Review Article

iMedPub Journals Journal of Emergency and Internal Medicine 2018

www.imedpub.com Vol.2 No.1:19
ISSN 2576-3938
DOI: 10.21767/2576-3938.100019

Diagnosis, Management and Treatment of Septic Shock from Early Diagnosis to

Infection Focus Control
Biagio Liccardo, Tiziana Formisano, Antonello D’Andrea*, Mario Giordano, Francesca Martone,
Vincenzo Avitabile, Roberta Bottino and Paolo Golino
Department of Cardiology, Monaldi Hospital, Luigi Vanvitelli University, AORN Ospedali Dei Colli, Naples, Italy
*Corresponding author: Antonello D’Andrea, Chair, Department of Cardiology, Monaldi Hospital, Luigi Vanvitelli University, AORN Ospedali Dei
Colli, Corso Vittorio Emanuele 121°, 80121, Naples, Italy, Tel: 0039/081/7062355; Fax: 0039/081/7064234, E-mail: [email protected]
Rec Date: February 06, 2018; Acc Date: February 24, 2018, 2018; Pub Date: April 24, 2018
Citation: Liccardo B, Formisano T, D’Andrea A, Giordano M, Martone F, et al. (2018) Diagnosis, Management and Treatment of Septic Shock
from Early Diagnosis to Infection Focus Control. J Emerg Intern Med Vol.2 No.1:19.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the most represented among
Gram-negative isolates [2].
Abstract
There is an increasing role of methicillin- resistant
Sepsis is a syndrome characterized by clinical signs and
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), not only in hospitalized
symptoms due to infection, with a high rate of mortality, patients, but also in community acquired infections [3].
especially if not recognized and treated promptly. In the Until 2016, sepsis was defined as a “Systemic inflammatory
last years, several definitions were explained about this response syndrome (SIRS) with a documented infection” while
syndrome. The aim of this review is to give a common and severe sepsis was defined as “A systemic inflammatory
practical definition of septic shock, and to focus on response syndrome with a documented infection, related to
diagnosis, early resuscitation and infection focus control.
organ failure, hypotension or reduced tissue function”.
Keywords: Sepsis; Septic shock; Antibiotic therapy; ARDS; SIRS is characterized by presence of two or more of
Hypoperfusion; Emergency; Intensive cardiac unit following criteria [4]:
• Temperature >38°C or <36°C
• Heart rate >90/min
Introduction • Respiratory rate >20/min or PaCO2 <32 mmHg (4.3 kPa)
Sepsis is a syndrome characterized by clinical signs and • White blood cell count >12.000/mm3 or <4000/mm3 or
symptoms due to infection, with a high rate of mortality, >10% immature bands
especially if not recognized and treated promptly. In the last These criteria to identify sepsis were unhelpful, because
years, several definitions were explained about this syndrome. changes in white blood cell count, temperature, and heart rate
The aim of this review is to give a common and practical reflect the physiologic response to infection and/or danger
definition of septic shock, and to focus on diagnosis, early insult, and they don’t necessarily indicate a dysregulated, life-
resuscitation and infection focus control. threatening response, but they had a poor specificity [5].
For this reason, the Third International Consensus
Literature Review Definitions for sepsis and septic shock, published on February
2016, has established a new definition of sepsis underlining
The most important causes of sepsis are pneumonias,
the role of organ dysfunction in sepsis rather than the systemic
followed by intra-abdominal and urinary tract infections [1].
inflammatory response. In fact, sepsis is now defined as “A life-
threating organ dysfunction caused by dysregulated host
Diagnosis response to infection”; for all this reason the term severe
Actually, the high use of endovascular prosthesis and sepsis is now unnecessary.
devices represent an important risk factor of infection and its Acute organ dysfunction most commonly affects respiratory
complications. Bacteria are the most common cause of sepsis, and cardiovascular systems, but often also brain, kidneys and
both Gram-positive and Gram-negative. Staphylococcus aureus liver are involved. To help physicians to make diagnosis, the
and Streptococcus pneumoniae are the most common Gram- Consensus has introduced a new score to identify promptly
positive isolates, while Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., and

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ISSN 2576-3938 Vol.2 No.1:19

the sepsis-related organ damage: The Sequential Organ Failure

Assessment Score (SOFA score) (Table 1).

Table 1 Sequential Organ Failure Assessment Score (SOFA score).

Organ Score

0 1 2 3 4

Lung

PaO2/FIO2, mmHg ≥ 400 <400 <300 <200 with respiratory support <100 with respiratory support

Coagulation

Platelets ×103/μL ≥ 150 <150 <100 <50 <20

Liver

Bilirubin, mg/dL <1.2 1.2-1.9 2.0-5.9 6.0-11.9 >12.0

Heart

Dopamine <5 or
MAP ≥ 70 MAP <70 Dopamine 5.1-15 or epinephrine ≤0.1 Dopamine >15 or epinephrine >0.1
dobutamine (any
mm Hg mm Hg or norepinephrine ≤0.11 or norepinephrine >0.11
dose)1

Brain

Glasgow Coma
15 13-14 10-12 6-9 <6
Scale score2

Kidney

Creatinine, mg/dL <1.2 1.2-1.9 2.0-3.4 3.5-4.9 >5.0

Urine output, mL/d <500 <200

Adapted from Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock, JAMA. 2016;315(8):801-810. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.0287
FIO2 fraction of inspired oxygen; MAP, mean arterial pressure; PaO2 partial pressure of oxygen
1Catecholamine doses are given as μg/kg/min for at least 1 hour
2Glasgow Coma Scale scores range from 3-15; higher score indicates better neurological function

The baseline SOFA score can be assumed to be zero in consideration of possible infection in patients not previously
patients who don’t known have pre-existing organ recognized as infected [7].
dysfunction. For patients with comorbidities determining
If not recognized and treated promptly, sepsis can
organ dysfunction can be useful calculate a baseline SOFA
determine cardiovascular dysfunction with consequent septic
score before the infection, also retrospectively, to evaluate an
shock.
eventual change of this score during an infection. Patients with
a SOFA score of 2 or more had a mortality risk of 10% in a Septic shock is defined by the presence of these two criteria
general hospital population with presumed infection. A SOFA [7]:
increase ≥ 2 points indicates the development of organ
• Persisting hypotension requiring vasopressors to maintain
dysfunction induced by infection.
mean arterial pressure (MAP) ≥ 65 mm Hg
The calculation of SOFA score need laboratory tests, and it • Serum lactate level >2 mmol/L (18 mg/dL) despite
cannot be done promptly. For this reason, it has been adequate volume resuscitation.
introduced a simple bed-side score, called quick-SOFA (qSOFA),
characterized by three clinical variables [6]: Septic shock is a distributive shock characterized by an
extreme peripheral vasodilatation with normal or increased
• Respiratory rate ≥ 22/min cardiac output and central venous oxygen saturation (ScvO2).
• Altered mental status
Septic shock presents two phases [8]:
• Systolic blood pressure (SBP) ≤ 100 mmHg
• An early warm phase, characterized by normal or increased
The score is considered positive if there are 2 of 3 criteria. cardiac output and central venous saturation, low
Although qSOFA is less robust than SOFA score, it does not peripheral vascular resistance, wide pulse pressure,
require laboratory tests and can be assessed quickly and bounding pulse, brisk capillary refill (< 3 sec)
repeatedly. Positive qSOFA criteria should also prompt • A late cold phase, characterized by low cardiac output and
central venous saturation, high peripheral vascular

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resistance, narrow pulse pressure, weak pulse, delayed shock. HES is not indicated in patients with sepsis or at risk for
capillary refill (> 5 sec) acute kidney injury [13].
According to these new definitions and scores introduced Fluids should be rapidly infused as intravenous boluses
about sepsis and septic shock, the Task Force recommends a (1000 mL of crystalloids or 300 to 500 mL of colloids over the
simple and systematic approach to a patient with suspected course of 30 minutes) until the restoration of an appropriate
infection, to obtain an immediate diagnosis and treatment [7]. tissue perfusion (maximum volume 3-5 l) [14-17]. Moreover,
fluid can also administer by passive leg raise, that can predict
Treatment fluid responsiveness, and can reduce excessive fluid
administration and its consequences.
The management of septic shock regards two aspects: the
early management and the control of focus of infection. The During fluid therapy it should be evaluated not only the
early management involve the stabilization of airway and tissue perfusion but also the eventual development of
breathing and the assessment of perfusion. pulmonary oedema (because septic patients frequently
develop ARDS). For this reason, a lung echographic monitoring
First line breathing support is represented by oxygen is helpful to evidence the presence of lung congestion
supplement. Intubation and mechanical ventilation may be (represented by echographic B-profile) during fluid infusion.
required in patient with increased work of breathing or for The presence of lung congestion is an indication to stop fluids
airway protection because encephalopathy and a depressed and to administer furosemide to avoid the development of a
level of consciousness frequently complicate sepsis. Chest pulmonary oedema [18,19].
radiographs, lung echography and arterial blood gas analysis
should be obtained following initial stabilization to monitoring When despite ad adequate fluid therapy, the hypotension
patient and to diagnose acute respiratory distress syndrome and tissue hypoperfusion persist, vasopressors are indicated as
(ARDS), which frequently complicates sepsis [9]. next step of early resuscitation management. First line
vasopressor is norepinephrine (0.01–3 mcg/kg/min in dextrose
After breathing stabilization, the second step is to assess 5% water). Norepinephrine is a potent alfa-1 adrenergic
perfusion. receptor agonist with modest beta agonist activity which
A compromised perfusion is characterized by [7,8]: renders it a powerful vasoconstrictor with less potent direct
inotropic properties [14,20].
• Hypotension (SBP <90 mmHg, mean arterial pressure
(MAP) <70 mmHg, decreased SBP >40 mmHg) Dopamine can be used as an alternative vasopressor agent
to norepinephrine only in highly selected patients (patients
• Tachycardia
with low risk of tachyarrhythmias and absolute or relative
• Hypoperfusion (urine output <0.5 ml/kg/h, altered mental
bradycardia) [14].
state which includes delirium, obtundation, disorientation,
and confusion) Phenylephrine (0.01–0.1 mcg/kg/min in dextrose 5% water)
• Cutaneous alterations (flushed, and hot skin in early warm is useful in patients with tachycardia or arrhythmias because of
phase, and cyanotic, and cold skin in late cold phase) its pure alfa adrenergic activity and virtually no affinity for beta
• Hyperlactatemia (>2,0 mmol/l or >18 mg/dl) that express adrenergic receptors [21].
an abnormal cellular oxygen metabolism. Vasopressin at the dosage of 0.03 units/minute in dextrose
The first line therapy to restore circulation uses fluids to 5% water can be added to norepinephrine with intent of either
correct intravascular hypovolemia and vasopressors to correct raising MAP beyond 70 mmHg or decreasing vasopressors
peripheral vasodilatation. In fluids resuscitation it’s important dosage. Low dose vasopressin is not recommended as the
the type of fluids, the volume infused, and the timing of single initial vasopressor for treatment of sepsis-induced
infusion. Randomized clinical trials have demonstrated that hypotension [22].
normal saline solutions (or other crystalloids as Ringer’s lactate Higher doses of vasopressin are not recommended because
and Ringer’s acetate) are better and safer than colloids which increase the risk of collateral effects as low intestinal mucosal
are associated with increased mortality and acute kidney perfusion, high bilirubin and serum transaminases, and
failure, above all the solution hydroxyethyl starch (HES) decreased platelet counts [23].
[10,11].
When septic shock evolves towards the cold phase, it is
A valid alternative to saline solution is represented by necessary to treat cardiac dysfunction (expressed by reduced
albumin. In SAFE trial there were no significative differences of cardiac output) using an inotrope drug. Dobutamine is the
outcomes between the group of ill critically patients treated first-choice drug (2–20 mcg/kg/min either in 0,9% chloride
with 0.9% sodium chloride (normal saline) and the group solution or in dextrose 5% water) for treatment of sepsis-
treated with albumin [12]. induced myocardial dysfunction [14].
For these reasons, isotonic, balanced salt solution are a Dobutamine is a potent inotrope with a low chronotropic
pragmatic initial resuscitation fluid for the majority of acutely activity. Its effect on vascular smooth muscle is related to
ill patients, while albumin can be considered as alternative dosage. Lower doses (<5 mcg/kg/min) determine mild
approach during the early resuscitation of patients with septic vasodilatation with consequent decreased blood pressure,

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 Journal of Emergency and Internal Medicine 2018
ISSN 2576-3938 Vol.2 No.1:19

whereas doses up to 15 mcg/kg/min increase cardiac 25-30 mg/kg, followed by maintenance dose of 15-20 mg/kg ×
contractility without affecting peripheral resistant [24]. 2/die IV (1 g × 2/die IV).
Red blood transfusion is indicated only in patients with an Table 2 Most important antibiotics dosages using in patients
haemoglobin level <7.0 g/dL. It’s reasonable to obtain a without comorbidities.
haematocrit about 30% (haemoglobin level 10 g/dL).
The early resuscitation goals are: Antibiotics Dosage

• MAP ≥ 65 mmHg Amoxicillin/Clavulanic acid 2.2 g × 3/die

• Urine output ≥ 0.5 mL/kg/h Ampicillin/Sulbactam 3 g × 3/die

• Central venous pressure (CVP) 8-12 mmHg (inferior vena
Ceftriaxone 2 g × 3/die
cava >15 mm with an inspiratory collapse > 50%) if a
central venous access is obtained Cefotaxime 1 g ×3/die

• ScvO2 >70% Ceftazidime 1 g × 3/die

It is useful monitoring the lactate clearance. It has been Cefepime 2 g × 2/die

demonstrated that a reduction of 10% of lactate levels in 6
Piperacillin/Tazobactam 4.5 g × 3/die
hours correlates with a better prognosis in septic shock
patients [25]. Therapeutic targets exposed should be achieved Levofloxacin 500 mg × 2/die
into 6 hours from the onset of hypotension.
Ciprofloxacin 200 mg × 2/die
The other aspect of management of septic shock is Imipenem 1 g × 3/die
represented by identification and control of septic focus.
Accurate anamnesis and physical examination are useful to Meropenem 1 g × 3/die

address physicians to identify infective site and to choose an Amikacina 1 g/die

appropriate empirical antimicrobial therapy. Antibiotics should
be administered promptly in sepsis, within the first hour Clindamicina 600 mg × 3/die

(“golden hour”) after the onset of hypotension [26,27]. Metronidazolo 500 mg × 3/die

It is necessary to obtain cultures of urine, expectorate, and Teicoplanina 40 mg × 2/die

blood. Cultures should be obtained before starting
antimicrobial therapy, within maximum the first 45 minutes. At Clearance of vancomycin is almost renal (about 80–90% of
least two sets of blood cultures (both aerobic and anaerobic the drug is excreted unchanged in the urine within 24 hours in
bottles) must have be obtained before antimicrobial therapy patients with normal renal function), and its clearance
with at least one obtained percutaneously, and one through decreases with creatinine clearance (CrCl) in a linear mode. For
each vascular access device, unless the device is recently (<48 this reason, vancomycin dose should be adjusted according to
hours) inserted. Use of the 1,3 beta-D-glucan assays, mannan creatinine clearance (Table 3).
and anti-mannan antibody assays can be useful to detect an
invasive candidiasis in differential diagnosis of cause of Table 3 Vancomycin dose scheme adjustment per kidney
infection. The samples of cultures should not delay the failure.
empirical antimicrobial therapy administration over the first
hour [14]. Maintaining dose
Vancomycin dose
Creatinine clearance (mL/min per 1.73 m2)

Discussion >90 15-20 mg/kg per 12 h

The antibiotic empirical treatment should be a broad- 60-89 20-30 per 24 h

spectrum therapy against both Gram-positive and Gram- 45-59 15-20 per 24 h
negative bacteria, based on the use of at least two antibiotics
with synergic action’s mechanism (Table 2) There is growing 30-44 10-15 per 24 h

recognition that MRSA is a cause of sepsis not only in 15-29 7-10 per 24 h
hospitalized patients, but also in community dwelling
<15 10 per 48 h
individuals without recent hospitalization, and for this reason
antibiotic choice should be always cover MRSA [28].
Due to vancomycin intrinsic nephrotoxicity, renal function
Vancomycin is the first line antibiotic therapy in septic should be monitored during the treatment. It has been
patients thanks to its efficacy against MRSA. It should be established that a minimum of two or three consecutive
infused at a dose of 15-20 mg/kg × 2/die intravenous (IV) (1 g documented increases in serum creatinine concentrations
× 2/die IV) with a velocity <15 mg/min. In very critical ill (defined as an increase of 0.5 mg/dl or a ≥ 50% increase from
patients it is recommended to start with a loading dose of baseline, or a drop in calculated CrCl of 50% from baseline on
two consecutive days) could be due to vancomycin, after
several days of therapy. There are no data that support the
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monitoring of vancomycin plasma level to predict its infection, bacteraemia with S. Aureus, some fungal, and viral
nephrotoxicity, even if a safety range of 15-20 mg/L has been infections, or immunologic deficiencies, including neutropenia.
established. For this reason, it is reasonable to obtain a Blood procalcitonin and reactive C protein (RCP) levels can be
monitoring of vancomycin plasma level only for long term evaluated to guide physicians in the prosecution or
treatment (more than 3 or 5 days) [29,30]. discontinuation of therapy [14].
When vancomycin is contraindicated (intolerance to The use of corticosteroids in sepsis and septic shock has
glycopeptide and pregnancy), daptomycin (4 mg/kg IV once/ been discussed for a long time. The potential benefit of
die) and linezolid (600 mg × 2/die per OS or IV) are good steroids therapy is related to its role as inflammatory response
alternative. Daptomycin is not indicate for suspected regulator and to its hormonal effects to restore cardiovascular
pulmonary infection, because it is inactivated by the surfactant homeostasis. Steroids improve hemodynamic status of septic
[31]. patients because they determine hydric retention, direct
vasoconstriction, and a better response to catecholamine [33].
Whereas MRSA and Gram-positive infection are covered by
vancomycin, a combined therapy is necessary to cover also Recent international guidelines on sepsis and septic shock
Gram-negative. If Pseudomonas is an unlikely pathogen, it is recommend the use of hydrocortisone (200 mg per day) only
recommended to combine vancomycin with one of the in patients with a septic shock in whom the hypotension
following antibiotics: (systolic blood pressure <90 mmHg) persists for more than one
hour despite adequate fluid resuscitation and vasopressor
• Cephalosporin third generation (ceftriaxone or cefotaxime)
administration. The hydrocortisone use in this scenario is
• Cephalosporin fourth generation (cefepime) beneficial only if it is administered within the first eight hours
• Betalactam/betalactamase inhibitors (piperacillin/ [14].
tazobactam, ticarcillin/clavulanate)
• Carbapenem (imipenem or meropenem) Response to ACTH testing (Adreno Cortico Tropic Hormone)
should not be used to select patients for corticosteroid
If the infection is probably due to Pseudomonas, it is therapy. Corticosteroids should be administered for 5-7 days. It
recommended to add to vancomycin two other antibiotics is recommended a progressive dose reduction until to stop the
with different mechanism of action, chosen from the steroid therapy. Fludrocortisone should not be added to
following: hydrocortisone therapy because it can worse splanchnic
• Anti-pseudomonal cephalosporin (ceftazidime, cefepime) perfusion [34].
• Anti-pseudomonal carbapenem (imipenem, meropenem) • The management of septic patient regards also other
• Anti-pseudomonal beta-lactam/lactamase inhibitor aspects:
(piperacillin-tazobactam, ticarcillin-clavulanate) • Nutritional support, both enteral and intravenous support
• Fluoroquinolone anti-pseudomonal activity (ciprofloxacin) • Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis
• Aminoglycoside (gentamicin, amikacin); monobactam • Intensive insulin therapy (glycaemia target 140-180 mg/dl)
(aztreonam) • Antipyretics therapy
It is reasonable suspect a fungal infection (Candida spp.), in Recent data are investigating the role of fast-acting beta-1
the following conditions: blocker (esmolol) in septic patients. The benefit of esmolol
• Surgery consist of an improvement of stroke volume (and tissue
perfusion) through a reduction of heart rates and so an
• Parenteral nutrition
improvement of diastolic filling [35].
• Prolonged antimicrobial treatment
• Severe sepsis A randomized controlled trial conducted by Morelli et al.
• Multisite colonization with Candida spp. studied the role of esmolol in 77 patients with septic shock
requiring norepinephrine to maintain a MAP >65 mmHg
Empiric antifungal treatment, mostly with fluconazole, was despite appropriate volume resuscitation and a heart rate of
not associated with a decreased risk of mortality or occurrence 95/min or higher. All patients included in the study had a
of invasive candidiasis. Thus, the routine administration of preserved cardiac systolic function (cardiac index ≥ 2.2
empirical antifungal therapy should be considered only in L/min/m2 in the presence of a pulmonary arterial occlusion
neutropenic critically ill patients [32]. pressure >18 mmHg). After 24 hours of hemodynamic
Antiviral therapy must be initiated as early as possible in optimization, the esmolol infusion commenced at 25 mg/h
patients with severe sepsis or septic shock of viral origin. and progressively increased the rate at 20 minutes intervals,
until to obtain a heart rate between 80-95 bpm. For patients in
Empiric antibiotic therapy should not during for more than septic shock, the use of esmolol versus standard care was
3-5 days. When the blood cultures results are available, it is associated with reduction in heart rates, without increased
recommended to start a more appropriate single therapy adverse events. The observed improvement in mortality and
based on isolated bacteria susceptibilities. Duration of therapy other secondary outcomes (stroke volume index, arterial
is typically 7-10 days. Longer courses may be considered in lactatemia, vasopressor and fluids requirement) warrants
patients who have a slow clinical response, undrainable foci of further investigations [36].

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Conclusion 13. Myburgh JA, Mythen MG (2013) Resuscitation fluids. NEJM 369:
13.
Sepsis and septic shock are still clinical syndrome with a 14. Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Rhodes A (2012) Surviving sepsis
worse prognosis. A rapid and clear approach is needful for a campaign: international guidelines for management of severe
correct diagnosis. Quick SOFA, SOFA and the new definition of sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med 41: 580.
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septic shock and to start the appropriate treatment. Early hemodynamic resuscitation of the septic patient according to
resuscitation management consists of fluid administration and Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines – does one size fit all?
vasopressor therapy. Infective focus control requires an Critical Care 12: 223.
immediate broad spectrum empirical antibiotic therapy, 16. Byrne L, Van Haren F (2017) Fluid resuscitation in human sepsis:
preceded by the obtaining of cultures, even if they do not Time to rewrite history? Ann Intensive Care 7: 4.
delay the starting of antibiotics.
17. Rameau A, De With E, Boerma EC (2017) Passive leg raise testing
All these measurements should be set in the first hour after effectively reduces fluid administration in septic shock after
the onset of hypotension, in the so called “golden hour” and correction of non-compliance to test results. Ann Intensive Care
7: 2.
optimized in the first six hours.
18. Gargani L (2011) Lung ultrasound: A new tool for the
cardiologist. Cardiovascular Ultrasound 9: 6.
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