Chapter 16 - Performance Practice - Applying the

Technique

A key question for the contemporary guitarist is to decide if their interpretations of the

music of the early nineteenth century will be enhanced by the use of an original

instrument, and if so, how the technical requirements to such an instrument will be

accommodated within the context of a contemporary guitar technique. There are a

number of key areas in which the fundamental aesthetics of the contemporary guitar and the

guitars used by Sor and Giuliani in the early nineteenth century differ. These differences

diminish the potential of the contemporary guitar to fully capture the interpretive sound world

of the early nineteenth century. The uniquely expressive characteristics of the early nineteenth

century guitar are summarised in the following table:

Expressive Potential of the 19th Century Guitar

CHARATERISTIC EXPRESSIVE BENEFIT
Low energy required to make notes • ability to play very softly,
‘speak’ delicately in a filigree fashion
Soft edged transients • enables notes to be connected in a
very legato manner
• broad range of articulations are
easy to achieve
Short string length • ease of execution
• ease of use of portamenti
• ease of use of vibrato
• lyrical treble
Low string tension and small fingerboard • ease of execution
• ease of use of vibrato
• lyrical treble

398
 Expressive Potential of the 19th Century Guitar contd.
CHARATERISTIC EXPRESSIVE BENEFIT
Changing timbres across the range of the • plump, energetic basses allows for
instrument string bass colour
• more subdued bass allows for
ease of balance with treble
• change of timbre between bass
and treble allows for expressive
highlighting

Cumulative benefits • ease of execution

• highly responsive
• ease of access to expressive
devices
• expressive timbral range
• lyrical treble

The expressive benefits lost by not using a period instrument are considerable so may

well encourage the contemporary guitarist to use such an instrument. The major technical

challenge to be faced by a contemporary guitarist in using a period instrument is that of right hand

technique. As discussed in ‘A Lesson with Aguado’ there were two different right hand

techniques predominantly used by guitarists in the early nineteenth century to pluck the strings of

the guitar. The first of these techniques used the flesh of the fingertip by itself; the second used the

flesh of the fingertip in combination with the nail. For most contemporary guitarists who use

their nails as the primary sound producing medium the technique combining flesh and nail as

recommended by Aguado would be the most appropriate to adopt. This is still however a

specialised technique and quite different from that established as standard contemporary

technical practice. Contemporary practice still applies the flesh in the plucking process but to act

as a damping mechanism rather than a sound producing medium.

399
This process is outlined by Scott Tennant in his guitar technique handbook Pumping Nylon where

he refers to the technique as ‘planting’1. After the finger is ‘planted’, the string is then

plucked by sliding along the ramp formed by the left hand side of the finger nail.

Planting simply involves preparing, or placing, a fingertip on a string accurately enough to

execute a stroke. It also helps to briefly stop the vibration of a string between notes - just
enough to control the tone. Slapping the finger down onto a vibrating string causes a
slapping sound, and more often than not, the nail alone makes careless string contact creating
a sizzling effect.

He also draws attention to an important interpretive aspect of this technique, ‘Planting the

fingers is also the only effective way to control the articulation.’2

The primary use of the fleshy part of the fingertip is to dampen unwanted extraneous

sounds and to aid articulation by damping the sound of the previous note. The

illustration which accompanies the description of this technique clearly shows thestring

being gripped by the nail alone as the finger tip is ‘planted’ on the string.

Figure 16-1 - Scott Tennant – Right hand 'planting' of the index finger3

1
This technique is alternately referred to as gripping in the Len William's School.
2
Scott Tennant, Pumping Nylon, the Classical Guitarist's Technique Handbook, ed. Nathaniel Gunod,
National Guitar Workshop (Van Nuys: Alfred, 1995), 35.
3
Ibid., 36.

400
This presents a key technical issue that needs to be considered by the contemporary

guitarist in performing on an instrument from the early nineteenth century. The technique

adopted for the right hand impacts directly on the timbre produced. With an

understanding of the technique used by the leading players in the early nineteenth

century, it is possible for a contemporary player to create a hybrid technique that

accommodates a contemporary right hand technique but which also captures some of the

timbral characteristics of the technique used in the early nineteenth century. The right

hand position adopted by most contemporary guitarists uses an elevated wrist position

that allows the maximum amount of nail to be exposed to the string and so be effectively

employed as the primary sound producing medium (fig. 16 - 2).

Figure 16-2 - Elevated right hand wrist exposing the maximum amount of nail to the
string, a position widely adopted by contemporary guitarists.

401
By gradually lowering the right hand wrist the exposure of the nail to the string is

decreased, while at the same time bringing the finger tip into a position where it is more

exposed to the string and can be more effectively incorporated into the plucking action.

(fig. 16 - 3)

Figure 16-3 - Lowered right hand wrist position reducing exposure of the nail to the
string while increasing exposure of the fingertip to the string (nineteenth century
instrumental technique)

In this position it is possible to apply Aguado’s right hand technique:

402
 The string is first played with the fingertip using the part nearest the thumb, the finger
slightly extended (not bent as for plucking with the fingertip only) and then the string is
immediately slid along the nail.4

It is also possible in this position, by bending the thumb at the top joint, to form a

concave profile and to remove the nail as the primary sound producing medium.

Bending the thumb exposes the flesh of the thumb to the string and allows the flesh to

become the primary sound producing medium. In this position, if the thumb nail is not

too long, it is possible to use the flesh alone, emulating the technique advocated by both

Sor and Aguado. Figure 16 - 4 illustrates the use of the flesh of the thumb as the primary

sound producing medium with a concave thumb profile. Figure 16 - 5 illustrates the use

of the nail as the primary sound producing medium with a straight thumb profile, as

commonly found in modern guitar technique. This contemporary technique uses the nail

alone as the primary sound producing medium.

Figure 16-4 - Use of flesh of the thumb as the primary sound producing medium (L)

Figure 16-5 - Use of the nail as the primary sound producing medium (R)

4
Dionisio Aguado, New Guitar Method, ed. Brian Jeffery, trans. Louise Bigwood (Madrid: Tecla Editions,
1843; reprint, 1981), 10, 11.

403
Instrumental Facility

The physical ease of playing is a significant issue, not specifically in terms of diminishing player

fatigue, although this is a factor, but rather the fluidity of movement that it allows the player.

Giuliani’s compositions often include virtuosic flourishes which move rapidly from one

extreme of the fingerboard to the other; these flourishes must be ‘thrown off’ with aplomb and

seeming ease. The shorter string length, lower tension, lower action5, and smaller

fingerboard of the early nineteenth century guitars allow such an ‘easy virtuosity’. By

comparison, the modern guitar requires the player to traverse greater distances on strings of

a higher tension and a greater distance from the fingerboard. The modern guitarist is

commonly working with a string length of 650 mm and a total string tension of some thirty

eight kilograms or higher. This is compared to the player of an early nineteenth century

guitar who would have worked with a string length of 630 mm or less, a total string tension of

approximately thirty one kilograms and whose string height was closer to the

fingerboard. Add to this the narrow fingerboard of the nineteenth century guitar of c 43 mm

at the nut compared to 50 – 54 mm at the nut on a contemporary guitar, and the benefits

begin to accumulate into an advantageous situation for ease of playing and expressivity

on the early nineteenth century guitar.

Rapid passagework, as is encountered in much of Giuliani's music, sounds more articulate and

percussive on a contemporary guitar than it would have done on its nineteenth century

counterpart. This is inherent in the properties of the instrument and is unrelated to the

5
Aguado recommends that the student should practice on a guitar 'that offers more resistance to the action
of plucking' than their favoured performing instrument so as to strengthen their technique. (Aguado, New
Guitar Method, 10.)

404
performer’s technical facility. The energy required to produce a sound on a twentieth century

guitar is determined by the physical properties of the instrument. The percussive transient of

the modern guitar can give rapid passages a ‘machine gun’ like articulation. Such a style of

articulation requires a greater physical effort by the performer and this is reflected in

interpretive aspects of the music. On the nineteenth century guitar the notes within rapid

passages are much less articulate and require less physical effort to produce. Due to their soft

edged transient they also flow together in a smooth and lyrical manner giving a closer simulation

of the lyrical virtuosity of the bel canto.

The following extract (fig. 16 - 6) from the first Concerto Op. 30 (bar 65) is recorded as

example 47a and 47b on both a nineteenth century guitar and a twentieth century guitar.

In considering these recordings it is worth reflecting on a defining attribute of the bel

canto as highlighted by Celletti:

revival of cantabile singing, whether Romantic or pre-Romantic, executed with a soft-

edged tone, purity of legato, continuity of sound, outpouring of pathos or elegiac
expression , intensity of lyrical effusion…6

6
Rodolfo Celletti, A History of Bel Canto, trans. Frederick Fuller (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983),
205.

405
Figure 16-6 - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 30; ii / 65 - 807

Recording 16-1a (Track 41) & 1b (Track 42) - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 30; ii / 65 -
80

(Recorded Example 16-1a – nineteenth century guitar, Gaetano Guadagnini 1829; 16-1b

– twentieth century guitar, Michael Gee 1997)

A Timbrel Context

By adopting this ‘modified’ Aguado technique a timbral context can be created that

allows a range of expressive effects to be created. Timbre has always been used as a

significant interpretive and compositional device. The resources available vary depending on the

instrumental medium being used with composers and performers utilising these resources in such

a way that they often become embedded in the compositional processes and interpretive outcomes.

7
Mauro Giuliani, Mauro Giuliani - the Complete Works in Facsimiles of the Original Editions, ed. Brian
Jeffery, vol. 39 (London: Tecla Editions, 1986), Vol.26.

406
Transferring repertoire from one instrumental medium to another can have varying degrees of

success, particularly when the interpretive outcomes are looked at in the form of an ‘interpretive

balance sheet’ as explored later in this chapter. Some compositions are created with an intended

degree of flexibility as to the performance medium, a common practice in the Renaissance and

Baroque periods. J. S. Bach demonstrated this often pragmatic flexibility through the manner in

which he regularly changed the performance medium, for example from violin to harpsichord,

and cello to lute. During the nineteenth century we begin to see a greater use of timbre in the

creative process in a way which locks the composition into a timbral medium. This process

accelerated during the late nineteenth century when the use of timbre as a discreet compositional

parameter became more dominant.

In the music of Villa-Lobos (1887-1959) for example we see the emergence of a timbral

exploitative style of guitar composition that locks together the instrumental medium and the

performance outcome. The opening of Villa-Lobos’ first prelude relies for a large part of its

musical effect on a number of hierarchical timbral effects (fig. 16 - 7):

Figure 16-7 - Heitor Villa-Lobos: Prelude # 1 / 1-38

8
Heitor Villa Lobos, Villa Lobos Solo Guitar, ed. Frederick M. Noad (New York: Music Sales
Corporation, 1990), 75.

407
 • The glissando ascending a perfect fourth on the fifth string, rising from B at the

second fret to e at the seventh fret;

• The effect of playing e on the fifth string at the seventh fret rather than the note’s

‘home position’ at the second fret of the fourth string;

• The joining of the timbral resonances of the resulting e with the open sixth string E,

both played with an apoyando thumb stroke;

• The potential use of vibrato to increase the emotive effect, made possible by

shortened string length at the seventh fret.

The dramatic result is lost if the same notes are played on any other instrument without

the same timbral resources. The effect could be simulated on a nineteenth century guitar but its

effect would be diluted and the music diminished in its expressive impact. The timbral resources

of the twentieth century guitar exploited by Villa-Lobos are not strong timbral features of the early

nineteenth century guitar.

In the nineteenth century the evocation of the sound world of an orchestra was an expressive goal

pursued by a number of leading performers and composers. This expressive possibility was given

specific consideration by Sor in his Method where he discusses the imitation of various orchestral

instruments both in respect to their timbral qualities and pitch range. In his discussion of the

imitation of the sound of the horns he draws attention to the importance of not just imitating the

timbre but also the idiomatic pitch range and distribution of voices.

408
 The imitation of some other instruments is never the exclusive effect of the quality of sound. It is
necessary that the passage should be arranged as it would be in a score for the instruments I
would imitate.9

In his discussion of the art of accompanying, Sor draws a parallel between the orchestra, piano

and the guitar, each being a diminution in terms of size and resources, but not in musical effect.10

Giuliani’s Grand Overture Op.61 is full of such orchestral effects. After a dramatic opening,

calling the audience to attention, in the style of an Italian operatic overture, we hear a

procession of orchestral textures from trilling cellos; Allegro Maestoso bars 14 & 15,

Figure 16-8 - Mauro Giuliani: Grand Overture Op. 61; Allegro Maestoso / 14 & 1511

Recording 16-2 (Track 43) - Mauro Giuliani: Grand Overture Op. 61; Allegro Maestoso /
14&15

9
Ferdinand Sor, Method for the Spanish Guitar, trans. A. Merrick (London: R. Cocks, 1832; reprint, Da
Capo Press), 16.
10
Ibid., 36.
11
Giuliani, Mauro Giuliani - the Complete Works in Facsimiles of the Original Editions, Vol.8.

409
to fanfares of horns, Allegro Maestoso bars 80 & 81

Figure 16-9 - Mauro Giuliani: Grand Overture Op. 61; Allegro Maestoso / 80 & 8112

Recording 16-3 (Track 44) - Mauro Giuliani: Grand Overture Op. 61; Allegro Maestoso /
80 & 81

The Alberti Bass as a Textual Accompaniment

Alberti bass13 passages are found in abundance in the guitar music of the early nineteenth

century, and Giuliani's music was no exception. A passage from the first movement of his

Concerto Op.36 beginning at bar 279, illustrates the use of the specific timbres where the

guitar accompaniment is filling in the harmonic texture; the sounds blend to create a

continuous veil of sound supporting the melody above. Giuliani was taking advantage of the

unassertive string bass sound of the guitar’s lower register to create the appropriate timbral
12
Ibid.
13
'Left-hand accompaniment figure in keyboard music consisting of broken triads whose notes are played
in the order: lowest, highest, middle, highest and taking its name from Domenico Alberti (c1710-1746).
Research has suggested that, obvious as this little figure may seem, Alberti was in fact the first to make
frequent use of it. The term ought to be restricted to figures of the shape described and not extended loosely
to other types of broken-chord accompaniment.'
Fuller, David. Alberti Bass, Grove Music Online, 2007 [cited 10 February 2007]. Available from
http://www.grovemusic.com.

410
effect to accompany a freely lyrical melody which may also make expressive use of the tempo

rubato.

Figure 16-10 - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 36; i / 279 – 286 – Alberti bass14

Recording 16-4 (Track 44) - Mauro Giuliani: Concerto Op. 36; i / 279 – 286

The Lyrical Treble

A number of factors contributed to creating a treble range on the early nineteenth

century guitar that was both responsive and intensely lyrical including the:

• Low energy input required to make the notes speak

• Gentle, soft edged transients

• Increased potential to create a legato, singing, vocal line

• Short string length, allowing fluent connected left hand movements and effective

use of ‘vocal like’ portamenti

• Low string tension allowing expressive use of vibrato

14
Giuliani, Mauro Giuliani - the Complete Works in Facsimiles of the Original Editions, Vol.28.

411
 • Easy, fluid left hand movements resulting from the low tension strings, short

string length, and small fingerboard

These physical characteristics created interpretive possibilities that were at the heart of

the expressive aesthetic of the bel canto and utilised fully by Giuliani on many occasions

as discussed in Chapter 13, Giuliani, Italian Opera and the bel canto.

The Expressive Balance Sheet

Considering the timbre of the bass strings of the early nineteenth century guitar discussed earlier

this attribute becomes a negative entry on the ‘expressive balance sheet’ when performing the

music of Villa Lobos. The music of Villa Lobos was written for an instrument with a particular

tonal quality in its lower register and written to specifically exploit this characteristic. The

nineteenth century guitar does not have the relevant timbral characteristic so appears in a negative

light on the expressive ‘balance sheet’.

Volume and projection on the early nineteenth century guitar favoured the treble with a somewhat

understated mid range and a plump, and in Aguado’s words, “energetic” bass. This sound was not

seen as a shortcoming of the instrument but rather an innate characteristic that was exploited by the

major composers of the period in a variety of ways. The regularly occurring pedal points in the

guitar music of the early nineteenth century can seem repetitive, potentially overbearing and

lacking in musical interest, when performed on a contemporary guitar. When Aguado’s advice is

412
taken into account, the musical quality and expressive capacity of such a bass line takes on a new

character and the musical outcome is significantly enhanced.

… because plucking with the flesh of the thumb when not parallel to the string, produces
pleasing energetic sounds, appropriate for the bass part usually played on the lower
strings.15

The following example (fig. 16 - 11) from Giuliani’s Grand Overture Op. 61 is a typical

example of such a bass line that, when played on the nineteenth century guitar, with the

flesh of the thumb, produces a plump ‘pleasing energetic sound’ that complements the

sound of the upper strings in the same manner as a string bass in a string ensemble. The

modern guitar creates a bright focused sound with associated sharp transients that draw

attention to each individual note of the line and highlight its repetitive nature, rather than

creating an homogenous line that blends into an overall textural effect. Recorded

example 41a and 41b illustrates these two contrasting effects.

15
Aguado, New Guitar Method, 10.

413
Figure 16-11 - Mauro Giuliani: Grand Overture Op. 61: Allegro Maestoso / 128 - 13516

Recording 16-5a & 5b (Track 46) - Mauro Giuliani: Grand Overture Op. 61; Allegro
Maestoso / 128 - 135

Recorded twice - once on 19th C guitar (16-5a) and once on a contemporary guitar (16-5b).

Both Sor and Giuliani were directly affected by the sound world of the orchestra and its wide

palette of sonorities. Sor became familiar with this ‘instrument’ as a composer of major

orchestral works including a series of ballets, and Giuliani, less as a composer, but rather as a

participant from within the orchestra as a cellist.

Summary

The nineteenth century guitar developed a range of sounds, techniques andinterpretive

possibilities that were linked intrinsically to the musical context in which it existed. No

instrument of any period fully satisfies the demands of leading composers and players who are

16
Giuliani, Mauro Giuliani - the Complete Works in Facsimiles of the Original Editions, Vol.8.

414
always pushing the boundaries and testing the limits of their instruments.17 The leading

guitarists of the early nineteenth century, while cognisant of the shortcomings of their

instrument, did not express lingering dissatisfaction with them. Often, quite the contrary

was true; Aguado in the 1843 edition of his Method expressed clear satisfaction with his

instrument:

I have made many efforts to modify the form and internal construction of the instrument, and
indeed they have not been in vain. I possess a guitar which has all the requisites I think should
obtain in a good guitar.18

A contemporary guitarist can learn a lot of the interpretive practices of the early nineteenth

century by exploring the instruments from that period. The interpretive palette will become

progressively richer as the sound world is built. Many players of period instruments talk of

learning from the instrument itself as new sounds and interpretive possibilities are discovered.

17
The issue of volume is a good example. As noted in the text, Sor regretted the lack of volume of the
guitar, a quality the modern guitar has to a large extent developed. Ironically this level of volume is still
unsatisfactory in the larger venues and instrumental combinations in which the guitar is now expected to
play. The solution has been through technology and amplification.
18
Aguado, New Guitar Method, 8.

415