MASTER'S THESIS

Engine Simulation Model for a Formula

SAE Race Car
Applied Design, Development, Correlation and Optimization

Ramin Gilani

Master of Science in Engineering Technology

Mechanical Engineering

Luleå University of Technology

Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics
 This one year project with Monash University’s Formula Society of Automotive Engineering
team can be divided into two parts. The first part is to work as a mechanic and engineer, while
the second part is to carry out my master thesis work. This report treats the thesis part of the
project and can be subdivided into following six steps:

• Learn how to use Wavebuild and WavePost parts of the engine simulation software Ri-
cardo Wave.

• Build Monash Motorsports new stock KTM SX-F engine in the software.

• Compare the simulations with the real stock engine on the dynamometer.

• Rebuild the simulation engine from corresponding to the stock engine to correspond to
the upcoming changes which defines the race engine.

• Optimise the simulation models.

• Provide the team with recommendations on how to optimise the real engine.

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 ABSTRACT
This report is the result of a one year project to provide Monash Motorsports FSAE team
with vital predictions regarding how the 2011 450 CC KTM SX-F engine would respond to
planned reconstructions and how to optimise different parts of the engine. The phases of oper-
ation have been: Learning the software, building the engine, confirming the trustworthiness of
the results, rebuilding the engine to predict future results, optimising the simulation and finally
providing Monash Motorsport with results and recommendations. The entire engine has been
required to be fully defined to be able to run proper simulations. This includes: intake sys-
tem, engine, exhaust system, physical and environmental properties and also combustion and
other sub-models. There were three options to obtain the required data. Either by the engine
manufacturer (KTM), manually measuring or using values from example engines included in
the simulation software. All three options have been used depending on availability, the time
it takes to get hold of topical data and the reliability of the source. By building the engine in
the software and simulating the planned changes one step ahead of the team, the simulations
have served part of their purpose to work as guidelines to shortening the time of optimisation.

Before approaching the real task the stock engine was created, tested and confirmed to work
properly in the simulation. By doing so credibility was added to the simulation which are most
important if the simulation predictions was to be accepted as guidelines. The stock engine
worked as reference and the dynamometer results was used as benchmark together with results
from KTM while building the engine. As a next step the simulation engine was upgraded to
the geometry of the final design including components not yet created for the real engine. By
doing so the simulation engine could take the role of reference and various simulation tests
was performed to map out how each new component affect the engine individually and in con-
junction with other related new components. The step of rebuilding the simulation engine to
correspond to the future race engine was most crucial to be performed properly hence there
was no reference to compare the outcome with but rather being the reference for the real engine.

The results from the final optimisation advocate that a spherical plenum chamber with the
volume of 3.89 l should be added to the engine. By doing so a buffer of air is created after
the restrictor decreasing the negative impact of the FSAE regulated restrictor. Plenum volume
was selected with respect to power/torque, throttle response and packaging. Optimum runner
length is 170 mm. This is with respect to the narrow engine speed of 7000 – 11000 rpm the
car will be driven during competition. It is also necessary to limit the rpm range of maximum
interest since different geometries are optimum within different rpm range. The simulation
clearly states that a high discharge coefficient at the diffuser-plenum and plenum-runner ends
is to prefer. To do so bell-mouths are beneficial and doe smoothen out the air flow. The com-
ponents that have been delimitated from this work are thous that will be limited affected by

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the outcome of the simulations. This includes the air filter, throttle body and different shape of
the diffuser including the restrictor. These components have already been carefully investigated
and optimised by previous thesis students.

The FSAE regulation had made it extra challenging to optimise the car by allocating points
on different criteria hence it is not only being the first car over the finish line that decide if
you win or not. Optimum was therefore defined as the best compromise between all the cri-
teria providing points. A total number of approximately 264 simulations were produced in the
process which now lays the foundation for Monash Motorsport engine simulation database for
future years to come. This report can serve new engine simulation users as a guideline through
all steps to a solid foundation of how to design tests, interpret results and optimise an engine.

Ramin Gilani
Sydney, February 1, 2012

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to extend my thanks to the following people for their effort and assist-
ance to make it possible for me to carry out this thesis, for it would not have been
possible without them: Pär Marklund, Sven Molin, Kim C. N, Sverker Fredriks-
son and fellow Monash FSAE team members and of course my supervisor Dr Scott
Wordley for his insight and guidance.

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 © 2012 Ramin Gilani

Luleå 2012

Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics

Division of Product and Production Development
Luleå University of Technology
SE-971 87 Luleå
SWEDEN

www.ltu.se
Printed by Universitetstryckeriet 2012

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Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 3
1.1 FORMULA SOCIETY OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 PROJECT OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 GOAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 DELIMITATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 RESEARCH AND BACKGROUND INTO THEORIES OF ENGINE SIM-

ULATION 7
2.1 DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 FRICTION CORRELATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 DISCRETIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 HEAT TRANSFER MODEL Woschni VS Annand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5 COMBUSTION MODEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6 COMPLEX Y-JUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.7 PRESSURE WAVE REFLECTION IN DUCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.7.1 EXAMPLE CALCULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3 KTM STOCK ENGINE MEASUREMENTS AND SIMULATION SETUP 27

3.1 DESIGN IN RICARDO WAVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 INTAKE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3 DUCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.4 INJECTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.5 CYLINDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.6 VALVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

4 STOCK ENGINE SIMULATION 39

4.1 KTM SX-F POWER AND TORQUE REFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2 SIMULATION ARRANGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.3 DESIGN OF TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.4 PREPARATION OF SIMULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.5 RUNNING SIMULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

5 RECONSTRUCTION OF SIMULATION ENGINE TO PREDICT THE BEST

RACE ENGINE CONFIGURATION 47
5.1 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE INTAKE SYSTEM WITH CUSTOM MADE
COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.2 SIMULATION ARRANGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

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 5.3 DESIGN OF TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.4 PREPARATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.5 RUNNING SIMULATIONS FOR INDIVIDUAL TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.5.1 RUNNER LENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.5.2 PLENUM VOLUME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.5.3 BELL-MOUTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

6 RESULTS FROM POST-PROCESSING 54

6.1 STOCK ENGINE SIMULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.2 RACE ENGINE RUNNER LENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.3 RACE ENGINE PLENUM VOLUME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.4 RACE ENGINE BELL-MOUTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

7 FINAL OPTIMISATION 61

8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 63

9 REFERENCES 65

A APPENDIX 67
A.1 FSAE SCORE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
A.2 CHARGE MOTION IN CYLINDER & REFERENCE OF HEAT TRANSFER . 67
A.3 TECHNICAL DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
A.4 MATERIAL SURFACE ROUGHNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
A.5 ENGINE GENERAL PANEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
A.6 SIMULATION OF THE CARBURETTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
A.7 MEASUREMENT TECHNICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
A.8 COMPLEX Y-JUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
A.9 RPM RELATED CONSTANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
A.10 RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
A.10.1 COMPARISON OF BHP AND TQ SIMULATION RESULTS VS REF-
ERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
A.10.2 TESTRUN SETTINGS FOR THE PROTOTYPE ENGINE . . . . . . . 79
A.10.3 INTAKE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
A.10.4 ALL SIMULATION RUNNER LENGTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
A.10.5 ALL SIMULATION PLENUM VOLUMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

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NOMENCLATURE
E - Energy [J]

m - Mass [g]

CD - Discharge coefficient

D - Cylinder bore [mm]

P - Cylinder pressure [bar]

T - Cylinder temperature [K]

vc - Cylinder velocity [m/s]

Cenht - Multiplier

vm - Mean piston speed [rpm]

VD - Cylinder dicplacement [mm3 ]

Tr - Reference temperature [K]

Pr - Reference pressure [bar]

Vr - Reference volume [mm3 ]

Pmot - Motored cylinder pressure [bar]

Vc - Clearance volume [mm3 ]

V - Instentaniuos cylinder volume [mm3 ]

vs - Swirl ratio

a - Heat transfer multiplier

ρ - Dencity

µ - Dynamic viskocity

k - Thermal conductivity [W/m/K]

hg - Heat transfer coefficient

1
T DC - Top Dead Centre [deg]

AT DC - After Top Dead Centre [deg]

BDC - Bottom Dead Centre [deg]

Wn - Comulative burn rate

Wn (θ) - Comulative burn rate at certain angle

θ0 - Start of combustion [deg]

θi - Given crank angle [deg]

xB - Mass fraction burned [g]

EOC - End of combustion [deg]

A - Scaling factor, A = −ln(1 − xB,EOC )

B - Combustion mode parameter

4θ - Total combustion duration (θEOC − θ0 ) [deg]

DELX - Characteristic length [mm]

DIAB - Expanison diameter [mm]

F M EP - Friction Mean Effective Pressure [Pa]

IM EP - Indicated Mean Effective Pressure [Pa]

BM EP - Brake Mean Effective Pressure [Pa]

P M EP - Pressure Mean Effective Pressure [Pa]

2
1 INTRODUCTION
Luleå University of Technology and Monash University have established collaboration since
1997. The cross-university collaboration has been growing steady since and will probably do so
in the future based on new fundings. The collaboration bridges multiple departments and gives
students and staff members at both universities the possibility to establish new international
projects. For more information regarding the possibility to take part in the collaboration for e.g.
thesis work please contact you’re respective university. The Monash Motorsport FSAE team
which this master thesis will be performed for is ranked 1st in Australia and the pacific-ocean
and ranked third in the world 2010 and belong to the department of mechanical and aerospace
engineering. The crew consist of 50 BSc, MSc and PHD students from multiple disciplines.

1.1 FORMULA SOCIETY OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING

Formula Society of Automotive Engineering (FSAE) is a student design competition that has
been running since 1975 organized by SAE International. The concept behind FSAE is that a
fictional company has hired an engineering team to design and build a formula-style race car
from scratch, ready to race in one year.

FSAE promotes careers and excellence in engineering as it encompasses all aspects of the auto-
motive industry such as research, design, manufacturing, testing, developing, marketing, man-
agement and finances. FSAE is a worldwide design competition in which university students
are challenged out of the classroom and provided with the opportunity to apply textbook the-
ories to real work experiences. The racing series are regulated by a 130 page rule book released
and yearly revised by SAE International. Even though the series are strictly regulated there
are relatively few performance restrictions compared to other formula style racing series. SAE
navigate the focus of the series by adjusting the score system rather than limiting the series.
This allow the engineers to more freely try to optimise their race car stimulating creativity
and hence a large range of solutions to the same problem. Each event is allocated a maximum
possible score, which when collated gives a total scoring maximum of 1000 points. In 2009 the
fuel economy scores where increased from 50 to 100 points tweaking the teams to focus more
towards energy efficiency. The competition ranks university teams on their ability to satisfy
these conditions (FSAE Rules 2011) See Appendix A.1 for a breakdown of the scores. Figure 1
shows the final design of the 2011 Monash Motorsport FSAE race car.

3
Figure 1 - CAD representation of the 2011 Monash Motorsport FSAE race car.

Two former engineering students and members of Monash Motorsport team (Sam Lister and
Rick Grose) conducted an in-depth research of point scoring for the competition in response to
the strong leaning towards fuel economy in 2009. This simulator was able to directly correlate
changes in vehicle design to points scored at competition. As a result of this analysis a decision
to change from a four cylinder 600 cm3 Honda engine to a lighter and more fuel efficient single
cylinder engine was made. In regard to the scoring system a 450 cm3 Husqvarna engine was
chosen as the best option in 2009. This was later adjusted to KTM due to sponsorship which
will be implemented in the car for the first time in 2011.

4
1.2 PROJECT OBJECTIVES
Speed is the single most dangerous factor in motorsport. In order to limit the power capability
from the engine, FSAE are limited in engine volume to 610 cm3 and the air intake system is
limited by a single circular restrictor of 20 mm that must be placed between the throttle and
the engine. The engine is originally not designed for intake restrictions and therefore suffers
sufficient power loss. This introduces the challenge to optimise the engine to produce as much
power as possible while working effectively during the new conditions. The purpose of this
project is to expand the area of research within engine simulation with Monash Motorsport.
Simulations will be employed to investigate means to most effective design and setup, hence
optimise different areas of the engine. The purpose of engine simulation is to reduce the total
experimental testing time required to investigate and find optimum. Areas in which to increase
efficiencies of the engine will after thoroughly investigated in theory constitute the foundation
of how to optimise the real engine.

1.3 GOAL
The goal of this project is to optimise Monash Motorsports new engine for race by creating
a computer simulation model capable of determining the most effective design. Information
obtained from KTM and manual measurement will be used in the design of the computer
simulation. Results from the simulations will be given grounds for and handed over to the team
as the results are obtained throughout the year. This will give more time to get the real engine
optimised. The final goal of this project is to provide Monash Motorsport with a database
of tests and results for the new 2011 engine and also hand in this report to help new engine
simulation responsible to go from not knowing much about engine simulation in Ricardo Wave
to a solid foundation of how to design tests, interpret results and optimise.

1.4 DELIMITATIONS
The components that will be excluded are thous that will not be affected by the outcome of the
simulations in this project. The air filter, throttle body and different shape of the restrictor have
already been carefully investigated and optimised by previous thesis students and are therefore
of lower priority to simulate. Monash Motorsport owns two KTM SX-F engines, which will be
used for testing on the dynamometer and one which will be optimised with respect to the test
results and will be located in the race car. The exhaust system on the engine located on the
dynamometer is not identical to the one that will be designed for the car and will therefore
not provide any data to be confirmed or dismissed. Optimisation of the exhaust system falls
therefore also outside the scope of this project. These delimitated components will on request
by the team be simulated but it will be performed unofficially and will therefore not be treated

5
in this report.

Some parts of the software will undergo investigation to confirm that the algorithms provide
correct results. It is however not possible to investigate more than just some random samples
due to time limits, the wide range of built in algorithms and also due to some limitation in
public algorithms.

6
2 RESEARCH AND BACKGROUND INTO THEOR-
IES OF ENGINE SIMULATION
The simulation software that will be utilized is the market leading ISO approved, 1-D engine
and gas dynamics simulation software from Ricardo. It is used worldwide with technical centres
in China, Czech Republic, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Korea, Russia, United Kingdom and
United States. It is used in industry sectors including passenger car, motorcycle, truck, loco-
motive, motorsport and marine. Wave enable performance simulations to be carried out for
steady-state as well as transient simulations applicable to virtually any intake, combustion and
exhaust system configuration and includes a drivetrain model to allow complete vehicle simu-
lation.

The software can be used throughout the entire engine design process, from early concept
research to optimising a complete engine. Whether it concerns improving volumetric efficiency,
designing complex boosting systems, improving transient response or extracting the maximum
performance from a race engine, Wave is useful. The complicity of the software can be reduced
for the user at the expense of quality. Default and tutorial values are available for basically
every required input. This lowers the entry level for beginners and also makes it possible to run
simulations even if some data is missing. The software includes an extended tutorial package
split in basic, intermediate and advance levels.

To use the software for more than just education it is essential that the default values are
kept to a minimum and each component are completely defined to eliminate source of errors.
The quality and trustworthiness of the results gained from the post-processing part of the soft-
ware (WavePost) are a direct consequence of the tolerance and quality of the inserted data and
how well defined the engine is.

A combustion engine is a 3D-phenomenon in respect to combustion, ducts, valves etc. In order

to investigate the concept of representing the KTM combustion engine in 1D in Wave, some
additional information is required. The procedure is to split the three dimensions into multiple
one dimension of data and keep track of how each dimension corresponds to one another. This
is all done with equations pre-programmed in the software. For the software to be able to solve
given tasks, coefficients and advanced sub-models are implemented. With user-provided data,
pre-programmed equations and governing laws of physics like momentum, energy- and mass-
conservation, different aspects of the particular engine can be solved. As can be seen in figure
2 the 1D solving for different aspects of the engine can be put together to sketch both 2D and
3D behaviour.

7
Figure 2 - The redefinition of dimensions in Wave.

Engine simulation software is developed to reduce cost of development by shortening test-

ing time and effort required to reach desired results. Both Ricardo Wave and GT-Power to
mention the two leading engine simulation software manufactures can provide valuable results
on several hundred parameters for optimisation of components not yet created in reality. The
plenum chamber for example which is one of the main components that will require extended
research can easily be studied with simulation software. By dragging a complex Y-junction
from the menu into the canvas attaching it properly to the engine and providing all geometries
for the plenum, the simulation can provide results. No real dynamometer required and no need
to rebuild the plenum to find optimum. Running tests on different parameters is with the new
in real time controller easier than ever. By choosing one or more parameters to run tests on it
is possible to view preferred output change in real time by moving regulators between different
values.

2.1 DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT

Discharge coefficient treats the flow out of one end of a duct into the adjoining element. This
is when set to "auto" automatically calculated with coefficient based on area ratios, smaller
diameter divided by the bigger (usually in the range of 0.6 to 1.0). The coefficient decides the
pressure drop ratio between the two connected elements.

An experiment will revile if the automatically calculated coefficient is calculated properly. The
discharge coefficient has a great impact on the gas velocity from the ambient to the duct con-
nected. It is therefore of great interest to confirm if it is done properly. The experiment
arrangement to verify whether if the software properly calculates the discharge coefficient is
done by comparing the simulated air velocity through the intake in a test engine. Observe that
the test engine is not the KTM SX-F 2011 but only an engine built for experimentation. The

8
discharge coefficient CD is in this particular case simulated for a round orifice calculated with
the geometrical data shown in figure 3 [1].

Figure 3 - Definition of D, D1 and D2 .

4 ! 4 !!
D D
 
CD = 1 − 1 − ∗ 0.2 + 0.2 1 − (1)
D1 D2 ,

where CD is the discharge coefficient and D, D1 and D2 as defined below:

D = Orif ice diameter = 43.6mm

D1 = U pstream diameter =→ ∞
D2 = Downstream diameter = 43.6mm

The air filter used on the physical engine is dimensioned for a much higher airflow rate than
the KTM SX-F engine requires. Since the air filter is massively oversized the restriction is
neglect-able small and can therefore be calculated as an open end. D1 contributes to the math-
ematical representation of the discharge coefficient by decreasing the discharge coefficient with
larger upstream diameter. By letting the upstream diameter increase infinitely in the formula
(D1 → ∞) no increase in discharge coefficient due to restriction of intake will exist. This will
simulate an open end in the software which is what the real engine experience.

9
In this case D = D2 since the orifice diameter is no smaller than the downstream diameter,
leaving a 90 degree transition from the ambient to the intake ducts. See figure 3. Input of
D, D1 and D2 in CD results in

 !4  4 !!
43.6 43.6

CD = 1 − 1 −  ∗ 0.2 + 0.2 1 − →
(D1 → ∞) 43.6

→ 1 − 1 − (0)4 ∗ 0.2 + 0.2 1 − (1)4

    
→ 0.8.

The discharge coefficient is manually calculated to 0.8. Unfortunately Wave do not revile the
discharge coefficient when set to ”auto”. It is therefore not possible to compare the manually
and automatically calculated discharge coefficient. The automatic calculated value can however
be reviled by experiments. By running an engine simulation and sampling air velocity which
the discharge coefficient have an great impact on it is possible to evaluate and make sure that
Wave discover the same discharge coefficient as is manually calculated. Two identical simula-
tions will run where all values will be held constant, accept the discharge coefficient. The first
simulation contained the discharge coefficient of 0.8 and the second with ”auto”. Air velocity
through the intake should change distinctively if any differences between the discharge coeffi-
cients exist. Figure 4 shows the comparison between manually and automatically calculated
discharge coefficients.

Figure 4 - Comparison between manually (left graph) and automatically (right graph) calcu-
lated discharge coefficient.

10
The left graph in figure 4 shows the air velocity through the intake with manually calcu-
lated discharge coefficient of 0.8 while the right graph represent the automatically calculated
discharge coefficient by Wave. These two graphs are identical and suggest that the discharge
coefficient is calculated properly by Wave when set to ”auto”.

To assure that the discharge coefficient contributes to the air velocity through the intake con-
tributing to the algorithm one more test is required. To make sure that these two graphs are
identical for the right reason and not due to an error eliminating the discharge contribution to
the algorithm that is sketching the graph another discharge coefficient is tested and set to 0.7
instead of the previous value of 0.8 while all other parameters are kept constant. This resulted
in a dramatic change in airflow velocity through the intake proving that the discharge coefficient
indeed contribute and do so in proper manners. See graphs in figure 5

Figure 5 - Reference graph used to confirm the discharge coefficient contribution to the solution.

2.2 FRICTION CORRELATION

Friction caused by the piston motion inside the engine is modelled with a polynomial based
modified version of the Chen-Flynn friction model, which is based on maximum cylinder pres-
sure and piston speed [1], [2]. The Chen-Flynn model employs variables to represent the main
sources of friction, referred to as Friction Mean Effective Pressure (FMEP). FMEP can be cal-
culated with Eq 2. To do so Acf , Bcf , Ccf and Qcf (user inputs, see table 1) need to be known
as they together with instantaneous simulated engine speed, pressure and stroke defines the
friction.

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Table 1 - Definition of terms for friction correlation

Acf = Constant portion of the equation (f or accessory f riction)

Bcf = P eak cylinder pressure
Ccf = P istons peed
Qcf = Quadratically piston speed (f or windage losses)
RP M = Cycle − average engine speed
Stroke = Cylinder stroke
Sf act = RP M ∗ stroke
2
Pcyl = Cylinder pressure

There is three options to get hold of these engine related parameters. Either by extensive
experiments on the dynamometer, use of recommended values from Ricardo Wave or get hold
of the data from the engine manufacturer.

The equation that can be used to calculate friction is:

1 ncyl
Bcf (Pcyl )i + Ccf ∗ (Sf act )i + Qcf ∗ (Sf act )2i
Xh i
F M EP = Acf + (2)
ncyl i=1

as can be seen in the equation for friction, Acf stands alone and are therefore not depending
on the engine running setup while the Bcf , Ccf and Qcf terms is to account for changes in
maximum pressure and speed factor. Since the KTM SX-F only has one cylinder the engine
friction equation can be simplified as shown in Eq 3.

F M EP = Acf + Bcf (PM AX ) + Ccf (rpm ∗ stroke/2) + Qcf (rpm ∗ stroke/2)2 (3)

Speed factor:
stroke
Sf act = rpm( ) (4)
2

Wave will as the only given option automatically implement and calculate the friction when
provided with required data. There is however one possible way to override and do the work
manually. By entering the manually calculated total friction in the constant portion of the

12
equation (Acf ) in the engine general panel for friction correlation and set Bcf , Ccf and Qcf
to zero. The built in formula will be ignored and the provided input will be accepted as the
FMEP. Overriding the software is however not recommended for other than steady state sim-
ulation since FMEP changes with speed and load. If there is an interest to use manual input
for different speed and/or load changes, it is necessary to provide Wave with new FMEP data
representing that change. Wave has recommended values that can be used for different type of
engines. Values recommended by Wave will be used when constructing the KTM SX-F engine
later on. If there is any interest in evaluating the FMEP it is optional to attach a sensor to
the simulation model. If the sensor (sub-model) is connected to the cylinder, it will report the
FMEP from the cylinder. If attached to the engine, it will report the FMEP for the complete
engine.

Further test data is required to perform the correlation of the model. There are three other
types of mean effective pressure necessary to provide and include in the model. These are
Pumping-, Indicated- and Brake Mean Effective Pressure. The pumping losses (PMEP) are
calculated separately with Eq 5 below. The engine indicated performance (IMEP) represents
the software calculated performance and the BMEP is the sum of IMEP and FMEP.

H P DV
lower
P M EP P X = (5)
VD

where:
P = Cylinder pressure
V = Cylinder volume
Vd = Displacement volume of the cylinder

PX in equation 5 stands for the crossing point in the P-V curve (Pressure - Volume) which
describes the three-dimensional relationship between pressure, volume and temperature. The
curve is sketched by searching for the first crossing of the exhaust and compression strokes.
There are built in backups in case no crossing point is to be found between the exhaust and
compression stroke. PX can be predicted by the crossing point in the intake and expansion
strokes as well. In case of multiple crossings, the one closest to BDC (Bottom Dead Centre)
will be picked for maximum volume. The pressure to volume can be sketched in WavePost. To
do so it is necessary to have the model running properly.

There is no sensor for PMEP to be used in Wave. If however there is interest in evaluat-

13
ing BMEP or IMEP it is optional to attach a sensor to the model. ”If it is attached to a
Cylinder element, it will report the work from that cylinder alone. If it is attached to the
Engine, it will report the work from all cylinders and crankcases plus the work from gear driven
superchargers and power turbines minus friction losses ” -Ricardo Wave. Since the KTM SX-F
is a one cylinder engine and do not have a supercharger it does not matter if the sensor is
attached to the engine or directly to the cylinder.

14
2.3 DISCRETIZATION
Discretization can be explained as the equivalent to mesh net for FEM analysis. Restrictor,
diffuser and runner are some of the engine ducts carrying fluids. These ducts will in the simula-
tions provide the option of choosing discretization length. By discretization/dividing one single
duct into more elements/sub-volumes a better resolution of results hence higher accuracy will be
achieved, see figure 6. The discretization length has to be chosen with respect to the resolution
required. This is due to the increased solving time that comes with increasing discretization.
Maximum utility has to be balanced with solving time. Most of the work will be focusing on
optimising the intake side of the engine encouraging high resolution on the ducts which will be
carefully studied while a long exhaust pipe with few bends should be split into fewer elements
per unit length saving computation time.

Figure 6 - Discretization length.

An experiment to see how the solving time are effected by the discretization showed that a
300 mm duct with a discretization length of 15 mm ( 300
15
= 20 elements) took 2.5 seconds longer
300
for the simulation to run compared to 150 mm ( 150 = 2 elements).

15
2.4 HEAT TRANSFER MODEL Woschni VS Annand
An accurate estimate of the heat transfer between cylinder gases and cylinder wall of a com-
bustion engine is necessary for a precise calculation of power, efficiency and emissions during
engine development [3]. A great amount of the chemical energy is unfortunately lost and not
transformed to the purposed kinetic energy. 30% of the fuel energy is carried away in the ex-
haust flow in form of heated exhaust gas and unburned fuel. 35% of the energy is dissipated to
the surrounding through heat. This leaves only 35% of the total chemical energy available to
be harvested as useful crankshaft work. Keeping the engine as close to optimum temperature
as possible is highly desired since a low engine temperature increases wear and are inefficient
doe to thermal efficiency. On the other hand, it is important not to run the engine too hot to
avoid increased wear and even epic failure.

The great amount of heat produced has a big impact on the engine efficiency, friction and
wear. Several simulation models exist for evaluating the heat transfer coefficient, of which the
most common correlation models in engine research are those from Annand [4] and Woschni [5].
The heat development in the simulation will be taken in consideration with Woschni correlative
model for convective heat transfer. The original model for heat transfer Eq 4 assumes simple
heat transfer from a confined volume surrounded on all sides by walls representing the cylinder
head, cylinder liner and piston face areas exposed to the combustion chamber. Each area is cal-
culated from the provided measurement for bore, stroke, connecting rod length, and clearance
height. The original model does not compensate for varying levels of indicated mean effective
pressure IMEP which is a compensation for the engine load. Wave are therefore equipped with
the option of load compensation [6] Eq 5. Unfortunately Wave do not come with the option
of entering the Woschni heat transfer coefficient manually and can therefore not be verified if
the algorithm is neither correct nor properly implemented in the simulation. The only option
is to provide the software with the input, choosing preferred options and having the program
automatically calculating. Even though the simple original and more complex compensated
Woschni equations cannot be manually used in the software it is still preferable to look into
the composition of the Woschni and Annand equations for better understanding of how engine
speed, heat, design, pressure and other parameters are related and contribute to the final output.

For the standard engine cylinder, there is only one type of heat transfer model available –
the Woschni correlative model for convective heat transfer (1967). This model assumes simple
heat transfer from a confined volume surrounded on all sides by walls representing the cylinder
head, cylinder liner, and piston face areas exposed to the combustion chamber. The area of
each is simply calculated from the provided geometry for bore, stroke, connecting rod length,
and clearance height.

16
Woschni heat transfer coefficient is described as

hg = 0.0128D−0.20 P 0.80 T −0.53 vc0.8 Cenht (6)

were Woschni’s original correlation is

VD Tr
vc = c1 vm + c2 (P − Pmot ) (7)
Pr Vr

and Woschni’s modified correlation version with IMEP compensation is

" 2 ! !#
VD Tr Vc
 
−0.2
vc = max c1 vm + c2 (P − Pmot ) ∗ c1 vm 1 + 2 IM EP (8)
Pr Vr V

c1 in Eq 8 is used when the valves are scavenging. The constants c1 and c2 are necessary to
consider changes in gas velocity over the engine cycle. The recommended values for c1 and c2
are as follows [7]:
vs
c1 = 6.18 + 0.417 (9)
vm

c1 in Eq 9 is used when the valves are closed:

vs
c1 = 2.28 + 0.308 (10)
vm

To be able to calculate c1 in Eq 8 and 9 the swirl velocity (vs ) is to be calculated with:

rpm
vs = π ∗ Rswirl ∗ D ∗ (11)
60

c2 = 0 before combustion and during scavenging. c2 can be calculated as shown during com-
bustion:
m
 
c2 = 3.24 ∗ 10−3 (12)
s∗K

The swirl can be set directly as a number of ratios or predicted by Wave which uses equa-
tions 6 - 12. If Wave is set to predict the swirl ratio the value specified is constant throughout

17
the duration of the simulation and is normally between 0 - 0.3 where 0 represent a non-swirl
port design. For Wave to be able to predict the swirl ratio the entire piston bowl geometry is
required. Piston bowl depth, diameter, rim diameter and volume. Adding swirl will increase
the total heat transfer due to increased charge motion in the cylinder [17]. See appendix A.2 for
more details. By observing the difference between Eq 7 and 8 the compensation term for load
can be noticed. By substituting Eq 7 in Eq 6, the original Woschni heat transfer coefficient from
1967 will apply and substitution of Eq 8 in Eq 6 will provide the modified Woschni heat transfer
coefficient from 1990 which include load. The Woschni’s modified correlation will be used in
this project and most likely set to be calculated automatically since the option of manually in-
serting the Woschni correlation is, as mentioned earlier, not provided by Wave but only the ratio.

Annand’s heat transfer coefficient is given by [1]:

 !0.7 
ρvm D ∗
K
hg = a (13)
µ D

The Annand heat transfer model from 1963 is mostly used to compare results with the Woschni
model and is not an available option to use in Wave. The main difference between the woschni
and Annand heat transfer models are that Annand can only be applied to an IRIS cylinder which
is an advanced engine model. This does not mean that Annands model is more advanced, just
more limited. Annand assumes a constant gas velocity equal to the mean piston velocity while
Woschni takes the change in gas velocity inside the cylinder in consideration. Both the IRIS
and the basic cylinder can provide with a stunning 64 different engine related standard time
plots. Available time plot outputs from both Woschni and Annand is heat transfer rate, heat
flux, Heat transfer coefficient and inner wall temperature. In addition both Woschni and An-
nand can provide three summary quantities regarding heat transfer rate which provides the user
with seven different sensor options that can be added to the simulation cylinder and also seven
actuators. The Woschni equation is the most widely used model for prediction of charge, heat
flow coefficient and velocity on all surface of the cylinder1 Explanation of abbreviation is listed
at the beginning of the report.

1
Ricardo Software, 2010. WAVE Knowledge Centre

18
2.5 COMBUSTION MODEL
The general engine cylinder in Wave models the heat release caused by combustion vs. time
as a simplification of the real combustion. There are two combustion sub-models available to
use – the SI Wiebe and profile sub-models. The profile sub-model is used when fuel mass burn
vs. crank angle data is available for every speed and load that is set to run. The approach for
this part of the project will be to define the combustion profile by the Wiebe function. Wiebe
is most widely used, simply using an S-shaped curve to show the combustion duration. The
curve simply represents the fuel mass burned in the cylinder. The Wiebe function is empirical
constructed and are used to describes the heat release during combustion approximately but
quite accurately. It is important to note how the combustion model handles the provided data
in the simulation software.

The original Wiebe function from Steisch [7] is shown in Eq 14. While investigating the simple
Wiebe function as showed in Wave and comparing with the original function from Steisch the
difference of Wave not using division of duration can be noticed. Since the complete Wiebe
function includes division of duration the use of the simple Wiebe can only be explained by
Wave always using the same duration. Meaning that there is no need for the user to provide the
software with the duration, this is however not likely. The other possible explanation is that
Wave is receiving the input of duration from elsewhere. By screening through the input Wave
asks for it is obvious that in practice the Wiebe function inputs are adopted for every case.
This is a must since firstly; the parameters that appear in the function vary with operating
conditions. Secondly a standard Wiebe function can only be made to adopt a limited range
of combustion. To simulate an accurate Wiebe curve that correspond to the shape of the real
combustion progress through all stages of combustion Eq 19 are being employed where external
constants can be added and different provided values can be used for each case [8].

Steisch original Wiebe function:

 !B+1 
θ − θ0
Wn (θ) = 1 − exp −A  (14)
4θ

Simpel Wiebe function as shown in Wave:

h i
Wn = 1 − exp −A(θi − θ0 )B+1 (15)

19
The Wiebe function consists of two zones of mass fraction for the fuel. The two zones refer to
burned and unburned fuel for each time step. The energy balance therefore moves fuel from the
unburned zone to the burned zone over time of combustion. Each of the three cylinder areas:
piston, cylinder head and cylinder linear may be exposed to burned or unburned fuel. The
unburned fuel can be either in state if gas or liquid. The fraction of burned fuel is described
as Wn for the duration or Wn (θ) for a specific position of crank angle. θ is the crank angle,
θ0 is the start of combustion and 4θ refers to the total combustion duration. The symbol B
is called the combustion mode parameter and defines the shape of the combustion profile with
respect to time.

The time dependence of concentration of reaction (ρ) is described by Eq 16 where k is a

constant. Wiebe describe B to be in the range 2 - 4 for SI engines [8]:

ρ = ktB (16)

while A is a scaling factor defined as:

A = −ln(1 − xB,EOC ) (17)

It is necessary to provide Wave with location of crank angle for 50% burn point (ATDC),
location of crank angle for combustion duration from 10 - 90% mass fraction burned points,
exponent in Wiebe function (controlling the shape of the Wiebe curve) and the profile control
terminate value for the SI Wiebe combustion model to be fully defined. The control terminate
value refers to efficiency and will be set to 1. The absolute value of control terminate is between
zero and one (0 - 1) scaling the efficiency from 0 - 100%. A quick experiment showed that Eq 17
cannot handle the mass fraction burned (xB,EOC ) of 100% at the end of combustion (EOC) since
−ln(0) → ∞ Wave have however solved this issue since a perfect combustion of 100% efficiency
is an accepted value. How it is done is unfortunately not reviled but most likely with an “if”
statement inserted and attached to the arithmetic of the combustion model to address this issue.
Qchem (θ) dQchem
Observe that Q chem.tot
is referred to as Wn (θ) in Eq 14. Thereby dθ
correspond to the
instantaneous heat release by deriving eq 14 as showed in Eq 18.

20
 !B  !B+1 
dQchem θ − θ0 θ − θ0
= a ∗ Qchem,tot ∗ (m + 1) ∗ ∗ exp −A  (18)
dθ 4θ 4θ

The burn profile as can be viewed in figure 7 to the left correspond to Eq 18 for the instantan-
eous heat release and integrated heat release as calculated in Eq 14 to the right. ”M” represents
the exponent in the Wiebe function.

Figure 7 - Burn profile and the integrated burn profile.

To be able to transform maximum amount of chemical energy into kinetic energy it is cru-
cial that the combustion starts, peaks and ends at the right position of the crankshaft. Since
the compression ratio and air/fuel mixture is constant throughout the rpm range, the amount
of time it takes to combust is constant. Therefore it is necessary to adjust the initiating of the
combustion regarding to the crankshaft piston, earlier with higher rpm. The location of 50%
burn point and the combustion duration will therefore not be set as constants but as a variable
depending on rpm. The default value of 2.0 for the exponent in Wiebe Function and 1.0 for
the profile control terminate is appropriate for most cases and will therefore be employed [1].
Csallner’s [9] Wiebe combustion parameter correlations present a table of how Ignition delay,
total combustion duration and combustion mode parameter B effect the Wiebe curve. The
table can also be viewed in Fredrik Lindströms licentiate thesis [8]. The table is developed
in part due to method used for fitting Wiebe functions to test data using a BMW 2 dm3 four
cylinder two valve engine and can be used to see that only air/fuel ratio and engine speed effects
the combustion mode parameter.

AWI in the Wiebe function as used in Wave represent the internally calculated parameter
to allow the user-entered combustion duration (BDUR) to cover the range of 10-90%. WEXP
refers to the user-entered exponent.

21
  !W EXP +1 
θ
W = 1 − exp −AW I  (19)
BDU R

Values for 50% burn point has been set to 8.0 degrees ATDC as an experiment but will during
the perform of the KTM SX-F engine be set to {CA50} which provide the software with a new
burn point for each case by a user provided constant table. Varying the 50% burn point simply
shifts the entire curve forward or backward. AWI represent the internally calculated parameter
to allow the combustion duration of 31 degrees to cover the range of 10-90% which also will be
provided with a case depending variable named {BDUR}. Varying the 10-90% duration will
extend the total combustion duration, making the profile extend longer or compress shorter.
Varying the Wiebe exponent will shift the curve to burn mass earlier or later. WEXP refers to
the user-entered exponent [1]. Figure 8 shows the SI Wiebe combustion model in Wave and the
reference heat release rate [10]. The values used for now is based on tutorial values from Wave
for research purpose.

Figure 8 - SI Wiebe combustion model in Wave to the left and the reference heat release rate
to the right.

There are no sensors available for the SI Wiebe combustion sub-model but there are still avail-
able outputs such as average unburned and burned-zone temperatures, combustion fuel burn,
heat release rate and instantaneous combustion equivalence ratio. The available summaries are
timing of start of combustion, timing of any desired percentage and/or duration between any

22
two levels of fuel mass burned.

2.6 COMPLEX Y-JUNCTION

The complex Y-junction (collector) is a more flexible option to the simple Y-junction with more
possibility to control and adjust. The junction is a one cell massless representation in the flow
network and can be utilized to describe any type of merge or split of ducts. In this particular
case, port canals. The complex Y-junction shape is not required to be provided, this enable to
construct all shapes of junctions but is a rather complicated input to measure hence there is
some specific distances required for Wave to be able to approximately represent the junction.
By providing the number of ducts connected to the junction together with DELX, DIAB, pres-
sure, flow direction, duct shape, diameter and angle in between the ducts the matrix for the
system can be solved. The Y-junction diameter is required to be able to find local flow velocity
which effect the friction and heat transfer. E.g. a decrease in Y-junction diameter gives an
increase in heat transfer out of the Y-junction doe to increase in velocity for a given mass flow.
The characteristic length (DELX) values for the runner connections is the distance across the
sub volume in the direction of flow into the runner are internally calculated by Wave. DELX
is used to calculate the total distance travelled by the substance through the volume and are
calculated simular to the discretization length for ducts. By calculating the distance between
the two closest nodes which is the total flow length in figure 9 from opening A to opening B
through the volume the equation for discretization length Eq 20 can be used.

1 1
T otal f low length = ∗ DELX_A + DELX_B (20)
2 2

Figure 9 - A simple representation of Y-junction as defined2 .

2
Ricardo Software, 2010. WAVE Knowledge Centre

23
 In a simple Y-junction the expansion diameter (DIAB) used to determine area ratios for
flow losses entering and leaving the Y-junction is internally set equal to the Y-junction diameter
divided by 1.1 for each connected duct. The recommendation from Wave is to use simple Y-
junction when the junction geometry is spherical. The junctions in the KTM engine are spherical
but complex Y-junctions will still be used for increase in design options. Using the complex
Y-junction increase however the possibility of error and should therefore be used with caution.
It is possible to use the simple Y-junction value for DIAB by manually calculate it as Wave does
or optionally, enter the value ”auto”. By entering DIAB values equal to the duct diameters, no
expansion or contraction occurs. DIAB will be set to ”auto” in all simulations in this project.

2.7 PRESSURE WAVE REFLECTION IN DUCTS

Internal combustion engines can be equalised to a wave generator when it comes to pressure
waves [11], [12]. The downward motion of the piston (intake stroke) accelerates air through the
intake system of the engine. The air and/or air-fuel mixture gain kinetic energy during this
process. When the intake valve closes rapidly pressure are created due to the compressibility
of air. The pressure wave locked outside the plenum chamber due to the rapid closer of the
intake valve will result in a resonance occurring bouncing back and forth in the intake runner.
This ramming phenomenon can be used to fill up the cylinder. If this phenomenon is utilized
properly the return of the pressure wave towards the intake valve can be timed to arrive when
the intake valve is open. In that case a filling degree of more than 100% will accrue. In other
words, the cylinder chamber will be filled with air and the air pressure will be higher than the
atmospheric pressure effectively acting like a turbocharger. This phenomenon is always strived
towards, hence the amount of fuel possible to burn is a direct consequence of the number of air
molecules available in the cylinder at time for combustion.

The magnitude of the filling degree is depending of the diameter and length of the intake
runner, hence a bigger runner contain more air available to be set in motion. The filling degree
occures due to inertia of the air, requiring energy to brake the air in motion towards the cylinder.
Keep in mind that the pressure wave is not lost when reached the plenum side of the runner.
Pressure waves reflected from open ends are just as strong as from closed ends, except that the
sign are alternating between positive and negative. The ramming phenomenon can be timed by
the intake runner length which has a large influence on the engine performance. Changing the
intake runner length not only impact on power and torque but also at what rpm it peaks. As the
runner lengths are increased the tuning peak occurs at lower rpm. The intake runner length can
therefore be adjusted so that power and torque peaks at desired rpm. This can be contemplated
as the limitation of this technique since it only provides a benefit in a fairly narrow range of rpm.

24
Another parameter that affects this phenomenon is the diameter of the intake runner. By
decreasing the diameter of the intake runner the air speed is increased and as a consequence
more air can be forced into the combustion chamber. When deciding intake runner diameter it
is important to keep in mind that a smooth transition between the runner and intake port is
essential to eliminate the risk of having undesired turbulence between the components increases
the discharge coefficient. Since the same amount of air is set in motion depending only by
the cylinder volume and the downwards motion of the piston unregarded by the intake runner
geometry, a more narrow diameter will increase the friction between the air and the inside wall
of the intake runner. The extra energy required to set the same amount of air in motion but
with higher speed through the runner is taken from the energy source which is the downward
motion of the piston generating the low pressure. This is not to be neglected. Even though
the extra energy required to increase the speed of approximately one litre of air slightly is not
much, this has to be balanced with the benefits of increasing the air speed.

To optimum benefit from this phenomenon in practice it is essential to time the arrival of
the pressure wave by the so called ”80-90” rule. The term ”80-90” is to do with the camshaft
timing starting the process and where the piston is when the reflected pulse arrives (between 80
- 90 degrees after TDC during the intake stroke). To maximise the filling degree the pressure
wave have to be timed to arrive as the inlet flow is falling off, but the intake valve is still open,
to get that extra addition of air before the valve closes. To be able to tune the intake runner
length to time the arrival of the pressure wave the rpm for which the ramming phenomenon
is to be optimised for have to be decided and the duration of the intake valve and speed of
sound in air are required. An example calculation to understand the speed and location of the
pressure wave for later use can be seen in chapter 2.7.1.

2.7.1 EXAMPLE CALCULATION

*The engine speed for which the 2011 KTM 450 SX-F power peaks is 9500 rpm.
* The intake valve is open 220 degrees out of 720 degrees in total.
*Speed of sound in air at 30 degrees Celsius is 349.08 m ∗ s−1

The engine speed is required to be described in rps (revolution per second) as SI units is
preferred: 9500 rpm = 475
3
1
rps. This means that one revolution takes ( 473 )
s = 0.0063s and
3
500
the intake valve will remain closed for 720−220 = 500 degrees. Which is 360
= 1.38 revolutions.

The time it takes between when the valve closes and when it opens again is: 0.0063 ∗ 1.38 =
0.0088s. The wave moving at the speed of sound during that time will cover the distance of:
0.0088 ∗ 349.08 ≈ 3.075m before the intake valve opens again. Since the pressure wave has to

25
travel back and forth, the optimum length for the intake runner when it comes to using the
ramming phenomenon at 9500 rpm is half of the calculated length (≈ 1.538m). A runner length
of approximately 1.5m would be very difficult to fit in the car.

To address the ungainly size of the intake runner length required to utilize the ramming phe-
nomenon a solution is to shorten the runner length to exactly one fourth of the calculated
length. That will provide a runner length of 1.5375
4
= 0.3844m which is conveniently short
enough to incorporate the component within the envelope regulation for an FSAE car. If the
runner length is shorten to one forth, making it 0.3844m, the pressure wave will travel up and
down the pipe four times before the intake valve opens again. But it still arrives at the valve
at the same time. This is a way to shorten the intake runner and still get some benefit from
the pressure wave, preferred to as quarter wave resonator.

26
3 KTM STOCK ENGINE MEASUREMENTS AND SIM-
ULATION SETUP
The majority of data have been manually measured or provided by technical manuals from
KTM. These values are considered as known and was therefore set as constants. See appendix
A.10.2. Figure 10 shows the engine in the dynamometer room during test run which the simu-
lation measurements were taken from. The unknown values have undergone investigation and
appropriately determined.

Figure 10 - The KTM SX-F stock engine in the dynamometer room at Monash University.

Figure 11 and 12 describe the process of manually measuring components in the workshop
at Monash University hence there is no reference to refer to. A list of engine data that Wave
required to completely define the engine can be seen in table 2. This includes the cylinder head,
inlet and exhaust ports and all dimensions and characteristics associated with the actual engine
itself. The given dimensions are given in table 2.

27
 Table 2 - Important engine dimensions

• Bore
• Stroke
• Connecting rod lenght
• W rist pin of f set
• Compression ratio
• M echanical f riction detalis
• P ort f low coef f icients
• V alve diameters
• V alve event timings
• Cam prof iles
• P iston ring and cylinder liner f riction
• Orientation and size of piston top shapes
• W all temperature characteristics and transf er coef f icients
• Shape of the cylinder head, ports and combustion chamber
• P osition of valves in the combustion chamber and position of spark plug

Figure 11 - Example of port measurement.

28
Figure 12 - Schematic picture to illustrate some of the geometrical measurements.

3.1 DESIGN IN RICARDO WAVE

Before attempting to construct the KTM SX-F engine in Wave by adding components it was
required to provide the software with some general information. All units in the simulation
control were defined in the SI system with [mm] as the basic unit for length. The basic fuel
available in the FSAE Series is unleaded gasoline with octane rating of 93 (R+M)/2 (approx-
imately 98 RON)3 . Fuel in reality can vary in quality. The simulation was therefore operating
on a special laboratory fuel called indolene. The fuel has an equal amount of energy value
as 98 RON unleaded which is a liquid test fuel and should therefor correspond well to reality.
Some other preconstruction settings were the surrounding air composition which was set to 21%
oxygen and 79% nitrogen 4 , 5 [13]. As the general parameters was defined the next step was
to feed in geometric characteristics data as well as specify the initial and boundary conditions.
Figure 13 shows the stock engine as it looked on the canvas in Wave.

3
Society of Automotive Engineers, 2011 FSAE rules
4
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com
5
http://www.grc.nasa.gov

29
Figure 13 - The stock engine design on the canvas in Wave.

The connection from duct 4-5 and duct 6-7 in figure 13 to the cylinder junction was directly
connected to the valves. The two dots on the left side of the cylinder which duct 4-5 are at-
tached to are connected to the intake valves while the two dots on the right side of the cylinder
which duct 6-7 are attached to are connected to the exhaust valves

3.2 INTAKE
The ambient providing the engine with air via the air filter was as mentioned represented with
the composition of 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen. Figure 14 shows the input for the air intake.
The ”auto” diameter adjust automatically to the connected duct. Value of 1.0 [bar] and 300 [K]
and a composition of 100% fresh air represent the environment well. The discharge coefficient
[Cd ] was set to ”auto”. This was as the experiment in 3.1 showed providing the matrix with the
proper discharge coefficient.

Figure 14 - Air intake settings.

30
3.3 DUCTS
As mentioned in chapter 2.3 (discretization), lower discretization length has the advantage of
higher accuracy and the disadvantage of longer solving time. The discretization length for duct1
was set to 20 mm. This is a low discretization length. Since this is a one cylinder engine instead
of four the solving time was not an issue and it was affordable with a higher accuracy. The total
length of duct1 is 41.7 mm which is 2.85 times the discretization length. Wave automatically
divides the duct into 2 equal length of 20.85mm since 2 ∗ 20.85 correspond to the total length.
View figure 6 for further details.

The entire engine head is made of aluminium, therefor the roughness height for duct1 was
set to 1.5 µm, which is an average value for new aluminum6 [1]. Please see table in appendix
A.4 for roughness height of other metals. The discharge coefficient for the left and right end of
duct1 was set to ”auto” and also for all other orifice and ducts since automatic calculation of
the discharge coefficient has been proven trustworthy in chapter 2.1. Table 3 shows a brief list
of settings.

Table 3 - Settings for duct1

 


 Shape circular


W all f riction 1

 


 

 
W all heat transf er 1

 


 

Atmospheric pressure 1atm
 



 T emperature 300K  


W all temperature 300K

 


 

 
F resh air 1

 


Wall friction and wall heat transfer input is only multiplier of the standard calculation and
was set to one (1) since normal conditions applied. The atmospheric pressure and the sur-
rounding temperature have a great impact on the outcome and needed to be very accurate.
Wave default value for the atmospheric pressure is 0.986atm. The value of 1 atm was however
used instead. The atmospheric pressure chosen was an average from physics handbook and
physical geography7 [14]. The temperature of the inhaled air was more complex to set. The air
intake is located only centimetres away from the combustion chamber; it was most likely that
the intake air temperature flux several degrees during a single test run. For the simulation to
correspond accurately to the real engine it was set to 300K = 26.86C which is slightly above
6
www.engineeringtoolbox.com
7
www.physicalgeography.net

31
the initial air temperature in the dynamometer room. Strong ventilation in the dynamometer
helped to keep the intake air at room temperature.

Wave as can be seen in figure 15 is equipped with the options of circular and rectangular
shape for ducts. Duct 1 - 5 and 9 was set to circular and was provided with the diameter
measured from the KTM engine. Duct 6 - 8 however is elliptical. Since elliptical shape is not
optional in Wave this has to be compensated for. In the case when circular ducts have been
used the provided diameter was used to calculate the effective area. It is important to keep
in mind that Wave used the provided data to run the engine in one dimension. The shape of
the ducts chosen and the diameter was therefore only used to calculate the effective area. The
challenge of not being able to choose the correct shape of the ducts was choosing ”circular” and
manually calculating the circular diameter that provided the same effective area as the ellipse.
Duct and the duct measurements can be viewed in chapter 3.

32
Figure 15 - General input for duct1.

33
3.4 INJECTOR
Since there is an injector on duct1 to simulate a carburettor a brief analysis on the options for
injector was required. Wave has many injector types which may be used to model port fuel
injection. Each has a different method of specifying what values to use as inputs and what
values to calculate as outputs. The injector that was used, preferred to as a proportional type
injector. This injector has the option ”carb” built in which can help to simulate a carburettor,
see appendix A.6. The initial injection velocity was when set to "carb" representing the fuel
supply from a carburettor setting the instantaneous injection velocity equal to the local gas
flow velocity.

The carburettor type on the KTM SX-F engine is KEIHIN FCR-MX 41 which is a modern
41 mm flat slide carburettor. The recommended air/fuel ratio of 1/14.7 was set for the test
fuel indolene which as mentioned represents 98 RON well. Figure 16 shows a view through the
carburettor.

”The proportional type injector can connect to a duct or Y-junction flow element, but not
cylinder elements. A Proportional injector always inject enough fuel to the fluid stream to
match a targeted air-fuel ratio. This is the simplest type of injector and is very commonly
used.” [1].

Figure 16 - Picture of Duct1, throttle (which is almost completly open) and duct 2 . The picture
is taken from the engine side (duct 2).

34
3.5 CYLINDER
As outlined in theories of Chen-Flynn earlier in the report there was three options to get hold
of engine related constants for the purpose of friction correlation. Either by manual meas-
urement, use of recommended values from Wave or acquiring necessary data from the engine
manufacturer. Since the necessary data could not be obtained from the engine manufacturer
due to limited collaboration with KTM nor be manually measured due to limited equipment.
Recommended values from Wave was employed. The available database in Wave has a wide
range of engines. Recommended values for friction correlation from the most similar engine, a
400cc single cylinder four stroke SI engine was used which gives Acf = 0.3 bar, BCF = 0.005,
Ccf = 400 P a ∗ min/m and Qcf = 0.2 P a ∗ min2 /m2 .

The piston bowl depth and diameter, rim diameter and volume was set to zero since the cylinder
head is almost completely flat as can be seen in the cross-section view in figure 17 together with
the engine configuration and be read in the KTM engine specification manual. Data-sheet as
shown in KTM SX-F specification manual is provided in appendix A.3.

Figure 17 - Cross-section view of the KTM SX-F engine and the engine configuration setting
panel as shown in Wave.

35
3.6 VALVES
The reference diameter and the heat transfer diameter for the intake valves was set to 40.4 mm
and the exhaust valve to 31.7 mm as shown in figure 12. This value is typically the inner-seat
diameter D (view figure in appendix A.7). The valve lift profile describes the lift of the valve
vs. time. Time was in this case entered with respect to crank angle degrees.

The valve profile data has been manually gathered from the KTM SX-F as can be seen in
figure 18. The data was gathered while the engine was cold, therefore it was necessary to add
”hot lash”. The hot lash moves the entire valve lift curve down to simulate the thermal expan-
sion of the camshaft and valve when the engine was simulated to run hot. Wave automatically
take the user provided hot lash value in account when the engine is hot. Measuring the lash can
be done with a thickness gauge (see figure in appendix A.7). Recommended camshaft clearance
for this particular engine is between 0.07 - 0.13 mm for the intake valve when cold [15]. Through
experiment with different hot lash values in Wave 0.14 mm showed to be the minimum value
to close the valve completely, over a wider range when the engine was running hot. Therefore
the maximum recommended value from KTM of 0.13 mm clearance was used. This does not
mean that the intake valve was leaking by ignoring the last 0.01 mm since as can be viewed in
the table in figure 19 the intake valve was still completely closed during 150 degrees of the total
duration.

Figure 18 - The valve profiles were manually measured at Monash University.

36
 Recommended camshaft clearance for the exhaust valve is between 0.12 - 0.18 mm when
cold [15]. Through experiment with different hot lash values in Wave a hot lash value of 0.19
mm showed to be the minimum value to close the valve completely over a wider range when
the engine was running hot. Therefore the maximum recommended value from KTM of 0.18
mm clearance was exceeded with 0.01 mm since otherwise the exhaust valves would be leaking
during 150 degrees of duration. The leakage from the exhaust valves would occur during the
intake stroke. Therefore unlike the intake valves a hot lash value of 0.19 mm was used to prevent
the undesired leakage. See figure 19.

Whether it was most wisely to fully follow recommendations from KTM or not, required use
of common sense. In this case it was most likely that the valve lift was shifted by 0.01 mm
when measured. If this source of error was not compensated for, the error would multiply and
most likely prevent the simulated engine to fully correspond to the real engine. Exceeding the
tolerance with 0.01 mm for the hot lash for the exhaust valves was therefore a better option than
having the exhaust valves slightly open during part of the intake stroke. This compensation
was most likely to bring the simulation closer to reality since it was most unlikely that the real
engine was leaking. If the brand new 2011 KTM SX-F engine would have leaking valves the
dynamometer testing would have showed a decrease in power since the slightest valve leakage
have a great impact on the performance. The engine has been running on the dynamometer
several times so far and there was no sign of power loss comparing to the specification from
KTM.

37
 Figure 19 - Excel representation of the intake and exhaust valve lift profiles. The small
overlap between the intake and the exhaust valves enables a compression of 12.5:1 to be achieved.

38
4 STOCK ENGINE SIMULATION
The purpose of these first series of simulations was to verify that the gathered data produce a
simulation with comparable results to the real stock KTM SX-F engine by comparing simulation
output to dynamometer results. The comprehension of the simulations tested should generic-
ally be relative to the number of unknown parameters in need of being defined. The number
of parameters defining the engine in the simulation was depending on the number and type of
components. The number of parameters defining the KTM SX-F engine is 629 parameters in
total parameters where a vast majority was geometrical, environmental and material but also
details which specify how the software should gather data and the accuracy. Most of the focus
was on 154 of these values either due to their conditional nature in need of extra observation or
for research purpose required for later optimisation. 32 of these parameters was unknown and
therefore object for the first series of simulation.

The unknown parameters cannot be defined individually. Observation of one specific para-
meters impact on the output until the best value was boxed in does not mean that the current
value have the same impact if changes was made to another value due to parameters depending
on each other. Only a small number of sub equations are public for the user of the simulation
program and available for display. These few sub equations shows which parameters are de-
pending on each other and how. The limited knowledge of how the software utilise the provided
data eliminate the possibility to solve the matrix with tools like MatLab. The mathematical
but yet not optional solution would have required the matrix of 32 unknown parameters to be
solved in one go or in several steps depending on how the parameters interact.

The majority of the 32 unknown parameters are not abstract which makes it possible to get
a good understanding of their contribution, what other parameters they depend on and also
group them into different experiments. Another tool in the quest to minimize the unknowns
was the software provided default values. The default values give a good hint of where optimum
can be expected. It was however necessary to critically dispute the default values due to the
great difference between the topical engine and the average car engine the default values refers
to.

4.1 KTM SX-F POWER AND TORQUE REFERENCE

The simulation of the KTM SX-F engine was compared and questioned with respect to the real
engine. The trustworthiness was determined as a direct result of how well the power and torque
curve from the simulation fitted the recognized output, see figure 20. The power and torque
graphs available from the dynamometer was unfortunately limited in several considerations and

39
new data cannot be gathered due to extended reconstruction of the engine available. An effort
to maximize the usage of the provided dynamometer results was instead carried out. The ref-
erence graphs was based on two dynamometer runs in second gear, third gear and also graphs
provided by KTM them self. The KTM provided power and torque graphs represented output
by the wheel and therefore only served as a reference of behaviour in case of any irregularity
between the two runs on the dynamometer done by Monash Motorsport could be spotted. Un-
fortunately result from the two runs on the dynamometer was only sampled between 4000 -
11000 rpm in 500 rpm steps. There was however an desire to run the simulations throughout
the entire rpm range from 1000 - 12000 rpm in steps of 250 rpm for increased resolution of
behaviour. The missing data at speeds below 4000 rpm was extrapolated. Speeds between
11000 - 12000 rpm was too uncertain to extrapolate and was therefore not extrapolated but
rather set to distinctly change pattern to easy be spotted as uninteresting reference. The gaps
in between known rpm steps was set to average of known values. This was performed so the
dynamometer results with the resolution of 500 rpm steps have the same number of reference
points as the simulation.

Figure 20 - Dynamometer power and torque graphs with 2nd and 3rd gear.

The two runs on the dynamometer on second and third gear follows the same pattern through-
out the rpm range accept at 6000 rpm with the second gear where an unexpected instant drop
in power and torque can be noticed by comparing the two graphs. The sudden irregularity of
behaviour does not exsist in the third gear run nor in the graphs provided by KTM figure 21
and was therefore compensated for. Note that the reference points right before and after 6000

40
rpm are the result of average from known values and therefore gives the illusion of the value
at 6000 rpm being possible. By erasing the faulty value att 6000 rpm and replace it with the
average value from 5500 rpm and 6500 rpm an more likely reference point was created. The
gap between the known values was too big but the behaviour approximated by calculating the
average was supported by the third gear dynamometer run and the engine manufacturer.

Figure 21 - Dynamometer power and torque graph from KTM. The more powerful engine is the
topical KTM 450 SX-F. The less powerful engine can be disregarded.

The graph in figure 22 served as the reference power and torque output. Extrapolated be-
low 4000 rpm, average values to increase the reference point to cover every 250 rpm step and a
straight line after 11000 rpm to note the last confirmed reference point was the 11000 rpm point.

41
Figure 22 - The custom made reference power and torque graphs.

4.2 SIMULATION ARRANGEMENT

To manually find the missing values which fully define the KTM simulation engine a database
with judgment samples was required. Since half of the sought values are temperature, pressure
and wall heat transfer multipliers of different components all test engines run in three different
conditions named Hot, Cold and Exp. Hot and Cold consider the two steady-state temperat-
ures of the engine which was operating and room temperature. Note that stady-state operating
temperature are the most interesting one while the cold runs are more used as reference to ob-
serve the impact of operating temperature hence risk and possibility of improved cooling. The
primarily purpose of the runs named ”Exp” was to investigates wall heat transfer multipliers
and was set to be 50% higher than the ”Hot” and ”Cold” runs which was running on default
wall heat transfer multipliers on all components. The secondary purpose of the Exp runs are
to extend the range each parameter are tested. For consistency all engines with the same mark
Hot, Cold and Exp was running with the same temperature, pressure and wall heat transfer
multiplier.

The experimental ”Exp” version can however differ from simulation to simulation and con-

42
tributes to the database by showing what can be gained or lost if particular condition that in
the present condition was less likely to occur and are designed to give a wider picture, new ideas
and warnings.

4.3 DESIGN OF TESTS

As earlier mentioned, most of the unknown parameters are figurative. There was therefore
no need to cover the entire absolute range of each parameter in search of value comporting
with reality. All known parameters was considered as constants throughout all tests. The test
groups was named Engine1 - 9 where each group covered experiments of variables that are
most likely to depend on each other. The number of subgroups and number of tests of each
subgroup depending on the number of unknown parameters in the group and the range each
value had to be tested for to cover the most likely correct value. The Exp tests will increase
the probability of covering correct value in the experiments. Even though this only can be
considered as sample tests, increasing the number of tests and keeping them in area where to
most likely correct values might be hidden was with available time and resources the best option.

The implementation of the sample tests was operated systematically rather than randomly.
By pre-studying default values and example engines provided by the software manufacture,
each parameter was at first be set most likely to correspond to the KTM engine and compared
to runs with a couple of slightly and significantly higher and lower values. This was done for
parameters individually and in their specific groups which make it possible to notice if the out-
put was moving towards or further away from optimum by comparison with the dynamometer
results as preference.

4.4 PREPARATION OF SIMULATION

Before running the simulation in Wave and exceeding to WavePost for analysis, it was necessary
to setup how the engine was supposed to run in terms of speed, load and what data we which
Wave to sample and how to sample. The objective was to have the simulated and real engine
performing identical runs with identical output before trying to improve the simulated engine
and use it as a reference for the real engine. The simulation therefore correspond to how the
real engine was being tested on the dynamometer.

The engine speed was sweeping through from 1000 to 12000 rpm in 250 rpm incline steps
to simulate multiple steady-state test points in one speed sweep. Wave recommends the op-
posite since decreasing instead of increasing benefits by increasing the possibility of finding any
problems with the general setup earlier when running the simulation. This is due to the higher

43
number of cycles run per seconds at higher rpm [1]. The advantage of running the simulations in
increasing rpm order was however more in this particular case since the results when exported
to excel was not requiring transposing. One simulation takes approximately 20 seconds to run
with all 45 cases hence the time loss if a simulation fails are neglect able in this case. To be
able to run more than one rpm case in a single run it was necessary to replace the steady state
engine speed with a variable. The variable {SPEED} was implemented and specified to run
45 different cases, one case for each rpm step. Each case also contains rpm related values such
as combustion duration and position of 50% burn point in respect to position of piston and
also temperatures for different components. For complete details about rpm related parameters
utilized please see appendix A.9 and the theory behind them in chapter 2.5. Wave does not
put any difference between if the engine inclines or decline in rpm. The system was solved as
45 individual steady-state cases.

The simulation duration was set to 30 cycles. This relative high number was preferred since
auto-convergence stopped the simulation as soon as the engine converge and was specified in
order to assure that each output value tested reached a converged steady-state input value.
The convergence boundary was set to abort the simulation if it converges within 1% for one
cycle within the tolerance of ±1.0 ∗ 10−7 %. If the number of engine cycles to run was set to
low there was an immediate risk of the simulation being aborted before all valuable behaviour
of the engine was gathered.

4.5 RUNNING SIMULATIONS

It was of interest to compare the pressure and temperature in the exhaust port and compare it
to the conditions in the intake port. Therefore data for intake and exhaust ports was connected
on the same plot in Wave. Pressure and temperature plots was being requested to be plotted
and connected for duct 3, 9 and 6, 7. This enables comparison between the same distance
before and after the cylinder. Se appendix A.7 (connected data) Time plots can be created
which represent the engine cylinder, crankshaft and general overall engine behaviour.

To be able to do some more advanced post-processing analysis and find any deviation from
preferred/normal behaviour, velocity and volumetric flow through the entire network of engine
components was requested to be sampled. This is beyond earlier mentioned sampling of data.
Also since the tolerance of hot lash for the exhaust valves was trespassed with 0.01 mm in
regards to recommendation from KTM (appendix A.3) there was a great interest in requesting
datasets that can revile leakage or timing problem from the valves. This was done by adding
discharge coefficient (chapter 2.1), flow coefficient and lift over diameter (appendix A.7) to the
requested datasets.

44
Wave automatically creates requested plots at the end of each simulation. Pressure and tem-
perature was being sampled from all cells of duct 3, 6, 8 and 9. The other available ducts
was either identical with one of the sampled ones or of no interest to be sampled. Please see
delimitations in chapter 1.4. Visually it might seem like the data was gathered from the mid
point of the ducts but this is not the case. It is possible to enter custom locations which are
specific locations in the selected duct where plots gather their data from. Locations are defined
by a normalized value from zero to one (left end of duct is 0, middle of duct is 0.5, right end of
duct is 1). The number of locations for which data can be collected from is controlled by the
number of cells which was set with the discretization length decided when the particular duct
was created. Duct 6 for example has an overall length of 70.2 mm and the discretization length
of 20 mm (chapter 2.3). Meaning that there was four different location on the duct that Wave
solved for e.g. data was collected from. The accuracy of number of cells should be utilised,
otherwise there was no point in increasing the solving time by splitting the cells. The position
from which data was requested from one of the intake ducts (duct6) is the midpoint if each one
of the four cells, position 0.125, 0.375, 0.625 and 0.875.

The model was at this stage ready to run through an input check and was set to create the
requested data for post-processing. Figure 23 shows the end of the engine run log on the
right hand side of the engine. The log was printed in real-time to examine and a output file
was also printed with the fully detailed log. The log was an important source of information
for troubleshooting the simulation. Simple informational messages starts with I***, warning
messages with W** and finally, failure message which cause Wave to abort the simulation are
marked with F***.

45
Figure 23 - A screen shot of Wave work environment to the left and the engine run log on the
right hand side of the engine which is printed in real-time.

46
5 RECONSTRUCTION OF SIMULATION ENGINE TO
PREDICT THE BEST RACE ENGINE CONFIGUR-
ATION
The simulation engine was completed and verified to correspond well to the stock KTM SX-F
engine. The theoretical engine can at this stage be put under experiments to utilize how the real
engine can be improved when restricted to follow the FSAE regulation. This part of the project
was most crucial to be operated with caution. The adjustments that was performed changing
the simulation engine from stock to correspond to the future race engine for improvement stud-
ies was harder to confirm if it was done properly or not due to usage of research geometry
specific for Monash Motorsport. The stock engine was at this stage of the project undergoing
massive changes where the purpose of this and the next chapter was to provide Monash Mo-
torsport with vital predictions regarding upcoming results. Consequently the simulation did
not have any real results as reference compared to the dynamometer output in previous chapter.

The new components added to the engine was partly custom-made and partly sponsored, which
includes air filter, throttle body, restrictor, runner, plenum chamber, injector, bell-mouths and
the entire exhaust system. The geometry and configurations of the new components are already
established by different team members within their area of responsibility. It is highly complex
to compile and configure components in respect to the rest of the system due to the need to map
out the behaviour of depending components. The uncertainly are countered with experiments
and the component are made adjustable for increased option of settings.

To translate these conditions and approach the task from an engineering and engine simulation
point of view. The new components geometry and optimum configuration can be considered as
unknown while the geometry and configuration chosen by the team can be utilised as benchmark
while running the simulations. By choosing this approach, knowledge and experience gained in
previous chapter can be implemented in respect of execution. The unknown in previous chapter
are at this stage determined and can be considered as constants which makes it possible to run
new experiments to find optimum for the new conditions.

This part of the project can be considered as the ultimate qualitative test of the simulation. The
results from this chapter provided vital information to the team and most likely influence the
scope of engine simulation in Monash Motorsport in future years to come. It is most crucial for
the team to get access to the results from the simulations during an early stage of development
for the simulation to have maximum utility value. It is an urbane concept of success to at an
early stage obtain simulation results. It is most common that these types of project get very

47
stressful at the end due to unexpected time consuming hinder. Simulation results which shorten
the development stage can be crucial for meeting the deadline. The quality and utility value of
the simulation results was at the final stage of this project confirmed with dynamometer results
by the real engine. The real engine versus the simulation model can be seen in figure 24.

5.1 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE INTAKE SYSTEM WITH CUS-

TOM MADE COMPONENTS

Figure 24 - To the left, the real KTM SX-F with the new custom made intake system and to
the right the corresponding simulation model.

The restrictor was determined in both shape and geometry and was based on Stephen Leach
FYP Report from 2009 [16]. The Plenum was designed by the Monash Motorsport team mem-
ber George Kariotakis for this year and is completely round and adjustable in volume from 1.8
- 4.9 l with 0.3 l increments, see appendix A.10.3. A runner was placed between the plenum
and the engine head. The runner length was another geometry relevant for testing. It was
however not adjustable but can easily be remade. The geometries on the provisional custom
made components was considered as benchmark.

For more details regarding the custom made components please see appendix A.10.2.

5.2 SIMULATION ARRANGEMENT

The new components relevant for simulation are the plenum, bell-mouths and runner. The
components was at the first stage added with benchmark geometry in place on all components
and individually be tested over a range of different geometry to map out the behaviour affected
by each particular part. This helped to narrow the range of possible optimum for each com-

48
ponent. To complete the map, all new components was running experiments at a later stage
simultaneously within a more narrow range to determine how the new components contribute
to the complete system hence find global optimums.

5.3 DESIGN OF TESTS

To fully investigate the contribution of each new part, one engine was made for every compon-
ent making it easier to perform individual research and creating a database for future use. All
was based on Engine1 Hot which represent the KTM SX-F engine best, see chapter 4.2 and
appendix A.11.1 for details regarding Engine1 Hot. The individual tests can be seen in table 4.

Table 4 - Test plan for individual components

Component Benchmark geometry M in M ax Increment

Runner lenght [mm] 150 100 240 10
plenum size [l] 2.562 1.767 4.948 0.265
bellmouths [mm] 0.75 0 1 0.1

During the individual testing when all custom made components was added simultaneously
Engine1 Hot represented how the first Monash Motorsport race engine for 2011 was presented.

5.4 PREPARATION
Before running the simulation in Wave and exceeding to WavePost for analysis, it was necessary
to setup how the engine was supposed to run in terms of speed, load and what data was topical
for Wave to sample and how to sample. The information of interest was those who can be
verified by the real race engine at a later stage in the project. From the new intake system
as stated earlier, runner length, bell-mouths and plenum volume was particularly interesting
to simulate since there was no previous tests for these while air filter, throttle, restrictor and
diffuser have been widely investigated previous years and the geometry for thous are overall
determined and therefore of low priority in this project.

The engine speed was sweeping from 1000 - 12000 rpm in 250 rpm increments to simulate
multiple steady-state test points in one speed sweep just like in previous tests. Each steady-
state test point has its own case which implies 45 cases in total. For more details regarding
what data each case contains please see appendix A.9 and the theory behind them in chapter
2.

49
5.5 RUNNING SIMULATIONS FOR INDIVIDUAL TESTING
Maximum power and torque within the range of 7000 - 11000 rpm was the criteria for which
the different components was judged. The limited rpm range of interest was due to the interval
of rpm when driving. It was also necessary to limit the rpm range of maximum interest since
different geometries are optimum within different rpm range.

Before proceeding to run geometrical experiments on relevant components it was of interest

to observe how the components behave with benchmark values in place. The purpose of the
plenum chamber was to create a buffer of air to consequently decrease the negative impact of
the restrictor required to compete in FSAE. During the individual testing when the custom
made components where added one at the time the restrictor where tested without the plenum
and vice versa, the plenum where added while the restrictor where removed and eventually both
added simultaneously. It was expected and confirmed that the plenum chamber decreased the
negative flow through the restrictor and provided a more even power and torque curve. An
interesting unexpected behaviour was however noticed, the plenum chamber only in affiliation
with the restrictor was only beneficial. The power and torque behaviour over the rpm range
showed a better behaviour than when the plenum was added without the restrictor.

As can be seen in graph 25, the restrictor really unstable the power and torque if added without
the plenum. This behaviour adds credibility to the simulation hence this behaviour was expec-
ted. It is impressive how good results are produced when the restrictor and plenum was added
to the engine simultaneously. The plenum erases the negative impact of the restrictor effect-
ively. Some power and torque are lost on average over the entire rpm range but not as much
as expected. Testing the components in this matters and forming an understanding of how the
components affect the engine was valuable to later on interpret the results for further tests.
There was no purpose in optimising the simulation and offering recommendations if there was
something wrong with the simulation at this stage.

50
Figure 25 - Simulation test results for custom made components.

Note how the simulation reacts with only the plenum or restrictor added and also that the
configuration, plenum & restrictor produce more power and torque than the stock unrestricted
engine at 11000 rpm.

5.5.1 RUNNER LENGTH

A benchmark length for the runner of 150 mm was in place on the real engine. The limits
for runner length simulated was due to possibility to install that particular runner on the real
engine. The runner was equipped with an injector with the angle of 20 degrees. The injector
and the connection makes it difficult to shorten the runner much more than it already was. The
length of the runner was however simulated for every 10 mm between 100 - 240 mm as can be
seen in table 4.

5.5.2 PLENUM VOLUME

The plenum chamber affects the engine in many ways. To run simulations and obtain results
which recommendations regarding the plenum volume can be based on requires that signific-
ant amount parameters are deliberated. The power and torque are two significant parameters
that are affected by the plenum volume, especially in this case where the air intake are restric-
ted. The three investigated options which can be seen in figure 26 are the horizontal, vertical
and spherical plenum chambers. The chosen shape was the spherical plenum chamber and
as phrased by George: ”This concept is more complex and is limited to the materials to be
made out of. It does however have the advantages of being smooth with no sharp edges to

51
hinder flow and possess the ability to change the runner and restrictor angles making it easy to
package in the car. It also has the advantage of being spherical shaped which provides excel-
lent strength, this was crucial when the final intake was to be manufactured as light as possible.”

Briefly the chosen plenum was based on two half of a sphere where middle sections can be
added to increase the volume. With no middle sections the plenum has the smallest possible
volume of 1.767 l and each additional middle section increase the volume by 0.265 l. The total
number of volume increasing middle sections is 12, giving the adjustability of 0 to 12, totally
13 different volumes which when all in place gives a volume of 4.948 l. The spherical shape of
the plenum, adjustability and range has been chosen by team member George Kariotakis to be
the best option based on research. The simulations of plenum volume aim to investigate what
number of middle sections provides the best results based on criteria of power/torque, throttle
response and volumetric flow through the restrictor. By studying all 13 possible volumes for all
criteria the best compromised results was searched for.

Figure 26 - Different shape-options for plenum chamber.

The throttle response was affected by the plenum volume and therefore tested by switching
from closed to full throttle for all plenum volumes at 1000 and 5000 rpm. The criteria looked
at was the time it takes for the engine to react and speed up to 12000 rpm.

Since the restrictor heavily limit the airflow to the engine the criteria was also to map out
how the plenum volume effect the flow through the restrictor. The aim was to optimum utilize
the small passage for air through the restrictor hence a high flow is preferable. When the intake
valve closes a pulse of compressed air bounces back through the runner, plenum and eventually
through the restrictor creating a low pressure in the intake system. By increasing the plenum
volume this can be prevented. The buffer of air created in the plenum can help to prevent
the negative flow. Wave is equipped with a highly useful and pedagogic feature to study this
behaviour by running animations.

52
5.5.3 BELL-MOUTH
Different shape of the bell-mouths was simulated with help of the discharge coefficient. These
features are built in the software and was therefore very straight forward to use. As can be seen
in picture 27 and be read about in chapter 2.1 the discharge coefficient is a number between 0
– 1 representing the smoothness in flow, hence square/bell-mouth transition. Unsymmetrical
shapes was also addressed. Meaning that the discharge coefficient between diffuser-plenum and
plenum-runner was set to different values. The purpose was to investigate more closely how the
two transitions affect the engine individually. When changing two parameters at once it was
not possible to know for sure the contribution of each parameter. Therefore each transition was
changed individually.

Figure 27 - The duct panel for the diffuser as shown in Wave.

53
6 RESULTS FROM POST-PROCESSING
The quality and utlility value of the simulation results in this chapter will at the final stage of
this project be confirmed by the real engine by comparison with the produced results from the
dynamometer.

6.1 STOCK ENGINE SIMULATION

The total number of tests could not be predicted due to unawareness if the parameters tested
individually and in group follow a certain pattern or not. Each setup could not be recorded
in detail but rather noted due to the high number of simulations of 264. Detailed notes were
only taken for the particular interesting simulations limiting the data gathered from the exper-
imental simulations to the area of interest. When the pattern of the individual and grouped
parameters was estimated a new subgroup was created to confirm the behaviour and observed
optimum. The number of graphs saved with log of setup varies from 3 to 60. Each line rep-
resents one engine setup and each engine has been sampled three times Hot, Cold and Exp.
The 65 best results in respect to different parameters and parameter groups can be viewed in
appendix A.10.1. In table 5 a short summary of the settings can be viewed and in figure 27 the
best engine (Engine1) can be seen. Engine1 is the result of the substantial research of all the
earlier mentioned parameters individually and in group implemented in one engine.

Table 5 - Short summary of the engine simulation settings

Intake T emperature [K] 300 Intake and Ehaust V alve Lif t M ultiplier 1
F luid pressure duct1 − 5 [bar] 0.986923 Intake Angle T ype Cam
Duct1 − 9 W all Heat transf er M ultiplier 1 Intake and Exhaust V alve F low Coef f icient P rof ile CF T Y P
Duct3 T emperature [K] 300 Exhaust V alve Anchors Cycle [deg] 0
Duct3 W all T emperature [K] 300 Exhaust V alve Duration M ultiplier 1
Y − Junction1 Initial F luid T emperature 320 Exhaust Angle T ype Cam
Y − Junction1 W all T emperature [K] 350 Duct6 − 7 F luid pressure [bar] 1.03627
Duct4 − 5 T emperature [K] 330 Duct6 − 7 T emperature [K] 1000
Duct4 − 5 W all T emperature [K] 400 Duct6 − 7 W all T emperature [K] 500
Engine F riction Correlation ACF [µ] 0.35 Y − Junction2 Initial F luid T emperature 900
Engine F riction Correlation BCF [µ] 0.005 Duct8 − 9 F luidpressure [bar] 1.03627
Engine F riction Correlation CCF [µ] 400 Duct8 T emperature [K] 950
Engine F riction Correlation QCF [µ] 0.2 Duct8 W all T emperature [K] 550
Intake V alve Anchors Cycle [deg] 0 Duct9 T emperature [K] 900
Intake V alve Duration M ultiplier 1 Duct9 W all T emperature [K] 700
Intake V alve Lash [mm] 0.3 Exhaust T emperature [K] 600

54
Figure 27 - Comparison between the developed reference and simulation graphs.

As earlier mentioned 11000 rpm is the last reference point hence the simulation output between
11000 - 12000 rpm was taken in respect but not compared to and put effort to fit the reference
graph.

6.2 RACE ENGINE RUNNER LENGTH

The optimum runner length is not univocal but depending on what rpm range is valued. As
can be seen in Figure 28 and in appendix A.10.4 where all different runner length tested are
presented, the characteristics of the power and torque over the rpm range changes. A swing
point at 9000 rpm has been noticed were longer runner rotates the graph clockwise and shorter
runners anticlockwise. Unfortunately our driving range covers the swing point, forcing the op-
timum chosen runner length to be a compromise of more power below or over 9000 rpm.

55
Figure 28 - Simulation results for 100, 150, 200 and 240mm runner length.

6.3 RACE ENGINE PLENUM VOLUME

The more number of middle sections the more power the engine produces between 5000 - 11000
rpm. The reason this statement does not cover engine speed below 5000 or over 11000 rpm
has to do with the behaviour below 5000 rpm are not linear. Please see graphs in figure 29
and appendix A.10.5. The more number of middle sections the less impacts each additional
middle section have. The graphs almost overlap when the numbers of middle sections surpass
3. This means that 4 - 12 middle sections increase the power marginally while 0 - 3 middle
sections makes more difference. Another impact the increased plenum volume has is that the
peak power are reached at a lower rpm and are decreasing. To best grasp what the change in
plenum volume does to the power and torque please view the Max-Min graphs in figure 29 and
appendix A.10.5. Even though the power are minimal affected by the plenum volume the torque
at 7000 rpm differs with 8 Nm. The engine produces 38 Nm without any middle sections and
increases the torque with each additional middle section up to 46 Nm, all at 7000 rpm which
gives the biggest difference. The conclusion is that maximum plenum volume is to prefer if only
maximum power and torque are parameters of interest while packaging and throttle response
are ignored.

56
Figure 29 - Simulation results for 0, 3 and 12 middle sections which represent 1.77, 2.56 and
4.95 l plenum volume.

Since smaller plenum is preferred when it comes to packaging the power and torque gained
for each additional middle section should be taken in respect to the possibility to fit the plenum.

These results confirm that bigger plenum improve performance when the restrictor are ad-
ded and also help to define the power/torque to plenum volume ratio.

The throttle response was tested for all plenum volumes at 1000 and 5000 rpm. The res-
ults from these tests can be seen in appendix A.10.5 and are unfortunately contradictive. The
throttle response tests are designed to go from closed to full throttle at specific rpm and meas-
ures the time it takes for the engine speed to rush up to 12000 rpm. The maximum spool
up time differed by 0.5 s at the 1000 rpm throttle test. The simulations however fail to show
a certain univocal pattern. The number of spacer used for altering the plenum volume is as
mentioned 12 in total. The number of middle sections in order from faster to slower throttle
response is 0, 9, 11, 10, 1, 3, 8, 7, 12, 6, 5, 4 and 2 middle sections. The throttle response
pattern when going full throttle at 5000 rpm listing the number of middle sections in the order
from faster to slower response is 7, 5, 6, 0, 2, 1, 8, 11, 3, 10, 9, 4 and 12. At the 5000 rpm
throttle test, the maximum spool up time differed by 1.4 s.

57
Figure 30 - Simulation results for throttle response test at 1000 rpm.

The throttle response graphs in figure 30 represent 0, 3 and 12 middle sections. 0 and 12
represent the extremes and 3 middle sections represent the benchmark value as this is the
number of middle sections mounted on the plenum on the real engine on the dynamometer.
The obvious pattern of faster throttle response with smaller plenum is the reasonable outcome
and is clearly shown in figure 30. This distinct pattern are however vague when all plenum
volume throttle responses are plotted simultaneously. The knowledge gained with this outcome
from which recommendations will be based on is that the smaller plenum chamber will improve
throttle response but some of the volumes gives an unexpected fast/slow throttle response this
motivates that not only the volume effects the response but also the resonance. For throttle
response of all plenum volumes at 1000 and 5000 rpm please see appendix A.10.5.

The bigger the plenum volume is made, less negative flow through the restrictor there is and
the flow as a direct consequence are also transported more evenly through the restrictor which
is preferable. Below you can see a screen shot from the real time animation.

All topical plenum volumes have been animated where each animation contain one of total
13 different plenum volumes. Each animation show volumetric flow vs distance as a real time
operation showing how fast all fluids move through the entire system hence direction and mag-
nitude of airflow. By observing animation of different plenum volume it can be noticed that
a greater buffer of air created by a bigger plenum chamber decrease the tendance of negative
flow through the restrictor. Figure 31 is a screen shot of the animation representing a plenum

58
volume of 3.89 l which is the smallest plenum with only positive flow through the restrictor at
all time.

Figure 31 - Screen shot of the volumetric flow animation representing a plenum volume of 3.89
l.

6.4 RACE ENGINE BELL-MOUTHS

The results clearly states that the smoother the bell-mouth is the more power and torque
are gained due to less disruption to airflow. The discharge coefficient in Wave represents the
smoothness, hence 0.1 represent an almost perfect square mouth while 0.9 represent an almost
perfect bell-mouth. While looking at the power graph, it can be noticed that even if the bell-
mouth are far away from perfect it still make a great difference. The power increases by 10
hp when the discharge coefficient is changed from 0.1 to 0.2 but only increase by 3.5 hp when
the discharge is increased from 0.2 to 0.3. The same pattern continues all the way to an al-
most perfect bell-mouth at 0.9. The extremes (0.0 and 1.0) are excluded due to the unrealistic
nature. By experimenting with different discharge coefficients at the restrictor side and runner
side it was discovered that it is more important with a high discharge coefficient (bell-mouth)
on the restrictor side of the plenum than the runner side. This behaviour can be explained with
the great majority of positive flow from the ambient through the intake system towards the
combustion chamber. The results for this are included in the same graphs as the symmetrical

59
tests in figure 32 and are named ”Restrictor discharge 0.1 runner discharge 0.9” and ”Restrictor
discharge 0.9 runner discharge 0.1”.

Figure 32 - Simulation results for bell-mouths.

60
7 FINAL OPTIMISATION
All new components was added simultaneously in this chapter, the components previous indi-
vidually optimised have to perform well together. The reconstruction of a simulation engine
for race and the tests to find optimum runner length, plenum volume and the impact of high
discharge coefficient for the bell-mouths provided a good fundamental understanding of how the
engine is affected by individual geometry. At this stage the different geometries can be tested
versus each other to find the global optimum. By doing so the aim is to answer the question of
what plenum volume and runner length are optimum for this engine and these driving conditions.

Since longer runner are prefer able if the engine speed range of peak power are below 9000
rpm and shorter runner length are prefer able if the rpm range for peak power are for higher
rpm the optimum runner length for this particular engine that during competition are mostly
driven between 7000 - 11000 rpm is 170 mm. The benchmark length of 150 mm runner length
is an acceptable compromise between high powers over the driving rpm range. Since this is 20
mm shorter than the optimum runner length for the racing engine speed range this will benefit
if the engine speed drops below 7000 rpm and disadvantageous if the engine are over revving.

Plenum volume is most complex to optimise. If the plenum is too small it will not be able
to buffer enough air hence not preventing the starvation of air optimally. On the other hand a
big plenum volume will cause slow throttle response due to the large volume of air available for
the engine to burn on the engine side of the throttle. As two revolutions will consume 450cc of
air assuming 100 % volumetric efficiency it may take some amount of time before the engine
actually start starving on air and drops in rpm. This can result in a significant loss in throttle
response and hence driveability. Unfortunately the reverse applies for open throttle as well.
During race condition it is essential that the power is there immediately.

Optimum plenum volume is depending on elements of flow through the restrictor, packaging,
throttle response and power/torque. The non-linear pattern between plenum volume and
throttle response motivates research of wave resonance of the intake system. Since no data
regarding wave resonance for this particular intake system is available at the moment the re-
commendation to the team is not to assume that a bigger plenum volume for sure decreases the
throttle response. The non-linear relation between plenum volume and throttle response can be
contemplated as experimental results of what number of middle sections that will synchronise
and provide a better resonance at a particular range of rpm. 7 middle sections is most likely to
be the best compromise, creating a plenum volume of 3.89 l. It provides a relative big plenum
volume, decreasing the negative flow through the restrictor and do provide a large buffer of air
after the restrictor. The graphs of all throttle response shows that this particular number of

61
middle sections gives a good throttle response, (most likely due to resonance). When it comes
to packaging, 7 middle sections are an in between size and should therefore be able to fit within
the envelope regulation for the car. The power and torque results for all number of middle
sections clearly advise a big plenum chamber. The power and torque gained of choosing 12
middle sections instead of 7 are however neglect able (< 5%) (See results in appendix)

62
8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A recurring scenario throughout the project has been regarding the three options to get hold of
data as input. Either using recommended values from Wave, measuring manually or receiving
data from the engine manufacture. Some of the measurement is extremely hard to measure
without proper equipment. Smallest error in measurement can have a great impact on the
output lowering the standard of the simulation and therefore in need to be verified. Which
of the three options to get hold of required data have to be picked should be with respect of
area of use. Since this model will be used as foundation for optimising the Monash Motorsport
FSAE engine it is necessary to take safety and quality measure. The most complicated data
have therefore been determined as too unsafe to collect manually. Recommended value from
Wave have as the best available option been applied If the measurements were not provided by
the engine manufacture (KTM). In-cylinder temperatures are for example rarely measured but
typical values are listed in Wave together with a range of typical operating temperatures for
various parts of the engine.

The runner length should either be kept as 150 mm or be lengthen to 170 mm to even more
benefit power between 7000 - 11000 rpm which is the most used rpm range8 . There are be-
nefits with keeping the runner length as it is since this save time from building a new runner
and also benefits if the rpm at any time during race surpass 11000 rpm hence shorter runner
benefits higher engine speed. If the chance of revving the engine over 11000 rpm exist, it is up
to the team to base on criteria and possibility to build a new runner decide to either keep the
runner as it is or build a longer one. Runner length is not recommended to be shortening for
neither stock nor race configuration of the engine since the current 150 mm runner length is short
enough to benefit engine speeds up to 11250 rpm. This is 250 rpm higher than usage rpm range.

When it comes to plenum volume, smaller plenum chamber will improve throttle response
but some of the volumes gives an unexpected fast/slow throttle response hence not only the
volume effects the response but also the resonance. The plenum should be built with 7 middle
sections, creating a volume of 3.623 l. This particular volume has experimentally with simu-
lation proven to perform well. This is a good compromise with respect to throttle response,
packaging and performance. Each additional middle section increase the power and torque less
than the previous added one and do so nonlinearly which further motivates not adding more
than 7 middle sections.

Results for bell-mouth advice that a high discharge coefficient is preferable meaning the smoother
the bell-mouth are the more power and torque is gained due to less disruption to airflow. The
8
Monash Motorsport

63
recommendation is therefore to include bell-mouths in both the transition between the diffuser
to plenum and also from plenum to the runner. Even small changes to go from an edge to a
bell-mouth will make great difference hence the relationship between discharge coefficient and
power proven by the simulations is not linear. The power increases by 10 hp when the discharge
coefficient is changed from 0.1 to 0.2 but only increase by 3.5 hp when the discharge is increased
from 0.2 to 0.3. The same pattern continues all the way to an almost perfect bell-mouth at
0.9. The extremes (0.0 and 1.0) as mentioned in the results are excluded due to the unrealistic
nature. The experimenting with different discharge coefficients at the restrictor side and runner
side proved that the impact differs from these two locations. It is beneficial to have a high
discharge coefficient on both side of the plenum. It makes however more of a difference on the
restrictor side of the plenum smoothening the flow through the engine than the runner side.
This behaviour is expected due to the direction of airflow.

64
9 REFERENCES
[1] Ricardo Software, WAVE Knowledge Centre, 2010.

[2] Rohde, S. M. "A Mixed Friction Model for Dynamically Loaded Contacts with Applica-
tion to Piston Ring Lubrication". Proceedings of the 7th Leeds-Lyon Symposium on Tribology
1980

[3] Heywood, J.B.: Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. McGraw Hill, 1988

[4] Annand, W. J. D. "Heat Transfer in the Cylinders of Reciprocating Internal Combustion

Engines". Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Vol. 177, 1963

[5] Woschni, "A universally applicable equation for the instantaneous heat transfer coefficient
in the internal combustion engine", SAE Paper 670931, 1967.

[6] Huber K., G. Woschni, and K. Zeilinger. "Investigations on Heat Transfer in Internal
Combustion Engines under Low Load and Motoring Conditions". Proceedings of the 23rd FIS-
ITA Congress, Paper 905018, Turin 1990

[7] Stiesch G. “Modeling engine spray and combustion processes”, 2003.

[8] Fredrik Lindström, Empirical combustion modeling in SI engines, Department of Machine

Design, Royal Institute of Technology, 2005

[9] Csallner, Peter; Eine Methode zur Vorausberechnung der Ändrung des Brennverlaufes von
Ottomotoren bei Geänderten Betriebsbedingungen; München Techn. Univ., Diss., 1981.

[10] Hires, S. D., R. J. Tabaczynski, and J. M. Novak. "The Prediction of Ignition Delay and
Combustion Intervals for a Homogeneous Charge, Spark Ignition Engine", SAE Paper 780232,
1978

[11] Selamet, A., N. S. Dickey, P. M. Radavich, and Jim M. Novak. "Theoretical, Com-
putational and Experimental Investigation of Helmholtz Resonators: One-Dimensional versus
Multi-Dimensional Approach," SAE paper 940612, 1994

65
[12] Silva, F., Ph. Guillemain, J. Kergourmard, and B. Mallaroni. "Approximation formu-
lae for the acoustic radiation impedance of a cylindrical pipe," "Journal of Sound and Vibration
322, 1-2 255-263", 2009.

[13] Poling, Bruce E., John M. Prausnitz, and John P. O’Connell. The Properties of Gases and
Liquids, 5th Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 2000

[14] Nordling, Carl & Östman, Jonny, Physics Handbook. Lund ISBN 978-91-972860-2-2,
2006

[15] KTM engine specification, 2011

[16] Stephen Leach, Design and Optimisation of a FSAE Race Car Air Intake,Monash Uni-
versity, 2005

[17] Uzkan, Teoman, Claus Borgnakke, and Thomas Morel. "Characterization of Flow Pro-
duced by a High-Swirl Inlet Port", SAE Paper 830266, 1983

[18] Assistant Professor K. Wattanavichien, Ph.D. Department of Mechanical ENgineering

Chulalongkorn University, 2007

66
A APPENDIX
A.1 FSAE SCORE SYSTEM

Maximum points awarded for each event for the old and new rules. (FSAE Rules 2008-2011).

A.2 CHARGE MOTION IN CYLINDER & REFERENCE OF HEAT

TRANSFER

Charge motion in the combustion chamber ”Swirl”.

67
Schematic of IRIS individual engine cylinder capabilities9 and typical temperature distribu-
tion in an IC engine operating at steady state [18].
9
Ricardo Software, 2010. WAVE Knowledge Centre

68
A.3 TECHNICAL DATA

69
A.4 MATERIAL SURFACE ROUGHNESS

A.5 ENGINE GENERAL PANEL

70
A.6 SIMULATION OF THE CARBURETTOR

A.7 MEASUREMENT TECHNICS

Valve measurement representation where L = lift and D = diameter.

71
How to measure tappet clearance.

Duct plot panel showing connection of data.

72
A.8 COMPLEX Y-JUNCTIONS

A visual representation of how the single intake canal splits into two in the intake port. The
sphere in the middle represents the volume occupied by the Y-junction, while the connected
ducts are scaled in size relative to the size of the sphere, based on the duct diameters. This
feature represents the complex Y-junction 1.

73
A visual representation of how the two canals from the exhaust valves merge into one in the
exhaust port. Tohe sphere in the middle represents the volume occupied by the Y-junction,
while the connected ducts are scaled in size relative to the size of the sphere, based on the duct
diameters. This feature represents the complex Y-junction 2.

All of the tubes connected to the junctions can be set anywhere in the three dimensions,
although all of these are in a single plane. Wave only takes the relative position between the
tubes into consideration.

74
A.9 RPM RELATED CONSTANTS

75
A.10 RESULTS
A.10.1 COMPARISON OF BHP AND TQ SIMULATION RESULTS VS REF-
ERENCE

76
77
78
A.10.2 TESTRUN SETTINGS FOR THE PROTOTYPE ENGINE
AirF ilter N
Intake pressure [bar] 0.986923
IntakeT emperature[K] 300
Duct1Lef tDiameter[mm] 43.6
Duct1RightDiameter[mm] 42.85
Duct1DiscretiziationLength[mm] 20
Duct1OverallLength[mm] 41.7
Duct1RoughnessHeight[µm] 1.5
Duct1BendAngle[deg] 0
Duct1W allF rictionM ultiplier 1
Duct1W allHeattransf erM ultiplier 1
Duct1F luidpressure[bar] 1
Duct1T emperature[K] 300
Duct1W allT emperature[K] 300
T hrottleangle[deg] 90
T hrottleBoreDiameter[mm] 42.85
T hrottleShaf tDiameter[mm] 3
Restrictor[mm] N
RunnerT oP lenumLeangth[mm] N
RunnerT oP lenumLef tDiameter[mm] N
RunnerT oP lenumRightDiameter[mm] N
3
P lenumV olume[mm ] N
Injectorposition(distansf romlef tendof duct2)[mm] 1
Injectorsprayspreadangle[deg] 40
InjectorN ozzleDiameter[mm] 0.2
F uelM ixtureT emperature[K] 300
Duct2Lef tDiameter[mm] 42.85
Duct2RightDiameter[mm] 42.1
Duct2DiscretiziationLength[mm] 20
Duct2OverallLength[mm] 40
Duct2RoughnessHeight[µm] 1.5
Duct2BendAngle[deg] 0
Duct2W allF rictionM ultiplier 1
Duct2W allHeattransf erM ultiplier 1
Duct2F luidpressure[bar] 0.986923
Duct2T emperature[K] 300

79
Duct2W allT emperature[K] 300
Injectortype P roportional
IntakeRunnerLength N
Duct3Lef tDiameter[mm] 41.1
Duct3RightDiameter[mm] 41.1
Duct3DiscretiziationLength[mm] 20
Duct3OverallLength[mm] 48.1
Duct3RoughnessHeight[µm] 1.5
Duct3BendAngle[deg] 0
Duct3W allF rictionM ultiplier 1
Duct3W allHeattransf erM ultiplier 1
Duct3F luidpressure[bar] 0.986923
Duct3T emperature[K] 300
Duct3W allT emperature[K] 300
Y − Junction1Diameter[mm] 41.1
Y − Junction1V olume[mm3 ] 36351.6
Y − Junction1W allF rictionM ultiplier 1
Y − Junction1HeatT ransf erM ultipler 1
Y − Junction1InitialP ressure[bar] 1
Y − Junction1InitialF luidT emperature 320
Y − Junction1W allT emperature[K] 350
Connectedduct3AngleInX − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] 180
Connectedduct3AngleInY − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] −90
Connectedduct3AngleInZ − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] 90
Connectedduct4AngleInX − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] 10
Connectedduct4AngleInY − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] 80
Connectedduct4AngleInZ − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] 90
Connectedduct5AngleInX − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] −10
Connectedduct5AngleInY − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] 100
Connectedduct5AngleInZ − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] 90
Connectedduct3DELXtoY − Junction1[deg] 41.1
Connectedduct4DELXtoY − Junction1[deg] 41.1
Connectedduct5DELXtoY − Junction1[deg] 41.1
Duct4and5Lef tDiameter[mm] 28.4
Duct4and5RightDiameter[mm] 40.4
Duct4and5DiscretiziationLength[mm] 20
Duct4and5OverallLength[mm] 70.2
Duct4and5RoughnessHeight[µm] 1.5

80
Duct4and5BendAngle[deg] 0
Duct4and5W allF rictionM ultiplier 1
Duct4and5W allHeattransf erM ultiplier 1
Duct4and5F luidpressure[bar] 0.986923
Duct4and5T emperature[K] 330
Duct4and5W allT emperature[K] 400
CompressionRatio 12.5 : 1
CylinderheadClearanceHeight[mm] 1
Ref erenceP ressure[bar] 1
Ref erenceT emperature[K] 298
EngineF rictionCorrelationACF [µ] 0.35
EngineF rictionCorrelationBCF [µ] 0.005
EngineF rictionCorrelationCCF [µ] 400
EngineF rictionCorrelationQCF [µ] 0.2
IntakeV alveAnchorsCycle[deg] 0
IntakeV alveDurationM ultiplier 1
1IntakeV alveLash[mm] 0.3
IntakeAngleT ype Cam
IntakeV alveAnchorsP rof ile[deg] 0
IntakeV alveLif tM ultiplier 1
IntakeV alveRockerRatio 1
IntakeV alveRef erenceDiameter[mm] 40.4
IntakeV alveHeatT ransf erDiameter[mm] 40.4
IntakeV alveF lowCoef f icientP rof ile CF T Y P
IntakeV alveSwirlCoef f icientP rof ile N
ExhaustV alveAnchorsCycle[deg] 0
ExhaustV alveDurationM ultiplier 1
ExhaustV alveLash[mm] 0.19
ExhaustAngleT ype Cam
ExhaustV alveAnchorsP rof ile[deg] 0
ExhaustV alveLif tM ultiplier 1
ExhaustV alveRockerRatio 1
ExhaustV alveRef erenceDiameter[mm] 31.7
ExhaustV alveHeatT ransf erDiameter[mm] 31.7
ExhaustV alveF lowCoef f icientP rof ile CF T Y P
ExhaustV alveSwirlCoef f icientP rof ile N
Duct6and7Lef tDiameter[mm] 31.7
Duct6and7RightDiameter[mm] 24.68

81
Duct6and7DiscretiziationLength[mm] 20
Duct6and7OverallLength[mm] 33.8
Duct6and7RoughnessHeight[µm] 1.5
Duct6and7BendAngle[deg] 0
Duct6and7W allF rictionM ultiplier 1
Duct6and7W allHeattransf erM ultiplier 1
Duct6and7F luidpressure[bar] 1.03627
Duct6and7T emperature[K] 1000
Duct6and7W allT emperature[K] 500
Y − Junction2Diameter[mm] 46.1
Y − Junction2V olume[mm3 ] 51298.1
Y − Junction2W allF rictionM ultiplier 1
Y − Junction2HeatT ransf erM ultipler 1
Y − Junction2InitialP ressure[bar] 1.05
Y − Junction2InitialF luidT emperature 900
Y − Junction2W allT emperature[K] 400
Connectedduct6AngleInX − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] −160
Connectedduct6AngleInY − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] 70
Connectedduct6AngleInZ − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] 90
Connectedduct7AngleInX − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] −200
Connectedduct7AngleInY − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] 110
Connectedduct7AngleInZ − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] 90
Connectedduct8AngleInX − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] 0
Connectedduct8AngleInY − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] 90
Connectedduct8AngleInZ − directiontoY − Junction1[deg] 90
Connectedduct6DELXtoY − Junction1[deg] 46.1
Connectedduct7DELXtoY − Junction1[deg] 46.1
Connectedduct8DELXtoY − Junction1[deg] 46.1
Duct8Lef tDiameter[mm] 41.8
Duct8RightDiameter[mm] 41.8
Duct8DiscretiziationLength[mm] 15
Duct8OverallLength[mm] 29
Duct8RoughnessHeight[µm] 1.5
Duct8BendAngle[deg] 0
Duct8W allF rictionM ultiplier 1
Duct8W allHeattransf erM ultiplier 1
Duct8F luidpressure[bar] 1.03627
Duct8T emperature[K] 950
Duct8W allT emperature[K] 550

82
Duct9Lef tDiameter[mm] 45
Duct9RightDiameter[mm] 45
Duct9DiscretiziationLength[mm] 150
Duct9OverallLength[mm] 310
Duct9RoughnessHeight[µm] 1.5
Duct9BendAngle[deg] 0
Duct9W allF rictionM ultiplier 1
Duct9W allHeattransf erM ultiplier 1
Duct9F luidpressure[bar] 1.03627
Duct9T emperature[K] 900
Duct9W allT emperature[K] 700
M uf f lerM odel N
Exhaustpressure[bar] 1
ExhaustT emperature[K] 600

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A.10.3 INTAKE
Geometry for new components.

T hrottle diameter [mm] 34

T hrottle length [mm] 60
Restrictor lef t diameter [mm] 34
Restrictor right diameter [mm] 19.93
Dif f user lenght [mm] 300
Dif f user lef t diameter [mm] 19.93
Dif f user right diameter [mm] 50
Dif f user to plenum angle in X − direction [deg] 30
Dif f user to plenum angle in Y − direction [deg] 120
Dif f user to plenum angle in Z − direction [deg] 90
Bell mouth 0−1
P lenum volume [l] 1.767 − 4.948
Runner to plenum angle in X − direction [deg] 30
Runner to plenum angle in Y − direction [deg] 60
Runner to plenum angle in Z − direction [deg] 90
Injector distance f rom port [mm] 60
Injector angle [deg] 20
Injector nozzle diameter [mm] 0.2
Runner length [mm] 100 − 240
Runner lef t diameter [mm] 40
Runner right diameter [mm] 40

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A.10.4 ALL SIMULATION RUNNER LENGTHS

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A.10.5 ALL SIMULATION PLENUM VOLUMES

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