex factors that lead people to have sex.

Human Sexuality. Human sexuality is the way in which we experience and express
ourselves as sexual beings (Rathus et al., 1993). There are many factors that help
develop our sexuality, arguably one of the most important, is our actual gender.
Whether, I am a male or female will likely have a major influence on the development
of my individual sexuality. Furthermore, sexuality is an integral part of our
personalities whether we are aware of it or not.

Why study human sexuality? This may seem like a rather simple-minded question,
but one of the questions that should always be posed before any endeavor is, "why do
it?" and "what do we hope to gain from it?" The former will be addressed here and the
latter will hopefully become clear as we move along in our journey. An important
reason to study human sexuality is that it is a primary source of motivation. Just
consider the amount of time spent thinking and planning for sex, let alone the time
spent in sexual behavior itself (Rathus et al., 1993). Sexual motivation does to some
extent influence human behavior. Another reason for studying human sexuality is that
we may face various personal and social problems involving sexuality, such as,
sexually transmitted diseases, unwanted pregnancies, and sexual harassment (Aral &
Holmes, 1991; Rathus et al., 1993). This should sound especially timely during the
times in which we live.

Methods of Research in Human Sexuality

There are numerous ways of gathering scientific evidence about human sexuality.
While, some methods focus on description, others methods concentrate on identifying
relationships between variables, and still others in identifying causal relationships.
The following are general summaries as to the various data collection methods.

Survey Method. Surveys collect information about behavior through interviews with
participants or questionnaires. The aim of this particular method is to gather
information on the sexual attitudes and behavior of a particular population or group of
people. This particular method does have limitations. For example, drawbacks of this
method are that surveys require self-report from the participants, therefore, it is likely
that the data collected might contain a plethora of inaccuracies. Depending on the
question posed to the individual they may want to present themselves in a socially
acceptable way or be to embarrassed to answer truthfully. In addition, many people
refuse to even participate in human sexuality survey studies, thus, you may get a
selection bias because the sample attained may not be representative of the population
you want to generalize to.

Arguably, one of the seminal studies in human sexuality employing the survey method
was that completed by Kinsey and colleagues (1948, 1953). Kinsey and colleagues
interviewed about 5300 men and 5900 women between 1938 through 1949 and asked
them a variety of questions about their sexual behavior and attitudes. This approach
was well advised since Kinsey was particularly interested in the frequency of certain
sexual behaviors (e.g., oral sex, masturbation, and intercourse) rather than the
underlying causes. Results and implications of this study may be reviewed in the cited
articles.

Observational Method. In the observational method the investigator is a direct

observer of sexual behavior. These observations may take place in field settings or in
laboratories. This particular method, however, has had a very limited application so
far because of the requirement of privacy that shrouds sexual experience in many
cultures (Katchadourian, 1989). An example of observational research is when
psychologists observe the patterns of nonverbal communication and body language
among couples in dating situations (Rathus et al., 1993). Researchers can also interact
with the people whose behavior they are recording, this is deemed the participant
observation method. One major limitation of this method is the possibility that the
behavior under study may be altered by the participant because of the presence of the
observer (i.e., observer effect). In other words, the participants' behavior may
consciously be changed to "fit" with what they believe the observer is seeking.

Human Sexual Response (1966) by William Masters and Virginia Johnson is one of
the seminal studies examining the sexual behavior of humans via the observation
method. Despite the controversy engendered by the method of their study, it gave a
reliable picture of what happens to the body during sexual behavior.

Experimental Method. Experiments permit researchers to draw causal conclusions

between the independent variable and dependent variable. One example of this
method is exposing participants to sexually arousing materials while instruments
monitor physiological responses (Katchadourian, 1989). The particular limitations of
this study seem obvious, in that, one cannot manipulate many variables of interest
directly because of ethical standards.

Correlational Method. Allows the researcher to examine the relationship between

variables of interest. For example, a researcher may be interested in the variables that
relate to sexual satisfaction in couples. Therefore, he/she may look at the variables of
partner compatibility, communication skills, and number of years the couple has been
together. The major limitation of this method is that correlation does not equal
causation.

Case Study Method. The intensive study of one particular participant. A vast amount
of descriptive information is gathered about one particular individual, therefore,
giving a much more detailed picture of that individual than would otherwise normally
be attained. The major shortcoming of this method is that generalization to a
population is out of the question. In addition, participants may also have "gaps" in
their memories and ways of thinking which bias results.
Biological Perspective

One cannot truly begin a dialogue about human sexuality without addressing the
biological perspective, in particular, hormones (Strong, DeVault, & Sayad, 1996).
Hormones may be viewed as one of the major "driving forces" of sexual behavior.
Over the past several years, there has been much research examining the various roles
that hormones play in the sexual behavior of humans. Hormones are produced by the
gonads (i.e., testes and ovaries), the adrenal cortex, the pituitary gland, and the
hypothalamus. In addition, the hormones of androgens, estrogens, and progestins all
exist in both males and females. They exist in different concentrations, however,
within males and females. Males have a higher concentration of androgens and
females have a higher concentration of estrogens and progestins. Incidentally,
androgens are responsible for the sexual differentiation of the male reproductive
system before birth and the sexual maturation of boys at puberty. Testosterone, a
specific androgen, is associated with the male sexual drive and possibly with
aggressive behavior (Reinisch, Ziemba-Davis, & Saunders, 1991). Estrogens and
progestins, found in higher concentrations within females, regulate the menstrual
cycle and are essential for reproduction. The relationship of these hormones to the
female sexual drive and behavior are unclear. Hormone levels are usually correlated
with sexual behavior, but in humans this is not necessarily true because of intervening
variables. Thus, an individual may be physiologically ready to participate in sexual
behavior, but does not because of factors that supercede any biological reason.

Cognitive Perspective

A comprehension of the processes of sexual arousal is an important element in

understanding sexual responses. The notion that our most erogenous sex organ lies
between our ears should not be dismissed. The cognitive activity of the brain can
quickly either augment or inhibit a sexual response cycle (Walen & Roth, 1987).
Walen & Roth (1987) pointed out that perceptions and evaluations are the two major
types of cognitive activity. That is, how a stimulus or situation is interpreted
determines how the individual will respond to the stimulus. According to Walen &
Roth, perception includes at least three components: detection, labeling, and
attribution. Detection is defined by an individual's ability to note the presence of a
stimulus or to discriminate it from other stimuli. Next, labeling is the descriptors that
an individual uses to categorize the stimulus event. Third, attribution is an explanation
for the perception. Individuals may of course rely heavily on situational cues when
making attributions. How may all three of these factors affect sexual behavior? Well,
the inability to detect sexual stimuli, incorrect labeling, or misattribution may
significantly impede sexual performance (Walen & Roth, 1987). The second major
cognitive factor is evaluation, which is a process of rating events from good to bad.
For example, the cognitive theory of Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) has focused
primarily on evaluative beliefs (Ellis, 1962/1970). The general point to take away
from this particular theory is that "when an individual evaluates a sexual stimulus as
good or positive, sexual arousal may be enhanced. On the other hand, when a stimulus
is evaluated negatively, sexuality will be diminished. Even more destructive are the
exaggerated negative evaluations that Ellis refers to as catastrophic" (Walen & Roth,
1987, p.340).

Learning Perspective

To what extent does sexual behavior reflect experience? Would you hold the same
sexual attitudes and behaviors if you had been reared in another culture? Even within
the same society, family and personal experiences can shape unique sexual attitudes
and behaviors. Learning theory focuses on environmental factors that shape behavior.
Within this context, learning theory examines the environmental factors that shape
sexual behavior (McConaghy, 1987). Behaviorism emphasizes the importance of
rewards and punishments in the learning process. Events (such as rewards) that
increase the frequency or likelihood of particular behavior are termed reinforcements.
When applied to sexual behavior, children left to explore their bodies without parental
condemnation will learn what feels good and tend to repeat it. However, when sexual
behavior (like masturbation) feels pleasurable, but parents connect it with feelings of
guilt and shame, the child is placed in conflict. Conversely, punishment tends to
suppress behavior in circumstances in which it is expected to occur. Thus, if young
people are severely punished for sexual exploration, we may come to associate sexual
stimulation in general with feelings of guilt or anxiety. Social Learning Theory uses
the concepts of rewards and punishment, but it also emphasizes the importance of
cognitive activity (i.e., anticipations, thoughts, and plans) and learning by observation.
Observational learning or modeling refers to acquiring knowledge and skills through
observing others. Observational learning may also take place when exposed to certain
films, books, or music. According to social learning theory children acquire the
gender roles deemed appropriate in society through reinforcement of gender-
appropriate behavior. In addition, individuals duplicate behaviors of those they respect
and hold as models.

Conclusion

Human sexuality is a very complex behavior that is affected by many facets of our
lives including our physiology, cognition, and learning. These are just a few of the
components that this paper focused on for the sake of brevity. Otherwise, many other
factors could have been discussed, such as, the culture, personal and general history,
and the humanistic perspective. The point here is that human sexuality, like us, is
multi-dimensional and one can only begin to get a sense of what it is by the inclusion
of many perspectives and ideas. However, one particular point that this paper would
like to get across to the reader is that it is a motivating factor. This is a bit over
simplified but it seems that so much of what we do day in and day out as humans is in
some way or another governed by our sexual self. While this makes us similar as
humans, it is not necessarily the case that we condone the same behaviors or have
overlapping norms from culture to culture. Thus, within this similarity there is still a
great deal of diversity.

References

 Abramson, P. R., & Pinkerton, S. D. (1995). With Pleasure: Thoughts on the

Nature of Human Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.

 Aral, S. O., & Holmes, K. K. (1991). Sexually transmitted diseases in the AIDS
era. Scientific American, 264:62-69.

 Beach, F. A. (Ed.). (1977). Human Sexuality in Four Perspectives. Baltimore: The

Johns Hopkins University Press.

 Diamond, J. (1997). Why is Sex Fun? The Evolution of Human Sexuality. New
York: BasicBooks.

 Katchadourian, H. (1989). Fundamentals of Human Sexuality (5th ed.). San

Francisco: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

 Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual Behavior in the
Human Male. Philadelphia: Saunders.

 Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., Martin, C. E., & Gebhard, P. H. (1953). Sexual
Behavior in the Human Female. Philadelphia: Saunders.

 Masters, W. H., & Johnson, V. E. (1966). Human Sexual Response. Boston: Little,
Brown.

 McConaghy, N. (1987). A learning approach. In J. H. Geer & W. T. O'Donohue

(Eds.), Theories of Human Sexuality (pp.335-362). New York: Plenum Press.

 Rathus, A. R., Nevid, J. S., & Fichner-Rathus, L. (1993). Human Sexuality: In a

World of Diversity. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
  Reinisch, J., Ziemba-Davis, M., & Saunders, S. (1991). Hormonal contributions to
sexually dimorphic behavioral development in
humans. Psychneuroendocrinology, 16, 213-278.

 Reinisch, J. M., Beasley, R., & Kent, D. (Eds.). (1990). The Kinsey Institute New
Report on Sex: What You Must Know to be Sexually Literate. New York: St.
Martin's Press.

 Strong, B., DeVault, C, & Sayad, B. W. (1996). Core Concepts in Human

Sexuality. Mountain View: Mayfield Publishing Company.

 Tiefer, L. (1995). Sex is Not a Natural Act and Other Essays. San Francisco:
Westview Press.

 Walen, S. R., & Roth, D. (1987). A cognitive approach. In J. H. Geer & W. T.

O'Donohue (Eds.), Theories of Human Sexuality (pp.335-362). New York:
Plenum Press.

Human Sexuality
FRC believes the context for the full expression of human sexuality is within the
bonds of marriage between one man and one woman. Upholding this standard of
sexual behavior would help to reverse many of the destructive aspects of the
sexual revolution, including sexually transmitted disease rates of epidemic
proportion, high out-of-wedlock birth rates, adultery, and homosexuality.

In accordance with this position, the best sexuality education embraces sexual
abstinence outside of marriage. The abstinence-until-marriage approach
promotes optimal physical and psycho-social outcomes for youth and young
adults. FRC maintains that contraceptive-based or comprehensive sex education
is destructive, providing mixed risk messaging and an overly narrow focus on
physical health alone.

FRC does not consider homosexuality, bi-sexuality, and transgenderism as

acceptable alternative lifestyles or sexual "preferences"; they are unhealthy and
destructive to individual persons, families, and society. Compassion compels us
to support the healing of those who wish to change their destructive behavior.
Human Sexuality Ethics Statement
God created human beings with many dimensions, one of which is their unique sexual
nature. As men and women, we are physical, intellectual, emotional, relational, and
spiritual beings, and thus distinguished from the rest of creation.
Many levels of sexual expression are possible between men and women.
One important expression of sexuality is friendship; the sexual differences between men
and women enhance meaningful, warm, and healthy relationships. A second important
area of sexual expression is intimacy between husband and wife. God has designed the
most intimate expressions of sexuality, including intercourse, specifically for the
marriage relationship. The Bible describes the covenantal relationship of love which God
has for His people; the husband-wife relationship is analogous. Since God holds the
marriage relationship close to His heart, its violation is a serious offense to Him.
Our integrated nature means that intimate sexual expression profoundly affects all
dimensions of our being. While sexual expression outside of God's design may provide
temporary pleasure, God's guidelines are meant to protect us from disease, fear,
exploitation, and ultimately dehumanization.
CMDA affirms the biblical principles stated above. These principles are clarified further
by the following statements:
1. Sexual intercourse is to be reserved exclusively for heterosexual marriage.

2. Single men and women who engage in sexual intercourse are outside of God's
limits and are practicing sin.

3. Married people who have intercourse with anyone other than their marriage
partner are defiling a marriage union which God has sealed and are in sin.

4. Like single heterosexuals who engage in heterosexual sex, or married persons

who engage in extra-marital sex, homosexuals who engage in homosexual acts
are practicing sin.

5. We condemn the perversion of sexuality in pornography, rape, incest, and all

other forms of sexuality that deviate from the biblical norm for Christian
marriage.

6. Family life teaching and sexual education are God-given responsibilities of

parents. The Church's task is to assist both parents and youth in understanding
their sexuality in the context of biblical values. When appropriate, sexual
education should include risk behavior information and instruction on protective
techniques to inhibit the spread of AIDS and all other sexually transmitted
diseases.

7. Education and protective techniques alone, however, will not stop the spread of
AIDS. Our society needs to understand and acknowledge that there are
 compelling emotional, philosophical, medical, sociological, and historical reasons
for practicing abstinence before marriage and fidelity within marriage.*

CMDA calls our world to affirm these biblical sexual morals. We recognize and
acknowledge that many persons struggle with sexual temptation and sin, and that all of
us have fallen short of God's standards. We testify that God is just, merciful, loving, and
faithful, and that He will, if we ask Him, forgive us of our sins and bring us into an
intimate relationship with Him.
*From the CMDA Statement on AIDS
Approved by the CMDA House of Delegates
Passed unanimously
May 3, 1990. Toronto, Canada.

Gender
Gender is the range of physical, biological, mental and behavioral characteristics pertaining to, and
differentiating between, masculinity and femininity.[1][2][3] Depending on the context, the term may
refer to biological sex (i.e. the state of being male, female or intersex), sex-based social
structures (including gender roles and other social roles), or gender identity.[1][2][3][4]

Sexologist John Money introduced the terminological distinction between biological sex and gender
as a role in 1955. Before his work, it was uncommon to use the word gender to refer to anything
but grammatical categories.[1][2] However, Money's meaning of the word did not become widespread
until the 1970s, when feminist theory embraced the concept of a distinction between biological sex
and the social construct of gender. Today, the distinction is strictly followed in some contexts,
especially the social sciences[5][6] and documents written by the World Health Organization (WHO).
[4]
In many other contexts, however, even in some areas of social sciences, the meaning of gender
has undergone a usage shift to include sex or even to replace the latter word.[1][2] Although this
gradual change in the meaning of gender can be traced to the 1980s, a small acceleration of the
process in the scientific literature was observed when, in 1993, the Food and Drug
Administration started to use gender instead of sex.[7] Gender is now commonly used even to refer to
the physiology of non-human animals, without any implication of social gender roles. [2]

In the English literature, the trichotomy between biological sex, psychological gender, and social sex
role first appeared in a feminist paper on transsexualism in 1978.[2][8] Some cultures have specific
gender-related social roles that can be considered distinct from male and female, such as
the hijra of India and Pakistan.

The social sciences have a branch devoted to gender studies. Other sciences, such
as sexology and neuroscience, are also interested in the subject. While the social sciences
sometimes approach gender as a social construct, and gender studies particularly do, research in
the natural sciences investigates whether biological differences in males and females influence the
development of gender in humans; both inform debate about how far biological differences influence
the formation of gender identity.

Etymology and usage[edit]

The modern English word gender comes from the Middle English gendre, a loanword from Norman-
conquest-era Old French. This, in turn, came from Latin genus. Both words mean "kind", "type", or
"sort". They derive ultimately from a widely attested Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root gen-,[9][10] which
is also the source of kin, kind, king, and many other English words.[11] Most uses of derivatives of this
root in Indo-European languages refer either directly to what pertains to birth (for example pre-gn-
ant) or, by extension, to natural, innate qualities and their consequent social distinctions (for
example gentry, generation, gentile, genocide, and eugenics). It appears in Modern French in the
word genre(type, kind, also genre sexuel) and is related to the Greek root gen- (to produce),
appearing in gene, genesis, and oxygen.

The first edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED1, Volume 4, 1900) notes the original meaning
of gender as "kind" had already become obsolete.

Gender (dʒe'ndəɹ), sb. Also 4 gendre. [a. OF. gen(d)re (F. genre) = Sp. género, Pg. gênero,
It. genere, ad. L. gener- stem form of genus race, kind = Gr. γένος, Skr.jánas:— OAryan *genes-, f.
root γεν- to produce; cf. KIN.]
†1. Kind, sort, class; also, genus as opposed to species. The general gender: the common sort (of
people). Obs.
13.. E.E.Allit. P. P. 434 Alle gendrez so ioyst wern ioyned wyth-inne. c 1384 CHAUSER H. Fame* 1. 18
To knowe of hir signifiaunce The gendres. 1398 TREVISA Barth. De P. K. VIII. xxix. (1495)
34I Byshynynge and lyghte ben dyuers as species and gendre, for suery shinyng is lyght, but not
ayenwarde. 1602 SHAKES. Ham. IV. vii. 18 The great loue the generall gender beare him. 1604—
Oth. I. iii. 326 Supplie it with one gender of Hearbes, or distract it with many. 1643 and so on.

The word was still widely attested, however, in the specific sense of grammatical gender (the
assignment of nouns to categories such as masculine, feminine and neuter). According to Aristotle,
this concept was introduced by the Greek philosopher Protagoras.

τὰ γένη τῶν ὀνομάτων ἄρρενα καὶ θήλεα καὶ σκεύη The classes (genē) of the nouns are males,
females and things. The Technique of Rhetoric III v[12]

In 1926, Henry Watson Fowler recommended that the word be restricted to this grammar-related
meaning only:
"Gender...is a grammatical term only. To talk of persons...of the masculine or feminine g[ender],
meaning of the male or female sex, is either a jocularity (permissible or not according to context) or a
blunder."[13]

However examples of the use of gender to refer to masculinity and femininity as types are found
throughout the history of Modern English (from about the 14th century).

 1387–8: No mo genders been there but masculine, and femynyne, all the remnaunte been
no genders but of grace, in facultie of grammar—Thomas Usk, The Testament of Love II iii
(Walter William Skeat) 13.

 c. 1460: Has thou oght written there of the femynyn gendere?—Towneley Mystery Plays xxx
161 Act One.

 1632: Here's a woman! The soul of Hercules has got into her. She has a spirit, is more
masculine Than the first gender—Shackerley Marmion, Holland's Leaguer III iv.

 1658: The Psyche, or soul, of Tiresias is of the masculine gender—Thomas

Browne, Hydriotaphia.

 1709: Of the fair sex ... my only consolation for being of that gender has been the assurance
it gave me of never being married to any one among them—Mary Wortley Montagu, Letters to
Mrs Wortley lxvi 108.

 1768: I may add the gender too of the person I am to govern—Laurence Sterne, A
Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy.

 1859: Black divinities of the feminine 'gender —Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities.

 1874: It is exactly as if there were a sex in mountains, and their contours and curves and
complexions were here all of the feminine gender—Henry James, 'A Chain of Italian Cities', The
Atlantic Monthly 33 (February, p. 162.)

 1892: She was uncertain as to his gender—Robert Grant, 'Reflections of a Married

Man', Scribner's Magazine 11 (March, p. 376.)

 1896: As to one's success in the work one does, surely that is not a question
of gender either—Daily News 17 July.

 c. 1900: Our most lively impression is that the sun is there assumed to be of the
feminine gender—Henry James, Essays on Literature.
As a verb, gender means "breed" in the King James Bible:

Thou shalt not let thy cattle gender with a diverse kind

—Leviticus 19:19, 1616

The modern academic sense of the word, in the context of social roles of men and women, dates
from the work of John Money (1955), and was popularized and developed by thefeminist
movement from the 1970s onwards (see Feminism theory and gender studies below). The theory
was that human nature is essentially epicene and social distinctions based on sex are arbitrarily
constructed. Matters pertaining to this theoretical process of social construction were labelled
matters of gender.

The popular use of gender simply as an alternative to sex (as a biological category) is also
widespread, although attempts are still made to preserve the distinction. The American Heritage
Dictionary (2000) uses the following two sentences to illustrate the difference, noting that the
distinction "is useful in principle, but it is by no means widely observed, and considerable variation in
usage occurs at all levels."[14]

The effectiveness of the medication appears to depend on the sex (not gender) of the patient.
In peasant societies, gender (not sex) roles are likely to be more clearly defined.

In the last two decades of the 20th century, the use of gender in academia increased greatly,
outnumbering uses of sex in the social sciences. While the spread of the word in science
publications can be attributed to the influence of feminism, its use as a euphemism for sex is
attributed to the failure to grasp the distinction made in feminist theory, and the distinction has
sometimes become blurred with the theory itself.[2]

Among the reasons that working scientists have given me for choosing gender rather than sex in
biological contexts are desires to signal sympathy with feminist goals, to use a more academic term,
or to avoid the connotation of copulation—David Haig, The Inexorable Rise of Gender and the
Decline of Sex.[2]

Analogous terms in other languages[edit]

Tamil

Gender activist Gopi Shankar coined the regional terms for Genderqueer people in Tamil. After
English, Tamil is the only language that has been given names for all the genders identified so far. [15]

Urdu

Urdu recognizes hijra as a third gender in India and Pakistan since the mid to late 2000s.[16][17]

Gender identity and gender roles[edit]

Main articles: Gender identity and Gender role
Gender identity is the gender a person self-identifies as. One's biological sex is directly tied to
specific social roles and expectations. Judith Butler considers the concept of being a woman to have
more challenges, owing not only to society's viewing women as a social category but also as a felt
sense of self, a culturally conditioned or constructed subjective identity. The term "woman" has
chronically been used as a reference to and for the female body; this usage has been viewed as
controversial by feminists, in the definition of "woman". There are qualitative analyses that explore
and present the representations of gender; feminists challenge the dominant ideologies concerning
gender roles and sex. Social identity refers to the common identification with a collectivity or social
category that creates a common culture among participants concerned. According to social identity
theory, an important component of the self-concept is derived from memberships in social groups
and categories; this is demonstrated by group processes and how inter-group relationships impact
significantly on individuals' self-perception and behaviors. The group’s people belong to therefore
provide members with the definition of who they are and how they should behave in the social
sphere.

Categorizing males and females into social roles creates binaries in which individuals feel they have
to be at one end of a linear spectrum and must identify themselves as man or woman. Globally,
communities interpret biological differences between men and women to create a set of social
expectations that define the behaviors that are "appropriate" for men and women and determine
women’s and men’s different access to rights, resources, power in society and even health
behaviors. Although the specific nature and degree of these differences vary from one society to the
next, they typically favor men, creating an imbalance in power and gender inequalities in all
countries. According to Spade and Valentine (2011), there is no universal definition of expectations
or responsibilities of gender. Many cultures have different expectations based on gender, but there is
no universal standard to a masculine or feminine role across all cultures.

Philosopher Michel Foucault claims that as sexual subjects, humans are the object of power, which
is not an institution or structure, rather it is a signifier or name attributed to "complex strategical
situation". Because of this, "power" is what determines individual attributes, behaviors, etc. and
people are a part of an ontologically and epistemologically constructed set of names and labels.
Such as, being female characterizes one as a woman, and being a woman signifies one as weak,
emotional, and irrational, and is incapable of actions attributed to a "man". Judith Butler said that
gender and sex are more like verbs than nouns. She reasoned that her actions are limited because
she is female. "I am not permitted to construct my gender and sex willy-nilly," she said. "[This] is so
because gender is politically and therefore socially controlled. Rather than 'woman' being something
one is, it is something one does." More recent criticisms of Judith Butler's theories critique her writing
for reinforcing the very conventional dichotomies of gender.

Social assignment and the idea of gender fluidity [edit]

See also: Sex assignment
According to gender theorist Kate Bornstein, gender can have ambiguity and fluidity.[27] There are
two contrasting ideas regarding the definition of gender, and the intersection of both of them is
definable as below:

The World Health Organization defines gender as the result of socially constructed ideas about the
behavior, actions, and roles a particular sex performs.[4] The beliefs, values and attitude taken up and
exhibited by them is as per the agreeable norms of the society and the personal opinions of the
person is not taken into the primary consideration of assignment of gender and imposition of gender
roles as per the assigned gender.[4] Intersections and crossing of the prescribed boundaries have no
place in the arena of the social construct of the term "gender".

The assignment of gender involves taking into account the physiological and biological attributes
assigned by nature followed by the imposition of the socially constructed conduct. The social label of
being classified into one or the other sex is obligatory to the medical stamp on the birth
certificate. Gender is a term used to exemplify the attributes that a society or culture constitutes as
"masculine" or "feminine". Although a person's sex as male or female stands as a biological fact that
is identical in any culture, what that specific sex means in reference to a person's gender role as a
woman or a man in society varies cross culturally according to what things are considered to be
masculine or feminine.[28]The cultural traits typically coupled to a particular sex finalize the
assignment of gender and the biological differences that play a role in classifying either sex is
interchangeable with the definition of gender within the social context.

In this context, the socially constructed rules are at a cross road with the assignment of a particular
gender to a person. Gender ambiguity deals with having the freedom to choose, manipulate and
create a personal niche within any defined socially constructed code of conduct while gender fluidity
is outlawing all the rules of cultural gender assignment. It does not accept the prevalence of the two
rigidly defined genders "man" and "woman" and believes in freedom to choose any kind of gender
with no rules, no defined boundaries and no fulfilling of expectations associated with any particular
gender.

Both these definitions are facing opposite directionalities with their own defined set of rules and
criteria on which the said systems are based.
Social categories[edit]

Mary Frith ("Moll Cutpurse") scandalised 17th century society by wearing male clothing, smoking in public, and
otherwise defying gender roles.

Sexologist John Money coined the term gender role in 1955. The term gender role means those
things people say or do to disclose their status of boy or man, girl or woman, respectively. It includes,
but is not restricted to, sexuality in the sense of eroticism. [29] Elements of such a role include clothing,
speech patterns, movement, occupations, and other factors not limited to biological sex. Because
social aspects of gender can normally be presumed to be the ones of interest in sociology and
closely related disciplines, gender role is often abbreviated to gender in their literature.

"Rosie the Riveter" was an iconic symbol of the American homefront inWWII and a departure from gender roles due
to wartime necessity.
Most societies have only two distinct, broad classes of gender roles, masculine and feminine, that
correspond with the biological sexes of male and female. When a baby is born, society allocates the
child to one sex or the other, on the basis of what the genitals look like. [28] However, some societies
explicitly incorporate people who adopt the gender role opposite to their biological sex; for example,
the two-spirit people of some indigenous American peoples. Other societies include well-developed
roles that are explicitly considered more or less distinct from archetypal female and male roles in
those societies. In the language of the sociology of gender, they comprise a third gender,[30] more or
less distinct from biological sex (sometimes the basis for the role does include intersexuality or
incorporates eunuchs).[31] One such gender role is that adopted by the hijras ofIndia and Pakistan.[32]
[33]
Another example may be the Muxe (pronounced [ˈmuʃe]), found in the state of Oaxaca, in
southern Mexico, "beyond gay and straight."[34]

The Bugis people of Sulawesi, Indonesia have a tradition that incorporates all the features above.
[35]
Joan Roughgarden argues that some non-human animal species also have more than two
genders, in that there might be multiple templates for behavior available to individual organisms with
a given biological sex.[36][clarification needed]

In July 2012 Gopi Shankar, a Gender activist and a student from The American College in
Madurai coined the regional terms for genderqueer people in Tamil, Gopi said apart from male and
female, there are more than 20 types of genders, such
as transwoman, transmen, androgynous, pangender, trigender,, etc., and ancient India refers it as
Trithiya prakirthi. "[15][37][38]

Measurement of gender identity[edit]

Early gender identity research hypothesized a single bipolar dimension of masculinity-femininity—
that is masculinity and femininity were opposites on one continuum. As societal stereotypes
changed, however, assumptions of the unidimensional model were challenged. This led to the
development of a two-dimensional gender identity model, in which masculinity and femininity were
conceptualized as two separate, orthogonal dimensions, coexisting in varying degrees within an
individual. This conceptualization on femininity and masculinity remains the accepted standard
today.[39]

Two instruments incorporating the multidimensional of masculinity and femininity have dominated
gender identity research: The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Personal Attributes
Questionnaire (PAQ). Both instruments categorize individuals as either being sex typed (males
report themselves as identifying primarily with masculine traits, females report themselves as
identifying primarily with feminine traits), cross sex-typed (males report themselves as identifying
primarily with feminine traits, females report themselves as identifying primarily with masculine
traits), androgynous (either males or females who report themselves as high on both masculine and
feminine traits) or undifferentiated (either males or females who report themselves as low on both
masculine and feminine traits).[39] Twenge (1997) noted that, although men are generally more
masculine than women and women generally more feminine than men, the association between
biological sex and masculinity/femininity is waning. [40]

Feminism theory and gender studies[edit]

Part of a series on

Feminist philosophy

Major works

 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)

 The Subjection of Women (1869)

 The Second Sex (1949)

 Gender Trouble (1990)

Major theorists

 Mary Wollstonecraft

 Simone de Beauvoir

 Judith Butler

Key concepts

 Feminism
 Gender

 Gender equality

 Gender performativity

 V
 T
 E

Biologist and feminist academic Anne Fausto-Sterling rejects the discourse of biological versus
social determinism and advocates a deeper analysis of how interactions between the biological
being and the social environment influence individuals' capacities.[41] The philosopher and
feminist Simone de Beauvoir applied existentialism to women's experience of life: "One is not born a
woman, one becomes one."[42] In context, this is a philosophical statement. However, it may be
analyzed in terms of biology—a girl must passpuberty to become a woman—and sociology, as a
great deal of mature relating in social contexts is learned rather than instinctive. [43]

Within feminist theory, terminology for gender issues developed over the 1970s. In the 1974 edition
of Masculine/Feminine or Human, the author uses "innate gender" and "learned sex roles", [44] but in
the 1978 edition, the use of sex and gender is reversed.[45] By 1980, most feminist writings had
agreed on using gender only for socioculturally adapted traits.

In gender studies the term gender refers to proposed social and cultural constructions of
masculinities and femininities. In this context, gender explicitly excludes reference to biological
differences, to focus on cultural differences.[46] This emerged from a number of different areas: in
sociology during the 1950s; from the theories of the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan; and in the work
of French psychoanalysts like Julia Kristeva, Luce Irigaray, and American feminists such as Judith
Butler. Those who followed Butler came to regard gender roles as a practice, sometimes referred to
as "performative".[47]

Charles E. Hurst states that some people think sex will, "...automatically determine one’s gender
demeanor and role (social) as well as one’s sexual orientation (sexual attractions and behavior).
[48]
Gender sociologists believe that people have cultural origins and habits for dealing with gender.
For example, Michael Schwalbe believes that humans must be taught how to act appropriately in
their designated gender to fill the role properly, and that the way people behave as masculine or
feminine interacts with social expectations. Schwalbe comments that humans "are the results of
many people embracing and acting on similar ideas".[49] People do this through everything
from clothing and hairstyle to relationship and employment choices. Schwalbe believes that these
distinctions are important, because society wants to identify and categorize people as soon as we
see them. They need to place people into distinct categories to know how we should feel about
them.

Hurst comments that in a society where we present our genders so distinctly, there can often be
severe consequences for breaking these cultural norms. Many of these consequences are rooted
in discrimination based on sexual orientation. Gays and lesbians are often discriminated against in
our legal system because of societal prejudices.[citation needed] Hurst describes how this discrimination
works against people for breaking gender norms, no matter what their sexual orientation is. He says
that "courts often confuse sex, gender, and sexual orientation, and confuse them in a way that
results in denying the rights not only of gays and lesbians, but also of those who do not present
themselves or act in a manner traditionally expected of their sex".[50] This prejudice plays out in our
legal system when a man or woman is judged differently because he or she does not present the
"correct" gender.

Andrea Dworkin stated her "commitment to destroying male dominance and gender itself" while
stating her belief in radical feminism.[51]
Critiques of feminist theory by Warren Farrell[52][53] have given broader consideration to findings from
a ten-year study of courtship by Buss.[54] Both perspectives on gendering are integrated in Attraction
Theory, a theoretical framework developed by Dr Rory Ridley-Duff illustrating how courtship and
parenting obligations (rather than male dominance) act as a generative mechanism that produces
and reproduces a range of gender identities.[55][56]

Political scientist Mary Hawkesworth addresses gender and feminist theory, noting that since the
1970s the concept of gender has transformed and been used in significantly different ways within
feminist scholarship.[57] Hawkesworth notes that a transition occurred when several feminist scholars,
such as Sandra Harding and Joan Scott, began to conceive of gender "as an analytic category within
which humans think about and organize their social activity". [58] Feminist scholars in Political
Science began employing gender as an analytical category, which highlighted "social and political
relations neglected by mainstream accounts".[59] However, Hawkesworth notes "feminist political
science has not become a dominant paradigm within the discipline".[59]

American political scientist Karen Beckwith addresses the concept of gender within political science
arguing that a "common language of gender" exists and that it must be explicitly articulated in order
to build upon it within the political science discipline. Beckwith describes two ways in which the
political scientist may employ 'gender' when conducting empirical research: "gender as a category
and as a process." Employing gender as a category allows for political scientists "to delineate
specific contexts where behaviours, actions, attitudes and preferences considered masculine or
feminine result in particular" political outcomes.[60] It may also demonstrate how gender differences,
not necessarily corresponding precisely with sex, may "constrain or facilitate political" actors.
[60]
Gender as a process has two central manifestations in political science research, firstly in
determining "the differential effects of structures and policies upon men and women," and secondly,
the ways in which masculine and feminine political actors "actively work to produce favorable
gendered outcomes".[61]

With regard to gender studies, Jacquetta Newman states that although sex is determined
biologically, the ways in which people express gender is not. Gendering is a socially constructed
process based on culture, though often cultural expectations around women and men have a direct
relationship to their biology. Because of this, Newman argues, many privilege sex as being a cause
of oppression and ignore other issues like race, ability, poverty, etc. Current gender studies classes
seek to move away from that and examine the intersectionality of these factors in determining
people's lives. She also points out that other non-Western cultures do not necessarily have the same
views of gender and gender roles.[62] Newman also debates the meaning of equality, which is often
considered the goal of feminism; she believes that equality is a problematic term because it can
mean many different things, such as people being treated identically, differently, or fairly based on
their gender. Newman believes this is problematic because there is no unified definition as to what
equality means or looks like, and that this can be significantly important in areas like public policy. [63]
Social construction of sex hypotheses[edit]
See also: Sex and gender distinction

Scholars generally regard gender as a social construct, and various researchers, including
some feminists, consider sex to only be a matter of biology and something that is not about social or
cultural construction. For instance, sexologist John Money suggests the distinction between
biological sex and gender as a role.[29] Moreover, Ann Oakley, a professor of sociology and social
policy, says "the constancy of sex must be admitted, but so also must the variability of
gender."[64] The World Health Organization states, "'[s]ex' refers to the biological and physiological
characteristics that define men and women," and "'[g]ender' refers to the socially constructed roles,
behaviours, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and
women."[65] Thus, sex is regarded as a category studied in biology (natural sciences), while gender is
studied in humanitiesand social sciences. Lynda Birke, a feminist biologist, maintains "'biology' is not
seen as something which might change."[66] Therefore, it is stated that sex is something that does not
change, while gender can change according to social structure.

However, there are scholars who argue that sex is also socially constructed. For example, Judith
Butler, a professor of rhetoric and comparative literature, states that "perhaps this construct called
'sex' is as culturally constructed as gender; indeed, perhaps it was always already gender, with the
consequence that the distinction between sex and gender turns out to be no distinction at all." [67]

She continues:

It would make no sense, then, to define gender as the cultural interpretation of sex, if sex is itself a
gendered category. Gender ought not to be conceived merely as the cultural inscription of meaning
on a pre-given sex (a juridical conception); gender must also designate the very apparatus of
production whereby the sexes themselves are established. [...] This production of sex as the pre-
discursive ought to be understood as the effect of the apparatus of cultural construction designated
by gender.[68]

Moreover, she asserts that "bodies only appear, only endure, only live within the productive
constraints of certain highly gendered regulatory schemas,"[69] and sex is "no longer as a bodily given
on which the construct of gender is artificially imposed, but as a cultural norm which governs the
materialization of bodies."[70]

With regard to history, Linda Nicholson, a professor of history and women's studies, says that the
notion of human bodies being separated into two sexes is not historically consistent. She argues that
male genitals and female genitals were considered inherently the same in Western society until the
18th century. At that time, female genitals were regarded as incomplete male genitals, and the
difference between the two was conceived as a matter of degree. In other words, there was a
gradation of physical forms, or a spectrum. Therefore, the current perspective toward sex, which is to
consider women and men and their typical genitalia as the only possible natural options, came into
existence through historical, not biological roots.[71]

In addition, drawing from the empirical research of intersex children, Anne Fausto-Sterling, a
professor of biology and gender studies, describes how the doctors address the issues of
intersexuality. She starts her argument with an example of the birth of an intersexual individual and
maintains "[o]ur conceptions of the nature of gender difference shape, even as they reflect, the ways
we structure our social system and polity; they also shape and reflect our understanding of our
physical bodies."[72] Then she adds how gender assumptions affects the scientific study of sex by
presenting the research of intersexuals by John Money et al., and she concludes that "they never
questioned the fundamental assumption that there are only two sexes, because their goal in
studying intersexuals was to find out more about 'normal' development."[73] She also mentions the
language the doctors use when they talk with the parents of the intersexuals. After describing how
the doctors inform parents about the intersexuality, she asserts that because the doctors believe that
the intersexuals are actually male or female, they tell the parents of the intersexuals that it will take a
little bit more time for the doctors to determine whether the infant is a boy or a girl. That is to say, the
doctors' behavior is formulated by the cultural gender assumption that there are only two sexes.
Lastly, she maintains that the differences in the ways in which the medical professionals in different
regions treat intersexual people also give us a good example of how sex is socially constructed. [74] In
her book, titledSexing the body: gender politics and the construction of sexuality, she introduces the
following example:

A group of physicians from Saudi Arabia recently reported on several cases of XX intersex children
with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a genetically inherited malfunction of the enzymes that
aid in making steroid hormones. [...] In the United States and Europe, such children, because they
have the potential to bear children later in life, are usually raised as girls. Saudi doctors trained in
this European tradition recommended such a course of action to the Saudi parents of CAH XX
children. A number of parents, however, refused to accept the recommendation that their child,
initially identified as a son, be raised instead as a daughter. Nor would they accept feminizing
surgery for their child. [...] This was essentially an expression of local community attitudes with [...]
the preference for male offspring.[75]

Thus it may be said that determining the sex of children is actually a cultural act, and the sex of
children is in fact socially constructed.[74] Therefore, it is possible that although sex seems fixed and
only related to biology, it may be actually deeply related to historical and social factors as well as
biology and other natural sciences.

Biological factors and views[edit]

See also: Sexual differentiation and Sex determination and differentiation (human)
 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please
help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2010)

The biology of gender became the subject of an expanding number of studies over the course of the
late 20th century. One of the earliest areas of interest was what is now calledgender identity
disorder (GID). Studies in this, and related areas, inform the following summary of the subject by
John Money. He stated:

The term "gender role" appeared in print first in 1955. The term gender identity was used in a press
release, November 21, 1966, to announce the new clinic for transsexuals at The Johns Hopkins
Hospital. It was disseminated in the media worldwide, and soon entered the vernacular. The
definitions of gender and gender identity vary on a doctrinal basis. In popularized and scientifically
debased usage, sex is what you are biologically; gender is what you become socially; gender
identity is your own sense or conviction of maleness or femaleness; and gender role is the cultural
stereotype of what is masculine and feminine. Causality with respect to gender identity disorder is
subdivisible into genetic, prenatal hormonal, postnatal social, and postpubertal hormonal
determinants, but there is, as yet, no comprehensive and detailed theory of causality. Gender coding
in the brain is bipolar. In gender identity disorder, there is discordancy between the natal sex of one's
external genitalia and the brain coding of one's gender as masculine or feminine. [76]

Money refers to attempts to distinguish a difference between biological sex and social gender as
"scientifically debased", because of our increased knowledge of a continuum ofdimorphic features
(Money's word is "dipolar") that link biological and behavioral differences. These extend from the
exclusively biological "genetic" and "prenatal hormonal" differences between men and women, to
"postnatal" features, some of which are social, but others have been shown to result from
"postpubertal hormonal" effects.

Although causation from the biological—genetic and hormonal—to the behavioural has been broadly
demonstrated and accepted, Money is careful to also note that understanding of the causal chains
from biology to behaviour in sex and gender issues is very far from complete. For example, the
existence of a "gay gene" has not been proven, but such a gene remains an acknowledged
possibility.[77]

There are studies concerning women who have a diagnosis called congenital adrenal hyperplasia,
which leads to the overproduction of masculinizing sex hormones, androgens. These women usually
have normal female appearances (though nearly all girls with CAH have corrective surgery
performed on their genitals) but despite of hormone-balancing medication that they are given since
birth, they are statistically more likely to be interested in activities traditionally linked to males than
females. Psychology professor and CAH researcher Dr. Sheri Berenbaum attributes these
differences to exposure to higher levels of male sex hormones in utero. [78]
Sexual reproduction[edit]

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standards. No cleanup reason has been specified. Please
help improve this section if you can. (May 2010)

Main article: Sexual reproduction

Sexual differentiation demands the fusion of gametes that are morphologically different.

—Cyril Dean Darlington, Recent Advances in Cytology, 1937.

Hoverflies mating

Sexual reproduction is a common method of producing a new individual within various species. In
sexually reproducing species, individuals produce special kinds of cells (called gametes) whose
function is specifically to fuse with one unlike gamete and thereby to form a new individual. This
fusion of two unlike gametes is called fertilization. By convention, where one type of gamete cell is
physically larger than the other, it is associated with female sex. Thus an individual that produces
exclusively large gametes (ova in humans) is called female, and one that produces exclusively small
gametes (spermatozoa in humans) is called male.

An individual that produces both types of gametes is called hermaphrodite (a name applicable also
to people with one testis and one ovary). In some species hermaphrodites can self-fertilize
(see Selfing), in others they can achieve fertilization with females, males or both. Some species, like
the Japanese Ash, Fraxinus lanuginosa, only have males and hermaphrodites, a rare reproductive
system calledandrodioecy. Gynodioecy is also found in several species. Human hermaphrodites are
typically, but not always, infertile.

What is considered defining of sexual reproduction is the difference between the gametes and
the binary nature of fertilization. Multiplicity of gamete types within a species would still be
considered a form of sexual reproduction. However, of more than 1.5 million living species,
[79]
recorded up to about the year 2000, "no third sex cell—and so no third sex—has appeared in
multicellular animals."[80][81][82] Why sexual reproduction has an exclusively binary gamete system is
not yet known. A few rare species that push the boundaries of the definitions are the subject of active
research for light they may shed on the mechanisms of the evolution of sex. For example, the most
toxic insect,[83] the harvester antPogonomyrmex, has two kinds of female and two kinds of male. One
hypothesis is that the species is a hybrid, evolved from two closely related preceding species.

Fossil records indicate that sexual reproduction has been occurring for at least one billion years.
[84]
However, the reason for the initial evolution of sex, and the reason it has survived to the present
are still matters of debate, there are many plausible theories. It appears that the ability to reproduce
sexually has evolved independently in various species on many occasions. There are cases where it
has also been lost, notably among the Fungi Imperfecti.[85] The blacktip shark (Carcharhinus
limbatus), flatworm (Dugesia tigrina) and some other species can reproduce either sexually
or asexually depending on various conditions.[86]

Sex/Gender taxonomy[edit]
The following systematic list (gender taxonomy) illustrates the kinds of diversity that have been
studied and reported in medical literature. It is placed in roughly chronological order of biological and
social development in the human life cycle. The earlier stages are more purely biological and the
latter are more dominantly social. Causation is known to operate from chromosome to gonads, and
from gonads to hormones. It is also significant from brain structure to gender identity (see Money
quote above). Brain structure and processing (biological) that may explain erotic preference (social),
however, is an area of ongoing research. Terminology in some areas changes quite rapidly to
accommodate the constantly growing knowledge base.

 chromosomes
46xx, 46xy, 47xxy (Klinefelter syndrome), 45xo (Turner's syndrome), 47xyy, 47xxx, 48xxyy,
46xx/xy mosaic, other mosaic, and others

 gonads
testicles, ovaries, one of each (hermaphrodites), ovotestes, or other gonadal dysgenesis

 hormones
androgens including testosterone; estrogens—
including estradiol, estriol, estrone; antiandrogens and others

 genitals
primary sexual characteristics (six class system)

 secondary sexual characteristics

dimorphic physical characteristics, other than primary characteristics (most
prominently breasts or their absence)

 brain structure
special kinds of secondary characteristics, due to their influence on psychology and
behaviour

 gender identity
psychological identification with either of the two main sexes

 gender role
social conformity with expectations for either of the two main sexes

 erotic preference
gynophilia, androphilia, bisexuality, asexuality and various paraphilias.
Sexual/gender dimorphism[edit]
See also: Sexual differentiation, Sexual dimorphism and Sex
differences in humans

Sexual differentiation in peafowl

Although sexual reproduction is defined at the cellular level,

key features of sexual reproduction operate within the
structures of the gamete cells themselves. Notably, gametes
carry very long molecules called DNA that the biological
processes of reproduction can "read" like a book of
instructions. In fact, there are typically many of these "books",
called chromosomes. Human gametes usually have 23
chromosomes, 22 of which are common to both sexes. The
final chromosomes in the two human gametes are
called sex chromosomes because of their role in sex
determination. Ova always have the same sex chromosome,
labelled X. About half of spermatozoa also have this same X
chromosome, the rest have a Y-chromosome. At fertilization the
gametes fuse to form a cell, usually with 46 chromosomes, and
either XX female or XY male, depending on whether the sperm
carried an X or a Y chromosome. Some of the other
possibilities are listedabove.

In humans, the "default" processes of reproduction result in an

individual with female characteristics. An intact Y-chromosome
contains what is needed to "reprogram" the processes
sufficiently to produce male characteristics, leading to sexual
differentiation. Part of the Y-chromosome, the Sex-determining
Region Y (SRY), causes what would normally become ovaries
to become testes. These, in turn, produce male hormones
called androgens. However, several points in the processes
have been identified where variations can result in people with
atypical characteristics, including atypical sexual
characteristics. Terminology for atypical sexual characteristics
has not stabilized. Disorder of sexual development (DSD) is
used by some in preference to intersex, which is used by
others in preference to pseudohermaphroditism.

Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) is an example of a DSD

that also illustrates that female development is the default for
humans. Although having one X and one Y chromosome, some
people are biologically insensitive to the androgens produced
by their testes. As a result, they follow the normal human
processes that results in a female. Women who are XY report
identifying as a woman—feeling and thinking like a woman—
and, where their biology is completely insensitive
to masculinizing factors, externally they look identical to other
women. Unlike other women, however, they cannot produce
ova, because they do not have ovaries.

The human XY system is not the only sex determination

system. Birds typically have a reverse, ZW system—males are
ZZ and females ZW.[citation needed] Whether male or female birds
influence the sex of offspring is not known for all species.
Several species of butterfly are known to have female parent
sex determination.[87]
The platypus has a complex hybrid system, the male has ten
sex chromosomes, half X and half Y.[88]

Gender studies[edit]
Main article: Gender studies

Gender studies is a field of interdisciplinary study

and academic field devoted to gender, gender identity and
gendered representation as central categories of analysis. This
field includes Women's studies (concerning women, feminity,
their gender roles and politics, and feminism), Men's
studies (concerning men, masculinity, their gender roles, and
politics), and LGBT studies.[89] Sometimes Gender studies is
offered together with Study of Sexuality. These disciplines
study gender and sexuality in the fields of literature and
language, history, political
science, sociology, anthropology, cinema and media studies,
human development, law, and medicine.[90] It also
analyses race, ethnicity, location,nationality, and disability.[91][92]

General studies[edit]
Genes[edit]

Chimpanzee

Main article: XY sex-determination system

Chromosomes were likened to books (above), also like books

they have been studied at more detailed levels. They contain
"sentences" called genes. In fact, many of these sentences are
common to multiple species. Sometimes they are organized in
the same order, other times they have been "edited"—deleted,
copied, changed, moved, even relocated to another "book", as
species evolve. Genes are a particularly important part of
understanding biological processes because they are directly
associated with observable objects, outside chromosomes,
called proteins, whose influence on cell chemistry can be
measured. In some cases genes can also be directly
associated with differences clear to the naked eye, like eye-
color itself. Some of these differences are sex specific, like
hairy ears. The "hairy ear" gene might be found on the Y
chromosome,[93] which explains why only men tend to have
hairy ears. However, sex-limited genes on anychromosome
can be expressed and "say", for example, "if you are in a male
body do X, otherwise do not." The same principle explains
whychimpanzees and humans are distinct, despite sharing
nearly all their genes.

The study of genetics is particularly inter-disciplinary. It is

relevant to almost every biological science. It is investigated in
detail by molecular level sciences, and itself contributes details
to high level abstractions like evolutionary theory.

Brain[edit]

Human brain

"It is well established that men have a larger cerebrum than

women by about 8–10% (Filipek et al., 1994; Nopoulos et al.,
2000; Passe et al., 1997a,b; Rabinowicz et al., 1999; Witelson
et al., 1995)."[94][95] However, what is functionally relevant are
differences in composition and "wiring". Richard J. Haier and
colleagues at the universities of New Mexico and California
(Irvine) found, using brain mapping, that men have more grey
matter related to general intelligence than women, and women
have more white matter related to intelligence than men – the
ratio between grey and white matter is 4% higher for men than
women.[94]

Grey matter is used for information processing, while white

matter consists of the connections between processing
centers. Other differences are measurable but less
pronounced.[96] Most of these differences are produced by
hormonal activity, ultimately derived from the Y chromosome
and sexual differentiation. However, differences that arise
directly from gene activity have also been observed.

A sexual dimorphism in levels of expression in brain tissue was

observed by quantitative real-time PCR, with females
presenting an up to 2-fold excess in the abundance of
PCDH11X transcripts. We relate these findings to sexually
dimorphic traits in the human brain. Interestingly, PCDH11X/Y
gene pair is unique to Homo sapiens, since the X-linked
gene was transposed to the Y chromosome after the human–
chimpanzee lineages split.

—[97]

Language areas of the brain:

Angular gyrus

Supramarginal gyrus

Broca's area
 Wernicke's area

Primary auditory cortex

It has also been demonstrated that brain processing responds

to the external environment. Learning, both of ideas and
behaviors, appears to be coded in brain processes. It also
appears that in several simplified cases this coding operates
differently, but in some ways equivalently, in the brains of men
and women.[98] For example, both men and women learn and
use language; however, bio-chemically, they appear to process
it differently. Differences in female and male use of language
are likely reflections both of biological preferences and
aptitudes, and of learned patterns.

Two of the main fields that study brain structure, biological (and
other) causes and behavioral (and other) results are
brain neurology and biological psychology. Cognitive science is
another important discipline in the field of brain research.

Society and behaviors[edit]

See also: Sex and psychology

Many of the more complicated human behaviors are influenced

by both innate factors and by environmental ones, which
include everything from genes, gene expression, and body
chemistry, through diet and social pressures. A large area of
research in behavioral psychology collates evidence in an
effort to discover correlations between behavior and various
possible antecedents such as genetics, gene regulation,
access to food and vitamins, culture, gender, hormones,
physical and social development, and physical and social
environments.

A core research area within sociology is the way human

behavior operates on itself, in other words, how the behavior of
one group or individual influences the behavior of other groups
or individuals. Starting in the late 20th century, the feminist
movement has contributed extensive study of gender and
theories about it, notably within sociology but not restricted to it.
Social theorists have sought to determine the specific nature of
gender in relation to biological sex and sexuality, with the result
being that culturally established gender and sex have become
interchangeable identifications that signify the allocation of a
specific 'biological' sex within a categorical gender. The second
wave feminist view that gender is socially constructed and
hegemonic in all societies, remains current in some literary
theoretical circles, Kira Hall and Mary Bucholtz publishing new
perspectives as recently as 2008.

Contemporary socialisation theory proposes the notion that

when a child is first born it has a biological sex but no social
gender. As the child grows, "...society provides a string of
prescriptions, templates, or models of behaviors appropriate to
the one sex or the other," which socialises the child into
belonging to a culturally specific gender. There is huge
incentive for a child to concede to their socialisation with
gender shaping the individual’s opportunities for education,
work, family, sexuality, reproduction, authority, and to make an
impact on the production of culture and knowledge. Adults who
do not perform these ascribed roles are perceived from this
perspective as deviant and improperly socialised.

Some believe society is constructed in a way that splits gender

into a dichotomy via social organisations that constantly invent
and reproduce cultural images of gender. Joan Acker believes
gendering occurs in at least five different interacting social
processes:

 The construction of divisions along the lines of gender,

such as those produced by labor, power, family, the state,
even allowed behaviors and locations in physical space

 The construction of symbols and images such as

language, ideology, dress and the media, that explain,
express and reinforce, or sometimes oppose, those
divisions

 Interactions between men and women, women and women

and men and men that involve any form of dominance and
submission. Conversational theorists, for example, have
 studied the way that interruptions, turn taking and the
setting of topics re-create gender inequality in the flow of
ordinary talk

 The way that the preceding three processes help to

produce gendered components of individual identity, i.e.,
the way they create and maintain an image of a gendered
self

 Gender is implicated in the fundamental, ongoing

processes of creating and conceptualising social
structures.

Looking at gender through a Foucauldian lens, gender is

transfigured into a vehicle for the social division of
power. Gender difference is merely a construct of society used
to enforce the distinctions made between what is assumed to
be female and male, and allow for the domination of
masculinity over femininity through the attribution of specific
gender-related characteristics. "The idea that men and women
are more different from one another than either is from
anything else, must come from something other than nature…
far from being an expression of natural differences, exclusive
gender identity is the suppression of natural similarities."

Gender conventions play a large role in attributing masculine

and feminine characteristics to a fundamental biological
sex. Socio-cultural codes and conventions, the rules by which
society functions, and which are both a creation of society as
well as a constituting element of it, determine the allocation of
these specific traits to the sexes. These traits provide the
foundations for the creation of hegemonic gender difference. It
follows then, that gender can be assumed as the acquisition
and internalisation of social norms. Individuals are therefore
socialised through their receipt of society’s expectations of
‘acceptable’ gender attributes that are flaunted within
institutions such as the family, the state and the media. Such a
notion of ‘gender’ then becomes naturalised into a person’s
sense of self or identity, effectively imposing a gendered social
category upon a sexed body.
The conception that people are gendered rather than sexed
also coincides with Judith Butler’s theories of gender
performativity. Butler argues that gender is not an expression of
what one is, but rather something that one does. It follows then,
that if gender is acted out in a repetitive manner it is in fact re-
creating and effectively embedding itself within the social
consciousness. Contemporary sociological reference to male
and female gender roles typically
uses masculinities and femininities in the plural rather than
singular, suggesting diversity both within cultures as well as
across them.

From the evidence, it can only be concluded that gender is

socially constructed and each individual is unique in their
gender characteristics, regardless of which biological sex they
are, as every child is socialised to behave a certain way and
have the ‘proper’ gender attributes. If individuals in society do
not conform to this pressure, they are destined to be treated as
abnormal; therefore it is personally greatly beneficial for them
to cooperate in the determined ‘correct’ ordering of the world. In
fact, the very construct of society is a product of and produces
gender norms. There is bias in applying the word ‘gender’ to
anyone in a finite way; rather each person is endowed with
certain gender characteristics. The world cannot be egalitarian
while there are ‘assigned’ genders and individuals are not given
the right to express any gender characteristic they desire.

The difference between the sociological and popular definitions

of gender involve a different dichotomy and focus. For
example, the sociological approach to "gender" (social roles:
female versus male) focuses on the difference in
(economic/power) position between a male CEO (disregarding
the fact that he is heterosexual or homosexual) to female
workers in his employ (disregarding whether they are straight
or gay). However the popular sexual self-conception approach
(self-conception: gay versus straight) focuses on the different
self-conceptions and social conceptions of those who are
gay/straight, in comparison with those who are straight
(disregarding what might be vastly differing economic and
power positions between female and male groups in each
category). There is then, in relation to definition of and
approaches to "gender", a tension between historic feminist
sociology and contemporary homosexual sociology.[107]

Legal status[edit]
General[edit]
A person's sex as male or female has legal significance—sex is
indicated on government documents, and laws provide
differently for men and women. Many pension systems have
different retirement ages for men or women. Marriage is usually
only available to opposite-sex couples; in some countries, there
are same-sex marriage laws.

The question then arises as to what legally determines whether

someone is female or male. In most cases this can appear
obvious, but the matter is complicated
for intersex ortransgender people. Different jurisdictions have
adopted different answers to this question. Almost all countries
permit changes of legal gender status in cases of
intersexualism, when the gender assignment made at birth is
determined upon further investigation to be biologically
inaccurate—technically, however, this is not a change of
status per se. Rather, it is recognition of a status deemed to
exist but unknown from birth. Increasingly, jurisdictions also
provide a procedure for changes of legal gender for
transgender people.

Gender assignment, when there are indications that genital sex

might not be decisive in a particular case, is normally not
defined by a single definition, but by a combination of
conditions, including chromosomes and gonads. Thus, for
example, in many jurisdictions a person with XY chromosomes
but female gonads could be recognized as female at birth.

The ability to change legal gender for transgender people in

particular has given rise to the phenomena in some
jurisdictions of the same person having different genders for
the purposes of different areas of the law. For example, in
Australia prior to the Re Kevin decisions, transsexual people
could be recognized as having the genders they identified with
under many areas of the law, including social security law, but
not for the law of marriage. Thus, for a period, it was possible
for the same person to have two different genders under
Australian law.

It is also possible in federal systems for the same person to

have one gender under state law and a different gender under
federal law.

The first person known to be legally of indeterminate gender

(that is, neither man or woman in legal terms) is Alex
MacFarlane, from Australia, whose status was reported in
January 2003.

Gender and economic development[edit]

Gender, and particularly the role of women is widely recognized
as vitally important to international development issues.[citation
needed]
This often means a focus on gender-equality,
ensuring participation, but includes an understanding of the
different roles and expectation of the genders within the
community.[citation needed]

In modern times, the study of gender and development has

become a broad field that involves politicians, economists,
and human rights activists. Gender and Development, unlike
previous theories concerning women in development, includes
a broader view of the effects of development on gender
including economic, political, and social issues. The theory
takes a holistic approach to development and its effects on
women and recognizes the negative effects gender blind
development policies have had on women. Prior to 1970, it was
believed that development affected men and women in the
same way and no gendered perspective existed for
development studies. However, the 1970s saw a
transformation in development theory that sought to
incorporate women into existing development paradigms.
When Ester Boserup published her book, Women’s Role in
Economic DevelopmentEster Boserup, there was a realization
that development affected men and women differently and
there began to be more of a focus on women and
development. Boserup argued that women were marginalized
in the modernization process and practices of growth,
development, and development policy threatened to actually
make women worse off. Boserup’s work translated into the
beginning of a larger discourse termed Women in Development
(WID) Women in Development coined by the Women’s
Committee of the Washington DC Chapter of the Society for
International Development; a network of female development
professionals. Society for International Development The
primary goal of WID was to include women into existing
development initiatives. Since it was argued that women were
marginalized and excluded from the benefits of development.
In so doing, the WID approach pointed out that the major
problem to women’s unequal representation and participation is
the male biased and patriarch cal development policies. In
short, the WID approach blamed patriarchy which did not
consider women’s productive and reproductive work. In fact,
women were tied to domestic work hence were almost invisible
in development programs. The WID approach began to gain
criticism as ignoring how women’s
economic marginalization was linked to the development model
itself. Some feminists argued that the key concept for women
and development should be subordination in the context of new
capitalist forms of insecure and hierarchical job structures, but
not marginalization as WID approaches emphasized. The rise
of criticism in the WID approach led to a new theory to develop,
that of Women and Development (WAD).

However, Just as WID had its critics, so did WAD. Many critics
of WAD argued that it failed to sufficiently address the
differential power relations between women and men, and
tended to overemphasize women’s productive as opposed to
reproductive roles . The rise of criticism of the exclusion of men
in WID and WAD led to a new theory termed Gender and
Development (GAD). Gender and development By drawing
from insights developed in psychology, sociology, and gender
studies, GAD theorists shifted from understanding women’s
problems as based on their sex (i.e. their biological differences
from men) to understanding them as based on gender – the
social relations between women and men, their social
construction, and how women have been systematically
subordinated in this relationship. At their most fundamental,
GAD perspectives link the social relations of production with
the social relations of reproduction – exploring why and how
women and men are assigned to different roles and
responsibilities in society, how these dynamics are reflected in
social, economic, and political theories and institutions, and
how these relationships affect development policy
effectiveness. According to proponents of GAD, women are
cast not as passive recipients of development aid, but rather as
active agents of change whose empowerment should be a
central goal of development policy. In contemporary times,
most literature and institutions that are concerned with
women's role in development incorporate a GAD perspective;
with the United Nations having taken the lead of mainstreaming
the GAD approach through its system and development
policies.

Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have

highlighted that policy dialogue on the Millennium Development
Goals needs to recognize that the gender dynamics of power,
poverty, vulnerability and care link all the goals.[108] The various
United Nations International women’s conferences in Beijing,
Mexico City, Copenhagen, and Nairobi, as well as the
development of the Millennium Development Goals in 2000
have taken a GAD approach and holistic view of development.
The United Nations Millennium Declarationsigned at the United
Nations Millennium Summit in 2000 including eight goals that
were to be reached by 2015, and although it would be a difficult
task to reach them, they were all able to be monitored. The
eight goals are: 1. Halve the proportion of people living in
extreme poverty at the 1990 level by 2015. 2. Achieve universal
primary education 3. Promote gender equality and empower
women 4. Reduce child mortality rates 5. Improve maternal
health 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other diseases 7.
Ensure environmental sustainability 8. Global partnership

The MDGs have three goals specifically focused on women:

Goal 3, 4 and 5 but women’s issues also cut across all of the
goals. These goals overall comprise all aspects of women’s
lives including economic, health, and political participation.

Gender equality is also strongly linked to education. The Dakar

Framework for Action (2000) set out ambitious goals: to
eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary
education by 2005, and to achieve gender equality in education
by 2015. The focus was on ensuring girls’ full and equal access
to and achievement in good quality basic education. The
gender objective of the Dakar Framework for Action is
somewhat different from the MDG Goal 3 (Target 1): “Eliminate
gender disparity in primary and secondary education,
preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than
2015”. MDG Goal 3 does not comprise a reference to learner
achievement and good quality basic education, but goes
beyond the school level. Studies demonstrate the positive
impact of girls’ education on child and maternal health, fertility
rates, poverty reduction and economic growth. Educated
mothers are more likely to send their children to school. [109]

Some organizations working in developing countries and in the

development field have incorporated advocacy and
empowerment for women into their work. The United
NationsFood and Agriculture Organization adopted in
November 2009 a 10-year strategic framework that includes
the strategic objective of gender equity in access to resources,
goods, services and decision-making in rural areas, and
mainstreams gender equity in all FAO's programs for
agriculture and rural development.[110] The Association for
Progressive Communications (APC) has developed a Gender
Evaluation Methodology for planning and evaluating
development projects to ensure they benefit all sectors of
society including women.[111]

The Gender-related Development Index (GDI), developed by

the United Nations (UN), aims to show the inequalities between
men and women in the following areas: long and healthy life,
knowledge, and a decent standard of living. United Nations
Development program (UNDP) has introduced indicators
designed to add a gendered dimension to the Human
Development Index (HDI). Additionally, in 1995, the Gender-
related Development Index (GDI) Gender-related Development
Index and the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) Gender
Empowerment Measure were introduced. More recently, in
2010 UNDP introduced a new indicator the Gender Inequality
Index (GII)Gender Inequality Index which was designed to be a
better measurement of gender inequality and to improve the
shortcomings of GDI and GEM.

Gender and poverty[edit]

Main article: Feminization of poverty

Gender inequality has a great impact especially on women and

poverty. In poverty stricken countries it is more likely that men
have more opportunities to have an income, have more political
and social rights than women. Women experience more
poverty than men do due to gender discrimination.[citation needed]

Gender and Development (GAD) is a holistic approach to give

aid to countries where gender inequality has a great effect of
not improving the social and economic development. It is to
empower women and decrease the level of inequality between
men and women.[112]

In many countries, the financial sector largely neglects women

even though they play an important role in the economy, as
Nena Stoiljkovic pointed out in D+C Development and
Cooperation[113]

Australian government policy on indeterminate

gender[edit]
Alex MacFarlane was reported as receiving a passport with an
'X' sex descriptor in early 2003. This was stated by the West
Australian to be on the basis of a challenge by MacFarlane,
using an indeterminate birth certificate issued by the State of
Victoria.[114][115][116]

Australian government policy between 2003 and 2011 was to

issue passports with an 'X' marker only to people who could
"present a birth certificate that notes their sex as
indeterminate"[117][118]
In 2011, the Australian Passport Office introduced new
guidelines for issuing of passports with a new gender, and
broadened availability of an X descriptor to all individuals with
certified "indeterminate" sex or gender, issued by a medical
doctor.[119][120] The revised policy stated that "sex reassignment
surgery is not a prerequisite to issue a passport in a new
gender. Birth or citizenship certificates do not need to be
amended."[121]

Australian Commonwealth guidelines on the recognition of sex

and gender, published in June 2013, defined the 'X' as a
gender marker including "indeterminate/intersex/unspecified".
The policy extends the use an 'X' gender marker to any adult
who chooses that option and can obtain a certifying letter from
a doctor or psychologist, in all dealings with the
Commonwealth government and its agencies. The option is
being introduced over a three year period. The guidelines also
clarify that the federal government collects data on gender,
rather than sex.[122]

Recognition of an intermediate gender is controversial even

amongst intersex organisations, such as Organisation Intersex
International Australia, who oppose such a classification of
infants and children.[123][124][125][126][127]

Science encompassing a gender[edit]

According to Londa Schiebinger, many have argued that
science should have a gender. Additionally, "Sir Francis Bacon,
the seventeenth-century English ideologue, called for the Royal
Society of London to "raise a masculine philosophy". Karl Joel,
19th century German historian of philosophy, desired to return
to "manly philosophy" and "applauded the arrival of a
masculine epoch". Another advocate of the male gender of
science, Kant, who also was a philosopher, believed that
anyone who wanted to engage an intellectual profession,
needed to sport a beard. On a different perspective,
specifically, the female perspective, Mary Wollstonecraft, "in
her efforts to create equality between the sexes, encouraged
women to become "more masculine and respectable". On
board of supporting the notion that science was masculine, was
Evelyn Fox Keller, a feminist American physicist, "declared that
science is "masculine," not only in the person of its
practitioners but in its ethos and substance." Gender is the
prime reason in which women feel estranged and left out of the
realm of science. As for women who did participate within
science, shadowed the masculine voice in their publications or
utilized their male partners to carry out their own findings of
science. Society played a leading and influential role into
women in the public and private sphere. As more women
entered the primatology sciences, in which they were to leave
society behind and delve deep into adapting within the dark
premises of the wild jungles where years passed by them.
Once women were allowed within the public sphere of science,
they became secretive about their pregnancies and "took trips
for their work", to indulge in giving birth without experiencing
the negative stigma of society. Some women disguised
themselves in looking like men and experienced the outside
societal judgments of working alongside a male scientists.[128]

Religion[edit]
Further information: Gender and religion

This topic includes internal and external religious issues such

as gender of God and deities creation myths about human
gender, roles and rights (for instance, leadership roles
especially ordination of women, sex segregation, gender
equality, marriage, abortion, homosexuality)

According to Kati Niemelä of the Church Research Institute,

women are universally more religious than men. They believe
that the difference in religiousity between genders is due to
biological differences, for instance usually people seeking
security in life are more religious, and as men are considered
to be greater risk takers than women, they are less religious.
Although religious fanaticism is more often seen in men than
women.[129]
yin and yang

In Taoism, yin and yang are considered feminine and

masculine, respectively. The Taijitu and concept of the Zhou
period reach into family and gender relations. Yin is female and
yang is male. They fit together as two parts of a whole. The
male principle was equated with the sun: active, bright, and
shining; the female principle corresponds to the moon: passive,
shaded, and reflective. Male toughness was balanced by
female gentleness, male action and initiative by female
endurance and need for completion, and male leadership by
female supportiveness.

In Judaism, God is traditionally described in the masculine, but

in the mystical tradition of the Kabbalah,
the Shekhinah represents the feminine aspect of God's
essence. However, Judaism traditionally holds that God is
completely non-corporeal, and thus neither male nor female.
Conceptions of the gender of God notwithstanding, traditional
Judaism places a strong emphasis on individuals following
Judaism's traditional gender roles, though many
moderndenominations of Judaism strive for greater
egalitarianism.

In Christianity, God is described in masculine terms and the

Church has historically been described in feminine terms. On
the other hand, Christian theology in many churches
distinguishes between the masculine images used of God
(Father, King, God the Son) and the reality they signify, which
transcends gender, embodies all the virtues of both genders
perfectly, which may be seen through the doctrine of Imago
Dei. In the New Testament, Jesus at several times mentions
with the masculine pronoun i.e. John 15:26 among other
verses. Hence, the Father, the Son and the Holy
Spirit (i.e. Trinity) are all mentioned with the masculine
pronoun; though the exact meaning of the masculinity of the
Christian triune God is contended.

In Hinduism

One of the several forms of the Hindu God Shiva, is

Ardhanarishwar (literally half-female God). Here Shiva
manifests himself so that the left half is Female and the right
half is Male. The left represents Shakti (energy, power) in the
form of Goddess Parvati (otherwise his consort) and the right
half Shiva. Whereas Parvati is the cause of arousal of Kama
(desires), Shiva is the killer. Shiva is pervaded by the power of
Parvati and Parvati is pervaded by the power of Shiva.

While the stone images may seem to represent a half-male and

half-female God, the true symbolic representation is of a being
the whole of which is Shiva and the whole of which is Shakti at
the same time. It is a 3-D representation of only shakti from
one angle and only Shiva from the other. Shiva and Shakti are
hence the same being representing a collective of Jnana
(knowledge) and Kriya (activity).

Adi Shankaracharya, the founder of non-dualistic philosophy

(Advaita–"not two") in Hindu thought says in his
"Saundaryalahari"—Shivah Shaktayaa yukto yadi bhavati
shaktah prabhavitum na che devum devona khalu kushalah
spanditam api " i.e., It is only when Shiva is united with Shakti
that He acquires the capability of becoming the Lord of the
Universe. In the absence of Shakti, He is not even able to stir.
In fact, the term "Shiva" originated from "Shva," which implies a
dead body. It is only through his inherent shakti that Shiva
realizes his true nature.

This mythology projects the inherent view in ancient Hinduism,

that each human carries within himself both female and male
components, which are forces rather than sexes, and it is the
harmony between the creative and the annihilative, the strong
and the soft, the proactive and the passive, that makes a true
person. Such thought, leave alone entail gender equality, in
fact obliterates any material distinction between the male and
female altogether. This may explain why in ancient India we
find evidence of homosexuality, bisexuality, androgyny, multiple
sex partners and open representation of sexual pleasures in
artworks like the Khajuraho temples, being accepted within
prevalent social frameworks.

—[130]

Language[edit]
Natural languages often[citation needed] make gender distinctions.
These may be of various kinds, more or less loosely associated
by analogy with various actual or perceived differences
between men and women.

 Most languages include terms that are used

asymmetrically in reference to men and women. Concern
that current language may be biased in favor of men has
led some authors in recent times to argue for the use of a
more Gender-neutral vocabulary in English and other
languages.

 Several languages attest the use of different vocabulary by

men and women, to differing degrees. See, for
instance, Gender differences in spoken Japanese. The
oldest documented language, Sumerian, records a
distinctive sub-language only used by female speakers.
Conversely, many Indigenous Australian languages have
distinctive registers with limited lexis used by men in the
presence of their mothers-in-law (see Avoidance speech).

 Several languages such as Persian are gender-neutral. In

Persian the same word is used in reference to men and
women. Verbs, adjectives and nouns are not gendered.
(See Gender-neutrality in genderless languages)

 Grammatical gender is a property of some languages in

which every noun is assigned a gender, often with no direct
relation to its meaning. For example, the word for "girl"
ismuchacha (grammatically feminine)
in Spanish, Mädchen (grammatically neuter) in German,
and cailín (grammatically masculine) in Irish.
  The term "grammatical gender" is often applied to more
complex noun class systems. This is especially true when
a noun class system includes masculine and feminine as
well as some other non-gender features like animate,
edible, manufactured, and so forth. An example of the latter
is found in the Dyirbal language. A system traditionally
called "gender" appears in the Ojibwe language, which
distinguishes between animate and inanimate, but since
this does not exhibit a masculine/feminine distinction it
might be better described by "noun class." Likewise,
Sumerian distinguishes between personal (human and
divine) and impersonal (all other) noun classes, but these
classes have traditionally been known as genders.

Human sexuality and gender relations are closely interrelated and together affect
the ability of men and women to achieve and maintain sexual health and manage
their reproductive lives. Equal relationships between men and women in matters of
sexual relations and reproduction, including full respect for the physical integrity of
the human body, require mutual respect and willingness to accept responsibility for
the consequences of sexual behaviour. Responsible sexual behaviour, sensitivity and
equity in gender relations, particularly when instilled during the formative years,
enhance and promote respectful and harmonious partnerships between men and
women.