ASSESSMENT OF NITROGEN USE EFFICIENCY

AND YIELD BASED ON NITROGEN RATE AND

FERTILIZATION PRACTICES IN LOWLAND
RICE (Oryza sativa L.)
IN YEZIN, NAYPYITAW, MYANMAR

PHYU PYA LWIN

OCTOBER, 2019
ASSESSMENT OF NITROGEN USE EFFICIENCY
AND YIELD BASED ON NITROGEN RATE AND
FERTILIZATION PRACTICES IN LOWLAND
RICE (Oryza Sativa L.)
IN YEZIN, NAYPYITAW, MYANMAR

PHYU PYA LWIN

A thesis submitted to the postgraduate committee of

the Yezin Agricultural University
as a partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science
(Soil and Water Science)

Department of Soil and Water Science

Yezin Agricultural University

OCTOBER, 2019
 ii

The thesis attached hereto, entitled “ASSESSMENT OF NITROGEN USE

EFFICIENCY AND YIELD BASED ON NITROGEN RATE AND
FERTILIZATION PRACTICES IN LOWLAND RICE (Oryza sativa L.)IN
YEZIN, NAYPYITAW, MYANMAR” was prepared under the direction of the
chairman of the candidate supervisory committee and has been approved by all
members of that committee as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of Master of Agricultural Science (Soil and Water Science).

----------------------------- -----------------------------
Dr. Aung Kyaw Myint Dr. Su Su Win
Chairman, Supervisory Committee External Examiner
Associate Professor and Principal Director
Kyaukse Campus Soil Science, Water Utilization &
Yezin Agricultural University Agricultural Engineering Division
Department of Agricultural Research

----------------------------- -----------------------------
Dr. Swe Swe Mar Dr. Thu Zar
Member, Supervisory Committee Member, Supervisory Committee
Lecturer Lecturer
Department of Soil and Water Science Department of Agronomy
Yezin Agricultural University Yezin Agricultural University

-----------------------------
Dr. Kyaw Ngwe
Professor and Head
Department of Soil and Water Science
Yezin Agricultural University
Date …………………..
 iii

This thesis was submitted to the Rector of the Yezin Agricultural University
and was accepted as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master
of Agricultural Science (Soil and Water Science).

-----------------------------
Dr. Nang Hseng Hom
Rector
Yezin Agricultural University
Date …………………..
 iv

DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY

This thesis represents the original works of the author, except where otherwise
stated. It has not been submitted previously for a degree at any other University.

-----------------------------
Phyu Pya Lwin

Date …………………..
DEDICATED TO MY BELOVED PARENTS
U MIN LWIN AND DAW SAN KYI
 v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I express my deep gratitude to Dr. Nang Hseng Hom, Rector,
Yezin Agricultural University (YAU) for her kind permission and administrative
support to this study.
I deeply acknowledge to Dr. Soe Soe Thein, Pro-Rector (Academic Affairs),
YAU for her guidance and comments throughout the study. I wish to express my
gratitude and appreciation to Dr. Kyaw Kyaw Win, Pro-Rector (Administration),
YAU, for his kindness, valuable comments and best suggestions in this study.
Mindful thanks are extended to Dr. Kyaw Ngwe, Professor and Head,
Department of Soil and Water Science, YAU, for his kind attention, encouragement,
invaluable suggestions, comments and various kinds of support on this manuscript.
I would like to express my sincere thanks and appreciation to my supervisor Dr.
Aung Kyaw Myint, Associate Professor and Principal, YAU (Kyaukse Campus), for
his valuable guidance, patient supervision, sharing his knowledge, suggestion,
kindness, encouragement throughout the study and untiring help which has been a
source of motivation at all stages of the work.
My heartfelt gratitude is to my external examiner, Dr. Su Su Win, Director,
Soil Science, Water Utilization and Agricultural Engineering Division, Department of
Agriculture, for her invaluable guidance, suggestions, comments and critical reading
of this manuscript.
I wish to express my heartfelt appreciation and gratitude to Dr. Swe Swe Mar,
Lecturer, Department of Soil and Water Science, YAU, for her comments, invaluable
suggestion, constructive and critical reading, evaluation of my thesis and various kind
of support throughout the preparation of this manuscript.
I sincerely show my deep gratitude to Dr. Thu Zar, Lecturer, Department of
Agronomy, YAU, for her kind and valuable comments and suggestions on my work
to be a perfect one.
I am delighted to express my gratitude to Dr. Naing Kyi Win, Director
General, Department of Agricultural Research, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and
Irrigation, for his kind permission to attend post-graduate degree.
My heartfelt thanks also go to my lovely teachers, classmate friends, junior
post-graduate students and the staff of Department of Soil and Water Science, YAU.
 vi

Last but not the least, my deepest and heartfelt thanks go to my beloved
parents, U Min Lwin and Daw San Kyi, and my younger brothers Ko Win Latt Lwin
and Ko Aung Ko Lwin and my beloved son Wai Yan Lin Tun and beloved daughters
Eaint Su Myant and Pu Tu for their never-ending love, constant encouragement,
patience, financial and moral support and very kind understanding towards me
throughout my life.
 vii

ABSTRACT

To ensure the achievable rice yield, adequate fertilization especially nitrogen

(N) plays a crucial role in rice production. Nitrogen management for respective rice
cultivars in specific paddy cultivating areas should be formulated to promote the
sustainable and profitable rice production while improving nutrient use efficiency and
the environmental conservation. A two-season field experiment using rice, Yadanar
Toe variety for summer and Sin Thukha variety for monsoon were carried out to
investigate the suitable N rate for optimal rice production and to determine N use
efficiency of rice in the research farm of Yezin Agricultural University in 2017. Eight
treatments including different rates and application methods of N fertilizer; T1 (No
fertilization), T2 (0 kg N ha−1), T3 (30 kg N ha−1), T4 (77.6 kg N ha−1 as prilled urea,
PU), T5 (100 kg N ha−1), T6 (130 kg N ha−1), T7 (160 kg N ha−1) and T8 (77.6 kg N
ha−1 as urea super granule, USG) were laid out as randomized complete block design
with three replications. The highest grain yield was achieved from the application of
100 kg N ha−1 in both seasons; 8.2 ton ha−1 in Yadanar Toe and 4.6 ton ha−1 in Sin
Thukha. In both seasons, the optimum grain yield was observed from the application
of 77.6 kg N ha−1 as either PU or USG. The plateau and the reduction of grain yield
occurred at 130 kg N ha−1 and 160 kg N ha−1. The application of USG and the highest
N rate provided higher N uptakes in both seasons irrespective of rice varieties. The
efficiency of N use ranged from 4.5 to 13.5 in summer and from -0.3 to 13.4 in
monsoon, and the highest NUE was obtained from the application of 100 kg N ha−1 in
summer and the application of 30 kg N ha−1 in monsoon. The isotopic technique using
15
N labeled urea revealed that the best NUE was obtained from USG (77.6 kg N ha−1)
among different application rates and methods in summer.
Key words: Nitrogen rate, Nitrogen use efficiency, N uptake, Urea super granule, 15N
labeled urea, Rice
 viii

CONTENTS

Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v
ABSTRACT vii
CONTENTS viii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 4
2.1 The Role of Nitrogen in Rice Cultivation 4
2.1.1 Importance of rice 5
2.1.2 Rice production in Myanmar 5
2.1.3 Nitrogen uptake of rice 6
2.2 N Cycle in Wetland (submerged) rice system 7
2.2.1 N dynamics in soil 7
2.2.2 Ammonification 7
2.2.3 Nitrification 8
2.2.4 Denitrification 8
2.2.5 Losses of N 9
2.3 N Fertilizers 10
2.4 Use of Chlorophyll Meter in N Management 14
2.5 Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) 14
2.5.1 Site specific nutrient management (SSNM) 15
2.5.2 Integrated nitrogen management (INM) 15
2.5.3 Slow release fertilizer 16
2.5.4 Nitrification inhibitors 16
2.5.5 Improved Method of application 16
2.5.6 4R nutrient stewardship 17
2.6 Urea Super Granules 20
2.7 Use of Isotope in Nutrient Management Study 23
2.7.1 Radioactive isotopes as tracers 23
2.7.2 Stable isotopes 24
15
2.7.3 N analysis by mass or emission spectrometry 26
 ix

2.7.4 Measurement of stable isotopes 26

2.7.5 Isotopic method 26
2.7.6 Isotopic techniques in N fertilizer use efficiency studies 29
2.7.7 Calculations for experiments with 15N 29
CHAPTER III MATERIALS AND METHODS 31
3.1 Site description 31
3.2 Experimental Arrangement 31
3.3 Experimental Design, Treatments and Layouts 31
3.4 Data Collection 34
3.4.1 Growth parameters 34
3.4.2 Soil and plant sampling 34
3.4.3 Yield and yield components 34
3.5 Nitrogen Use Efficiency 35
3.6 Statistical Analysis 36
3.7 Weather Data of Yezin 36
CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 38
4.1 Assessment of Yield and Nitrogen Use Efficiency based on Nitrogen
Rates and Fertilization Practices in Lowland Rice (Oryza sativa L.) at
Yezin,Naypyitaw in summer season 38
4.1.1 Plant growth parameters at weekly interval 38
4.1.2 Soil , plant sampling and analysis 40
4.1.3 Yield and yield components of rice 45
4.1.4 Grain and straw N uptake at harvest 50
4.1.5 Nitrogen use efficiency 50
15
4.1.6 Nitrogen Use Efficiency measured by N isotopic technique 52
4.2 Assessment of Nitrogen Use Efficiency and Yield based on Nitrogen
Rates and Fertilization Practices in Lowland Rice (Oryza sativa L.) at
Yezin,Naypyitaw in monsoon season 54
4.2.1 Plant growth parameters at weekly interval 54
4.2.2 Soil, plant sampling and analysis 56
4.2.3 Yield and yield components of rice at harvest 61
4.2.4 Grain and straw N uptake at harvest 63
4.2.5 Nitrogen Use Efficiency 66
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION 68
REFERENCES 69
 x

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
2.1 Terms associated with 15N stable isotope methods 25
2.2 Isotopes useful in soil/plant studies 28
3.1 Physicochemical properties of the experimental soil before
cultivation 32
3.2 List of soil and plant analyses and methods used for analysis 32
3.3 Treatments and their descriptions 33
4.1 Effect of different N fertilizer treatments on plant height, tiller
number per plant and yield components of Yadanar Toe grown 2017
in YAU research farm in summer season. 47
4.2 Effect of different N fertilizer treatments on grain yield, straw yield
and harvest index (HI) of Yadanar Toe grown 2017 in YAU research
farm in summer season. 49
15
4.3 Nitrogen use efficiency of Yadanar Toe(summer) measured by N
isotopic technique 53
4.4 Effect of different N fertilizer treatments on plant height, tiller
number per plant and yield component characters of Sin Thukha
grown in monsoon season at YAU research farm in 2017. 62
4.5 Effect of different N fertilizer treatments on grain yield, straw yield
and harvest index (HI) of Sin Thukha grown in monsoon season at
YAU research farm in 2017. 64
 xi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
2.1 The 4R nutrient stewardship concept defines the right source, rate,
time, and place for fertilizer application as those producing the
economic, social, and environmental outcomes desired by all
stakeholders to the plant ecosystem(Johnstona & Bruulsema , 2014) 18
3.1 Experimental Layout Design 33
3.2 Monthly maximum and minimum temperature and monthly rainfall
of Yezin during summer season rice, 2017 37
3.3 Monthly maximum and minimum temperature and monthly rainfall
of Yezin during monsoon season rice, 2017 37
4.1 Plant height (cm) of Yadanar Toe grown as summer at YAU
research farm in 2017. 39
4.2 Number of tillers per plant of Yadanar Toe grown as summer at
YAU research farm in 2017. 39
4.3 SPAD value of Yadanar Toe grown as summer at YAU research
farm in 2017. 41
4.4 Mineral N content (NH4-N) of soil at 30 DAT, 60 DAT, maturity and
harvest stages of Yadanar Toe grown as summer at YAU research
farm in 2017. 41
4.5 Dry matter yield (ton ha−1) of Yadanar Toe at 30 DAT, panicle
initiation, maturity and harvest stages as affected by different N at
YAU research farm in 2017. 44
4.6 N uptake of Yadanar Toe at 30 DAT, panicle initiation, maturity and
harvest stages as affected by different N treatments at YAU research
farm in 2017. 46
4.7 Grain N uptake and straw N uptake of Yadanar Toe grown in
summer season, 2017 as affected by different N treatments at YAU
research farm 51
4.8 Nitrogen use efficiency of Yadanar Toe in summer season, 2017 as
affected by different N treatments at YAU research farm 51
4.9 Plant height (cm) of Sin Thukha grown as monsoon at YAU research
farm in 2017. 55
4.10 Numbers of tiller per plant of Sin Thukha grown as monsoon at
YAU research farm in 2017. 55
4.11 SPAD value of Sin Thukha grown as monsoon at YAU research
farm in 2017. 57
 xii

4.12 Mineral N content (NH4-N) of soil at 30 DAT, 60 DAT, maturity and

harvest grown as monsoon at YAU research farm in 2017. 57
4.13 Dry matter yield (ton ha−1) of Sin Thukha at 30 DAT, 60 DAT,
maturity and harvest stages as affected by different N treatments at
YAU research farm in 2017. 60
4.14 N uptake of Sin Thukha at 30 DAT, panicle initiation, maturity and
harvest stages as affected by different N treatments at YAU research
farm in 2017. 60
4.15 Grain N uptake and Straw N uptake of Sin Thukha grown in
monsoon season as affected by different N treatments at YAU
research farm in 2017. 65
4.16 Nitrogen use efficiency in relation to different N treatments applied
to Sin Thukha grown in monsoon season at YAU research farm in
2017. 67
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the most important food crop of the world and a
staple food for more than 3 billion peoples or more than half of the world’s
population. It has been growing over a hundred countries with a total harvested area
of about 160 million hectares, producing more than 700 million tons every year
(International Rice Research Institute [IRRI], 2010). The increasing world population
and the need to produce more food are putting increasing pressures on soil and water
resources (Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2002). In Myanmar, the total
rice sown area is 7.26 million ha and the annual production is 25.62 million ton with
the average yield of 3.36 ton ha−1 (Central Statistical Organization [CSO], 2018). By
2050, the production of four primary foodstuffs including rice is estimated to expand
up to 87% more of the existing production for rising population and changing diet
(Kromdijk & Long, 2016).
The average yield of Myanmar was not comparable to yields of other countries
and the insufficient fertilizer applications in Myanmar might be one of the reasons
(Denning, Baroang, & Sandar, 2013; Lwin et al., 2015; Thwe, Kristiansen, &
Herridge, 2019). The mean yield of irrigated rice near Nay Pyi Taw was in the range
of 2.8 from no fertilizer application to 4.3 ton ha−1 from NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium) fertilizer application (Min Thiha et al., 2010).
Nitrogen (N) is a major essential plant nutrient of all plants and key input for
increasing crop yield (Salman et al., 2012). Nitrogen is the most important nutrient for
rice plants ( Yoshida, 1981). The number of stems and panicles in one square meter
and the total number of spikelet were increased by the application of N resulting in
the increase of grain productivity of rice (Khan et al., 2010). In Myanmar, the use of
N fertilizer is significantly lower than comparable countries of South East Asia (IRRI
2014), and may be the main cause of the low yield of rice (Denning et al., 2013; Lwin
et al., 2015; Thwe et al., 2019).
The most common farmers’ practice for N fertilizer applications in the Yezin
area of Central Myanmar was the surface broadcasting at a total of 28-57 kg ha−1 of N
as urea. The application method was often two equal split applications; at 10 days
after transplanting (10 DAT) and at the panicle initiation (PI) stage. IRRI
 2

recommends surface N application in 3 splits; 14 days after transplanting (14 DAT),

at mid-tillering (20-35 DAT), and at PI (40-50 DAT) (IRRI, 2017). Several research
findings indicated that as much as half of the urea that applied as surface broadcast to
paddy fields can be lost to the atmosphere by ammonia volatilization (Humphreys,
Muirhead, Melhuish, & White, 1987; Vlek & Craswell, 1979).
According to the survey report of ACIAR project SMCN/2011/046, rice yields
of Myanmar was about 2.5 ton ha−1 on average while, sufficient fertilizer application
with good crop management produced 4 to 5 ton ha−1 of rice (Edis, Willet,
Farquharson & Chen, 2014) . The report suggested that, the management of nutrients
is an essential issue for crop production in Myanmar although other crop management
practices can also be a limiting factor for optimal crop yield. In order to achieve the
economically profitable yield or rice, N application should be specific and efficient
for each crop variety in different agro-climatic zones. Optimal fertilization not only
promotes the sustainable rice production system together with high nutrient use
efficiency but also decreases the pollution to the environment. A portion of N from
applied fertilizers could not be taken up by plants within a season and they may be
immobilized in soil organic matter and some, lost to the environment. To overcome
the N losses from an agricultural system, using of good management practices (GAP)
in fertilizer application at right rate, right time, right place and right form should be
conducted in matching crop demands. In case of N, it should be split into two or more
times to get higher achievement (Chien, Prochnow, & Cantarella, 2009).
Huda et al.,(2016) reported high nitrogen fertilizer use efficiency and yield
benefits in paddy rice crops from the deep placement of urea briquettes in Bangladesh
and similarly, Liu et al.,(2016) reported good effects of granular urea in China.
Among them, use of urea deep placement (UDP) technology using urea super granule
(USG) is popular around the world. Compacted USG, a granular shape with 1-3 g was
used commonly for deep placement as an effective N source. One or more USG are
deep placed (7-10 cm depth) by hand at the center of every four rice hills in rice soil
during or after rice transplanting. USG essentially cuts off ammonia volatilization and
also significantly reduces denitrification losses compared to surface application of
standard urea. USG requires only one time application after rice transplanting (Chien
et al., 2009). It can save 30% N compared to prilled urea. It increases absorption rate,
improves soil health and ultimately increases rice yield (Savant, Ongkingco, Zarate,
Torrizo, & Stangel, 1991).
 3

Until recent years, researchers and farmers are still looking for suitable
practices and sources to get better N use efficiency (NUE) in crop production. Nuclear
isotope technology is being used in nutrient management studies especially in the
investigation of crop uptake, losses and nutrient use efficiencies of a fertilizer, and
tracing and dynamics of its fractions. Since the 1950s and 1960s there had been
significantly developed and used isotopic tracers in soil and fertilizer N research. Both
15
N enriched and 15N depleted materials have been utilized as tracers in a wide range
of crops, soils and environments (FAO, 2002).There has been limited information
concerning with suitable N source and N management. So the experiment was carried
out the following objectives.

Objectives

1. To investigate the suitable N rate for optimal rice production in YAU rice
field.
2. To determine nitrogen use efficiency of rice varieties with different rates and
application method of N in a rice field.

Hypothesis

Inadequate N application rates and improper application methods may not give
optimal yield of rice. Correct rates and timing with suitable N sources may give high
NUE and grain yield of rice.
 CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 The Role of Nitrogen in Rice Cultivation

The importance of N in plants and noted that N is a major part of all amino
acids, a component of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), used in chlorophyll, and
essential for carbohydrate use. A healthy plant typically contains 2.5 to 4.0% N in the
tissue (Brady & Weil, 1999).
Nitrogen (N) is the most critical externally added input for any crop
production system. The half of the global population directly or indirectly depends on
nitrogenous fertilizers for food supply. Today, Rice, wheat, and maize are consuming
more than 90% of total nitrogenous fertilizer used in cereals. Underuse of nitrogen is
associated with lower crop production while overuse leads to several soil and
environmental related consequences. Therefore, response to applied nitrogen and its
use efficiency have to be monitored properly for obtaining the maximum potential and
sustainable yield. Efficiency of applied nitrogenous fertilizers is very low due to its
various losses i.e. volatilization, leaching, surface runoff and denitrification from soil-
plant system. Therefore, the proper understanding of advanced soil and plant
management practices which helps in enhancement of nitrogen recovery efficiency is
one of the key factors to enhance crop output, decreasing cost of cultivation, and to
maintain environmental quality which ultimately adds towards the goal of achieving
long term sustainable production system (Yadav et al., 2017).
Irrigated rice is a production system that can be accessed at high levels of
returns, but nitrogen is the main factor limiting yields of these systems (Segda, 2006).
Rice commonly utilizes less than 40% of applied fertilizer nitrogen. Ammonia
volatilization and denitrification losses are thought to be the major cause of this
inefficiency. Losses by both of these mechanisms are apparently reduced considerably
when the fertilizer is placed deep in the anaerobic soil layer. For transplanted rice, a
practical means of deep placement is point placement of 1 to 3 g urea briquettes or
super granules at 8 to 12 cm depth. This method and the laborious mud ball technique
which it replaces have frequently proven superior to split application of urea in a
series of coordinated experiments conducted recently in 10 Asian countries. However,
on some sites, the super- granules produce much lower yields than split application.
 5

N plays a key role in rice production and it is required in large amount.

Nitrogen is the most important limiting nutrient in rice production and has heavy
system losses when applied as inorganic sources in puddle field. It was observed that
urea super granules (USG) can minimize the loss of N from soil and hence the
affectivity increased up to 20-25%. Urea can be applied in different ways. Crystal
urea is applied mostly as top dressing. But top dressing sometimes induces imbalance
in yield components and decreases yield.
All plants utilize N in the form of NO3−and NH4+. It is most imperative
element for proper growth and development of plants which significantly increases
and enhances the yield and its quality by playing a vital role in biochemical and
physiological functions of plant. Pivotal N is required in larger quantity about 1000
mg kg−1 dry matter, so, it is compulsory supplied to plants (Leghari et al., 2016).

2.1.1 Importance of rice

Rice is life, for most people living in Asia. Rice has shaped the cultures, diets
and economies of thousands of millions of people. For more than half of humanity
rice is life. Rice grows in a wide range of environments and is productive in many
situations where other crops would fail. Most classifications of rice environments are
based on hydrological characteristics (Huke, 1982).
Rice is a staple food for some 4 billion people of worldwide, rice provides
27% of calories in low and middle income countries. With expected population
growth, income growth, and decline in rice area, global demand for rice will continue
to increase from 479 million tons of milled rice in 2014 to 536-551 million tons in
2030. Historically, an important political objective in most rice-growing countries has
been to achieve self-sufficiency in rice production and maintain price stability through
domestic procurement and adjustment of stocks. In recent years this has been less
necessary because the world rice market has become deeper and more stable (Dawe,
2002).

2.1.2 Rice production in Myanmar

Myanmar is the largest country in Southeast Asia. Due to its geographic size,
it varies considerably both topographically and meteorologically. Annual precipitation
and monthly mean maximum/minimum temperatures also show considerable
variation over time and space, and are particularly affected by the summer monsoons.
 6

Myanmar has a long tradition of rice production. In the years immediately prior to
World War II it was the largest rice-producing nation in the world, and it continues to
be one of the ten largest rice-producing countries in terms of total yield (IRRI, 2002).
Most major rice growing areas, such as the Ayeyarwady, Yangon and Bago Regions,
are naturally provided with fertile deltaic alluvial soil and abundant monsoon rainfall.
Agriculture in Myanmar, dominated by paddy rice cultivation, generates a
direct or indirect economic livelihood for over 75% of the population. Rice is grown
throughout the country by resource poor rural farmers and landless agricultural
laborers on small farms averaging only 2.3 ha in size (Okamoto, 2004).Although a
shift to high yielding rice varieties (HYVs) in the 1980s was meant to increase
production, average grain yields have stagnated at around 3.0 ton ha−1. With an annual
population growth rate of 2%, an increase in rice yield has become vital to both
matching the rising caloric demand for this staple and contributing to the income of
the rural poor. There exists only one recent comprehensive survey in the literature on
rice production in Myanmar (Garcia, Garcia, Oo, & Hossain, 2000), but little is
known about the actual inputs used and the overall constraints limiting rice
productivity.

2.1.3 Nitrogen uptake of rice

The worldwide nitrogen use efficiency of cereal crops is estimated to be

around 33% (Raun & Johnson, 1999). Rice can recover 53 to 75% of the N applied,
depending on application time. NH3 volatilization from urea accounts for 84 to 88%
of the total N lost in rice and denitrification accounts for 6 to 10% (Wilson, Wells, &
Norman, 1989). The 4R Nutrient Stewardship program promotes the right fertilizer
source, right rate, right time, and right place (Bruulsema, Fixen, & Sulewski, 2016).
Following these general rules in N management is important to maximizing crop N
use efficiency and reducing N losses. Extensive field research has been conducted to
characterize crop response to N fertilization strategies (Jokela & Randall, 1989;
Norman, Helms, & Wells, 1992; Wilson, Wells, & Norman, 1994) and lab research
has been conducted to understand the N cycle as influenced by environmental
conditions (Clay, Malzer, & Anderson, 1990; Norman et al., 1992; Reynolds & Wolf,
1987).
Soil moisture, temperature, pH, and microbial activity can greatly reduce the
efficiency of surface-applied urea. Urea is prone to substantial NH3 volatilization if it
 7

is not incorporated quickly by either irrigation or rainfall. The amount of rainfall

needed to incorporate urea is reportedly between 0.64 and 1.27 cm depending on soil
texture (Meyer, Olson, & Rhoades, 1961). Urea can lose around 30% of the N applied
in 3 day after application and up to 90% by 7 days via NH3 volatilization if not
incorporated (He, Alva, Calvert, & Banks, 1999).

2.2 N Cycle in Wetland (submerged) Rice System

2.2.1 N dynamics in soil

Rhizosphere of a submerged lowland rice field may support aerobic N

reactions such as nitrification, mineralization of organic N via oxidative deamination
and biological N2 fixation by aerobes and facultative anaerobes (Keeney & Sahrawat,
1986). N cycling in relation to soil-plant system is complex and dynamic due to
variable impact of different factors (climate, soil, and plant factors) and their
interactions (Ladha et al., 2003). It is sequence of various biochemical changes of N
from its entry in living system to its final transformation back into its original state
through several interdependent transformation and decomposition processes
(Addition, transformation, losses and assimilation of N).
Addition of N to the soil-plant system either through organic sources or
inorganic sources is the first and most essential step in N cycle. In most of the crop
production systems, N is supplied in larger quantity through inorganic source
(chemical fertilizers) due to its faster availability to plant while small quantity N is
added through organic sources i.e. crop residues, organic manure, biological N
fixation and organic manures (Manning et al., 2001).
Mineralization is simply the process where organic form of N get transformed
into inorganic form of N (NO3− and NH4+) with the help of soil microbes (Pathak et
al., 2003). Mineralization is essentially a two-step process. The first step of
mineralization involves enzymatically mediated microbial hydrolysis of organic –N
compounds into NH4+-N, termed as ammonification (Regmi & Ladha, 2006). In
second step above transformed NH4+ is oxidized to NO3−with the help of soil
microbes, this process called nitrification (Dobermann & Cassman, 2004).

2.2.2 Ammonification

Many of the transformations of nitrogen are mediated by bacteria that use

different forms of nitrogen to fuel some of their metabolic processes. During the
 8

processes of decomposition, the nitrogen in proteins is transformed eventually to

ammonia, (NH3) or ammonium (NH4+) by certain kinds of bacteria. These processes
are called ammonification. Nitrogen leaves the septic tank primarily as ammonium in
leachate. Some of the ammonium becomes adsorbed to soil particles and is effectively
immobilized from further transport.

2.2.3 Nitrification

Other kinds of bacteria change ammonia to nitrite. And still other kinds of
bacteria can change nitrite to nitrate. These processes are called nitrification.
Nitrification is an aerobic process. That means nitrification can occur only in the
presence of oxygen. The septic tank ammonium that escapes adsorption is subject to
nitrification in aerobic leaching field soils. In a flooded soil system because as soon as
NO3− is formed it diffuses down to the reduced layer and is lost from the system by
denitrification or reduced to NH4+ by dissimilatory NO3− reduction. Occurrence of
nitrification is recognized as a mechanism of N loss via nitrification-denitrification in
flooded soils and has led to the conclusion that NO3− is an inefficient source of N for
submerged rice culture (Keeney & Sahrawat, 1986). Placement of fertilizer N in the
reduced zone of a flooded soil reduces nitrification. While the NH4+ formed may
diffuse to the oxidized layer, the amount susceptible to nitrification will be much less
than if N fertilizer is applied to the surface. Also, application of fertilizer N when the
rice root system is established and N is being rapidly taken up greatly reduces the
availability of NH4+for nitrification. Use of nitrification inhibitors, such as nitrapyrin
or dicyandiamide, should be helpful in retarding nitrification, particularly in lowland
rice fields (Keeney & Sahrawat, 1986).

2.2.4 Denitrification

Microbial mediated reduction of nitrate form of N to variety of gaseous form

of N (NO, N2O and N2) under anaerobic conditions is termed as de-nitrification
(Bolan & Hedley, 2003). Bacterial species can take nitrate and change it back to
nitrogen gas through a process called denitrification. Denitrification is an anaerobic
process. This means it only takes place when no oxygen or extremely low
concentrations of oxygen are available. Denitrification also requires a source of
carbon. Some of the nitrate escaping the leaching field soils is denitrified in the
unconsolidated soils and groundwater as it flows to the estuary.
 9

Several factors including soil pH, organic matter content, temperature, O2

diffusion, and nitrification rate affect the denitrification rate in a flooded soil. N2O is
not a significatnt gaseous product of denitrification loss in lowland rice soils (Keeney
& Sahrawat, 1986).

2.2.5 Losses of N

Soil applied N is taken up and used by the crops for their growth and
development but at the same time a significant part of this applied N can be lost from
the soil plant-system through various mechanisms i.e. soil erosion, surface runoff,
leaching, de-nitrification, ammonia volatilization (Yadav et al., 2017).

Soil erosion and surface runoff

N adsorbed on soil particles can be lost through wind as well as water erosion.
N loss through wind erosion is more common in arid and semiarid climatic regions
while, water erosion is most commonly reported mechanism of N loss in humid and
sub humid areas. After a heavy rain surface applied nitrate can be dissolved in water
and lost through the process of runoff (Fageria, 2002).

Leaching

In flooded soils with sandy texture, the losses of N due to leaching could be
significant (Yadav et al., 2017). As nitrate form of N is mobile in nature and not
strongly adsorbed on soil particles so it can be easily move beyond the soil profile
through the process termed as leaching (Randall et al., 2003). Under these situations,
nitrification inhibitors should be more effective than urease inhibitors in minimizing
loss of NO3−-. Perhaps the best answer to minimize leaching loss of N still lies in
cultural practices such as split application of fertilizer N and puddling of the rice
fields before planting. Slow-release sulfur-coated urea also minimizes N losses by
leaching and maximizes N use efficiency.

Ammonia volatilization

The process of conversion of NH4+-N into NH3 gas and its loss to the
atmosphere is termed as ammonia volatilization. This mechanism of nitrogen loss is
found to be more severe where organic manure and chemical nitrogenous fertilizers
(NH4+ containing) is surface applied through broadcasting (Bolan & Hedley, 2003).
Urea and urea based fertilizer when surface-applied and not incorporated immediately
 10

into the soil are more prone to volatilization losses. This mechanism of N loss is more
severe in alkaline soil and warm sunny condition, under this condition as much as
20% of N may volatilize and lost to atmosphere within a week (Hutchinson et al.,
2003).The NH3 volatilization is significant as N loss mechanism in flooded rice soils.
Ammonium can be leached more readily in a reduced than in an arable soil. Of the
several factors that affect NH3 volatilization, the pH of the floodwater has been
recently recognized as the single most important determinant (Keeney & Sahrawat,
1986). In general, losses of NH3 are higher in alkaline and calcareous soils and
increase with an increase in soil pH, temperature and solar radiation but decrease with
an increase in CEC of the soil and other cultural and management practices including
the presence of rice canopy activities which decrease the amount of NH3 in solution.
Also, higher losses of volatile NH3 are reported from urea fertilizer compared to other
NH4+ sources because hydrolysis of urea provides alkalinity which can maintain or
initiate volatile loss of NH3. Among the soil characteristics, organic matter content as
measured by organic C and total N account for the most variation in NH4+ production
under anaerobic incubation. In addition to soil and environmental factors, the quantity
and quality (C/N ratio) of organic residues added also affect the release of NH4+ in
submerged soils. Ammonification is also affected by tillage and other operations used
for preparation of lowland rice fields (Keeney & Sahrawat, 1986).

2.3 N Fertilizers

Nitrogen is an essential plant food that is often the limiting factor in crop
production. Nature provides available nitrogen for plant growth in the soil from
decaying plant and animal matter. The atmosphere is 80 per cent nitrogen, but in this
gaseous form it cannot be used directly by plants. Some nitrogen is converted from
the air to a usable form by the bacteria found in the nodules on the roots of legumes.
Certain soil organisms also have the ability to fix nitrogen for use by plants.
Commercial fertilizers carrying nitrogen in a readily available form, however,
can be used with profit on most crops. Nitrogen fertilizer does the following:
Stimulates growth of non legumes. Increases the active organic-matter supply of the
soil by speeding up the decomposition of dead roots. Provides available nitrogen for
both grass and legume growth when the soil temperature is too low or the soil is too
wet for natural nitrification processes.

Ammonium Sulphate
 11

Pure ammonium sulphate contains 21.2 percent N and 27.5 percent sulphur.
The ammonium sulphate sold for fertilizer has a guaranteed analysis of 20 to 21 per
cent nitrogen in the ammonia (NH3) form. It is a fine crystalline salt varying in color
from white through various shades of gray. All of the nitrogen in ammonium sulphate,
sometimes called sulphate of ammonia, is in the ammonia form. Ammonia nitrogen
does not leach out of the soil as readily as nitrate nitrogen. For this reason it is a very
good source of nitrogen, especially in the irrigated sections of the state.

Ammonium Nitrate

Ammonium nitrate fertilizer contains 32.5 to 33.5 per cent nitrogen. One-half
of the nitrogen, about 16.5 per cent, is in the ammonia (NH3) form and the other half
is in the nitrate (NO3−) form. The ammonium nitrate on the market now is granular
and varies in color from white to pink. Pure ammonium nitrate is a white, crystalline
material that draws moisture readily and cakes so badly that it cannot be applied with
a regular fertilizer drill.

Ammo-phos

Ammo-phos is the abbreviation for ammonium phosphate, a material

containing both nitrogen and phosphorous. Several combinations can be made but
represents two. They are 11-48 and 16-20. 11-48 is manufactured by combining
ammonia and phosphoric acid. As the common name 11-48 indicates, this material
contains 11 per cent available nitrogen in the ammonia form and 48 per cent available
P205.16-20 is manufactured by combining phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, and
ammonia. It ontains 16 per cent available nitrogen in the ammonia form, 20 per cent
P205, and about 14 per cent sulphur in the sulphate form.Many farmers and
agricultural workers have noticed that 11-48 and 16-20 give better results on most
crops than comparable amounts of straight nitrogen fertilizer and superphosphate.

Urea

This is a semigranular product analyzing 42 per cent nitrogen, an amount

greater than that found in any other commercial solid nitrogenous fertilizer. The urea
in this product is identical in chemical composition with that found in animal urine.
This material is completely soluble in the soil solution, but it must be converted to
ammonia and nitrates before it can be utilized by most crops.

Sodium Nitrate
 12

Sodium nitrate sold as a fertilizer usually contains about 16 per cent available
nitrogen, all in the nitrate (NO3−) form. All of the nitrogen is in the nitrate form; so it
is immediately available to a growing crop.

Calcium Nitrate

Calcium nitrate, sometimes called "Norwegian saltpeter," Calcium nitrate sold

as a commercial nitrogen fertilizer analyzes about 15.5 per cent available nitrogen in
the nitrate form. It is granular in structure and has good spreading qualities, but has a
tendency to draw moisture when it is exposed to the air.

Cyanamide

Calcium cyanamide is sold on the market under various trade names. Most of
the cyanamide sold in contains 20 to 22 per cent nitrogen. It is black in color because
it contains free carbon. The nitrogen in calcium cyanamide is just as resistant to
leaching as the nitrogen in urea and ammonia fertilizers.
Anhydrous Ammonia
Ammonia is formed by combining nitrogen from the air with some source of
hydrogen as the first step in manufacturing most forms of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer.
Ammonia is commonly known as the gas used in commercial refrigeration. Under
atmospheric conditions it is a gas but it can be compressed to a liquid. The
compressed ammonia weighs five pounds per gallon and carries 81 to 82 per cent
nitrogen, all in the NH3 form. Each gallon then contains 4.1 pounds of nitrogen.

Aqueous Ammonia

This material is injected into the soil. The basic equipment is the same as
described for anhydrous ammonia except that to maintain a constant pressure it is
necessary that the material be pumped to the chisel points. Aqueous ammonia may
also be applied by metering the material into irrigation water used for rill irrigation.
 13

Nitrogen in complete fertilizers

The nitrogen carried in complete fertilizers may be supplied by any one or

more of the nitrogen-carrying materials described. If most of the nitrogen is supplied
in the nitrate form, precautions should be taken against possible leaching. If
substantial quantities of nitrogen are applied as cyanamide or urea, ample time should
be allowed for these materials to become available in the soil.

Organic nitrogen fertilizers

Dried blood, meat meal, bone meal, and other byproducts of the packing
industry are sometimes used as nitrogen fertilizers. Most of these products, however,
are used in complete fertilizer mixtures or in high protein animal feeds. The nitrogen
content of these materials varies greatly and is considerably less than the nitrogen
content of most of the inorganic or mineral nitrogen fertilizers. The organic nitrogen
fertilizers from plant and animal origin are not soluble in water. Activated sewage
sludge is another low-grade carrier of nitrogen that will be more readily available in
the future (Leroy &Arthur, 1950).

Green manuring

A wide range of legume species has potential for green manuring. Legumes
are superior green manure crops compared to non-leguminous crops because they
have potential to fix atmospheric free N in the soil (Vyn et al., 2000). Annual N
accumulation by legumes ranges from 20 kg ha−1 to as much as 300 kg ha−1 (Singh et
al., 2012). For smart green manure crops, the plants should have some important
characteristics viz. quick growing and short duration crops for easy adjustment into
intensive cropping systems, capacity to produce larger dry matter; can fix atmospheric
free nitrogen; and they should cultivated with minimum cultural practices (Sharma et
al., 2011). Beneficial effects of these green manure crops depend largely on amount
and quality of residue available, soil type and fertility status, soil acidification, micro-
biological diversity, moisture status of the soil, and thermal regime (Mary & Recous,
1994). Soil N supply through biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) by associated
microbial populations is the principal source of N for cereal crop production. The
indigenous soil N supply in wetland rice may decline with intensive rice cultivation
unless it is restored by BNF (Fageria et al., 2003). On the contrary green manure
 14

crops and leguminous cropping patterns can produce higher rice yield as compared to
commonly practiced rice-wheat cropping pattern (Ali et al., 2012).

2.4 Use of Chlorophyll Meter in N Management

Nitrogen status of crops can be estimated through chlorophyll meter since

most of plant nitrogen is found in chloroplasts hence, it is closely related to leaf
chlorophyll content (Olesen et al., 2004). To quantify N status of crops the Soil Plant
Analysis Development (SPAD) differently known as chlorophyll meter offers relative
measurements of leaf chlorophyll content. Chlorophyll meters are able to self
calibrate for different soils, seasons, and varieties. It is also recommended to assess
the effectiveness of late applied nitrogen in standing crops to increase grain yield and
protein content (Singh et al., 2012). SPAD meter based SSNM approach has been
extensively demonstrated in Southwest Asia (China, India and Bangladesh). It is
reported that compared with traditional local nitrogen management practices, SPAD
meter based SSNM in rice crop can increases yield, REN, and net return to the tune of
7, 30, and 12% respectively (Dobermann et al., 2004).

2.5 Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE)

Nitrogen use efficiency is dynamic and complex term including a range of

components. It’s a ratio that considers an output as the numerator and input (N
applied) as the denominator. Scientific fraternity is measuring N use efficiency
differentially under different situations. The common thing in all the indices is that
they generalized idea about how efficiently N would used to produce the final product
(Yadav, 2017). NUE is a dynamic and complex concept, affected by a number of
factors, can be classified into three groups namely factors related to nitrogen demand,
factors controlling the N supply to the plants and factors controlling the losses of N
from soil-plant system (Yadav, 2017).
Nitrogen recovery can be improved through adoption of locally as well as
scientifically available means of nitrogen management to ensure efficient use of
agricultural inputs (chemical fertilizers, land, water, and crops) that will enhance
beneficial use of N in crops and minimize its losses. Strategies/practices used for
nitrogen management of crops should be focused on two core principles (1) either it
enhance beneficial use of externally applied fertilizer nitrogen as well as native soil N
during the growing season itself (2) either it conserve soil nitrogen by reducing the
 15

quantum of N losses through various mechanisms and ensure higher beneficial use of
this conserved N by the subsequent grown crops of the production system
(Balasubramanian et al., 2002).

2.5.1 Site specific nutrient management (SSNM)

SSNM is a concept which involves field specific N management strategies that

includes quantitative knowledge of field specific variability in crop N requirement
and expected soil N supplying power. The fundamental underlying assumption of this
concept is to establish an optimum synchronization between supply and demand of N
for plant growth (Giller et al., 2004). On the basis of when and what type of decisions
are made, SSNM can be grouped in two categories, A) prescriptive SSNM, (2)
corrective SSNM (Dobermann et al., 2004). In former approach of N management,
the amount and its application time are analyzed prior to sowing based on N
supplying power of the soil, expected crop N requirement for assumed yield target,
expected N efficiency of fertilizer products in use. Contrast to this, corrective nitrogen
management strategy involves use of diagnostic tools to assess nitrogen status of
standing crop. The interpretation of these recorded data is serving as the basis for
decisions about timing and quantity of N applications (Schroeder et al., 2000).
Chlorophyll meters (SPAD), nutrient expert and leaf color charts (LCC) are the
promising and gaining importance in recent years for corrective N management in
cereals.

2.5.2 Integrated nitrogen management (INM)

INM involves optimum use of indigenous N components i.e. crop residues,

organic manure, biological N fixation as well as chemical fertilizer and their
complementary interactions to increases N recovery (Olesen et al., 2004). The
positive effects of the integrated use of organic and inorganic nitrogen are either due
to optimum physico-chemical soil environment, or due to better root growth and
enhanced supply of secondary and micronutrients (Singh et al., 2012). The proper
understanding and exploitation of these positive interactions among the plant nutrient
is keys for increasing returns to the farmers in terms of yield as well as soil quality
and NUE of applied N (Aulakh & Malhi, 2004). The complementary interaction of N
with secondary and several micronutrients could lead to considerable improvements
 16

in yield and NUE. Therefore, use of balanced and judicious use of nitrogen from all
available means will lead to higher productivity due to complimentary effect.

2.5.3 Slow release fertilizer

The form of applied nitrogenous fertilizers has significant role in controlling

various N losses hence, affecting nitrogen availability and recovery. Compare to
amide and ammoniums containing N fertilizers, nitrate containing fertilizers are
susceptible to leaching. But contrast to this, ammonium and amide containing
fertilizers are more prone to volatilization loss than nitrate containing nitrogen
fertilizers. A range of slow release fertilizers is now marketed which have the
potential to reduce various N losses and improve NUE (Giller et al., 2004). These
compounds can reduce N losses due to their potential to delayed N release pattern
which may improve the synchronization between crop demand and that of soil N
supply. Neem coated urea is widely used and demonstrated slow release N fertilizer in
India. But, still controlled release fertilizer is accounted only 0.15% of the total N
fertilizer consumption. High cost in manufacturing and non- availability are two
principle reasons for limited use of these compounds by farmers from developing
countries (Shivay et al., 2001).

2.5.4 Nitrification inhibitors

NH4+ ion can be adsorbed on soil colloids and retained for a longer period
which provide an opportunity for higher nitrogen use efficiency by minimizing
leaching and de-nitrification losses of applied N. Addition of nitrification inhibitors
can check conversion of ammonium-N into nitrate-N and ensure higher concentration
of ammonical form of nitrogen in soil medium, to increase NUE and crop yield
(Shivay et al., 2001). Dicyandiamide (DCD), a commercially available and largely
demonstrated nitrification inhibitor suitable for use in rice cultivation (Bharti et al.,
2000). In India farmer barely used these fertilizer due to their high cost and limited
availability.
2.5.5 Improved method of application
Among the various methods of N application, deep placement, use of super
granules and foliar spray of N fertilizer can enhance the recovery of applied N
fertilizer. Broadcasting of nitrogen fertilizers is very common practice leads to large
N losses e.g. ammonia volatilization, results in lower nitrogen recovery (McBratney et
al., 2003). Use of modified form of N fertilizer (urea super-granules) and deep
 17

placement of urea based fertilizers has been reported to enhance NUE. At Australia,
from large scale demonstration it has been reported that recovery efficiency was 37%
for broadcasting and 49% for deep placement of USG in rice; hence deep placement
of N fertilizers can improve nitrogen recovery (Balasubramanian et al., 2002).
Placement of urea with mud balls technique in the reduced zone of transplanted
puddled rice field also improves N recovery and gave better crop output (Schmidt et
al., 2002). Further, foliar feeding of nitrogen either through urea spray, can also
improve NUE as it reduce different losses i.e. runoff, volatilization, immobilization
and de-nitrification prior to being absorbed by the plant (Balasubramanian et al.,
2002).

2.5.6 4R nutrient stewardship

The definition of BMPs varies considerably, but can best be described here as
“practices which have been proven in research and tested through farmer
implementation to give optimum production potential, input efficiency and
environmental protection” (1). This definition comes from the fertilizer industry, and
places emphasis on practicality and productivity, while at the same time including
efficiency and environmental protection. It is from this background that fertilizer use
practices were evaluated in the effort to come up with acceptable fertilizer BMPs.
With this in mind the fertilizer industry has formulated and launched the Global 4R
Nutrient Stewardship Framework as a means of linking science to practice, and
supporting effective communications with all stakeholders (2-3). The 4R Nutrient
Stewardship framework promotes the application of nutrients using the right source
(or product) at the right rate, right time and right place (Figure 2.1). The framework
was established to help convey how fertilizer application can be managed to ensure
alignment with economic, social and environmental goals (Johnston & Bruulsema,
2014).
 18

Figure 2.1.The 4R nutrient stewardship concept defines the right source, rate,
time, and place for fertilizer application as those producing the
economic, social, and environmental outcomes desired by all
stakeholders to the plant ecosystem. (Johnstona & Bruulsema,
2014)
 19

Selecting the right source

Selecting a fertilizer source starts with an assessment of which nutrients are

necessary.This information comes from some form of site diagnostics, such as soil or
tissue testing, crop removal rates in harvested crops or deletion plot assessment.
Fertilizer forms include fluid fertilizers, fertilizer suspensions and dry granular
products in the form of straight grades (e.g., urea), compound fertilizers (e.g., 20-20-
20) and bulk blends developed for a specific crop or location. Selection of a fertilizer
source also requires attention to how it is to be managed. For example, if placed with
the seed the salt index of the fertilizer, and tolerance of the crop, must be considered
(Johnston & Bruulsema, 2014).

Selecting the right rate

Under or over application of nutrients posses a major challenge to agriculture

production in most parts of the developing world. The selection of that fertilizer rate
which is most likely to achieve optimized production and profit requires careful
attention to a number of soil, crop and environmental parameters. The first step in
establishing the right rate of fertilizer is understanding the yield commonly grown in a
field, and the associated removal of nutrients from the field. Secondly, we need to
somehow assess the soil’s indigenous nutrient supplying ability, that is how much
nutrients can we count on coming from the soil?
Soil testing has traditionally been the most commonly recommended means of
assessing fertilizer rates. A soil test really involves 3 components, the sampling, the
chemical analysis of the sample, and finally the recommendation based on the
philosophy of the laboratory or advisory service. Plant based approaches to assessing
nutrient requirements are also used in areas where access to soil testing is limited by
either cost, excessive number of farm holdings or timeliness in multiple cropping
systems. Factors affecting a recommendation include the crop to be grown, the soil
nutrient supply, the yield goal of the farmer and environmental factors that impact on
yield such as water supply and temperatures. In season tools like leaf color charts,
SPAD meters and optical sensors have also been used to assess in-season N
requirements of crops. These tools provide a means of assessing the crop nutrient
supply based on the color or biomass production of the crop (Johnston & Bruulsema,
2014).
 20

Right timing of application

The optimum timing of nutrient applications to crops ensures their adequate

supply during peak uptake and critical growth stages .Timing also plays a major role
in reducing the loss of nutrients into the environment by ensuring a supply when crop
demand is high. Timing considerations are usually site specific, being impacted by the
local environmental conditions and management practice capabilities of the farmer.
The fertilizer form selected can often impact on optimal timing of application. The
best example of this is where N is fall applied before the planting of a spring crop,
with only ammonia N sources being recommended. Avoiding nitrate-N sources is
critical to avoid over-winter losses of N. Phosphorus fertilizer application timing has
largely been dealt with using basal, or planting time, application. This helps to ensure
the P is available to early developing plants, as well as concentrating the fertilizer
application close to the crop seeds minimizing any P fixation by the soil (Johnston &
Bruulsema, 2014).

Right placement

Fertilizer placement can play a major role in nutrient uptake, especially with
immobile nutrients and in those soils with a capacity to fix nutrients. So for nutrients
like P, where early season access to the nutrient is critical for cereal crop growth,
placement in or near the seed row can have a major impact on crop response. This
response occurs as a result of increased branching on the part of cereal crops when
they intercept bands of P and N, increasing crop uptake (Murrell et al., 2009).

2.6 Urea Super Granules

The origin of urea deep placement (UDP) is a technology based on the

historical Japanese concept of deep placing N-fertilizers that aimed to reduce
ammonia loss, denitrification, leaching and runoff of applied N to crops. From 1975;
the International Fertilizer Development Centre (IFDC) proposed the use of urea
supergranule (USG) instead of mudballs containing urea fertilizer to reach the same
reduction of N losses and rice crop performances as achieved by Japanese way of
deep placement of N-fertilizer (Savant & Stangel, 1990). The use of USG known as
urea deep placement (UDP) technology had been developed after 20 years research of
IFDC with farmers, particularly in Bangladesh (IFDC, 2013). Although UDP has been
known many years ago, its adoption was limited because of the unavailability of the
 21

USG material. This availability constraint has been remedied in Bangladesh in 1996
with the installation in several locations of some briquette machines capable of
compressing the ordinary prilled urea of 3 mm diameter into larger size USG of 11 to
15 mm diameter. Farmers access to USG increased the adoption of UDP that resulted
in significant improvement of rice productivity and saving of urea over the
conventional broadcasting practice of prilled urea (Roy & Hammond, 2004). With
regards to these advantages, the UDP technology had been extended to other Asia
countries like India, Indonesia and Pakistan, and is being introduced in to Africa
especially in Sub-Saharan Africa this last decade (Roy & Hammond, 2004). The aim
of UDP is to reduce N losses and therefore increase NUE and in turn, to improve rice
productivity. It is established that, to reduce N losses via volatilization and leaching
following N-fertilizer application to lowland rice, urea should be applied in the
reduced layer. Deep point placement of USG decreases the de-nitrification process
and minimizes urea concentration in flood water, thus reduce N loss and improve N
absorption by the rice crop. A good alternative may be the deep placement of USG for
higher yield of rice. USG was more efficient than PU at all respective levels of
nitrogen in producing all yield component and in turn, grain and straw yields.
(Mishra, Das, Dash, Jena, & Swain, 1999) conducted an experiment to study the
effect of USG in wetland rice soil. Placement of USG 75 kg N ha−1 significantly
increased both the grain and straw yields of rice compared to PU or USG broadcast.
Generally urea is broadcast in three equal splits- one as basal dose at the time
of final land preparation, one at maximum tillering stage and the remaining one at
prior to panicle initiation stage. But under this practice the efficiency of urea fertilizer
in wetland rice culture is very low due to loss as ammonia volatilization,
denitrification, and surface run-off and leaching. Numerous experiments have shown
that the efficiency at which N is utilized by wetland rice is only about 30% of the
applied fertilizer N and in many cases even less (Nguu & De Datta, 1979). However,
the nature and magnitude of N loss largely depend upon the sources of N fertilizer and
methods of N fertilizer application. This loss of N may be reduced by the deep
placement of urea super granule (USG) instead of broadcasting prilled urea (PU).
Point placement of USG can increase the efficiency of N utilization by rice in wet
season (Roy, 1985).
One, two, three and four pellets of USG (1 g by weight and 11.5 mm in
diameter) equivalent to 40, 80, 120 and 160 kg N ha−1, respectively were placed
 22

manually at a depth of 6-8 cm at the center of four consecutive hills of two adjacent
rows at 7 days after transplanting.That can be applied in the rice root zone at 8-10 cm
depth of soil (reduced zone of rice soil) which can save 30% nitrogen than prilled
urea, increase absorption rate, improve soil health and ultimately increase the rice
yield (Savant et al., 1991). In south and South East Asia, rainfed and irrigated
transplanted rice occupies nearly two thirds of the rice-growing area and produces
more than 80% of the paddy rice. In these areas, prilled urea (PU) conventionally
applied by farmers is very inefficiently used by transplanted rice largely because of
serious losses (up to 60% of applied N) via NH3 volatilization, denitrification,
leaching, and/or runoff. In order to minimize N loss, especially loss due to
denitrification, historically the Japanese have used different ways of deep placing
fertilizer N. In 1975, IFDC proposed use of super granules of urea (USG) in place of
mudballs containing urea fertilizer to achieve the same agronomic benefits as
achieved through the Japanese concept of deep point placement of fertilizer N in
transplanted rice.
Because the deep-placed USG-N is well protected from various N loss
mechanisms (except leaching) at the placement sites in soils and the spatial
ammonium concentration gradients help to improve its plant availability, (1) uptake of
N by rice plants (recovery) is significantly increased, (2) relatively smaller amounts of
USG-N as nonexchangeable ammonium and/or immobilized organic N stay in soil,
and (3) eventually N losses (gaseous and runoff) are markedly decreased. Thus, this
practice is agronomically efficient as well as environmentally safe. Several hundred
field trials conducted by national and international institutions in south and southeast
Asia since 1975 have demonstrated the agronomic superiority of the deep placement
of USG vis-a-vis split applications of PU in transplanted rice. In general, paddy yield
responses to deep-placed USG tend to be more curvilinear than do those to split-
applied PU, thus resulting in higher agronomic efficiency for deep-placed USG in the
lower range of N rates (30–80 kg N ha−1) than in the higher range of N rates (> 90 kg
N ha−1). Depending on agro-climate and N rates used, in general deep-placed USG
can help to provide a saving of urea fertilizer of up to 65% with an average of 33%
and can help to increase grain yields up to 50% with an average of 15% to 20% over
that with the same amount of split-applied N as PU, especially in the lower range of N
rates.
 23

In using USG, consideration of the following factors should help to ensure

agronomic efficiency of deep-placed USG and increase the chances of obtaining
additional yield.
1. Soil factors: Only use in soils having a low water percolation rate and a CEC
⩾ 10 meq 100 g−1 soil.
2. Plant factors: Give preference to short- to medium-duration dwarf rice
varieties. For the long duration variety, basal deep-placed USG with a suitable
topdressing of N as PU at panicle initiation stage would be helpful.
3. Management factors: Apply basally 30 to 60 kg USG-N ha−1 using only USG
of the right weight (1–2 g urea granule−1). Place one super granule for each
four hills at 7–10 cm soil depth using the right plant population and modified
spacing. Use modified 20 cm × 15 cm or 20 cm × 20 cm spacing to facilitate
efficient placement of USG by hand or machine. Workers should always use
the so-called traffic lane of the modified spacing for performing all post-
transplanting field operations. When deep placement of USG is delayed after
transplanting, extra care is necessary to close the holes left at the placement
sites. When puddling is inadequate or improper and deep placement is done
during transplanting, some care may be required to close the holes. (Koudjega
,2018)

2.7 Use of Isotope in Nutrient Management Study

Isotopes of a given element have the same atomic number (same number of
protons in their nuclei) but different atomic weights (different number of neutrons in
their nuclei).

2.7.1 Radioactive isotopes as tracers

Radioactive isotopes can be used to follow a particular element through

various pathways and quantitative measurements may be made. They have the
advantage of behaving in the same way that their stable counterparts do, but they can
be readily traced. Radioactive isotopes can be likened to a color dye. They have a
wide range of uses and are particularly valuable in plant nutrition research. The
physical properties of a radioactive nuclide determine its usefulness as a tracer. The
three most important are half-life, mode of decay and decay energy. If the half-life of
a nuclide is very short, any compound labelled with it will be difficult to prepare, use
 24

and measure within the time of decay. The mode and energy of decay determine how
the nuclide will be measured.

2.7.2 Stable isotopes

Stable isotopes are used in the same way as radioactive isotopes in soil/plant
studies. Whereas radioactive isotopes emit particles which are captured in
photomultiplier tubes and counted stable isotopes are separated from each other by
passing a gas containing them through a strong magnetic field, which deflects them
differentially according to their mass. Stable isotopes are elements that have
variations in the number of neutrons in their atoms, but these atoms do not decay as
with radioactive isotopes. For example, nitrogen has an atomic weight of 14 (14N),
with seven protons and seven neutrons, but other N atoms may have six (13N) or eight
(15N) neutrons (and more in some cases). Nitrogen atoms with six neutrons (13N) are
unstable, emitting a positron (β+). With a half-life of less than 10 minutes, the
practical application of 13N is limited for anything other than short-term physiological
14
experiments (TCS,2001). Of the two stable isotopes of N, the lighter isotope N is
naturally much more abundant than 15N. The isotopic abundance of the minor isotope
(15N) is usually expressed as a percentage of the total N present (atom% 15
N) (Table
2.1):

atom% 15N = (15N / (15N + 14N)) × 100

The abundances of the stable isotopes of N are routinely measured by mass

spectrometry. Emission spectrometry is also possible, but only for enrichments of
15N >0.05 atom% excess.
 25

Table 2.1. Terms associated with 15N stable isotope methods

Term Definition
Atom % 15N Abundance of 15N atoms as a percentage
of the total (15N/(14N+15N))×100

Natural abundance Atom% 15N naturally present in materials

15
N abundance of atmospheric N2 0.3663 atom% 15N

δ15N(%) Sample natural abundance expressed as

parts per thousand relative to atmospheric
N2
1000×(sample atom% 15N-
0.03663)/(0.03663)
δ 15N atmospheric N2 0%

15
N-enrished nitrogen Nitrogen with artificially elevated 15N
content

Atom %15N excess A measure of a sample’s 15N content

above the atmospheric N2 sample atom%
15
N-0.3663
Labelled nitrogen Material generated with a specific 15N
enrichment

%Ndfa The percentage of plant N derived from

atmospheric N2
 26

15
2.7.3 N analysis by mass or emission spectrometry

Stable isotope analysis is a specialized field requiring sophisticated, well

maintained equipment and highly skilled technicians. Generally, we recommend
sending samples for analysis to a reputable, established laboratory. It is important to
consult with the laboratory prior to preparing your samples for analysis as each
analysis and laboratory will have very specific requirements. If samples are to be sent
by mail or courier to another country for weighing and analysis, ensure that they are
dry and enclose them in heat-sealed or ‘ziplocked’ plastic bags. Although small paper
envelopes may appear to seal well, the shaking that samples experience during
transport means that they tend to leak, with consequent risk of cross-contamination.

2.7.4 Measurement of stable isotopes

Isotopes have identical chemical properties but some slightly different

physical properties. Detection methods use one of these properties such as mass,
emission spectrum, IR absorption. The most common and most precise method to
measure stable isotopes is mass spectrometry. Mass spectrometer,Mass spectrometry
(MS) is an analytical technique in which atoms or molecules from a sample are
ionized, separated according to their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z), and then recorded.
There is a wide range of mass spectrometers for different type of samples with
different ionization and separation methods. This chapter focuses on instruments
capable of determining the isotope ratios of light element stable isotopes (H, C, N, O
and S). Instruments of this type are often called Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometers
(IRMS). The sample has to be converted to a gas (N2, CO2, H2, SO2) by means of a
suitable preparation system. This gas is fed into the mass spectrometer where the
ratios of the isotopes of interest are determined.

2.7.5 Isotopic method

The only direct means of measuring nutrient uptake from the applied fertiliser
is through the use of isotopes. Extensive work has been conducted using N-fertilisers
15
labelled with the stable isotope N. The principal tracer isotopes used in soil-plant
relationships studies are shown in Table (2.2). The chemical elements have been
grouped into 3 categories. The first two groups refer to the essential plant nutrients i.e.
macro and micronutrients, respectively, while the third one consists of a
miscellaneous group of trace elements and others used in soil-plant relationships and
 27

related studies. It is often argued that the labelled fertilizers loose their identity in the
soil since they became incorporated into the organic matter, soil solution, ion
exchange processes, etc. resulting in just one pool of nutrients. The only basic
assumption made when utilising isotopically labelled fertilizer is that the behavior of
the isotope and the carrier is identical in the soil-plant system. In other words there
should not be any isotope effect. The isotopic labelling of the fertilizer is best done
during the manufacturing process by specialized firms.
 28

Table 2.2. Isotopes useful in soil/plant studies

Element Most Tracer Characteristics Typical Applications
abundant isotope
isotope

1-Macronutrients
14 13
Nitrogen N N R,T1/2 =10 min Limited because of
β emitter(1.2 MeV) and short half-life.Very
ᵞ(0.511 MeV) short term studies on
N2
fixation,denitrification
14
N S,natural N-14 enrished(N-15
abundance=99.634% depleted) materials for
15 14
N/ N=MS single season fertilizer
useefficiency studies
15
N S,natural Fertilizer N use
abundance=0.366% efficiency,biological
15 14
N/ N ratio either by nitrogen fixation,N
MS or ES balance, N
transformation in
soils,N availability
from organic-
materials,animal
nutrition studies
 29

2.7.6 Isotopic techniques in N fertilizer use efficiency studies

In isotopic-aided fertilizer experiments, a labelled fertilizer is added to the soil

and the amount of fertilizer nutrient that a plant has taken up is determined. In this
way different fertilizer practices (placement, timing, sources, etc.) can be studied. The
first parameter to be determined when studying the fertilizer uptake by a crop by
means of the isotope techniques is the fraction of the nutrient in the plant derived
from the (labelled) fertilizer, i.e.: fdff.
Often this fraction is expressed as a percentage, i.e.:

% dff = fdff x 100

2.7.7 Calculations for experiments with 15N

15
% 15N abundance is transformed into atom % N excess by subtracting the
natural abundance (0.3663 atom %N) from the % N abundance of the sample.
Afterwards the following calculations can be made:

1
atom N e cessplant
Ndff 1 1
atom e cessfertilizer

ertilizer N yield
fertilizer N utlization 1
ate of N application

Since the isotopic method is normally complementary to conventional or

classical methods in agricultural investigations, the research team should ideally
consist of scientists not only trained in the use of the method but also skilled and
experienced in field experimentation. Although it is known that isotopic techniques
are a powerful tool in agricultural research, in deciding to use them to full advantage,
one must consider if the following criteria are met:
— the isotopic method is the only way to solve a particular question or to obtain a
particular piece of information, and
— if other methods are available, the isotopic method is a quick and cost
effective means to obtain the needed information.
In the context of fertilizer studies, it is essential to determine first when and
where the isotope method will be applied during the experimentation phase. Where
the isotope method is utilized mainly in phase II to refine and improve existing
 30

fertilizer management practices. It is evident that the method must be used only when
it is advantageous and cost effective under local conditions.
15
Therefore, correct application of the N techniques is absolutely necessary to
obtain high quality data and the valuable information desired. This, in turn, demands
that adequate field experimentation techniques (field experiment layout, plot design,
application of N labelled products, chemical and isotopic analyses, data calculations,
etc.) be utilized (TCS, 2001).
 CHAPTER III
MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Site Description

A two-season field experiment was conducted at the research farm of Yezin

Agricultural University (YAU), which is situated at 1 ˚ 2ʹ N latitude and 96˚ 7ʹ E
longitude and 1644 feet above sea level, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar.
Before conducting the experiment, the physicochemical properties of soil were
analyzed. Soil cores were randomly collected at 0-20 cm depth and a composite
sample was used for characterization. The physicochemical properties of experimental
soil were as showed in Table (3.1).

3.2 Experimental Arrangement

The experiment was conducted continuously two seasons; summer season

(February to June) and monsoon season (June to October) in 2017. The rice
(Oryza sativa L.), varieties Yadanar Toe (125 days) in summer season and Sin
Thukha (140 days) in monsoon season, were used as tested variety. Twenty-day-old
seedlings were transplanted with the spacing of 20 cm × 20 cm in both seasons.
Standard agronomic practices for rice were applied in this experiment.

3.3 Experimental Design, Treatments and Layouts

The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with 3
replications (Figure 3.1). Treatments were shown in the Table (3.3).
Treatment 1 was the control with no fertilizer application. Treatments 2 to 8
were N application rates and application methods (Table 3.3). Nitrogen fertilizers in
respective treatments were equally split into two times at (10 DAT) and (60 DAT). In
T8, a different N source, urea super granule (USG), was applied and each USG
weighed about 2.7 g. It was applied only once to a depth of 5 - 7 cm into the soil
between four alternative hills at 10 DAT.
Except T1, all treatments received 25 kg P ha−1 as triple super phosphate
fertilizer and 75 kg K ha−1 as muriate of potash fertilizer. All P fertilizers were applied
as basal but K fertilizers were equally split into three times as basal, at active tillering
and panicle initiation (PI) stages. To avoid the nutrient limitation, 25 kg ha−1 of
gypsum was applied as basal. For Zn fertilization, root dipping of rice seedlings was
performed in a 2% ZnSO4 solution just before transplanting.
 32

Table 3.1. Physicochemical properties of the experimental soil before cultivation

Properties Values Range

Soil Texture
Sand (%) 64.2
Silt (%) 8.5 Sandy loam
Clay (%) 27.3
pH 5.43 Moderately acid
Electrical Conductivity (dS m−1) 0.09 Non saline
Total N (%) 0.08
Available N (ppm) 77 Medium
Available P (ppm) 17.1 Medium
Exchangeable K (ppm) 109 Low
Cation Exchange Capacity (meq 100 g−1) 4.4 Very low
Organic carbon (%) 1.1 Low

Table 3.2. List of soil and plant analyses and methods used for analysis
Analytical Item Analytical Method Remark
Soil texture Pipette method (Day, 1965) Soil
Soil pH 1:5 (soil: water) pH meter Soil
Electrical Conductivity 1:5 (soil: water) EC meter Soil
Cation Exchange Capacity Bascomd's method (Chapman,1965) Soil
Organic Carbon Walkley and Black method Soil
(Mc Leod,1973)
Total Nitrogen Modified Kjeldahl Digestion method Soil and plant
(Ohyama et al., 1991)
Available Nitrogen Alkaline permanganate method Soil
(Bremner, 1965)
Available Phosphorus 9C-Olsen's P-Malachite green Soil
(Olsen and Dean, 1965)
Available Potassium 1 N Ammonium acetate extraction Soil
(Pratt, 1965)
 33

Table 3.3. Treatments and their descriptions

N Rate 15
Treatment −1
N isotope
(kg N ha Form Time of application
name Treatment*
)
T1 No - -
fertilizer
T2 0 - -
T3 30 Prilled urea + 2 times (at 10 and 60 DAT)
T4 77.6 Prilled urea + 2 times (at 10 and 60 DAT)
T5 100 Prilled urea - 2 times (at 10 and 60 DAT)
T6 130 Prilled urea - 2 times (at 10 and 60 DAT)
T7 160 Prilled urea + 2 times (at 10 and 60 DAT)
T8 77.6 USG + 1 time (After transplanting)

Rep III Rep II Rep I

Figure 3.1. Experimental Layout Design

 34

The individual plot size was 5 m × 5 m enclosed with double band.

Experimental plots were 1.0 m away from each other to prevent contaminations such
as mixing fertilizer during irrigation or drainage. Replications were separated by 5.0
m. The total experimental area was 989 m2.

3.4 Data Collection

3.4.1 Growth parameters

During the growing season, agronomic characters such as, plant height,
number of tiller per hill and chlorophyll meter (SPAD meter) value were recorded
weekly from 30 DAT to harvest. Each parameter was measured from five random
samples. SPAD value was recorded using a SPAD-502 meter (Minolta Co., Japan).

3.4.2 Soil and plant sampling

During the growing seasons, (T2, T4, T5, T7 and T8) were selected to analyze
soil mineral N and plant uptake. The T2 was selected because it was zero N
application which can be used for comparing the effect of N treatments. T4 and T8
were selected because these treatments used the N from two different sources with the
same rate (prilled urea and USG of 77.6 kg ha−1). The T5 was selected because it was
the medium N rate (100 kg ha−1) and T7 was the highest N rate (160 kg ha−1).
Soil samples and plant samples were collected from two layers: 0-10 cm and
10-20 cm, at 30 DAT, 60 DAT, maturity and harvest to determine mineral N (NH4-
N) content of the soil.
Soil sample collection was undertaken from selected treatments Plant samples
were also taken from selected treatments (T2, T4, T5, T7 and T8) at 30 DAT, 60
DAT, maturity and harvest of both summer and monsoon growing seasons to
determine dry matter yield and analyze total N content. Then N uptake of rice plants
was calculated in respective growth stages. Two hills of rice plants were removed
from sampling area setting to ensure each sampling point was surrounded by border
plants.

3.4.3 Yield and yield components

At harvest, data of yield and yield components were recorded and calculated
for the following variables;
1) Grain yield (ton ha−1)
2) Straw yield (ton ha−1)
 35

3) Number of panicle per plant

4) Number of spikelet per panicle
5) Filled grain (%)
6) 1000 grain weight (g)
7) Harvest index
The harvest area (1.8 m × 1.8m) was set in the middle of each experimental
plot. Manual harvesting using a sickle was carried out in this experiment. Total fresh
weight of straw and grain were recorded, and all grain samples were sun-dried while
subsample of straw was oven-dried at 70°C. Immediately after the dry weight of grain
was measured, its moisture content was determined using a grain moisture meter.
Grain dry weight was then adjusted to 14% moisture for the calculation of grain yield.
Yield component characters mentioned above were recorded from 6 rice hills inside
the harvest area following standard practices mentioned in (Dobermann & Fairhurst,
2000).
Harvest index of each treatment was calculated by the following equation.

Economic yield (grain yield)

arvest Inde
iological yield (grain yield + straw yield)

(Fageria, 2016)

3.5 Nitrogen Use Efficiency

Nitrogen use efficiency was calculated according to the following equation for
both season.

ield fertilized ield unfertilized

N se Efficiency
fertilizer N applied

(Cassman, Gines, Dizon, Samson, & Alcantara, 1996)

Furthermore, the NUE was also investigated using isotopic method. The
preparation and procedure were as followed.
15
The N-labeled fertilizer was applied to the micro-plot with the respective
rates only in treatment 3, 4, 7 and 8. A steel plate micro-plot (80 cm length × 40 cm
width × 40 cm height) was installed inside the selected plot so that it was placed into
the soil to have 20 cm above ground and 20 cm below ground to protect the
movement of 15N-labeled urea across the plot.
 36

Plant samples from micro plots were taken at harvest. The samples were
placed air dry and finely ground. And then, these sub plant samples were taken and
sent to laboratory of school of Agriculture and Food, Faculty of Veterinary and
15
Agricultural Science, University of Melboure, Australia to analyze by N dilution
method using Mass spectrometer.

3.6 Statistical Analysis

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for observed data was undertaken using a

statistix (8th version) software and treatment means were compared by least
significant difference value (LSD) at 5% level.

3.7 Weather Data of Yezin

Monthly temperature and rainfall data of Yezin were taken from Yezin
Meteorological Station for two rice seasons in 2017.
 37

Rainfall (mm) Maximum temperature (°C)

Minimum temperature (°C)
15 50

12 40

Temperature (°C)
Rainfall (mm)

9 30

6 20

3 10

0 0
February March April May June

Figure 3.2. Monthly maximum and minimum temperature and monthly

rainfall of Yezin during summer season rice, 2017

Rainfall (mm) Maximum temperature (°C)

Minimum temperature (°C)
25 50

20 40
Temperature (°C)
Rainfall (mm)

15 30

10 20

5 10

0 0
June July August September October

Figure 3.3. Monthly maximum and minimum temperature and monthly

rainfall of Yezin during monsoon season rice, 2017
 CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Assessment of Yield and Nitrogen Use Efficiency based on Nitrogen Rates
and Fertilization Practices in Lowland Rice (Oryza sativa L.) at
Yezin,Naypyitaw in Summer Season

4.1.1 Plant growth parameters at weekly interval

(a) Plant height

The plant height of Yadanar Toe in summer season (February-June, 2017) is

shown in Figure 4.1. There was no significant difference in plant height of different N
fertilizer treatments in each week except the fourth and sixth weeks Figure 4.1. In the
fourth week, T8 (77.6 kg N ha−1as USG) gave the highest plant height (86.6 cm)
which was statistically higher than other treatments except T7 (160 kg N ha−1). In the
sixth week, the same result of plant height as the fourth week was observed.
In fourth week and sixth week, plant heights were coincident with early and
mid-tillering stages of the summer rice. Rice plant needs much N at early and mid-
tillering of active growth period to increase rice growth and the number of panicle (De
Datta, 1986). As N fertilizers except USG were applied to the rice field with two
equal splits at 10 DAT and 60 DAT, plants received only half of the N dose at fourth
week and the full dose at sixth week. At fourth and sixth weeks, plants received N
efficiently from USG treatment and large N amount from 160 kg N ha−1 treatment and
therefore, they might contributed resulting in the higher plant heights.

(b) Tiller number per plant

Among the treatments, there was no significant difference of tiller numbers of

Yadanar Toe rice in summer season Figure 4.2. The number of tillers per plant
ranging from (19 to 22) and second week gave the highest tiller numbers in this trial
conducted in summer season. Throughout the season, T5 (22) and T8 (22) were
higher than other treatments. In the last week, the number of tiller per plant reduced to
13-16. The gradual reduction of tiller numbers occurs when young tillers fail in
competition for assimilates with developing panicles and their growth is eventually
suppressed (N. Fageria & Baligar, 2001).
 39

150

120
T1
Plant height (cm)

T2
90 T3
T4
60 T5
T6
T7
30
T8

0
30 50 70 90 110
Days After Transplanting (DAT)
Figure 4.1. Plant height (cm) of Yadanar Toe grown as summer at YAU
research farm in 2017.

25

20
T1
Tiller number plant −1

T2
15 T3
T4
10 T5
T6

5 T7
T8

0
30 50 70 90 110
Days After Transplanting (DAT)

Figure 4.2. Number of tillers per plant of Yadanar Toe grown as summer at
YAU research farm in 2017.
 40

(c) SPAD value

Chlorophyll meter readings (SPAD value) given by the treatments were

significantly different at seventh, eighth and last weeks of measurement Figure 4.3.
No significant difference of SPAD value was found among different treatments in
other weeks.
In the seventh week, the highest readings (40) were resulted from T5, T6 and
T7 along with N fertilizers of 100, 130 and 160 kg ha−1, respectively but, they were
not statistically different from T4 and T8 (77.6 kg N ha−1 of both prilled urea and
USG). T1, T2 and T3 provided the lowest SPAD value (35-36) in seventh week in
this trial.
In the eighth week, the highest SPAD value was observed in T4, T5, T6 and
T7 while the lowest in T1, T2 and T3. In the last week, T1 and T2 with no N fertilizer
showed the lowest SPAD values however, T4, T5, T6, T7 and T8 with N rates
ranging from 77.6 to 160 kg ha−1 gave the highest values.
The SPAD values increased with the increasing trend of fertilizer N rate (Lin,
Zhu, Chen, Cheng, & Uphoff, 2009). The SPAD values can lie from 25 to 44
depending on N uptake and growth stage of rice. It is well believed that there are
many factors to affect the SPAD values such as growth stage, variety, leaf thickness,
plant density, soil and/or climate (Turner & Jund, 1994). The threshold value of 35 is
revealed for transplanted dry season rice (Balasubramanian, Morales, Cruz, &
Abdulrachman, 1998). In the present study, the SPAD value of rice leaves were found
to be above the threshold level in all N treatments including zero N plots.

4.1.2 Soil, plant sampling and analysis

(a) Mineral N content (NH4-N) of soil at 30 DAT, 60 DAT, maturity and harvest

Mineral N contents of soils collected from 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm depths at 30

DAT, 60 DAT, maturity and harvest stages were presented in Figure 4.4. At 30 and
60 DAT, no significant difference in mineral N content of soils was found among
different N treatments in both 0-10 and 10-20 cm depths. Mineral N contents
collected at 30 DAT ranged from 15 to 28 mg kg−1 at 0-10 cm and from 9 to 24 mg
kg−1 at 10-20 cm. In each treatment of this stage, the amount of mineral N content was
found higher at 0-10 cm compared to 10-20 cm.
 41

50

40
T1
T2
SPAD value

30
T3
T4
20 T5
T6
T7
10
T8

0
30 50 70 90 110
Day After Transplanting(DAT)

Figure 4.3. SPAD value of Yadanar Toe grown as summer at YAU research
farm in 2017.
Mineral N Content (mg kg-1)

60
50
40
30
20
T8 10-20
T8 0-10

10
T7 10-20
T7 0-10

0
T5 10-20

30 DAT
T5 0-10

60 DAT
T4 10-20

Maturity
T4 0-10
T2 10-20

Harvest
T2 0-10

Figure 4.4. Mineral N content (NH4-N) of soil at 30 DAT, 60 DAT, maturity

and harvest stages of Yadanar Toe grown as summer at YAU
research farm in 2017.
 42

At 60 DAT, mineral N content of soils ranged from 9 to 17 mg kg−1 at 0-10 cm

and from 26 to 41 mg kg−1 at 10-20 cm. In each treatment of this stage, the amount of
mineral N content was found higher at 10-20 cm compared to 0-10 cm.
Mineral N contents of soil collected at maturity stage of Yadanar Toe ranged
from 2.1 mg kg−1 to 15.4 mg kg−1 at 0-10 cm depth and from 2.3 mg kg−1 to 16.8 mg
kg−1 at 10-20 cm depth Figure 4.4. N application positively related the mineral N
content of soil at maturity stage in both soil layers. Despite the same rate of N
application (77.6 kg N ha−1), Urea Super Granule (T8) showed higher mineral N
content than Prilled Urea (T4) in both soil layers. At 0-10 cm depth, the application of
160 kg N ha−1was responsible for the highest mineral N content (15.4 mg kg−1 ) which
was not significantly different from that of 77.6 kg N ha−1as USG. At 10-20 cm depth,
the highest mineral N content of soil was left by the application of 77.6 kg N ha−1as
USG followed by the application of 160 kg N ha−1
As small portion as 30% of N applied is consumed by irrigated rice and the
remaining vast amount is lost through various processes (Craswell & Vlek, 1983). In
the case of USG applied to the reduced zone, the large amount of N is ammonium
form that is less mobile than nitrates in soil. Consequently, the majority of N applied
using USG is available to the crop throughout the growing period (Kapoor et al.,
2008). The loss of USG is about 4% of the N applied while it is about 35% from the
practice of urea broadcasting (Lal & Stewart, 2014).
At harvest, different N treatments affected significantly on the amount of
mineral N left in the soil at 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm layers. At 0-10 cm layer, the
amount of available N remained was the highest (21.6 mg kg−1) in T7 which did not
differ with from that of T8. T2 left the lowest amount of mineral N (8.3 mg kg−1) at 0-
10 cm depth. At 10-20 cm layer of soil at harvest, mineral N contents left by T7 and
T8 were not statistically different among each other but they were standing high
compared to other treatments. The lowest amount of mineral N (9.6 mg kg−1) was
given by T2 at 10-20 cm depth.
When comparing mineral N contents of soil throughout the growing season,
the maturity stage had the lowest mineral N range 2.5 to 15.4 and 2.3 to 16.8 mg kg−1,
respectively at both layers. It may be due to the gradual decreases in the soil solution
NH4-N content during the rice growth stage (Yana et al., 2018).
 43

(b) Dry matter and N uptake of rice during the cropping season

Dry matter yield of Yadanar Toe at 30 DAT, panicle initiation, maturity and
harvest were shown in relation to selected treatments: T2, T4, T5, T7 and T8 (Figure
4.5). Dry matter yield of Yadanar Toe rice plant ranged from 0.4 to 0.9 ton ha−1at 30
DAT, from 4.5 to 6.3 ton ha−1 at panicle initiation, from 12.8 to 17.7 ton ha−1 at
maturity and from 10.9 to 13.7 ton ha−1 at harvest. The dry matter yield was the
maximum at maturity stage and declined at harvest.
The highest dry matter accumulation (15.5 ton ha−1) was observed at 95 days
after transplanting (maturity) and the dry matter accumulation increased statistically
with different N treatments in all growth stages of rice (Chaturvedi, 2005). This
finding was partly in line with the current study in terms of crop growth stage which
gave the highest dry matter yield. The dry matter yield of rice in the current study was
comparable to Chaturvedi (2005)’s finding.
Dry matter yield of different N treatments was found to be significant at 30
DAT and maturity stages (P<0.05). At 30 DAT, dry matter yield given by T8 was the
highest (0.93 ton ha−1) but it did not differ with that of T4 and T7. At maturity, T8
was the highest dry matter yield (13.7 ton ha−1) and the rest treatments were not
significantly differ.
Nitrogen uptake of Yadanar Toe was significantly different among N
treatments at 30 DAT, panicle initiation, maturity and harvest stages at P<0.05 Figure
4.6. At 30 DAT, the highest N uptake (29 kg ha−1) was found in T8 (77.6 kg N ha−1 as
USG), which was not statistically different from T4 (77.6 kg N ha−1 as prilled urea).
T2, T5 and T7 (0, 100 and 160 kg N ha−1, respectively) were not significantly
different from each other in N uptake.
At panicle initiation stage, T8 (77.6 kg N ha−1 as USG) contributed the
highest N uptake, 127 kg ha , followed by T7 (160 kg N ha−1) whose N uptake was
−1

108 kg ha−1. The amount of N uptake given by treatments T2, T4 and T5 were not
statistically different from panicle initiation stage.
The maximum N uptake (200 kg ha−1) was observed in plants receiving 77.6
kg N ha−1 as USG at maturity stage and it was followed by the amount of N uptakes
given by T5 and T7 (100 and 160 kg N ha−1, respectively). Zero N and 30 kg N ha−1
application were found to take up the least amount of N among different N treatments.
 44

kg N ha−1

77.6 kg N ha−1 as Prilled rea

18
1 kg N ha−1
15 16 kg N ha−1
Dry matter yield (ton ha−1)

77.6 kg N ha−1 as SG
12
LSD0.05 = 3.2
Pr > f = ns
Pr > f =**
9 CV% = 9.4
CV% = 10.8
LSD0.05=0.4
Pr > f = **
6 CV% = 33.4 Pr > f = ns
CV% = 27.2
3

0
30 DAT Panicle Initiation Maturity Harvest
Figure 4.5. Dry matter yield (ton ha−1) of Yadanar Toe at 30 DAT, panicle
initiation, maturity and harvest stages as affected by different N at
YAU research farm in 2017.
 45

The application of different N fertilizer treatments positively affected the N

uptake of rice compared to zero N application at harvest (P<0.01). The effects of 77.6
kg N ha−1 application as either USG or prilled urea were the same in terms of N
uptake in Yadanar Toe.The application of 100 kg N ha−1contributed the highest N
uptake (270 kg ha−1), similar to the application of 160 kg N ha−1.
At 30 DAT, the maximum N uptake from the application of 77.6 kg N ha−1
either as USG or prilled urea was probably explained by the using of balanced amount
of other nutrients, such as P and K. In plants receiving higher N rates (100 and 160 kg
N ha−1), however, the uptake of N was reduced. The panicle initiation stage of rice
plant is considered as one of the nutrient demanding stages especially N turning from
the vegetative to reproductive stage. Therefore, the application of USG and the
highest N rate could provide the highest N uptake compared with other N treatments
in this stage. At maturity and harvest stages, the higher N rates were found to relate
with the higher N uptake of rice. This shows that rice plants consume a lot of N
nutrient throughout the growing season. The consistent effectiveness of using USG
regarding with N uptake of rice could remarkably be noted in this experiment. It can
suggest that the use of USG might promote higher N, P and K uptakes comparing
with broadcasting prilled urea (Bandaogo et al., 2015).

4.1.3 Yield and yield components of rice at harvest

(a) Yield components of rice
Statistically, the effects of different N treatments did not show the differences
on plant height, tiller number per plant, panicle number per hill, spikelet number per
panicle, percentage of filled grain and 1000 grain weight of Yadanar Toe rice grown
in summer season, 2017 (P>0.05) Table 4.1. On the contrary, significant increase of
leaf area, yield component and grain yield was reported from the increasing rates of N
up to 120 kg N ha−1(Abou-Khalifa, 2012).

(b) Grain yield, straw yield and harvest index

Grain yield
Significant differences of grain yield were observed among the treatments
(P<0.05) and grain yield ranged from 6.85 to 8.22 ton ha−1 Table 4.2. The high grain
yields (8.20 and 8.22 ton ha−1) were provided by the application of 100 and 130 kg N
ha−1, respectively but, which were not statistically different from T4 and T8 (7.68 and
7.72 ton ha−1, respectively). There was no difference of grain yield between no
fertilization, zero N, low rate (30 kg N ha−1) and the highest rate (160 kg N ha−1)
applications.
 46

kg N ha−1
77.6 kg N ha−1 as Prilled rea
300 LSD 0.05=11.8
1 kg N ha−1 Pr > f = **
16 kg N ha−1 CV% = 2.7
250 77.6 kg N ha−1 as SG
N uptake (kg ha−1)

200

150 LSD 0.05=11.5

Pr > f = *
CV% = 31.5
100 LSD 0.05=20.8
Pr > f = **
LSD 0.05=43.6
50 CV% = 7.6
Pr > f = *
CV% = 25.4
0
30DAT Panicle Initiation Maturity Harvest

Figure 4.6. N uptake of Yadanar Toe at 30 DAT, panicle initiation, maturity

and harvest stages as affected by different N treatments at YAU
research farm in 2017.
 47

Table 4.1. Effect of different N fertilizer treatments on plant height, tiller

numbers per plant and yield components of Yadanar Toe grown at YAU
research farm in summer season in 2017.

Plant Filled 1000

Tiller Panicle Spikele
Treatment Height grain grain
number hill−1 panicle−1
(cm) (%) wt. (g)
T1= Control 126 14 14 68 95 24.9
T2= 0 kg N ha−1 127 15 15 62 95 25.1
T3= 30 kg N ha−1 126 13 15 87 95 25.4
−1
T4= 77.6 kg N ha 128 15 14 81 94 25.4
−1
T5=100 kg N ha 124 16 16 82 93 24.9
T6=130 kg N ha−1 125 15 17 84 94 24.9
T7=160 kg N ha−1 127 15 15 83 94 25.8
T8= USG 77.6 kg N ha−1 131 16 15 73 94 24.7
CV% 3.2 11.3 12.5 13.0 0.9 2.0
Pr>f ns ns ns ns ns ns
LSD (0.05) - - - - - -
 48

The grain yield of Yadanar Toe was the highest in 100 kg N ha−1application
and there was still a stagnant of grain yield at 130 kg N ha−1 rate although the
application was further increased. Moreover, the decline of grain yield was observed
at 160 kg N ha−1. The increasing rate of N (80 to 160 kg ha−1) could not promote the
grain yield of rice as a result of luxury consumption of N (Hirzel & Rodríguez, 2013).
In accordance with the law of diminishing return, rice grain yield inclines up to an
optimum level at a certain N rate. Once the optimum level reached, the yield
declination occurs resulting in the change of one limiting factor to another. In other
words, the fertilization has to be balanced so that the availability of each element is
proportional to the yield ( Wit, 1992).

Straw yield

Straw yield was found to be statistically different among different N

treatments ranging from 9.04 to 13.70 ton ha−1 (Table 4.2). The applications of 77.6
kg N ha−1 as USG and 100 kg N ha−1 produced the maximum straw yields (13.70 and
13.26 ton ha−1 ) which did not statistically differ with those provided by other N
treatments (30, 77.6, 130 and 160 kg N ha−1 as urea). Zero N application gave higher
straw yield (10.88 ton ha−1) than that of no fertilizer application, whose yield was the
lowest (9.04 ton ha−1) among the treatments.

Harvest Index

Harvest Index (HI); the ratio of economical yield to above ground biological
yield (N. Fageria & Baligar, 2001) was positively affected by different N treatments
at (P<0.05) Table 4.2. Treatments with no fertilizer application and with 130 kg N
ha−1 contributed the maximum HI value 0.43 and 0.40 while other treatments provided
statistically the same HI value ranging from 0.36 to 0.39. The range of harvest index
in the current study was in line with ( Yoshida, 1981) who reported that the range of
harvest index was from 0.40 to 0.49 for lowland rice cultivars.
 49

Table 4.2. Effect of different N fertilizer treatments on grain yield, straw yield
and harvest index (HI) of Yadanar Toe grown 2017 in YAU research
farm in summer season.
Grain yield Straw yield
Treatment HI
(ton ha−1) (ton ha−1)
T1= Control 6.96bc 9.04c 0.43a
T2= 0 kg N ha−1 6.85c 10.88b 0.39bc
T3= 30 kg N ha−1 7.17bc 12.40ab 0.36c
T4= 77.6 kg N ha−1 7.68ab 11.91ab 0.39bc
T5=100 kg N ha−1 8.20a 13.26a 0.38bc
T6=130 kg N ha−1 8.22a 12.04ab 0.40ab
T7=160 kg N ha−1 7.56bc 12.18ab 0.38bc
T8= USG 77.6 kg N ha−1 7.72ab 13.70a 0.36c
CV% 5.77 8.79 5.59
Pr>f ** ** *
LSD (0.05) 0.08 1.84 0.04
Means followed by different letters in the same column are significantly different by LSD test at 5%
level.
* *Significant difference at 1% level and *Significant difference at 5% level
 50

4.1.4 Grain and straw N uptake at harvest

Nitrogen uptake of grain increased with N application rate ranging from 74 to

133 kg ha−1at harvest stage of Yadanar Toe rice grown in summer season, 2017
Figure 4.7. Zero N application along with addition of other nutrients was responsible
for the lowest grain N uptake. The amounts of grain N uptake provided by the 0 kg N
ha−1 and 30 kg N ha−1 application were statistically the same and higher than that of no
fertilizer (T1) application. Increasing trend of grain N uptake inclined up to 130 kg N
ha−1 (with 133 kg N ha−1) and declined at 160 kg N ha−1 application i.e. it did not
contribute more grain N uptake.
Straw N uptake was observed to be the similar trend of grain N uptake. The
application of 160 kg N ha−1 provided the highest straw N uptake followed by the
application of 100 kg N ha−1. The straw N uptake was not significantly different
among 130 kg N ha−1 and 77.6 kg N ha−1 either as USG or prilled urea. The straw N
uptake (104 kg ha−1) given by 30 kg N ha−1 did not differ statistically with that (92 kg
ha−1) of T2 (0 kg N ha−1). The straw N uptake (50 kg ha−1) was found to be the
smallest from the initial soil condition.
As observed in other evidences (Swain et al., 2006), the uptake of grain and
straw N increased with the increasing trend of N supply and this increase ceased at a
certain N level, 130 kg N ha−1in grain uptake and 160 kg N ha−1 in straw uptake in
this study. (Jiang et al., 2004) stated that the high N rate applied to rice produced the
high N uptake of rice but, reduced the efficiency of N use.

4.1.5 Nitrogen use efficiency

Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) as affected by different N treatments for

Yadanar Toe rice grown in summer season, 2017 was presented in (Figure 4.8). The
NUE given by different N rates and sources ranged from 4.5 to 13.5 in this trial. The
lowest grain yield (4.5 kg) was produced by the highest N rate (160 kg ha−1) and the
highest grain yield (13.5 kg) was supported by 100 kg ha−1. This clearly stated that the
highest N rate produces the lowest NUE of rice and this finding was in line with (Liu
et al., 2016). As N is the main limiting factor of crop growth and yield, the rate of
yield increase is substantial at low rates of N supply. When the N rate becomes higher
than optimal, the amount of yield becomes smaller because other yield determinants
are becoming in limited condition with the approach of the maximum yield potential
(Dobermann, 2005).
 51

Straw N uptake Grain N uptake

250

200
N uptake (kg ha−1 )

150

100

50

0
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

Figure 4.7. Grain N uptake and straw N uptake of Yadanar Toe grown in
summer season, 2017 as affected by different N treatments at YAU
research farm

15 Pr>f = ns

12
Nitrogen use efficiency

0
T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

Figure 4.8. Nitrogen use efficiency of Yadanar Toe in summer season, 2017 as
affected by different N treatments at YAU research farm
 52

4.1.6 Nitrogen Use Efficiency measured by 15N isotopic technique

The NUE data measured by 15N dilution method using 15N labeled urea given
by T3,T4 and T7 as prilled urea were not different among each other (Table 4.3).The
urea deep placement (UDP) technique using USG returned the highest NUE and it
was about double compared to other treatments. Deep placement of USG significantly
improved grain yield, straw yield and nitrogen use efficiency of rice and reduced the
volatilization loss of ammonia relative to the application of prilled urea (Jena et al.,
2003). Koyama (1971) reported that in a Bangkhen soil, the recovery in rice plant of
fertilizer N in deep placement was twice as high as in the case of surface application
(Sakorn et al., 1985). The high NUE obtained with USG deep placement in the present
study also agrees with the findings of other studies (Cao et al., 1984; Singh et al., 1995;
Jaiswal & Singh 2001; Chen et al., 2008; Kapoor et al., 2008).
 53

15
Table 4.3. Nitrogen use efficiency of Yadanar Toe(summer) measured by N
isotopic technique
N rate % NUE plant
Treatment
(kg N ha−1 ) Mean SD
T3 30 36.5b 3.7
T4 77.6 33.4 b 1.5
T7 160 30.2 b 4.9
a
T8 77.6(UDP) 61 4.0
LSD(0.05) 8.1
 54

4.2 Assessment of Nitrogen Use Efficiency and Yield based on Nitrogen Rates
and Fertilization Practices in Lowland Rice (Oryza sativa L.) at
Yezin,Naypyitaw in Monsoon Season

4.2.1 Plant growth parameters at weekly interval

(a) Plant height

The plant height of rice cultivated in monsoon season (June-October, 2017) is

shown in Figure 4.9. Effect of different N rates affected significantly on the plant
height of Sin Thukha recorded at weekly interval starting from 30 DAT to harvest.
However, no significant difference was found among treatments in the first, sixth and
seventh weeks (Figure 4.9). The results of plant height were found to be in the
identical trend in each week. Among the treatments tested, the highest plant height of
Sin Thukha was always provided by T8 with the application of 77.6 kg N ha−1as USG
in this trial. Treatments with no fertilization and zero N application were mostly
responsible for the shortest plant height. The plant heights of other treatments were
not statistically different. Nitrogen fertilization increased plant height of rice plant
significantly (Azam et al., 2012).

(b) Tiller numbers per plant

The number of tiller per plant recorded at weekly interval starting from 30
DAT to harvest was not affected by different N treatments except in the fourth week
Figure 4.10. In the fourth week, T8 with N application at 77.6 kg N ha−1 as USG
contributed the largest number of tillers (15) followed by T7 (160 kg N ha−1) and they
did not differ statistically. The smallest number of tillers per plant (11) was provided
by T1 (no fertilization) but other treatments also gave the similar results ranging from
11 to 13. From the field perspective of rice cultivation, the application of N fertilizer
is believed to enhance the tiller population as the cytokinin content within tiller nodes
which favors the germination of the tiller primordium is increased by N fertilization
(Wang et al., 2017). The increased number of effective tillers was observed in the
application of 80 kg N ha−1 as USG over prilled urea (Ahmed, Islam, Kader, &
Anwar, 2000; Bandaogo et al., 2015).
 55

150

120
T1
T2
Plant Height (cm)

90
T3
T4
60 T5
T6
T7
30
T8

0
30 44 58 72 86
Day After Transplanting(DAT)

Figure 4.9. Plant height (cm) of Sin Thukha grown as monsoon at YAU
research farm in 2017.
20

15
T1
Tiller number plant−1

T2
T3
10 T4
T5
T6

5 T7
T8

0
30 44 58 72 86
Day After Transplanting(DAT)

Figure 4.10. Numbers of tiller per plant of Sin Thukha grown as monsoon at
YAU research farm in 2017.
 56

(c) SPAD value

SPAD value readings were recorded at weekly interval from 30 DAT to

harvest were presented in (Figure 4.11) and different N fertilizer treatments affected
significantly on chlorophyll meter readings of Sin Thukha rice in most of the weekly
data (P<0.05). Applying N fertilizers increased the SPAD values over no fertilization
and zero N application (Balasubramanian et al., 1998). Generally, SPAD values
were improved with the N rates especially in younger growth stages. In no
fertilization (T1) and zero N application (T2), the SPAD values ranged from 34 to 41
during the study period. Within the different N rates from 30 to 160 kg N ha−1 the
minimum SPAD value was 36 and the maximum was 44.

4.2.2 Soil, plant sampling and analysis

(a) Mineral N content (NH4-N) of soil at 30 DAT, 60 DAT, maturity and harvest

N application positively affected the mineral N (NH4-N) content of soil

collected from 0-10 cm depth at 30 and 60 DAT (Figure 4.12).At 30DAT, T2 was the
lowest mineral N content (17 mg kg−1) and the highest mineral N content (35 mg
kg−1) was observed from plot that obtained the application of USG at T8. However,
the mineral content of soil gathered from 10-20 cm depth was not significantly
different among tested treatments. 0-10 cm depth at 60 DAT, T2 was the lowest
mineral N content (30 mg kg−1) and the highest mineral N content (42 mg kg−1) was
observed from plot that obtained the application of USG at T8. Likewise at 30 DAT,
the mineral content of soil gathered from 10-20 cm depth was not significantly
different among tested treatments.
Positive response of N fertilization to mineral N content of soil was observed
at maturity stage of Sin Thukha at 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm layers Figure 4.12. Mineral
N content of soils ranged from 10.0 mg kg−1 to 24.2 mg kg−1 in the first layer and
from 7.6 to 18.7 mg kg−1 in the second layer. At 0-10 cm depth, mineral N content of
soil increased with the increasing trend of N fertilizer rate. However, the content of
mineral N was higher (24.2 mg kg−1) in the application of USG fertilizer than that
16.0 mg kg−1 of prilled urea at the same rate of N application (77.6 kg ha−1). This
finding was supported by that of Huda et al. (2016).
 57

50

40

T1
T2
SPAD value

30
T3
T4
20 T5
T6
T7
10
T8

0
30 44 58 72 86
Day After Transplanting(DAT)

Figure 4.11. SPAD value of Sin Thukha grown as monsoon 2017 in YAU
research farm.
Mineral N Content (mg kg )
-1

50

40

30
20
T8 10-20
T8 0-10

10
T7 10-20
T7 0-10

0
T5 10-20

30 DAT
T5 0-10

60 DAT
T4 10-20

Maturity
T4 0-10
T2 10-20

Harvest
T2 0-10

Figure 4.12. Mineral N content (NH4-N) of soil at 30 DAT, 60 DAT, maturity

and harvest grown as monsoon at YAU research farm in 2017.
 58

The amount of ammonium N in floodwater was reduced in deep placement of

urea compared to broadcasting prilled urea (Huda et al., 2016). At 10-20 cm depth,
the positive effect of N fertilization was observed. The mineral N contents of T5, T7
and T8 were statistically the same.The application of 77.6 kg N ha−1 as USG provided
the highest mineral N content (18.7 mg kg−1 ) whereas the same N rate as prilled urea
provided the lower amount of mineral N (9.9 mg kg−1 ). The practice of deep
placement was responsible for the loss of ammonium volatilization and runoff
resulting in the much amount of them remained in the soil (Huda et al., 2016).
At harvest stage, mineral N contents of soil collected from 0-10 cm and 10-20
cm depths of Sin Thukha were presented in Figure 4.13. There were significant
differences of mineral N content among different N treatments (P<0.05) at 0-10 cm.
At 0-10 cm depth, the highest mineral N amount (18.9 mg kg−1) was found in T8
followed by the amounts given by T7. The lowest mineral N content (10.8 mg kg−1)
was observed from T2. At 10-20 cm depth, there was no significant difference of
mineral N left in the soil collected from different N treatments. Mineral N content left
in the soil ranged from 19.0 mg kg−1 to 25.2 mg kg−1 at 10-20 cm depth. The smallest
amount of mineral N content was found in T2 while the largest amount was observed
in treatment 8 at this depth. It is generally learnt that the amount of N left increased
with the rate of N application in both soil layers.

(b) Dry matter and N uptake of rice during the cropping season

Dry matter yields of Sin Thukha as affected by T2, T4, T5, T7 and T8 were
recorded at 30 DAT, panicle initiation, maturity and harvest stages Figure 4.13. There
was no significant difference of dry matter yield at 30 DAT but effect of different N
treatments was found on the dry matter yield at panicle initiation, maturity and harvest
stages.
At panicle initiation, dry matter yield increased with N rates ranging from 3.4
to 5.3 ton ha−1 but dry matter yield given by the application of 77.6 kg N ha−1 as USG
only significantly differed with 0 kg N ha−1 application. Dry matter yield was
significantly higher in application of USG than in prilled urea despite the same N rate.
Despite the positive effect of N fertilization on dry matter yield at panicle initiation
stage, the effect of balanced nutrition was more prominent in this study. The
maximum dry matter yield was found in plots receiving 77.6 kg N ha−1 as USG which
was in match with other nutrients. The same N rate applied as prilled urea with two
 59

equal splits gave the lower yield because plants received half of the dose at panicle
initiation stage.
At maturity stage, zero N application gave the lowest dry matter yield (8.0 ton
ha ) while the application of 160 kg N ha−1 provided the highest dry matter yield (9.9
−1

ton ha−1). The application of 77.6 kg ha−1 responded to the same dry matter yield
either using as USG or prilled urea. The dry matter yield reached the peak at maturity
stage and declined at harvest time. Leaf senescence of rice might be the reason of this
declination ( Fageria & Baligar, 2001).
At harvest stage, the highest dry matter yield (9.1 ton ha−1) was observed from
the application of 77.6 kg N ha−1 as prilled urea. The decline of dry matter yield from
maturity to harvest was the minimum in this treatment. The application of N at the
rates of 77.6 kg ha−1 as USG, 100 kg ha−1 and 160 kg ha−1 provided statistically the
same yield ranging from 7.3 to 7.7 ton ha−1.
Nitrogen uptake of Sin Thukha rice as affected by different N treatments at 30
DAT, panicle initiation, maturity and harvest stages was presented in (Figure 4.14)
and they were significantly different at panicle initiation and harvest stages (P<0.05).
At panicle initiation stage, the application of 77.6 kg N ha−1 as USG gave the highest
N uptake (81 kg ha−1) which was followed by the yield (56 kg ha−1) from the
application of 160 kg N ha−1. The uptakes of N were not statistically different among
the rest treatments. At harvest, the N uptakes as affected by 77.6 kg N ha−1 both as
USG and prilled urea and 100 kg N ha−1 were the highest ones and statistically the
same among each other. The lowest N uptake was found from zero N application
treatment. The highest N uptake (108 kg ha−1) was observed with USG (104 kg N ha−1)
followed by USG (78 kg N ha−1) gave (91 kg ha−1) and the lowest N uptake (26 kg ha−1)
was obtained with the control (Koudjega , 2018).
 60

kg N ha−1

12 77.6 kg N ha−1 as Prilled rea

1 kg N ha−1
16 N kg ha−1
77.6 N kg ha−1 as SG
Dry matter yield (ton ha−1)

LSD 0.05 = 0.3

6 Pr > f = **
CV% = 1.84 LSD 0.05 = 1.2
Pr > f = **
CV% = 1.8
3 LSD 0.05 = 1.2
Pr > f = *
CV% = 14.77
Pr > f = ns
CV% = 29.3
0
30 DAT Panicle Initiation Maturity Harvest

Figure 4.13. Dry matter yield (ton ha−1) of Sin Thukha at 30 DAT, 60 DAT,
maturity and harvest stages as affected by different N treatments
at YAU research farm in 2017.
200 kg N ha−1 LSD0.05 =24.5
77.6 kg N ha−1 as Prilled rea Pr > f =**
1 kg N ha−1 CV% = 8.5
16 kg N ha−1
150 77.6 kg N ha−1 as SG
N uptake (kg ha−1)

100 Pr > f =ns

CV% = 9.6
Pr > f = ns
CV% = 26.1
LSD0.05 =13.2
50
Pr > f =**
CV% = 12.8

0
30 DAT Panicle Initiation Maturity Harvest

Figure 4.14. N uptake of Sin Thukha at 30 DAT, panicle initiation, maturity

and harvest stages as affected by different N treatments at YAU
research farm in 2017.
 61

Since monsoon rice growing had already received the N treatments according
to the first summer season, it is understandable to see the significant difference of N
uptake only in the panicle initiation and harvest stages. The respective experimental
plots only received half of the dose of N fertilizers except USG at the most nutrient
demanding panicle initiation stage according to the N fertilization pattern. Like the
summer season rice, the effect of USG and the highest N rate (160 kg N ha−1) was
seen in this monsoon rice. At harvest, the optimum range of N uptake was given by
the range of N rate from 77.6 to 100 kg N ha−1 in the monsoon season rice.

4.2.3 Yield and yield components of rice at harvest

(a) Yield components of rice

Statistically, the effects of different N treatments did not show the differences
on tiller number per plant, panicle number per hill, spikelet number per panicle,
percentage of filled grain and 1000 grain weight except plant height of Sin Thukha
grown in monsoon season, 2017 (P<0.05) (Table 4.4). The application of 77.6 kg N
ha−1 as USG provided the highest plant height (135 cm) compared to the rest
treatments. The deep placement of USG showed significant increase in rice height and
length of panicles over the PU surface broadcasting (Koudjega ,2018).

(b) Grain yield, straw yield and harvest index

Grain yield

Significant differences of grain yield were observed among the treatments

(P<0.05) and grain yield ranged from 3.40 to 4.62 ton ha−1 (Table 4.5). The maximum
grain yield (4.62 ton ha−1) was provided by the application of 100 kg N ha−1 and this
yield was not statistically different with T3, T4, T6 and T8. Regardless of N source,
the application of 77.6 kg N ha−1 contributed the similar grain yield (4.28 and 4.39 ton
ha−1). Despite the effectiveness in reduction of ammonium concentration of
floodwater and in saving of N fertilizer, the yield difference could not be noted
between USG and prilled urea application at the same rate of N (Islam et al., 2016).
No fertilization gave the minimum grain yield (3.40 ton ha−1) which did not
statistically differ with zero N application and 160 kg N ha−1.High yielding rice
varieties grown in Research farm of Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute produced
the grain yield in an increasing trend from 0 to 80 kg N ha−1 but the yield reduction
occurred by the further increase of N fertilizer from 120 to 160 kg N ha−1 (Van Hach
& Nam, 2006).
 62

Table 4.4. Effect of different N fertilizer treatments on plant height, tiller

number per plant and yield component characters of Sin Thukha
grown in monsoon season at YAU research farm in 2017.
Plant Filled 1000
Tiller Panicle
Treatment Height −1
Spikeletpanicle−1 Grain Grain
number hill
(cm) (%) Wt. (g)
T1= Control 123b 9 9 130 87 21.4
T2= 0 kg N ha−1 121b 9 9 148 93 21.6
T3= 30 kg N ha−1 123b 10 10 152 91 21.8
T4= 77.6 kg N ha−1 123b 11 10 142 90 21.2
−1 b
T5=100 kg N ha 125 11 9 148 91 21.1
T6=130 kg N ha−1 127b 10 10 124 92 21.2
T7=160 kg N ha−1 121b 11 9 143 91 20.5
T8= USG 77.6 kg N ha−1 135a 10 9 134 96 21.0
CV% 3.26 14.2 13.2 25.6 4.1 3.1
Pr > F * ns ns ns ns ns
LSD (0.05) 7.1 - - - - -
Means followed by different letters in the same column are significantly different by LSD test at 5%
level.
*Significant difference at 5% level, ns non-significant difference
 63

Straw yield

Straw yield of Sin Thukha rice was statistically different among tested N
treatments (Table 4.5). The application of 77.6 kg N ha−1 as prilled urea provided the
maximum straw yield (9.08 ton ha−1) and it was statistically the same as the
application of 77.6 kg N ha−1 as USG, 100 kg N ha−1and 160 kg N ha−1. The rest of
the tested treatments (No fertilization, zero N, 30 kg N ha−1and 130 kg N ha−1) gave
the minimum straw yield ranging from 6.10 to 6.29 ton ha−1. It could be noted that the
positive effect of N fertilizer was found on straw yield of Sin Thukha and the
optimum N rate for straw yield was 77.6 kg N ha−1 regardless of N source. USG was
more efficient than PU at all respective levels of nitrogen in producing all yield
component and in turn, grain and straw yields. (Mishra et al., 1999) conducted an
experiment to study the effect of USG in wetland rice soil.

Harvest Index

Harvest Index (HI), the ratio of economical yield to above ground biological
yield, was not statistically different among different N treatments (Table 4.5). The
value of harvest index ranged from 0.32 to 0.42 in Sin Thukha variety grown in YAU
research farm. No significant effect of the urea mode of application was observed on
harvest index (Koudjega ,2018).

4.2.4 Grain and straw N uptake at harvest

Nitrogen uptake of grain ranged from 56 to 77 kg ha−1at harvest stage of Sin

Thukha grown in monsoon season, 2017 (Figure 4.15). N fertilization generally
increased the grain N uptake of rice but there were no significant effect between
tested N treatments except the highest N rate. Regardless of N source, the application
of 77.6 kg N ha−1 contributed the same amount of grain N uptake by 73 kg ha−1. At the
highest N rate of 160 kg ha−1, the grain N uptake reduced to 65 kg ha−1.
Straw N uptake of Sin Thukha was significantly affected by different N
treatments. The application of 77.6 kg N ha−1 as prilled urea provided the highest
straw N uptake (108 kg ha−1) which did not statistically differ with the application of
77.6 kg N ha−1 as USG, 100 kg N ha−1 and 160 kg N ha−1. The lowest straw N uptake
was observed from no fertilization and it was not statistically different with the
amounts from 0 N and 30 kg N ha−1.
 64

Table 4.5. Effect of different N fertilizer treatments on grain yield, straw yield
and harvest index (HI) of Sin Thukha grown in monsoon season at
YAU research farm in 2017.
Grain Yield Straw Yield
Treatment HI
(ton ha−1) (ton ha−1)
T1= Control 3.40d 6.10b 0.36
T2= 0 kg N ha−1 3.79bcd 6.11b 0.38
T3= 30 kg N ha−1 4.20abc 6.25b 0.40
−1 ab a
T4= 77.6 kg N ha 4.28 9.08 0.32
T5=100 kg N ha−1 4.62a 7.70ab 0.37
T6=130 kg N ha−1 4.29ab 6.29b 0.42
T7=160 kg N ha−1 3.75cd 7.31ab 0.34
T8= USG 77.6 kg N ha−1 4.39a 7.49ab 0.37
CV% 7.40 16.16 12.68
Pr>F ** * ns
LSD (0.05) 0.53 1.79 -
Means followed by different letters in the same column are significantly different by LSD test at 5%
level.
* *Significant difference at 1% level, *Significant difference at 5% level and ns non-significant
difference
 65

Straw N uptake Grain N uptake

200

150
N uptake (kg ha−1)

100

50

0
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

Figure 4.15. Grain N uptake and Straw N uptake of Sin Thukha grown in
monsoon season as affected by different N treatments at YAU
research farm in 2017.
 66

The uptake of grain and straw N of rice increased with the increasing trend of
N fertilizer rate (Swain et al., 2006). Sin Thukha variety grown as monsoon rice in
YAU farm, the maximum N rate for both grain and straw N uptake was 77.6 kg N
ha−1 irrespective of N source (USG and prilled urea). The N rate of 100 kg ha−1 also
believed to give the optimum uptake of both grain and straw N in this study. The
fixed time N management with the rate of 100 kg N ha−1 provided the maximum total
N uptake (Peng et al., 1996).

4.2.5 Nitrogen Use Efficiency

Nitrogen use efficiency of Sin Thukha variety grown in monsoon season, 2017
was presented against the different N rates (Figure 4.16). The range of nitrogen use
efficiency from -0.3 to 13.4 was observed from the application of 30 to 160 kg N ha−1.
The lowest N fertilizer rate (30 kg N ha−1) was responsible for the highest NUE (13.4)
and the highest N rate (160 kg N ha−1) was relate with the lowest NUE (-0.3) of
monsoon rice. This finding was in accordance with other finding which reported the
reverse relation of N application and NUE of rice (Liu et al., 2016). Although the use
of prilled urea changed the NUE considerably in the different N rates, the use of USG
did not reduce its NUE as much as prilled urea.
 67

16.0
Pr<f = ns

12.0
Nintrgen Use Efficiency

8.0

4.0

0.0
T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

-4.0

Figure 4.16. Nitrogen use efficiency in relation to different N treatments

applied to Sin Thukha grown in monsoon season at YAU research
farm in 2017.
 CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION

The present study evaluated the different rates and application methods of N
fertilizers to investigate the suitable N rate and to determine the N use efficiency of
rice in relation to these different N rates and application approaches for optimal rice
production in Yezin Agricultural niversity’s research farm.
The application of USG at 77.6 kg N ha−1 and the highest N rate at 160 kg N
ha−1 showed high N uptake. Based on the results of grain yield, the highest rice yield
was investigated from the application of 100 kg N ha−1 in both seasons using Yadanar
Toe and Sin Thukha rice varieties in YAU research farm. The plateau of the rice yield
occurred when the N rate higher than 100 kg N ha−1 was applied and moreover, the
yield was declined at 160 kg N ha−1. The application of 77.6 kg N ha−1 as either
prilled urea or USG was the optimum rice yield in this study.
In summer season rice, the maximum NUE was attained at the rate of 100 kg
N ha−1 followed by the application of 77.6 kg N ha−1 as USG which contributed the
second highest NUE in this season. Remarkably, the highest NUE was achieved from
the application of 30 kg N ha−1 in the second rice season (monsoon) and it was about
50% higher than those of 100 kg N ha−1 and 77.6 kg N ha−1 as USG. The use of USG
was observed more resistant to the change of NUE compared with prilled urea. Yezin
rice field was quite responsive to N application and the response became higher in the
second season after receiving the N application continuously. Considering the high N
rate (160 kg ha−1), both the rice yield and the NUE dropped obviously compared to
the lower N rates.
Together with the suitable amount of other nutrients, it can be anticipated that
the application of N fertilizers at the rate of 100 kg ha−1 can bring the maximum rice
yield in YAU research farm. The regular application of 77.6 kg N ha−1 as either USG
or prilled urea can bring the optimum rice yield. Since the resistance in change of
NUE by using USG, the choice of USG may be valuable in terms of both yield
improvement and NUE in the long run if further clarification supports this fore-
finding.
According to isotopic technique (15N dilution method) using 15N labeled urea,
NUE in 30, 77.6, and 160 kg N ha−1 treatments as prilled urea were not different
among each other. However, NUE in urea deep placement (UDP) technique using
USG was the highest and about double compared to other treatments.
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