Engineering Physics 1

UIT- BBAU

Dr.Seetesh Pande

August 21, 2019

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Contents

1 Optics 5
1.1 Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1 Young’s Double Slit Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Fresnel Biprism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.3 Displacement of Fringes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.4 Interference by a Plane Parallel Film when illuminated by
a plane wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.5 Newton Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Fraunhofer Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.1 Single-Slit Diffraction Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.2 Positions of Maxima and Minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.3 Fraunhofer Double-Slit Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.4 Positions of Maxima and Minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.5 N-Slit Fraunhofer Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.6 Positions of Maxima and Minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

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4 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Optics

1.1 Interference
According to the Wave Theory of Light when the two light waves of the same
frequency and having a constant phase difference traverse simultaneously in the
same region of a medium and cross each other, then there is a modification
in the intensity of light in the region of superposition, which is in general dif-
ferent from the sum of intensities due to the individual waves at that point.
This modification in the intensity of light resulting from the superposition of
two (or more) waves of light is called interference. At certain points the wave
superimpose in such a way that the resultant intensity is greater than the sum
of the intensities due to the individual waves. The interference produced at
these points is called constructive interference or reinforcement, while at certain
other points the resultant intensity is less than the sum of intensities due to in-
dividual waves. The interference produced at these points is called destructive
interference.

1.1.1 Young’s Double Slit Experiment

(Note : For Figure in the following derivation, refer to the figure drawn on board
in the classroom ) Let S1 and S2 represent the two pinholes of the Young’s
interference experiment. We would determine the positions of maxima and
minima on the line LL0 which is parallel to the y-axis and lies in the plane
containing the points S, S1 , S2 . We will show that the interference pattern
around the point O consists of a series of dark and bright fringes. O being the
foot of the perpendicular from S to screen.
For an arbitrary point P (on the line LL0 ) to correspond to a maximum we
must have

S2 P − S1 P = nλ; n = 0, 1, 2.. (1.1)

Now,
"  2 # "  2 #
2 2 2 d 2 d
(S2 P ) − (S1 P ) = D + yn + − D + yn − (1.2)
2 2

5
6 CHAPTER 1. OPTICS

Figure 1.1: Young’s Double Slit Interference Pattern

= 2yn d (1.3)
where S1 S2 = d and OP = yn

Thus
2yn d
S2 P − S1 P = (1.4)
S2 P + S1 P
If yn , d  D then negligible error will be introduced if S2 P + S1 P is replaced
by 2D. In this approximation, Above equation becomes
yn d
S2 P − S1 P = (1.5)
D
Using Eq.1.1 we obtain
nλD
yn = (1.6)
d
Thus the dark and bright fringes are equally spaced and the distance between
two consecutive dark(or bright) fringes is given be

(n + 1)λD nλD
β = yn+1 − yn = − (1.7)
d d
or
λD
β= (1.8)
d
which is the expression for fringe width.
Example 1.1 Two coherent sources of monochromatic- light of wavelength
6000Ȧ produces an interference pattern on a screen kept at a distance of 1 metre
1.1. INTERFERENCE 7

Figure 1.2: Young’s Double Slit Interference

from them. The distance between consecutive bright fringes on the screen is 0.5
mm. Find the distance between the two coherent sources.
Solution: The fringe width is given by

β = λDd
or the distance between the two sources d will be
d = Dλ
β
Here D = 1m= 100cm, λ = 6000Ȧ and β = 0.5 cm, substituting these values
we get d = 0.12 cm.

1.1.2 Fresnel Biprism

Fresnel deviced another arrangement for the production of interference pattern.
He used a biprism (whose base angles is very small of the order of 20’). The
base of the prism and the prism is assumed to stand perpendicular to the plane
of the paper. S represents a slit which is also placed perpendicular to the plane
of the paper.
Light from the slit S gets refracted by the prism and produces two virtual
images S1 and S2 . These images act as coherent sources and produce interfer-
8 CHAPTER 1. OPTICS

Figure 1.3: Young’s Double Slit Interference

ence fringes on the right of the biprism. The fringes can be viewed using an
eyepiece.
If n represents the refractive index of the material of the biprism and α the base
angle, then (n − 1)α is approximately the angular deviation produced by the
prism, and therefore the distance S1 S2 is 2a(n − 1)α, where a represents the
distance from S to the base of the prism.Thus for n = 1.5,α = (200 ), a = 2cm,
one gets d = 0.012cm. The biprism arrangement can be can be used for the
determination of wavelength of a monochromatic light. Light from the source
illuminates the slit S and interference fringes can be easily viewed through the
eyepiece. The fringe width (β) can be determined by can be determined by
means of a micrometer attached to the eyepiece. Once β is known, λ can be
determined using the following relation

dβ
λ= (1.9)
D

Example 1.2 In a biprism experiment, the distance between the slit and the
screen is 160.0cm. the biprism is 40 cm away from the slit and its refractive
index is 1.52. When a source of wavelength 5893 Ȧ is used, the fringe width is
found to be 0.01. Find the angle of the prism.
Solution : The fringe width, β = λD
d or d = β
λD

Also d = 2a(n − 1)α, where a is the distance of the biprism from the slit.
λD
Thus we can write α = β2a(n−1)
Here λ = 5893Ȧ, D = 160 cm β = .01 cm a = 40cm and n = 1.52. Substituting
these values in the above equation we get α = 0.0226 rad =1.3 degrees
1.1. INTERFERENCE 9

1.1.3 Displacement of Fringes

We will now discuss the change in the interference pattern produced by intro-
ducing a thin transparent plate in the path of one of the two interference beams.
Let t be the thickness of the plate and let n be its refractive index.From Figure
(*ref to class notes) it can be seen that the light reaching the point P from S1
has to traverse a distance t in the plate and S − 1P − t in air. Thus the time
required for the light to reach from S − 1 to the point P is given by

Figure 1.4: Displacement of Fringes on introduction of a slab of thickness t in

the path of one of the coherent slit sources

S1 P − t t 1
+ = [S − 1P − t − nt] (1.10)
c v c
1
= [S1 P + (n − 1)t] (1.11)
c
where v = c/n represents the speed of light in the plate. The above equation
shows that by introducing the thin plate the effective optical path increases by
(n − 1)t. Thus when the thin plate is introduced, the central fringe (which
corresponds to equal optical path from S1 and S2 )is formed at the point O0
where

S1 O0 + (n − 1)t = S2 O0 (1.12)
now from Eq 1.5

d
S2 O0 − S1 O0 = OO0 (1.13)
D
therefore

d
(n − 1)t = OO0 (1.14)
D
Thus the fringe pattern gets shifted by a distance ∆ which is given by the
following equation
10 CHAPTER 1. OPTICS

D(n − 1)t
∆= (1.15)
d

The above principle allows us to determine thickness of extremely thin trans-

parent sheets.
Example 1.3 In a double slit interference arrangement one of the slits is
covered by a thin mica sheet whose refractive index is 1.58. The distance S1 S2
and AO are 0.1 cm and 50 cm respectively. Due to the introduction of the mica
sheet the central fringe gets shifted by 0.2cm. Determine the thickness of the
mica sheet.
Solution : ∆ = 0.2 cm d = 0.1cm; D = 50 cm
Hence
d∆
t = D(n−1) 0.1×0.2
= 50×0.58 = 6.7 ×10−4 cm.

1.1.4 Interference by a Plane Parallel Film when illumi-

nated by a plane wave
If a plane wave is incident normally on a thin film of uniform thickness d then
the waves reflected from the upper surface interfere with the waves reflected
from the lower surface, in this section we will study this interference. (*for
figure here refer to classroom notes.) Let the solid and dashed lines in the
figure represent the positions of the crests (at any particular instant of time)
corresponding to the waves reflected from the upper and lower surface of the
film respectively. Clearly the wave reflected from the lower surface of the film
traverses an additional optical path of 2nd, where n represents the refractive
index of the material of the film. Further, if the film is placed in air, then the
wave reflected from the upper surface of the film will undergo a sudden change in
phase of π and as such the conditions for destructive or constructive interference
would be given by

Figure 1.5: Young’s Double Slit Interference

1.1. INTERFERENCE 11

2nd = mλ destructive interference (1.16)

 
1
= m+ λ constructive interference
2
(1.17)
where m = 0, 1, 2... and λ represents the free space wavelength.

1.1.5 Newton Rings

If we place a plano-convex lens on a plane glass surface, a thin film of air is
formed between the curved surfaces of the lens and the plane glass plate. The
thickness of the air fism is zero at the point of contact O and increases as one
moves away from the point of contact. If we allow monochromatic light to fall on
the surface of the lens, then the light reflected from the upper surface interferes
with the light reflected from the lower surface.

Figure 1.6: Newton Rings

For near normal incidence (and considering points very closed to the point
of contact) the optical path where n is the refractive index and t the thickness
of the film. Thus whenever the thickness of the film satisfies the condition
 
1
2nt = m + λ m = 0, 1, 2 (1.18)
2
we will have maxima. Similarly the condition

2nt = mλ (1.19)
will corresponds to minima. Since the convex side of the lens is a spherical
surface, the thickness of the air film will be constant over a circle (whose centre
will be at O) and we will obtain concentric dark and bright fringes.
THe radii of various rings can easily be calculated. Let the radius of the
mth dark ring be rm and if t is the thickness of the air film where the mth dark
ring appears to be formed, then
12 CHAPTER 1. OPTICS

Figure 1.7: Newton Rings viewed via eyepiece

2
rm = t(2R − t) (1.20)
where R represents the radius of the curvature of the convex surface of the lens,
we can neglect the thickess t in comparison to R therefore

2
rm = 2Rt (1.21)
or
2
rm
2t = (1.22)
R
Substituting this in eq(1.19) we get

Figure 1.8: Newton Rings direct view

2
rm = mλR; m = 0, 1, 2... (1.23)
1.2. FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION 13

which implies that the radii of the rings vary as square root of naural numbers.
Thus the rings will become close to each other as the radius increases.
q Between
the two dark rings there will be a bright ring whose radius will be m + 21 λR.
In terms of the diameter the wavelength will be given by the following ex-
pression
2 2
Dm+p − Dm
λ= (1.24)
4pR
The radius of curvature can be accurately measured with the help of a spherom-
eter and therfore by carefully measuring the diameters of dark rings one can
experimentally determine the wavelength.

1.2 Fraunhofer Diffraction

Figure 1.9: Fraunhofer Diffraction Pattern

1.2.1 Single-Slit Diffraction Pattern

We study the Frunhofer diffraction pattern produced by an infinitely long slit
of width b. A plane wave is assumed to fall normally on the slit and we wish to
calculate the intensity distribution on the focal plane of the lens L. We assume
that the slit consists of a large number of equally spaced point sources and that
each point on the slit is a source of Huygen’s secondary wavelets which interfere
with the wavelents emanating from other points. Let the point sources be at
A1 , A2 , A3 , ... and let the distance between two consequtive points be ∆. Thus,
if the number of point sources be n, then

b = (n − 1)∆ (1.25)
14 CHAPTER 1. OPTICS

We will now calculate the resultant field produced by these n sources at the
point P , P being an arbitrary point (on the focal plane of the lens) receiving
parallel rays making an angle θ with the normal to the slit.
For an incident plane wave, the points A1 , A2 , .... are in phase and, therefore,
the additional path traversed by the disturbance emanating from the point A2
will be A2 A02 . If the diffracted rays make an angle θ with the normal to the slit
then the path difference would be

Figure 1.10: Fraunhofer Single Slit Diffraction

A2 A02 = ∆ sin θ (1.26)

The corresponding phase differnce.φ, would be given by

2π
φ= ∆ sin θ (1.27)
λ
Thus, if the field at the point P due to the disturbance emanating from the
point A1 is a cos ωt then the field due to the disturbance emanating from A2
would be a cos(ωt − φ) . Now the difference in the phases of the disturbance
reaching from the points A2 and A3 will also be φ and thus the resultant field
at the point P would be given by,

E = a[cos ωt + cos(ωt − φ) + ..... + cos(ωt − (n − 1)φ)] (1.28)

where
2π
φ= ∆ sin θ (1.29)
λ
Now we can show that
 
sin nφ/2 1
cos ωt + cos(ωt − φ) + .... + cos[ωt − (n − 1)φ] = cos ωt − (n − 1)φ
sin φ/2 2
(1.30)
Thus  
1
E = Eθ cos ωt − (n − 1)φ (1.31)
2
1.2. FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION 15

Figure 1.11: Fraunhofer Single Slit Diffraction Pattern

where the amplitude Eθ of the resultant field would be given by

sin(nφ/2)
Eθ = a (1.32)
sin φ/2

In the limit of n → infinity and ∆ → 0 in such a way that n∆ → b we have

nφ π
= n∆ sin θ (1.33)
2 λ
Again, in the limit n∆ → b

nφ π
= b sin θ (1.34)
2 λ
Further

2π b sin θ
φ= (1.35)
λ n
would tend to zero and we may, therefore, write

sin πb sin
λ
θ
Eθ = na πb sin θ
(1.36)
λ
or,
sin β
Eθ = A (1.37)
β
where A = na
16 CHAPTER 1. OPTICS

and

πb sin θ
β= (1.38)
λ
Thus
The corresponding intensity distribution is given by

sin2 β
I = I0 (1.39)
β2
where I0 represents the intensity at θ = 0

1.2.2 Positions of Maxima and Minima

The variation of the intensity with β is shown in Fig 1.3. It is obvious from Eq
(1.16) that the intensity is zero when

β = mπ (1.40)
when β = 0, sinβ β = 1 and I = Iθ which corresponds to the maximum of the
intensity. Substituting the value of β one obtains

b sin θ = mλ; m = 1, 2, ...(minima) (1.41)

as the conditions for minima. The first minimum occurs at θ = sin−1 λ


b ; the
second minima at θ = sin−1 2λ


b etc.

1.2.3 Fraunhofer Double-Slit Diffraction

In this section we will study the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern produced by
two parallel slits (each of width b) separated by a distance d. We would find
the resultant intensity distribution is a product of t6he single-slit diffraction
pattrn and the interference pattern produced by two point sources separated by
a distance d.
Let the point sources be at A1 , A2 , A3 , ... in the first slit and at B1 , B2 , B3 , ...
in the second slit. As before we assume that the distance between two conse-
qutive points in either of the slits is ∆. If the diffracted rays make an angle θ
with the normal to the plane of the slits, then the path difference dtween the
disturbances reaching the point P from two consequtive points in a slit will be
∆ sin θ. The field produced by the first slit at the point P will be therefore given
by

sin β
E1 = A cos(ωt − β) (1.42)
β
Similarly the second slit will produce a field

sin β
E2 = A cos(ωt − β − Φ1 ) (1.43)
β

at the point P where

1.2. FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION 17

Figure 1.12: Fraunhofer Double Slit Diffraction

2π
Φ1 = d sin θ (1.44)
λ
represents the phase difference between the disturbances (reaching the point P
) from two corresponding points on the slits. Hence the resul-tant field will be

E = E1 + E2 (1.45)

sin β
E=A [cos(ωt − β) + cos(ωt − β − Φ1 )] (1.46)
β

which represents the interference of the two waves each of amplitude A sinβ β and
differing in phase by Φ1 . The ablove equation can be rewritten in the form
 
sin β 1 1
E=A cos γ cos ωt − β − Φ1 (1.47)
β 2 2
where
Φ1 π
γ= = d sin θ (1.48)
2 λ
The intensity distribution will be of the form

sin2 β
I = 4I0 cos2 γ (1.49)
β2

where I0 sin2 β/β 2 represnts the intensity distribution produced by one of the
slits. As can be seen, the intensity pattern is a product of two terms; the
first term (sin2 β/β 2 ) represents the diffraction pattern produced by a single
slit of width b and the second term (cos2 γ) represents the interference pattern
produced by two point souces separated by a distance d
18 CHAPTER 1. OPTICS

Figure 1.13: Fraunhofer Double Slit Diffraction Pattern

1.2.4 Positions of Maxima and Minima

From intensity equation one can tell that the intensity is zero whenever

β = π, 2π, 3π, ... (1.50)

or when,
π 3π 5π
γ= , . , ... (1.51)
2 2 2
The corresponding angles of diffraction are given by the following equations
:
b sin θ = mλ; (m = 1, 2, 3, ..) (1.52)
and
d sin θ = (n + 1/2) λ; (n = 1, 2, 3, ...) (1.53)
The intesity maxima occurs when

γ = 0, π, 2π, ... (1.54)

or when,

d sin θ = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ, ... (1.55)

1.2.5 N-Slit Fraunhofer Diffraction

We next consider the diffraction pattern produced by N parallel slits, each of
width b ; the distance between two consequtive slits is assumed to be d. As
before, we assume that each slit consists of n equally spaced point sources with
spacing ∆. Thus the field at an arbitrary point P will essentially be a sum of
N terms:
1.2. FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION 19

Figure 1.14: Fraunhofer N-Slit Diffraction

sin β sin β
E=A cos(ωt − β) + A cos(ωt − β − Φ1 ) + ... + cos(ωt − β − (N − 1)Φ1 )
β β
(1.56)
where the first term represents the amplitude produced by the first slit, the
second term by the second slit, etc. The above equation can be rewritten as

A sin β
E= [cos(ωt−β)+cos(ωt−β−Φ1 )+...+cos(ωt−β−(N −1)Φ1 )] = (1.57)
β
 
A sin β sinN γ 1
E= cos ωt − β − (N − 1)Φ1 (1.58)
β sinγ 2
where
Φ1 π
γ= = d sin θ (1.59)
2 λ
The corresponding intensity distribution will be

sin2 β sin2 N γ
I = I0 (1.60)
β 2 sin2 γ
where I0 sin2 β/β 2 represents the intensity distribution produced by a single
slit. As can be seen the intensity distribution is a product of two terms; the
20 CHAPTER 1. OPTICS
 
sin2 β
first term represents the diffraction pattern produced by a single slit
β2
 2 
and the second term sin Nγ
sin2 γ
represents the interference pattern produced by
N equally spaced point sources.

1.2.6 Positions of Maxima and Minima

When the value of N is very large, one obtains intense maxima at γ = mπ,i.e.
when
d sin θ = mλ(m = 0, 1, 2, ...) (1.61)

Figure 1.15: Fraunhofer N-Slit Diffraction Pattern

Also in the limit γ → mπ

sin N γ
=N (1.62)
sin γ
thus, the resulatant amplitude and the corresponding intensity distribution
are given by
1.2. FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION 21

A sin β
E=N (1.63)
β
and
sin2 β
I = N 2 I0 (1.64)
β2
where
πb sin θ πb mλ πbm
β= = = (1.65)
λ λ d d
Such maxima are known as principal maxima.
Also it can be seen from the intensity equation that the intensity is zero
when either

b sin θ = nλ, n = 1, 2, 3, .. (1.66)

or

N γ = pπ when p not a multiple of N (1.67)

Eq (1.42) gives the minima corresponding to the single slit diffraction pat-
tern. The angle of diffraction corresponding to Eq(1.43) are

λ 2λ (N − 1)λ (N + 1)λ (N + 2)λ

d sin θ = , , ..., , , , ... (1.68)
N N N N N
Thus between two principal maxima we have (N − 1) minima. Between two
such consequtive minima the intensity has to have a maximum; these maxima
are known as secondary maxima. When N is very large the principal maxima
will be much more intense in comparison to secondary maxima.