PATTS REVIEW CENTER

PATTS COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

HIGH-SPEED AERODYNAMICS

REVIEWER: R.R. RENIGEN

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

When a change in pressure is accompanied by such a change in density, the flow is called compressible and
the amount of compressibility depends on the velocity of the air.
At supersonic speeds, all pressure changes are accompanied either by shock waves, through which the
pressure and density are increased, or else by expansion waves, through which these quantities are reduced.

GASES
A gas is composed of individual, distinct particles, each in continual, irregular motion, and these particles are
constantly colliding with each other.

1 Perfect Gas Law equation

P = RT

Where: P = Pressure in Pa
 = Density in Kg/m3
R = Universal gas constant ( = 287.08 J/Kg-K for air)
T = Absolute temperature in K

2 Adiabatic Process

P   
  
P0  0 

Where:
CP
 = = specific heat ratio ( = 1.4 for dry air )
CV

CP = specific heat at constant pressure ( = 1,006 J/Kg-K )

CV = specific heat at constant volume ( = 718.6 J/Kg-K )

3 Speed of Sound in Air, Va

Speed of sound – sound waves travel through the air at a definite speed.

P
Va = 

1
 

Va = RT

Va = 20.05 T Va in m/s , T in K

4 Compressible Bernoulli Equation

V2    P 
     constant
2    1   

Where:   constant
1  2  

OR:
   P0 
2
V2    P  V
     0    
2    1    2    1   0 

5 Stagnation Pressure in Compressible Fluids

At the stagnation point, the velocity is zero and the pressure and density are at maximum.

   1 V0
2
  1
PS  P0 1  
 2 Va20 
 

6 Mach Number

V
M = 
Va

7 Reynolds Number

VR
RN = 

where:
V = average axial velocity
R = inner radius of tube
 = dynamic viscosity of air

8 Law of Continuity

AV = Constant where :   constant

1  2  

2
 1A1V1 = 2A2V2

Relevant Properties of gases

Types of gas Ratio of Specific Gas Constant

Heats R( J/Kg-K)
Air 1.4 287.08
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 1.288 188.96
Hydrogen (H2) 1.4 4125.52
Helium (He) 1.666 2077.67
Neon (Ne) 1.666 412.10
Argon (A) 1.666 208.17
Oxygen (O2) 1.395 259.90
Nitrogen (N2) 1.399 296.86

One-dimensional Flow – Nozzles and Diffusers

One-dimensional flow is used to describe a flow in which flow conditions are sensibly constant across a
cross-section of a nozzle or diffuser normal to the flow direction. Conditions change only along a stream line from
one cross-section to the other along the length of the nozzle or diffuser. In two-dimensional flow, condition changes
across a cross-section.

Thermodynamic Relations – Isentropic or Reversible Adiabatic Gas Laws apply in a flow where no
compression shock waves occur. Note that isentropic losses in pressure exist through shock waves.

1. Pressure, Density, Temperature, Speed of Sound and Mach Number Equations

For any gas

  2 
P2 2 T2 -1 Va2 -1 2
(-1) M + 2
1  -1
 =  =  =  = 
P1 1 T1 Va1 (-1) M22 + 2

For air,  = 1.4

1. 4 3.5 7 3.5
P2 2 T2 Va2 M12 + 5
 =  =  =  = 
P1 1 T1 Va1 M22 + 5

2. Area – Mach Number Relationship

3
 For any gas

 1

M 2     1 M 2  2  2  1
2
A2
  
A1 M 1     1 M 1 2  2 

For air
3
A2 M1 M22 + 5
 =  
A1 M2 M12 + 5

Problems:

1. The temperature and pressure at the stagnation point of a high-speed missile are 934R and 7.8 atm, respectively.
Calculate the density at this point.

3. Consider the isentropic flow over an airfoil. The freestream conditions are T = 245 K and P= 4.35  104N/m2.
At a point on the airfoil, the pressure P = 3.6  104N/m2. Calculate the density at this point.

4. Consider the isentropic flow through a supersonic wind-tunnel nozzle. The reservoir properties are T o= 500 K
and Po = 10 atm. If P = 1 atm at the nozzle exit, calculate the exit temperature and density.

5. In the reservoir of a supersonic wind tunnel, the velocity is negligible, and the temperature is 1000 K. The
temperature at the nozzle exit is 600 K. Assuming adiabatic flow through the nozzle, calculate the velocity at the
exit.

6. An airfoil in a freestream where P = 0.61 atm,  = 0.819 Kg/m3, and V = 300 m/s. At a point on the airfoil
surface, the pressure is 0.5 atm. Assuming isentropic flow, calculate the velocity at that point.

7. An air tank with a nozzle has a pressure of 196.32 KPa and density of 1.9 Kg/m 3. Outside the converging-
diverging nozzle, the pressure is atmospheric and designed to have a Mach No. of 1.0 and 1.5 at the throat and
exit respectively. The area at the throat is 0.11m 2. Calculate the following: (a) Temperature and speed of sound at
the tank. (b) Pressure, density, temperature and speed of sound at the throat. (c) Mass flow at the exit.

MACH NUMBERS AND SHOCK WAVES

4
Mach Number Classification

1. Incompressible , M  0.3
2. Subsonic , M  1.0
3. Sonic , M  1.0
4. Transonic , 0.8  M  1.2
5. Supersonic , 1.0  M  5
6. Hypersonic , M>5

Shock wave

A large-amplitude compression wave, such as that produced by an explosion, caused by supersonic motion of
a body in motion.
Manifest the collapsed area of the dense region where the density is instantaneous.
Formed thru the continuous compilation of particles travelling at high speeds that form a boundary line.

Reaction from a Shock Wave

a. Compression of Gases

When the flow is supersonic, compression does not occur gradually, but takes place very suddenly in a thin
region, which is known as a shock wave.

It is the region of increasing pressure and density with falling velocity.

Compressions are propagated as finite disturbances, at a speed greater than the speed of sound.

b. Expansion of Gases

Regions in which the velocity increases, while pressure and density decrease are known as expansion
regions.

Disturbances in the flow which constitute expansions are propagated as infinitesimal disturbances with speed
of sound.

Types of Waves

a. shock waves/compression waves

1. Normal Shock Waves (NSW)

 formed by blunt bodies

2. Oblique Shock Waves (OSW)

 a function of deflecting angles

b. expansion waves

When the density is decreased, the change is gradual rather than as in the compressive case, and is always of
the oblique type. Because the change is gradual, it is not a shock wave and has no normal type corresponding
to the compressive case.

5
Examples of Normal Shocks

1. Flow over a blunt body

bow shock
This portion of the bow shock is
normal to the flow

M > 1


The flow is supersonic over a blunt body
 A strong bow shock wave exists in front of the body.
Although this wave is curved, the region of the shock closest to the nose is essentially normal to the flow.
The streamline that passes through this normal portion of the bow shock later impinges on the nose of the
 body and controls the values of stagnation pressure and temperature at the nose.

2. Overexpanded flow through a nozzle

Normal shock inside
the nozzle

6
 M<1 M>1

 Supersonic flow is established inside a nozzle (which can be a supersonic wind tunnel, a rocket engine, etc.)
where the back pressure is high enough to cause a normal shock wave to stand inside the nozzle.

Example of Oblique Shock Wave

 1 Oblique shock 2 M 2 < M1

P2 > P 1
M1 > 1
2 > 1
P1

1 T 2 > T1


T1
 
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /
concave corner

The wall is turned upward at the corner through the deflection angle ; i.e., the corner is concave.

The flow at the wall must be tangent to the wall; hence, the streamline at the wall is also deflected upward
through the angle .
 The bulk of the gas is above the wall, the streamlines are turned upward, into the main bulk of the flow.
Expansion fan
Whenever a supersonic flow is “turned into itself”, an oblique shock wave will occur.

 The originally horizontal streamlines ahead of the wave are uniformly deflected in crossing the wave, such
that the streamlines behind the wave are parallel to each other and inclined upward at the deflection angle .
Across the wave, the Mach number discontinuously decreases, and the pressure, density, and temperature
 discontinuously increase.

Example of Expansion wave

 
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /

7
 1

2
M1 >1

P1
1
M 2 < M1
T1 P2 > P 1

2 > 1

T 2 > T1

 Shows the case where the wall is turned downward at the corner through the deflection angle ; i.e., the
corner is convex.
 The flow at the wall must be tangent to the wall; hence, the streamline at the wall is deflected downward
through the angle .
 The bulk of the gas is above the wall, the streamlines are turned downward, away from the main bulk of the
flow.
 Whenever a supersonic flow is “turned away from itself”, an expansion wave will occur. This expansion
wave is in the same of a fan centered at the corner. The fan continuously opens in the direction away from
the corner.
 The originally horizontal streamlines ahead of the expansion wave are deflected smoothly and continuously
through the expansion fan such that the streamlines behind the wave are parallel to each other and inclined
downward at the deflection angle .
 Across the expansion wave, the Mach number increases, and the pressure, temperature, and density decrease.

Water-Wave Analogy  Supersonic Speed

V > Va

5 4 3 2 1

Vt

Disturbance pattern created by particles moving faster than speed of sound.

 The speed of the particle is increase until it is greater than the speed at which the pressure waves travel
(V>Va). In the case, the object travels faster than the wavelets it produces, and the individual waves combine

 8
 along a common front, where the wavelets intersect, reinforce each other, and create a new and much
stronger wave along the tangent common to all wavelets.
The portion of the wavelets ahead of the point to tangency will lose their identity and be merge into the
envelope created by the other wavelets.
 Replacing the wavelets in water by pressure impulses in the air, it can be seen that a definite line of
demarcation is set up in the air, separating the region affected by the body from the free-stream conditions.

Mach Line, Angle and Number

Mach line

 V2 - Va2

M>1

Mach Line

The line of disturbance created along the envelope of individual wavelets.

The line so drawn to evaluate the geometric condition of a supersonic pattern (i.e., Mach cone).

The point of contact with the circles of their common tangent is the location of the source.

The disturbance at this point tends to build up into a much stronger disturbance than the one being created by the
source; but since the latter is infinitesimal, the disturbance remains vanishingly weak.

There is still no change in flow properties across this common tangent which, however, divides the region which is
affected by the disturbance from that which is not. This is known as a normal Mach line.

9
Mach Number, M

The ratio between the speed of the air and the speed of sound in the air.

V
M
Va

Mach Angle, 

The angle which the Mach line makes with the free-stream direction.

Defined by the relative velocities between the free airstream V, and the speed of sound in the stream Va.

Va 1
sin   
V M

2
V 2  Va M2 1
cos   
V M

Va 1
tan   
V 2  Va
2
M2 1

Problems:

1. A supersonic aircraft flies horizontally at 3,000 meters altitude with a constant velocity of 800 meters per second.
The aircraft passes directly overhead a stationary ground observer. How much time elapses after it has passed
over the observer before the latter hears the noise from the aircraft?

2. A jet plane flies at an altitude of 2,000 meters. An observer on the ground notes that he hears the sound of the
plane exactly 5 seconds after the plane has passed directly overhead. Calculate the velocity of the plane.

Normal Shock Wave Equations

Given Unknown
conditions V1 V2 conditions
ahead of the behind the
wave P1 1 T1 Va1 M1 P2 2 T2 Va2 M2 wave

1. Mach Number
/////////////////////////////////

10
 For any gas For air, γ=1.4

1 1
    1 M 1 2  2  2  M12  5  2
M2    =  
 7M 2  1 
 2M 1     1 
2
 1 

2. Velocity Ratio

V2

   1 M1  2 2
=
M1  5
2

V1    1 M12 6M 1
2

3. Density Ratio

2

   1 M1 2
=
6M 1
2

1    1 M12  2 M1  5
2

4. Pressure Ratio

2 M 1     1
2 2
P2
 = 7M1  1
P1  1 6

5. Temperature Ratio

T2

2M 1
2

    1    1 M1  2
2
 =
7M 1
2

 1 M1  5
2

T1    1 2 M12 36M 1
2

6. Stagnation Pressure

  3 .5
P01  0      1 M 1 2  2   1  M1 2  5 
=  1 
 =   =  
 Ahead of the shock
P1  1   2   5 

  3.5
P02  0      1 M 2 2  2   1  M 2 5
=  2 
 =   =  2 
 Behind the shock
P2  2   2   5 

1  2.5 Total
3.5 head
P0 2 
=     1   1     1 M 1 2   1 =  6   6M1 2 pressure across
 2 
P01     7M 2  1   M  5 the NSW
 2 M 1     1      1 M 1  2 
2 2
 1   1 

11
 Problems:

1. Consider a normal shock wave in air where the upstream flow properties are
V1 = 680 mps, T1 = 288 K and P1 = 1 atm. Calculate the velocity, temperature, and pressure downstream
of the shock.

2. A normal shock wave was formed on the surface of a supersonic aircraft at a velocity of 1,600 m/s into
still atmospheric air at standard seal level conditions. Calculate: a)M 1 b)M2 c)P2 d)T2 e)V2.

3. The pressure upstream of a normal shock wave is 1 atm. The pressure and temperature downstream of
the wave are 10.33 atm and 1390 °R, respectively. Calculate the Mach number and temperature upstream
of the wave.

4. Air at initial velocity would cause a pressure ratio of 3 across a normal shock wave at 6 km above sea
level. Find: a)V1 b)P2 c)ρ2 d)V2 e) Va 2 f)T2.

5. At an altitude of 7 km, air is travelling at a supersonic speed and decelerated by a normal shock wave
which causes a density ratio of 0.325 across the wave. Compute: a) M 1 b)V 1 c) Va1 d)M2 e)V2 f)P2 g)ρ2
h)T2.

6. The flow just upstream of a normal shock wave is given by P 1 = 1 atm, T1 = 288 K, M1 = 2.6. Calculate
the following properties just downstream of the shock: P 2, T2, M2, P0 2 and T0 2 .

7. Air at 10 km above sea level, initially travelling at supersonic speed is decelerated thru a normal shock
wave. The deceleration caused a velocity of 1,600 Kph after the wave. Calculate the following:

a) Velocity and Mach number before the wave

b) P, ρ, T, and Va after the wave.

Oblique Shock Wave Equation (Exact Method): Two-dimensional flow

Where: θW = wave angle , θ = deflection angle

12
The effect of viscosity in the air and in the formation of a boundary layer is neglected. It is assumed that the flow
over the surface is not affected by frictional forces. Separation and wake effects are likewise neglected.

The flow is assumed to be irrational. This will be true only when the air deflected along a surface. Whenever the
surface in the airstream has curvature, the initial wave will be curved and the flow will have vorticity. The curvature
of the wave is small if the curvature of the surface is and the effect of vorticity will be correspondingly small.

No heat conduction exists between the adjacent streamline or across the shock wave. The error incurred by this
assumption is negligible.

As with the approximate theory, the shock wave must be attached to the corner or leading edge of the surface over
which the air is flowing.

Ahead of the shock

VN1
sin  W  , VN1  V1 sin  W
V1

Or:

M N1
sin  W  , M N1  M1 sin  W
M1

After the shock

VN 2
sin   W    , VN 2  V2 sin   W  
V2

M N2
sin  W  , M N 2  M 2 sin   W  
M2

1. Pressure Ratio
For any gas For air, γ=1.4

P2 2 M1 sin 2  W     1 2
7 M1 sin 2  W  1
 =
P1  1 6
Or:

13
    
   1   2      1 6  2   1
P2
  1   1 
=
   
   1     1   2 
P1
6  2 
 1   1 

2. Density Ratio

2

   1 M1 sin 2  W
2 2
6M1 sin 2  W
=
1    1 M12 sin 2  W  2 2
M1 sin 2  W  5

Or:

2 tan  W

1 tan   W  

3. Temperature Ratio


 2

T2 2M1 sin 2  W     1    1 M1 sin 2  W  2
2
 =  7M 1
2
 2
sin 2  W  1 M1 sin 2  W  5 
T1    1 2 M12 sin 2  W 2
36M1 sin 2  W

4. Normal Component of M2

1 1
    1 M1 sin  W  2 
2 2 2  M1 2 sin 2  W  5  2
M N2    =  
 2M1 sin  W     1 
2 2  7 M 2 sin 2   1 
 1 W 

5. Mach number after the wave

M N2
M2 
sin   W  

Or:

1 1
    1 M1 sin  W  2 
2
 2 2 2
= M   M1 sin  W  5  csc   
2 2
M2    csc  W    7M 2 sin 2   1 
 2 M 1
2
sin 2
 W     1 
2
 1 W 
W

Or:

14
 1 1
 2  2
   
2 5
M2   csc    = M2   csc    
  2   W
    W

    1 
       1   6

2

  1 

  1  
   1 
 


6. Wave Angle2
1 1
  P2  2   P2  2
    1    1  6
P    1
W  Arc sin   P1   = Arc sin   1 2 
 2 M 1
2   7M 
   1

  
 


7. Deflection Angle

  M12 sin 2  W  1 
  Arc tan 2 cot  W  2 2


  M1  M1 cos 2 W  2 
8. Velocity Ratio

V2 cos  W

V1 cos   W  

9. Total Upstream Pressure

   1
P01   01   T01   1     1 M1 2  2  
=   =   =  
P1  
 1   T1   2 

10. Total Downstream Pressure

   1
P02   02   T02   1     1 M 2 2  2  
=   =   =  
P2  2   T2   2 

Problems:

1. Using the exact theory method, find the final Mach number and density in the compressive case of an initial
Mach number of 1.75 and a deflection of 8°. Assume standard sea level conditions.

2. Find all aerodynamic and thermodynamic conditions on both sides of compression wave. Supersonic stream
is at M=1.6 compressing through an angle of 8°. Initial pressure and temperature are 10 psia and 20°F,
respectively.

3. Consider a supersonic flow with M=2, P=1 atm, and T=288 K. This flow is deflected at a compression corner
through 20°. Calculate M, P, T, and P0 and T0 behind the resulting oblique shock wave.

4. Consider an oblique shock wave with a wave angle of 30°. This upstream flow Mach number is 2.4.
Calculate the deflection angle of the flow, the pressure and temperature ratios across the shock wave and the
Mach number behind the wave.

15
 P2
5. Consider an oblique shock wave with θW = 35° and a pressure ratio  3.0 . Calculate the upstream Mach
P1
number.

16
2 24° 25° 26° 27° 28° 29° 30° 3°1 32° 33° 34° 35° 36° 37° 38° 39° 40° 41° 42° 43° 44° 45° 46° 47° 48° 49° 50° 51° 52° 53° 54° 55° 56° 57° 58° 59° 60° 61° 62° 63° 64° 65° 66°

1° 2.530 2.433 2.344 2.261 2.185 2.115 2.050 1.989 1.932 1.879 1.830 1.783 1.740 1.699 1.660 1.624 1.589 1.557 1.526 1.498 1.470 1.444 1.420 1.396 1.374 1.353 1.333 1.315 1.297 1.280 1.264 1.248 1.234 1.220 1.207 1.194 1.183 1.172 1.161 1.152 1.142 1.134 1.126

2° 2.608 2.505 2.411 2.324 2.244 2.171 2.102 2.039 1.980 1.924 1.873 1.825 1.779 1.737 1.697 1.660 1.624 1.591 1.560 1.530 1.502 1.475 1.450 1.426 1.404 1.382 1.362 1.343 1.325 1.308 1.292 1.276 1.262 1.248 1.235 1.223 1.211 1.201 1.190 1.181 1.172 1.164 1.157

3° 2.691 2.582 2.483 2.391 2.307 2.230 2.158 2.091 2.030 1.972 1.918 1.868 1.821 1.777 1.736 1.697 1.661 1.626 1.594 1.563 1.534 1.507 1.481 1.457 1.434 1.412 1.392 1.372 1.354 1.337 1.320 1.305 1.290 1.276 1.264 1.251 1.240 1.230 1.220 1.211 1.203 1.195 1.188

4° 2.782 2.666 2.560 2.463 2.374 2.293 2.217 2.147 2.083 2.022 1.966 1.914 1.865 1.819 1.776 1.736 1.698 1.663 1.629 1.598 1.568 1.540 1.514 1.489 1.465 1.443 1.422 1.402 1.384 1.366 1.349 1.334 1.319 1.306 1.293 1.281 1.270 1.259 1.250 1.241 1.233 1.226 1.220

5° 2.881 2.757 2.644 2.541 2.447 2.360 2.280 2.207 2.139 2.076 2.017 1.962 1.911 1.864 1.819 1.777 1.738 1.701 1.666 1.634 1.603 1.574 1.547 1.522 1.497 1.475 1.453 1.433 1.414 1.396 1.379 1.364 1.349 1.335 1.322 1.311 1.300 1.290 1.280 1.272 1.265 1.258 1.252

6° 2.991 2.857 2.735 2.625 2.525 2.433 2.348 2.270 2.199 2.132 2.071 2.013 1.960 1.910 1.863 1.820 1.779 1.741 1.705 1.671 1.640 1.610 1.582 1.555 1.531 1.507 1.485 1.465 1.445 1.427 1.410 1.394 1.379 1.366 1.353 1.341 1.330 1.320 1.311 1.303 1.296 1.290 1.285

7° 3.112 2.967 2.836 2.717 2.609 2.511 2.421 2.339 2.263 2.193 2.128 2.067 2.011 1.959 1.910 1.865 1.822 1.783 1.745 1.710 1.678 1.647 1.618 1.591 1.565 1.541 1.519 1.497 1.478 1.459 1.442 1.426 1.411 1.397 1.384 1.372 1.361 1.352 1.343 1.335 1.329 1.323 1.319

8° 3.248 3.089 2.946 2.818 2.702 2.597 2.500 2.412 2.332 2.257 2.188 2.125 2.066 2.011 1.960 1.912 1.868 1.826 1.788 1.751 1.717 1.685 1.655 1.627 1.601 1.576 1.553 1.531 1.511 1.492 1.474 1.458 1.443 1.429 1.416 1.404 1.393 1.384 1.375 1.368 1.362 1.356 1.353

9° 3.402 3.226 3.070 2.930 2.804 2.690 2.587 2.492 2.406 2.327 2.254 2.186 2.124 2.066 2.013 1.963 1.916 1.873 1.832 1.794 1.759 1.725 1.694 1.665 1.638 1.612 1.589 1.566 1.545 1.526 1.508 1.491 1.476 1.462 1.449 1.437 1.426 1.417 1.408 1.401 1.395 1.391 1.387

10° 3.579 3.382 3.208 3.054 2.917 2.793 2.681 2.579 2.487 2.402 2.324 2.252 2.186 2.125 2.068 2.016 1.967 1.921 1.879 1.839 1.802 1.767 1.735 1.705 1.677 1.650 1.626 1.603 1.581 1.561 1.543 1.526 1.510 1.496 1.482 1.470 1.460 1.450 1.442 1.435 1.430 1.425 1.423

11° 3.784 3.561 3.366 3.195 3.043 2.907 2.785 2.675 2.575 2.484 2.400 2.324 2.253 2.188 2.128 2.072 2.021 1.973 1.928 1.887 1.848 1.812 1.778 1.746 1.717 1.690 1.664 1.640 1.618 1.598 1.579 1.561 1.545 1.530 1.517 1.505 1.494 1.485 1.477 1.470 1.465 1.461 1.459

12° 4.026 3.769 3.548 3.355 3.185 3.035 2.901 2.780 2.671 2.573 2.483 2.401 2.325 2.256 2.192 2.133 2.078 2.027 1.980 1.937 1.896 1.858 1.823 1.790 1.759 1.731 1.704 1.680 1.657 1.636 1.616 1.598 1.582 1.567 1.553 1.541 1.530 1.521 1.513 1.506 1.501 1.498 1.496

13° 4.320 4.017 3.760 3.540 3.348 3.180 3.031 2.898 2.779 2.671 2.573 2.485 2.403 2.329 2.261 2.198 2.140 2.086 2.036 1.990 1.947 1.907 1.870 1.836 1.804 1.774 1.746 1.721 1.697 1.675 1.655 1.636 1.619 1.604 1.590 1.578 1.567 1.558 1.550 1.544 1.539 1.536 1.534

14° 4.686 4.318 4.014 3.757 3.537 3.346 3.178 3.030 2.898 2.780 2.673 2.577 2.489 2.409 2.335 2.268 2.206 2.148 2.096 2.047 2.001 1.959 1.920 1.884 1.850 1.819 1.790 1.764 1.739 1.716 1.695 1.676 1.659 1.643 1.629 1.616 1.605 1.596 1.588 1.582 1.577 1.575 1.574

15° 5.162 4.697 4.325 4.018 3.759 3.539 3.348 3.181 3.033 2.902 2.784 2.678 2.582 2.495 2.416 2.343 2.277 2.216 2.159 2.107 2.059 2.015 1.973 1.935 1.900 1.867 1.837 1.809 1.783 1.759 1.738 1.718 1.700 1.683 1.669 1.656 1.645 1.635 1.628 1.622 1.617 1.615 1.614

16° 5.815 5.193 4.717 4.338 4.027 3.767 3.545 3.354 3.187 3.039 2.908 2.791 2.686 2.591 2.505 2.426 2.354 2.288 2.228 2.172 2.121 2.074 2.030 1.989 1.952 1.918 1.886 1.856 1.829 1.805 1.782 1.761 1.743 1.726 1.711 1.697 1.686 1.676 1.669 1.663 1.659 1.656 1.656

17° 6.795 5.885 5.238 4.747 4.360 4.044 3.781 3.557 3.365 3.197 3.049 2.919 2.802 2.697 2.602 2.516 2.438 2.367 2.302 2.242 2.187 2.137 2.090 2.047 2.008 1.971 1.938 1.907 1.878 1.852 1.828 1.807 1.787 1.770 1.754 1.741 1.729 1.719 1.711 1.705 1.701 1.700 1.700

18° 8.519 6.948 5.975 5.296 4.788 4.390 4.067 3.800 3.574 3.380 3.211 3.063 2.932 2.815 2.711 2.616 2.531 2.453 2.383 2.318 2.259 2.205 2.155 2.109 2.067 2.028 1.993 1.960 1.930 1.902 1.877 1.855 1.834 1.816 1.800 1.786 1.774 1.764 1.756 1.750 1.746 1.744 1.745

19° 12.993 8.913 7.139 6.086 5.368 4.839 4.428 4.098 3.825 3.596 3.400 3.230 3.081 2.949 2.832 2.728 2.634 2.548 2.471 2.401 2.337 2.278 2.225 2.176 2.131 2.089 2.051 2.016 1.985 1.956 1.929 1.905 1.884 1.865 1.848 1.833 1.821 1.810 1.802 1.796 1.792 1.791 1.792

20° 14.922 9.424 7.376 6.222 5.457 4.902 4.476 4.136 3.857 3.623 3.424 3.253 3.102 2.970 2.853 2.748 2.654 2.569 2.492 2.422 2.358 2.300 2.247 2.199 2.154 2.114 2.077 2.043 2.012 1.984 1.959 1.936 1.916 1.898 1.883 1.870 1.859 1.851 1.845 1.841 1.840 1.842

21° 18.470 10.103 7.671 6.388 5.564 4.978 4.533 4.182 3.896 3.657 3.454 3.280 3.128 2.995 2.877 2.772 2.677 2.592 2.516 2.446 2.383 2.325 2.273 2.225 2.181 2.142 2.105 2.072 2.043 2.016 1.992 1.970 1.952 1.935 1.922 1.911 1.902 1.896 1.892 1.891 1.893

22° 28.325 11.043 8.040 6.590 5.693 5.069 4.602 4.237 3.941 3.697 3.490 3.313 3.159 3.024 2.905 2.799 2.704 2.619 2.543 2.473 2.410 2.353 2.301 2.254 2.211 2.172 2.137 2.105 2.076 2.051 2.028 2.008 1.991 1.977 1.965 1.956 1.949 1.946 1.945 1.947

23° 12.430 8.512 6.836 5.847 5.176 4.683 4.302 3.995 3.743 3.531 3.351 3.194 3.057 2.937 2.830 2.735 2.650 2.573 2.504 2.441 2.385 2.333 2.287 2.244 2.206 2.172 2.141 2.114 2.089 2.068 2.050 2.035 2.022 2.013 2.006 2.002 2.002 2.004

24° 14.722 9.131 7.138 6.031 5.303 4.778 4.377 4.058 3.797 3.579 3.394 3.235 3.096 2.974 2.866 2.770 2.684 2.607 2.538 2.476 2.419 2.369 2.323 2.281 2.244 2.211 2.181 2.155 2.132 2.113 2.096 2.083 2.073 2.066 2.062 2.062 2.065

25° 19.507 9.974 7.515 6.253 5.454 4.890 4.465 4.131 3.860 3.635 3.444 3.281 3.140 3.016 2.906 2.810 2.723 2.646 2.577 2.514 2.458 2.408 2.363 2.322 2.286 2.254 2.226 2.201 2.180 2.163 2.148 2.137 2.130 2.126 2.125 2.129

26° 43.965 11.198 7.995 6.523 5.633 5.021 4.567 4.215 3.932 3.698 3.502 3.334 3.189 3.063 2.952 2.854 2.767 2.689 2.620 2.558 2.502 2.452 2.408 2.368 2.333 2.302 2.275 2.253 2.233 2.218 2.206 2.198 2.194 2.193 2.197

27° 13.168 8.625 6.855 5.846 5.174 4.686 4.312 4.014 3.770 3.567 3.394 3.245 3.116 3.003 2.904 2.816 2.737 2.668 2.606 2.550 2.501 2.457 2.419 2.385 2.356 2.331 2.310 2.293 2.280 2.271 2.266 2.266 2.269

28° 17.075 9.492 7.271 6.103 5.355 4.825 4.424 4.109 3.853 3.641 3.462 3.309 3.176 3.061 2.960 2.870 2.792 2.722 2.660 2.605 2.556 2.513 2.476 2.443 2.416 2.393 2.374 2.360 2.350 2.344 2.344 2.348

17
29° 32.162 10.770 7.809 6.418 5.571 4.987 4.554 4.218 3.948 3.726 3.539 3.381 3.244 3.126 3.023 2.932 2.852 2.782 2.720 2.665 2.617 2.575 2.539 2.509 2.483 2.462 2.446 2.435 2.429 2.428 2.432

30° 12.897 8.530 6.811 5.831 5.179 4.706 4.344 4.057 3.822 3.627 3.462 3.321 3.199 3.094 3.001 2.920 2.849 2.787 2.733 2.686 2.645 2.611 2.582 2.559 2.541 2.528 2.521 2.519 2.523

FUNCTIONS FOR CALCULATIONS OF COMPRESSIVE FLOW

18
Prandtl-Mayer Expansion Waves
Forward Mach Line
1 Rearward Mach Line

M1>1 2
M2
P1 P2
ρ1 ρ2
T1 μ2 μ1 T2

VN1 M N1
VT1 M T1
μ1
V1 M 1 V2 M 2
μ2
VN 2 M N 2
VT2 M T2

μ2 μ1

The expansion fan is a continuous expansion region which can be visualized as an infinite number of Mach
1
waves, each making the Mach angle μ = sin -1 M with the local flow direction.

The expansion fan is bounded downstream by a Mach wave which makes the angle μ 1, with respect to the
1
upstream flow, where μ1 = sin-1 . The expansion fan is bounded downstream by another Mach wave which
M
1
makes the angle μ2 with respect to the downstream flow, where μ 2 = sin-1 . Since the expansion through the
M
wave takes place across a continuous succession of Mach waves, and since ds = 0 for each Mach wave, the
expansion is isentropic. This is in direct contrast to flow across an oblique shock, which always experience an
entropy increase.

An expansion wave emanation from a sharp convex corner is called a centered expansion wave. Ludwig Prandtl
and his student Theodor Meyer first worked out a theory for centered expansion waves in 1907-1908, and hence
such waves are commonly denoted as Prandtl-Mayer expansion waves.

19
Steps in solving expansion waves problems:

1 Va VN M N1
1. sin μ1 =  1  1 
M1 V1 V1 M1

VN1  Va1 ; M N1  M N1  1.0

VN1 M N1
sin μ1 = 
V1 M1

1 Va VN M N2
sin μ1 =  2  2 
M 2 V2 V2 M2

2. To find M2, use Table (Function for calculations of Expansive Flow).

[f (μ1)] = [f (μ1)]

3. [f (μ2)] = [f (μ1 )] θ

To find μ2:

μ2 = f [f (μ2)]

2
T2 M1  5 From formulas of Bernoulli’s Theorem of
4.  2 compressible flow using M1 and M2.
T1 M2  5

VT1 M T1
5. cos μ1 = 
V1 M1

VT2 M T2
cos μ2 = 
V2 M2

g  2 
3.5
P2  M12  5 
6.    2 
P1 g  1   M2  5 

Where: [ g(μ2) ] = f(μ2)

[ g(μ1) ] = f(μ1)

20
 h  2 
2.5
2  M 2 5
7.    1 2 
1 h  1   M2  5 

Where: [ h(μ2) ] = f(μ2)

[ h(μ1) ] = f(μ1)

Problems:

1. Using the exact theory method, find the final Mach number, pressure and density in the expansion case of an
initial Mach number of 1.75 and a deflection of 8°. Assume SSLC.

2. Find all aerodynamic and thermodynamic conditions on both sides of expansion wave. Supersonic stream is
at M = 1.6 expanding through an angle of 8°. Initial pressure and temperature are at 10 psia and 20°F,
respectively.

21
22
 FOR CALCULATIONS OF EXPANSIVE FLOW

μ f(μ) g(μ) h(μ) 62 128.45° 0.44965 0.56501

0 0.00° 0.00000 0.00000 63 128.67° 0.45549 0.57024
1 5.00° 0.00000 0.00000 64 128.87° 0.46107 0.57522
2 9.98° 0.00000 0.00000 65 129.05° 0.46639 0.57996
3 14.92° 0.00000 0.00002 66 129.22° 0.47147 0.58446
4 19.81° 0.00000 0.00009 67 129.37° 0.47631 0.58874
5 24.63° 0.00001 0.00026 68 129.51° 0.48091 0.59279
6 29.36° 0.00003 0.00061 69 129.64° 0.48527 0.59663
7 34.00° 0.00009 0.00126 70 129.75° 0.48941 0.60025
8 38.53° 0.00020 0.00232 71 129.85° 0.49331 0.60367
9 42.94° 0.00043 0.00392 72 129.95° 0.49700 0.60689
10 47.22° 0.00081 0.00621 73 130.03° 0.50046 0.60991
11 51.37° 0.00143 0.00931 74 130.10° 0.50371 0.61273
12 55.37° 0.00237 0.01332 75 130.16° 0.50674 0.61536
13 59.23° 0.00370 0.01832 76 130.22° 0.50956 0.61781
14 62.95° 0.00552 0.02438 77 130.27° 0.51218 0.62008
15 66.52° 0.00791 0.03153 78 130.31° 0.51459 0.62216
16 69.94° 0.01095 0.03977 79 130.34° 0.51680 0.62407
17 73.21° 0.01469 0.04906 80 130.37° 0.51881 0.62580
18 76.34° 0.01919 0.05937 81 130.39° 0.52062 0.62736
19 79.34° 0.02446 0.07062 82 130.41° 0.52224 0.62875
20 82.19° 0.03053 0.08273 83 130.42° 0.52366 0.62997
21 84.91° 0.03739 0.09562 84 130.44° 0.52489 0.63103
22 87.50° 0.04502 0.10918 85 130.44° 0.52593 0.63192
23 89.96° 0.05338 0.12330 86 130.45° 0.52678 0.63265
24 92.30° 0.06243 0.13789 87 130.45° 0.52744 0.63321
25 94.53° 0.07211 0.15285 88 130.45° 0.52791 0.63362
26 96.64° 0.08236 0.16808 89 130.45° 0.52819 0.63386
27 98.65° 0.09313 0.18350 90 130.45° 0.52828 0.63394
28 100.56° 0.10434 0.19901
29 102.36° 0.11592 0.21455
30 104.07° 0.12780 0.23005
31 105.70° 0.13994 0.24544
32 107.23° 0.15225 0.26068
33 108.69° 0.16468 0.27571
34 110.07° 0.17718 0.29051
35 111.37° 0.18970 0.30503
36 112.61° 0.20220 0.31924
37 113.77° 0.21462 0.33314
38 114.88° 0.22694 0.34669
39 115.92° 0.23913 0.35988
40 116.90° 0.25115 0.37271
41 117.83° 0.26297 0.38517
42 118.71° 0.27459 0.39725
43 119.54° 0.28598 0.40894
44 120.32° 0.29712 0.42026
45 121.06° 0.30800 0.43120
46 121.75° 0.31862 0.44177
47 122.40° 0.32896 0.45196
48 123.02° 0.33901 0.46179
49 123.59° 0.34879 0.47125
50 124.14° 0.35827 0.48037
51 124.64° 0.36746 0.48914
52 125.12° 0.37635 0.49757
53 125.57° 0.38496 0.50567
54 125.99° 0.39327 0.51345
55 126.38° 0.40130 0.52091
56 126.74° 0.40904 0.52807
57 127.08° 0.41650 0.53493
58 127.40° 0.42367 0.54149
μ f(μ) g(μ) h(μ)
59 127.69° 0.43057 0.54778
60 127.97° 0.43720 0.55379
61 128.22° 0.44356 0.55953
Approximation Method for Oblique Shock & Expansion Waves

This method provides the simple means of determining the change in flow conditions through
oblique shock and expansion waves, particularly pressure distribution on airfoils to obtain the airfoil
section characteristics. In this method, the deflection angle is taken as positive (+) for oblique shock
wave (OSW) and negative (-) for expansion wave (EW).

A. Pressure Ration and Pressure Coefficient

P2  P    
 1      M1 2
P1  q 2

Where:

P2
= pressure ratio across OSW or EW
P1

P
= pressure coefficient across OSW or EW
q

B. Pressure Coefficient Determination

1. First-Order Approximation – Sometimes referred to as Linear of Ackeret Theory in which

θ is in first order.

P 2
= C1θ where: C1  2
q M1  1

θ = deflection angle (rad)

2. Higher-Order Approximation – In higher-order approximations, higher-order terms are

added to the first-order term.

a. Second-Order Approximation

P
where: C 2 
4

M1  M1  2
2
 2

 
= C1θ + C2θ2 2
q 2
2 M1  1

b. Third-Order Approximation – For OSW, a coefficient D is introduced to correct for

the non-isentropic flow losses across OSW.
 P
= C1θ + C2θ2 + C3θ3 ------------- Expansion Wave
q

P
= C1θ + C2θ2 + (C3-D)θ3 ------------- Oblique Shock Wave
q

Where:
1    1 8 2 3  7   5 6 5   1 4 2 4
C3   M1  M1  M 1  2M 1  
M 1
2
1  3.5
 6 6 3 3

For Air, γ=1.4

1  8 6 4 2 4
C3  0.4 M  1.813M  4 M  2 M 
M 1
2
1  3.5  1 1 1 1
3 

D
   1 M14 5  3 4
     2


 M 3 M 2 
 3.5 
12 M1  1  4
2 1
 1


For Air, γ=1.4

0.2M 
4
0.2M1 4 2
D  1.6M1  2
M 1
2
1  3 .5 1

Problem:
1. Using the Third-Order Approximation, find the pressure acting on the upper and lower
surface of a flat plate inclined at an angle of 10° toward the airflow at initial Mach number of
2 and freestream pressure of 1 atm.

c. Application of Pressure Coefficient – Pressure Coefficient can be used to determine

important aerodynamic characteristics of airfoil sections. A practical approach is to
use the second-order approximation which is more accurate than the first-order
method and much simpler than the third-order method. As an example, the Normal

Force Coefficient of a Thin Plate will be considered here.

  P   P 
C N    2
 


 q L  q U

Where:
 P 
  2 ------ OSW
 q  = C1θ + C2θ
 L
 P 
  2
 q  = C1(-θ) + C2(-θ)
 U
= -C1θ + C2θ2 ------ EW

4
C N  2C 1  
2
M1  1
Where:
CN = Normal Force Coefficient
θ = Deflection Angle or Angle of Attack (radians)
M1 = Mach number before Flat Plate

Problem;
1. A two-dimensional thin flat plate is set against an airstream initially at 1,500 meters altitude
at 2,000 mph at an angle of 15°. Determine the normal force coefficient and pressure at the
lower and upper surface of the plate.
Airfoil Characteristics

Two-dimensional Characteristics

Basic Aerodynamic Characteristics of Wings:

 1. Lift – is that component of force which is normal to the direction of the free-stream an
infinite distance ahead of the airfoil.

L L L
CL   
1
V 2 S  2 qS
 PM S
2  2
Where:
1
q = PM 2
2

2. Drag – is that component of force parallel to the free-stream direction ahead of the wing.

D
CD 
qS
Where:
1
q PM 2
=
2
Three Components of Total Drag

a. Form or pressure drag of “wave drag” – is the airwise force resulting from the pressure
distribution when the wing is at the angle of attack at which no lift is generated.

b. Skin Friction – is the force created by the tendency of the layer of air next to the surface of
the body to cling to the layer next to it until the free-stream velocity is reached. This shearing
action creates a drag on the surface which is a function of the viscosity, velocity, density and
the type of flow (laminar or turbulent) of the air, as well as the airwise surface dimension.

c. Drag due to lift or “drag due to normal force” – it is the component of the normal force
which is parallel to the direction of the free-stream. It exists only when the airfoil is in an
attitude to supply lift and hence is usually given the name shown at the heading. This force is
called induced drag in the subsonic case but is not so called in the supersonic case because
the type of flow over the lifting surface is of a different character. The term “induced drag” is
sometimes used to describe the drag created in the region of the tips of rectangular wings
producing lift in supersonic flow, however.

3. Axial force – is that component of force parallel to the chord or axis of the wing or body and
is equal to the form drag plus skin friction at zero degree angle of attack.

4. Normal force – is the component normal to chord line of the wing.

5. Resultant force – is the force representing the resultant of the addition of all local
aerodynamic and viscous forces on the wing from which lift and drag force are resolved.

6. Moment – is the resultant of the moments of all forces on a body about some chordwise
reference point.
 Forces Acting on Airfoil at Supersonic Speeds

L = N Y – AY ; L = Ncosα 2 Asinα
D = N X – AX ; D = Nsinα + Acosα

At α = 0:

L=N ; CL = CN
A=D ; CA = C D

Aerodynamic Characteristics of a Two-dimensional Symmetrical Double-Wedge Airfoil

 P
= C1θ + C2θ2 ------ second-order degree of accuracy
q

C1 
2
C2 
4

M1  M1  2
2
 2

2
M1  1 
2 M1  1
2
 2

Where:
P
= pressure change across an oblique compression or an expansion wave
q
θ = local angle of attack in radians between the surface and free-stream Mach number.
M = free-stream Mach number.

Notes* θ = (+) when the free-stream is deflected toward the surface.

θ = (-) when it is away from the surface.

The values of θ to be used in the pressure equation for each surface are as follows:
away form the surface; α is bigger than
β
θ1 = -α + β
opposite, open to the left

θ2 = -α – β
θ3 = α + β

θ4 = α - β

Where:
α = angle between free-stream direction and chordline of wing
 β = semi-vertex angle of leading and trailing edges.

Pressure Difference over the Front and Rear Halves of the Airfoil at Angle of Attack

Pressure Distribution over Symmetric Double-Wedge Airfoil

 P   
P   
P   P   
P   
P 
  =  -    =  - 
 q     q   
 F  q  3  q 1  R  q 4  q 2

= 2C1α + 4C2αβ = 2C1α - 4C2αβ

 N
The normal force coefficient CN = q S will be the total difference between the upper and lower
pressure difference (divided by 2 to retain the coefficient form based on the total plan-form area).

N 1  P  1  P 
     
CN
qS 2  q  2 q 
 F  R
1
  2C1  4C 2    1  2C1  4C 2  
2 2
4
 2C 1  , α in radians
M2 1

Where:
2
C1  = pressure coefficient parameter
M2 1

Total Chordwise Force Coefficient

1  P  1  P 
    
C DF
2  q  2  q 
 U  L
1
  2C1  4C 2   1  2C1  4C 2 
2 2

= 2C1β
4
 ------- Based on the maximum thickness of the airfoil
M2 1

Where:
C D F = from drag coefficient
C D F = C D F tanβ

For small angle β, tanβ  β, in radians

4 2
C DF  C DF   ------ Based on planform area
M2 1

Drag due to normal force/due to lift

D = N sinα + A cosα
C D L  CN sinα + CA cosα Note: CA = C D F  C D f
For small angles of attack:

CA cosα is very small and sinα  α in radians

Since,

4
CN 
M2 1

Therefore,
4 2
C DL 
M2 1
Additional drag due to skin friction

 Depends on the type of strength of shock waves created on the R N whether or not the flow is
laminar or turbulent.
 Maybe approximated by the use of coefficients developed by Blasius (laminar) and Von
Karman (turbulent).

Total two-dimensional (sectional) drag of this airfoil

CD  CD F  C D L  CD f
4 2
+
4
+ C Df =

4 2   2  + C Df
M 1 2
M 1
2
M 1
2

Where:
β and α are in radians and C D f is from the graph against R for turbulent and laminar flow.

Coefficient of moment about the mid-chord

- By summating the lift of each surface times the distance to its center of pressure divided
by the chord length, to retain non-dimensionality.

1  1 
C m 0.5  0.25  2C1   4C 2     0.25  2C1   4C 2   
2  2 
C m 0.5  C 2 

Center of Pressure (C.P.) distance at or ahead of the mid-chord point.

- Moment divided by the normal force

C m 0.5 C C 2  C
C.P.0.5  
CN 2C1 
C 2  C

2C 1
Note: For a symmetrical double wedge airfoil, β rad.  τ;
βdeg.  57.3τ

Three General Contours that include the most practical types

The form drag coefficient for any given type of a cross-section may be expressed directly as a
function of the thickness ratio:

K1 2
C DF 
M2 1
Where:
t
Τ = the ration of maximum thickness to chord length, .
C
K1 = a constant which depends only on the cross-sectional shape.

Type K1
Double-Wedge 4
Biconvex 5.33
Modified double-wedge (a=⅓) 6
Modified double-wedge – General 2
a

Note: a = is the fraction of chord length of the wedge shape at each end.
 N
Optimum Angle of Attack and Maximum ratio
D

The normal force-drag ration is determined, rather than the lift-drag ratio, because the
simplicity of the normal force expression as compared with that of the loft. Form nominal values of
lift-drag ratios, i.e., 5 occurring at optimum angles less than α=10 degrees, the lift-drag ratio will be
no more than 5 percent lower than the normal force-drag ratio. The optimum angle of attack for
L N
highest ratio will also be slightly higher than that for Dmaximum .
D D
N N
The optimum angle of attack for maximum is found by differentiating the
D D
expression to determine the slope as a function of angle of attack and setting this expression equal to
D
zero because the optimum angle occurs where is a minimum.
N

D
d 
N
0
d

C 
d D 
 CN 
0
d

 CD  C DL  C Df 
d F 

 CN 
0
d

Since,
dC N 2 4 2
C DL    2
d M 1

dC N 4
CN   2
d M 1

K 1 2
C DF 
M2 1

K 1 2  C Df M 2  1
 opt . 
4
  CN  1
  
 CD  max K 1  2  C Df M 2  1

The expression for optimum angle of attack is related to the maximum lift-drag ratio by the
relation:
1
 opt . 
 
N where: α is in radians
2 
 D  max .

Moment and Center of Pressure

C m 0.5  2C 2 A' 

Where:
A CB tC 
A'  2
 2

C 2C 2 For the double-wedge

  2A'

C 2 A' C
C.P. 0.5 
C1

A CB
Shape A' 
C2

Double-Wedge
2
2
Biconvex
3
2
Modified double-wedge (a=⅓)
3
Modified double-wedge – General (1-a)τ

Problems:

1. Find the section characteristics of a symmetrical double-wedge airfoil of 6% thickness

ratio at S deg. Angle of attack is a supersonic stream of Mach no. M=1.8. Total skin
friction C D f = 0.0053. All coefficients are converted to degree measure in calculations.
2. Find the sectional drag coefficient, optimal angle of attack, and maximum normal force-
drag ratio for a 6% biconvex airfoil at M=1.8, C D f = 0.0053.