DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 274 218 FL 016 102

AUTHOR Schleppegrell, Mary; Bowman, Brenda

TITLE .ESP: Teaching English for Specific Purposes.
INSTITUTION Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, D.C.
SPONS AGENCY Peace Corps, Washington, D.C.
PUB DATE Aug 86
CONTRACT 205-2723
NOTE 123p.
PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For Teachers) (052)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.

DESCRIPTORS Administrator Guides; Class Activities; Classroom
Techniques; Content Area Reading; Content Area
Writing; Curriculum Guides; Educational Needs;
*English (Second Language); *English for Special
Purposes; *English Instruction; Foreign Countries;
Grammar; Information Sources; Instructional
Materials; Language Skills; Media Selection; Needs
Assessment; *Program Design; *Program Development;
Student Role; Study Skills; Teacher Role
IDENTIFIERS Peace Corps

ABSTRACT
This manual is a guide to the development of an
instructional program in English for Specific Purposes (ESP).
Step-by-step procedures for assessing student needs, setting
achievable goals, designing a program, and selecting appropriate
materials and activities for the classroom are outlined. The four
language skills (listening, reading, speaking, and writing) are
described and suggestions for teaching these skills and grammar and
study skills are provided. General guidelines for program and
classroom management are also presented. A special section addresses
the needs of students who are preparing to study abroad, and a
resource section reviews materials available to Peace Corps ESP
teachers and gives directions for ordering them from the Peace Corps
Information Collection and Exchange. The manual is not an exhaustive
review of techniques and approaches to teaching English as a second
language (ESL), but focuses on the ways in which an ESL program
should be structured for the teaching of ESP. (Author/MSE)

***********************************************************************
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
***********************************************************************
 ESP:

TEACHING ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

MARY SCHLEPPEGRELL and BRENDA BOWMAN

Prepared for the Peace Corps

by the Center for Applied Linguistics
Washington, D.C.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EOUCATION "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS

Office of Educational Research and improvement MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTE9 BY
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC)
This document haS beers reproduced as
7irtr
received from the person or organization
originating it.
0 Minor changes have been made to improve
reproduction qualify.

Points Owe," or opinionsstated in Misdeeu . TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

ment de not necessarily rePresent official
OERI position or policy. INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

2 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Prepared for the Peace Corps by the Center for Applied
Linguistics under Contract #205-2723, August 14, 1986.

This Manual may be reproduced and/or translated in part or in

full without payment of royalty. Please give standard
acknowledgement.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank John L.D. Clark, JoAnn

Crandall, and Karen Willetts of the Center for Applied
Linguistics, and John Guevin and Maureen Delaney of the Peace
Corps, for their valuable editorial comments. We would also like
to thank Joyce Simpkins of the Center for Applied Linguistics for
her help with the figures and diagrams.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

chapter P4ge

1. THE TEACHER, THE STUDENT:

AND ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES 1

English for Specific Purposes 1

The Role of the Teacher 2
The Role of the Student 4

2. ANALYZING NEEDS 7

Purpose of the Needs Assessment 7

The Needs Assessment Process 8
What to Look For 9

3. DEVELOPING LANGUAGE SKILLS 11

Listening 11
Reading 16
Writing/Grammar 32
Speaking 41
Study Skills 45

4. PROGRAM DESIGN 49

Setting Goals 49
Designing Units 50
Planning Lessons 51
Sample Unit: Computer Science 53

5. MATERIALS SELECTION AND DEVELOPMENT 69

Assessing Reading Difficulty 69

Selecting Materials 70
Developing Your Own Materials 71
Using Commercial Materials 78

6. PROGRAM MANAGEMENT AND EVALUATION 79

Group Work 80
Error Correction 81
Testing 82
Helping Students Learn Outside the Classroom 83
For Teachers Whose Students are U.S.-Bound 84

Appgndices
A. RESOURCES 85
Reference Books 85
Course Books 87
How to Obtain Copies of these Books 98
B. OUTLINE OP TRAINING MODULE:
80 hour preservice training. 99

C. OUTLINE OP TRAINING MODULE

20 hour inservice training. 105
 INTRODUCTION

This Manual is a guide to the development of a program of

instruction in English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Step-by-step
procedures are outlined for assessing student needs, setting
achievable goals, designing a program, and selecting appropriate
materials and activities for the classroom. The Manual also
describes the four language skills: listening, reading, writing,
and speaking, and provides suggestions for teaching these skills
as well as grammar and study skills. General guidelines are also
presented for program and classroom management. A special sec-
tion addresses the needs of students who are preparing to study
abroad, and a resource section reviews materials which are avail-
able to Peace Corps ESP teachers and gives directions for order-
ing then from Peace Corps' Information Collection and Exchange
(/CE).

This Manual is not an exhaustive review of techniques and

approaches to teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL).
Other resources will be needed for that purpose by the Volunteer
with no previous EFL teaching experience. The Manual does focus
on the special case in EFL; teaching English for Specific
Purposes, and the particular ways that a EFL program should be
structured for the teaching of ESP.
 Chapter One

THE TEACHER, THE STUDENT, AND ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

gr.lgkjg):L_LQs_gkesj,fj,s_Egx,pugg

If you have had previous experience as a teacher of English

as a Foreign Language (EFL), your first question on receiving your
current assignment to teach ESP may be: "How is ESP different from
EFL?" The major difference between ESP and EFL lies in the
learners and their purposes for learning English. ESP students
are adults who already have some familiarity with English and are
learning the language in order to communicate a set of
professional skills and to perform particular job-related func-
tions. An ESP program is therefore built on an assessment of
purposes and needs and the functions for which English is re-
quired.
ESP is part of a larger movement within language teaching
away from a concentration on teaching grammar and language struc-
tures to an emphasis on language in context. ESP covers subjects
ranging from accounting or computer science to tourism and busi-
ness management. The ESP focus means that English is not taught
as a subject divorced from the students' real world; instead, it
is integrated into a subject matter area important to the
learners.

EFL and ESP differ not only in the nature of the learner,
but also in the scope of the goals of instruction. Whereas in EFL
all four language skills; listening, reading, speaking, and
writing, are stressed equally, in ESP a needs assessment deter-
mines which language skills are most needed by the students, and
the program is focused accordingly. An ESP program, might, for
example, stress the development of reading skills in students who
are preparing for graduate work in engineering; or it might stress
the development of conversational skills in students who are
studying English in order to become tour guides.
ESP integrates subject matter and English language instruc-
tion. Such a combination is highly motivating because students
are able to apply what they learn in their English classes to
their major field of study, whether it be computer science,
accounting, business management, economics, or tourism. Being
able to use the vocabulary and structures that they learn in a
nmaningful context reinforces what is taught and increases stu-
dents' motivation.

The students' abilities in their subject-matter fields, in

turn, enhance their ability to acquire English. Subject-matter
knowledge gives them the context they need to understand the
English of the classroom. The ESP class takes subject-matter
content and shows students how the same information is expressed
in English. The teacher can exploit the students' knowledge of

7
the subject matter in helping them learn English faster.
figure 1 summarizes what is meant by English for Specific
Purposes. The °specific" in ESP refers to the specific plirmaa
for learning. Students approach the learning of English through
a field that is already known and relevant to them. This means
that they are able to use what they learn in the ESP classroom
right away in their work and studies. The ESP approach enhances
the relevance of what the students are learning and enables them
to use the English they know to learn even more English, since
their interest in their field will motivate them to interact with
speakers and texts.

The _Role of thp Teacbet

Some of you may already have experience teaching English as

a Foreign Language (EFL). If so, you can draw on your background
in language teaching. This Manual will help you identify the
ways in which your teaching skills can be adapted for the teach-
ing of English for Specific Purposes. In addition, you will need
to seek out content-area specialists for assistance in designing
appropriate lessons in the subject matter field you are teaching.
/f you are a subject-area specialist with no experience in
teaching EFL, this Manual will be a valuable resource as it takes
you through the process of needs assessment and program design
and offers concrete suggestions for classroom activities. You
will need to carefully study the EFL techniques suggested here to
see how your subject-matter knowledge can be used in the teaching
of language skills.

The Peace Corps ESP teacher must fill many roles. You may
be responsible for organizing courses, for setting learning ob-
jectives, for establishing a positive learning environment in the
classroom, and for evaluating student progress.

1. Organizipg_programs: You will set goals for the students

and then translate those goals into an instructional program
with hourly, daily, and weekly activities. One of your
primary tasks will be management; selecting and organizing
course materials, supporting the students in their efforts,
and providing them with feedback on their progress.
2. Zetting Goajs and Objectiusi You arrange the conditions
for learning in the classroom and set long-term goals and
short-term objectives for student achievement. Your aware-
ness of students' capabilities is a crucial factor in de-
signing a program with realistic goals that takes into
account the students' contribution to the learning situa-
tion.

2
 English for Specific Purposes

Reading
Purpose
for Motivution
I,earning
Listening

Needs Subject Skills

Assessment Mutter Development
ANWIIIMMINNI

W Speaking

I
English Context.
will be used

Study
Skilk

figure I. ESP assesses needs and integrates

motivation, subject matter end content for the
teaching of relevant skate.
3. Zstablishino a LearninciEnvironment: Your communication
skills establish the classroom atmosphere. Language is
acquired by students when they have opportunities to use the
language in interaction with other speakers. As their
teacher, you may be the only native speaker of English
available to students, and although your time with any one
student will be limited, you can model good communication
skills in the classroom. This means that in your
interactions with students you should listen carefully to
what they are saying (or trying to say) and reflect your
understanding or lack of understanding back at them through
your responses. Language learning is a great risk-taking
endeavor for students in which they must make many errors in
order to succeed. Language learners are handicapped in the
classroom because they are unable to use their native
language competence to present themselves as knowlegeable
adults. Instead, they have to take on the role of inarticu-
late learner. You should create an atmosphere in the lan-
guage classroom which supports the students. The non-native
speaker of English must be self-confident in order to commu-
nicate, and you have the responsibility to help build the
learner's confidence.
4. BIWAMIUMLIMOVAtEL Finally, you are a resource person who
helps students identify their language-learning problems and
find solutions to them. You identify the skills that stu-
dents need to focus on, and take responsibility for making
choices which determine what and how the students learn.
You will serve as a source of information to the students
about how they are progressing in their language learning.

The_Rolv of tbe Student

What does the learner bring to the classroom and what is the
task the language learner faces? The learners come to the ESP
class with a specific focus for learning, subject matter
knowledge, and well-developed adult learning strategies. They
face the task of developing English language skills to reflect
their native-language knowledge and skills.
1. Focus for Learning; The ESP student has a particular pur-
pose and focus for learning. People learn languages when
they have opportunities to understand and work with language
in a context that they comprehend and find interesting. EsP
is a vehicle for such opportunities. Students will acquire
English as they work with materials which they find interes-
ting and relevant and which they can use in their profes-
sional work or further studies. Successful learners pay
attention to the nglning of the language they hear or read
and do not focus primarily on the linguistic input or iso-
lated language struJtures. The ESP student is particularly
well disposed to focus on meaning in the subject-matter
field. In ESP, English should be presented not as a subject
or body of facts to be learned in isolation from real use,

4
ii
 nor as a mechanical skill or habit to be developed. Rather,
English should be presented in authentic contexts to
acquaint the learners with the particular ways the language
is used in functions that they will need to perform in their
specialty fields.
2. jibjeetater _EnDiagdsgi. Learners in the ESP classroom are
able to make a real contribution to the language learning
process. They are generally aware of the purposes for which
they will need to use English. Having already oriented
their training toward a specific field, they see their
English instruction as complementing this orientation.
Rnowledge of the speciality area enables the students to
identify a real context for the vocabulary and structures of
the ESP classroom. In this way, the learners can take
advantage of what they already know about the subject matter
field to learn English.
3. Adult Learnlnq atrateoilpt Learning as an adult has advan-
tages -- adults must work harder than children to learn a
new language, but the learning strategies they bring to the
task enable them to learn faster and more efficiently. The
skills they have already developed in reading and writing
their native languages will make learning English easier.
Although the English of the students you will be working
with will most likely be quite limited, the language
learning abilities of the adult in the ESP classroom are
potentially great. Language learning continues naturally
throughout our lives. Educated adults are constantly
learning new language behavior in their native languages;
expanding vocabulary, becoming more articulate in their
fields, and modifying their linguistic behavior in new
situations or new roles. ESP students can tap these natural
competencies in learning English.

To summarize,

ESP combines
o purpose
o subject matter
o motivation
o context
o relevant skills
Your role in the ESP classroom is to
o organize programs
o set goals and objectives
o establish a positive learning environmeni
o evaluate students' progress

5
12
Your students bring to ESP
o focus for learning
o subject matter knowledge
o adult learning strategies

6
13
 Chapter Two

ANALYZING NEEDS

furpose of the Needs Assessment

Three reasons you should conduct a needs assessment prior to

development of an ESP course are:
1) to become acquainted with the institution and its
requirements,
2) to identify how learners will use English in their tech-
nical fields, and
3) to assess the students' current level of underctanding of
spoken English.

A series of interviews and observations, as suggested here,

will allow you to take advantage of the resources available at
your institution to help you identify the particular skills that
the learners will need to perform in English, and to create
opportunities for students to engage in activities that give them
practice in understanding and using language structures to perform
those skills. The process outlined here will prepare you to
select activities and materials whiclh are appropriate to the
learners' needs and level of proficiency.

The needs assessment phase of ESP program development will

give you a better understanding of your students' needs and
capabilities as English learners. Identifying these needs and
capabilities involves identifying the functions for which the
students will use English and collecting samples of authentic
language. In analyzing this language your focus should not just
be on the grammar of the language, but also on how it is used in
the academic or professional contexts that is, what role English
plays in that specialty field and what students must learn to be
able to use English in their technical work.

The main questions answered by the needs assessment, then,

are:

What are the purposes for which the students will use
English? Will it be mainly for oral communication, written
communication, reading, or to do research?
What language skills will the students need to develop in
order to perform these tasks? Will the receptive skills of
reading and listening be most important, or the productive
skills of writing and speaking -- or some other combination?
Your needs assessment will help you to answer these
questions.

7
14
The Needs Assessment Process

The process of needs assessment requires interviews and

interactions with three sources of information at your institu-
tion: the administrators, the content-area instructors, and the
students themselves.

1. ELggilyik_alminislotArs_ should be interviewed soon after your

arrival at your site. It is important that you integrate
yourself into the new institution; introducing yourself to
the administration will give you the opportunity to find out
what is expected from you as a new member of the teaching
staff, and for you to let them know what the goals of the
Peace Corps program and your course are in the context of
broader host country goals.

Ask the administrators about the institution's grading and

examination requirements. These requirements may put some
constraints on the program you develop. In many countries
standard examinations are developed by the government or
educational institutions. If you are required to give such
an exam at the end of your course, your teaching must take
this into account. Even if you do not agree with the empha-
sis on or focus of the examinations, your students will be
dissatisfied if your program ignores material which is
necessary for their success within the institution.

Ask about facilities and equipment which are available to

you as a language teacher. Find out if the institution has
any funds available for you to acquire materials or equip-
ment. Finally, ask to be introduced to the subject matter
instructors in the area of ESP that you will teach (instruc-
tors in computer science, for example, if you will be teach-
ing English for computer science students).

2. Contept-prep_instkusto;s are valuable resources for the ESP

teacher. If the ESP course is English for Accounting, for
example, the instructors in the accounting department of the
institution should become close working partners with the
ESP instructor to share information about the students'
needs for English and the ways students will use the English
they are learning. Ask the instructors for samples of
English-language materials used in subject-matter teaching:
textbooks, research articles, and, if possible: class
handouts and sample exercises. It may be useful for you to
look at copies of old exams and materials which students
used in secondary schools, if they are available. These can
be adapted and used in the ESP class to reinforce what is
taught in the content-area classes. Ask the subject-matter
teacher to show you any equipment and laboratory facilities
used by the students. Spend some time in the laboratory to
determine first-hand the kinds of interactions that are
important to the students in their acquisition of English.
3. Student intgrvigws will help you in the final purpose of the
needs assessment -- assessing the learners' current level of
understanding of spoken English. An assessment of the stu-
dents' ability to comprehend English is done at this time
for.your benefit as a teacher, not to test the students'
language skills. It is a necessary step in preparing you to
meet and interact with the class in a way that they will be
able to understand. You need to know what the general level
of comprehension of spoken English is among the students in
order to prepare your initial presentations to them. It is
not necessary that you thoroughly assess your students'
level of competence in English before the course begins, but
interviewing a few students before the first class meeting
will guide your preparations. Talking informally with stu-
dents about their interests and experiences in language
learning will give you an idea of how much you will need to
modify your speech initially so that it is understood by the
group. See Chapter Six, Program Management and Evaluation,
for tips on how you can modify your speech to achieve
comprehensibility. Students can also give you information
about what they perceive as their needs for English.
These student interviews should not be seen as formal or
"testing" situations, but rather as opportunities for infor-
ma1 assessment of individual students which will help you to
u' -stand how much of your spoken English the students will
co,....,:ehend. The students interviews are also useful,
particularly in unstructured or informal instructional
settings, for you to find out what the students perceive as
their needs for English. Your interview questions can probe
in depth on this topic. Keep in mind that it is the
listening comprehension ability of your students, and not
their speaking ability that you are interested in at this
point. Assessment of students' other language skills, such
as reading and writing, may be accomplished as the course
gets under way. See Chapter Three, Developing Language
Skills, and Chapter Five: Materials Selection and
Development.

What to Look for

The materials and activities you select should reflect what

students will need to do with the English they learn. As
you study subject-matter materials and observe students in
their laboratory and classroom interactions, pay special
attention to the functions and uses of language in the
content area. Many of these can be incorporated into your
curriculum. Uses of language include:

1) Vbcabulary used to identify and describe equipment,

tools and machinery.

9
 2) Language used to describe procedures, processes, and
safety precautions necessary for using equipment,
tools, and machinery. Functions for which such lang-
uage is used include following directions, clarify-
ing/verifying or getting more information, explain-
ing, reporting, giving advice, and requesting help.

3) Language used for measurement and mathematics in the

specialty skill.

4) Language used to evaluate work and to check whether

work has been completed properly.

Following the interviews suggested above, you are ready to

outline the instructional program that you will provide. In
addition to the information from the interviews, you will have
collected any subject-matter materials that are available and
noted and observed situations in which English is used or will be
used by the students.

To summarize:

Needs Assessment interviews cover three sources:

1. A.OPirdstsators, who will give you information about
the institution's requirements of your students.
2. Content ffirea instructoks, who will give you
information about the materials covered by your
students in their specialty studies.
3. Btpdpnts, who will give you information about how
well you will be understood in the classroom and
what they perceive as their needs for English.

With this information you should be able to identify the

institutional goals, the skills to be developed in your ESP
class, and the level at which you should pitch your English to
communicate best with your students.
 Chapter Three

DEVELOPING LANGUAGE SKILLS

Listening, reading, speaking, and writing -- these are the

four basic language skills. Your needs assessment will show you
which of these skills should be emphasized in your ESP class.
Emphasis will vary from situation to situation, but in many post-
secondary institutions, students typically need ESP to understand
English and will therefore expect priority help in developing
their listening and reading skills. However, no skill should be
taught in isolaition. This section of the Manual describes the
language skills, lists objectives for the development of each
skill, and gives guidelines and suggestions for classroom activi-
ties to give students practice.

LISTENING

Listening comprehension, although vital for communication in

English, is usually the most neglected of the language skills in
English programs. As a native speaker, you have a unique advan-
tage in developing listening comprehension skills in your stu-
dents. Everything that you say in the classroom can be useful in
developing the students' listening abilities.

To be effective, however, your spoken communications with

the class must be comprehensible. Language which is not under-
stood is just "noise" and does not lead to student language acqui-
sition. For this reason, it is important for you to gauge your
students' level of comprehension and adjust your speech to reflect
their understanding. You should spend some time at the beginning
of your course to be sure you are understood. Your students may
be accustomed to hearing a British accent, for example, and may
need time to adjust to yours. Look at your students carefully as
you talk to get cues about their comprehension. Check com-
prehension frequently by asking questions about content which
require listening comprehension, or by asking for questions or
comments.

The cloze exercise is a good way to check your students'

listening comprehension. Give them a short passage with some
words deleted. Read the passage aloud twice. If they are unable
to fill in the missing words, they are unable to make sense of the
passage. More information and examples of cloze exercises can be
found on pages 38, 64, and 68 of this Manual. Other ways of using
cloze exercises include deleting articles or verbs, for example,
if you are working on these forms, to focus students' attention on
these language structures.

The tape recorder is a valuable asset to the language teach-

er. If you have a recorder available, you can tape listening
exercises in advance to allow yourself the freedom to circulate

11
18
in the classroom as students complete them. You can also record
other native English speakers reading cloze or other passages to
give the students practice hearing other accents and speakers of
the opposite sex.

Give students practice taking notes as they listen. Your

students may be used to writing notes down verbatim, as a dicta
tion exercise, and will need practice in listening for main
points of information. Help them to recognize clues to meaning
introduced by the speaker. figpu a illustrates the types of
clues you should bring to your students' attention.
A summary of such clues includes:

a) Numerical statements, such as "There are two

reasons ..."

b) Rhetorical questions.
c) Introductory summaries: "Let me first explain...";
"The topic which I intend to discuss is interesting
because..."

d) Development of an idea, signalled by statements such

as: "Another reason..."; "On the one hand...";
"Therefore..."; "Since..."; "In addition...", etc.

e) Transitions, such as "Let us turn our attention

to..."; "If these facts are true, then..."; etc.

f) Chronology of ideas, signalled by "First...1'; "The

next..."; "Finally...,"; etc.

g) Emphasis of ideas, such as "This is important

hecause..."; "The significant results were..."; "Let
me repeat..."; etc.

h) Summary of ideas, signalled by "In conclusion ...;

"As I have shown...°: etc.
(adapted from Richard C. Yorkey, gtudv fo; gtu
fAeDts 2t English As A gecond Language,. Used by permission
of McGraw Hill Book Co.)

Use graphics and visuals whenever possible with listening

exercises. Eigagg 1 shows how a graph can be used to keep
students engaged in active listening. Students may also need
help in learning to read graphics (maps, charts, etc.) because
they may have had little experience with this skill. Listening
,-oxlaprehension activities can help them see how graphic
Lo'ormation is read and analyzed.

3.2
19
 CHOLERA
Introductory
Let me tell yrou, right at the beginning of this talk, I believe Summary
that with the correct use of available resources, epidemics of
cholera can be controlled.
But before saying how I believe cholera can be controlled, I Numerical
want to look at two questions: first, why does cholera occur in Statements
certain communities and not oth-Trs? second, why, despite all
advances in medical science, do people-kin-die from cholera?
To answer the first question, cholera occurs in conditions Numerical
wlere germs spread easily From one person's feces to another Statements
person's mouth. These germs are generally spread in food and
water, in places where there is no safe water and no latrines.
These conditions are found in poor overcrowded communities,
where people's resistance to disease is already weakened by Development of
malnutrition. In addition, many traditional practices such as Idea
the washing of dead-bodies and feasting during funerals can
help spread epidemics of cholera.
I now want to turn to the second vestion. Modern methods of Transition
treatment can limit the number of deaths among victims to 1%, Numerical
yet death rates of 30-40% continue to be seen. Alyi ? The basic Statements
reason for this high death rate is the insufficiency of medical
supplies and trained health workers to help the victims. Rhetorical
question
So what can be done to control cholera? There are three main
ways of preventing the disease: 1) by improving sanitary - Rhetorical
facilities, such as latrines, 21 bySaving a safe water supply, question
and 1 by encouraging hygenic preparation of food. All three
ways should be taught in b.ealth education programs. - Numerical
Statements
Furthermore, when epidemics do occur, centers to help victims
oig.ilaTeTruickly set up. Most cholera cases can be treated
with oral rehydration therapy - that is, giving those suffering Development
from cholera clean water mixed with sugar and salt. This of idea
treatment can be given by a trained health worker without
professional education, if proper supplies of' water, sugar and
salt are available.
To summarize, one imoortantpart of cholera control is the Summary
providing of better sanitary conditions, supported by health Numerical
education. And the second important part is the training of Statements
health workers in a simple and inexpensive treatment, oral
rehydration therapy. Emphasis
of ideas
Notetaking Clues

13
20
LISTENING TASK

I Listen carefully. Write the name of each country after the corresponding letter. Us, the
extra space for notes.

TRADE WITH THE SOVIET UNION IN 1979 (in billions of U.S. dohars)

Imports
Expons

Figure 3. Fromituency_Sguans by Phillip L.. Knowles

and Ruth A. Sasaki. Copyright 0 1981 by Regents
Publishing Company. Inc. Reprinted by permission.

14

21
 QUANTITATIVE ENGUSH
LISTENING TASK

I Listen carefully. Write the name of each country after the corresponding letter. Use the
extra space for notes.
Example Britain's imports from the Soviet Union are more than its exports. Its imports
are between one and two billion dollars. (b)
1 The United States' exports to the Soviet Union are about four times as much as its imports.
Its imports are less than one billion dollars. (a)
2 West Germany's Imports and exports are both between two and three billion dollars. Its
imports from the Soviet Union are slightly greater than its exports. (g)
3 Japan sells more to the Soviet Union than it buys. Its exports are slighly more than two
billion dollars. (f)
4 Canada's imports from and exports to the Soviet Union were both less than one billion
dollars in 1979. (c)
S France's imports from the Soviet Union were about the same as Britain's. Its exports,
however, were about double Britain's. (d) .
6 Italy's exports to the Soviet Union were'rnore than four times as great as its imports. It
imported more than one billion dollars' worth of goods from the Soviet Union in 1979. (e)

112

Fisurt3. Continued.

\ IIMINNE1110"
/
15
22
 Following are general objectives for the teaching of
listening comprehension. General objectives are given in each
section of this chapter for the teaching of language skills, but
you will need to develop specific objectives for your particular
program after you assess student needs and select teaching
materials. Guidelines for the development of such objectives are
given in Chapter Four, Program Design.

Qbjegtiyes fo_r_Development of I4steninc Comprehension

1. Students will understand short lectures in the

content area when vocabulary is familiar, as
demonstrated by their ability to answer questions
about the lecture.

2. Students will understand spoken numbers, including

percentages, fractions, decimals, and other
numerical expressions common to the specialty field,
as demonstrated by their ability to write those
numbers when they hear them in context.

3. Students will be able to follow instructions given

in class regarding assignments and activities, as
demonstrated by their correct performance of such
instructions.

Activities fgr Teac4ng Listeninql

1. Mini-lectures. Give a short lecture every class meet-
ing to provide students with opportunities to develop
note-taking and other listening skills. Make your
mini-lectures as contextualized as possible. Demon-
strations are particularly effective. Use visual aids
and real objects at every opportunity to increase the
comprehensibility of your presentation. If possible,
go into the laboratory with your students and demon-
strate an experiment or process. Organize practical,
hands-on activities for student participation. Follow-
ing your presentation, ask true/false and yes/no ques-
tions to give students the opportunity to check their
comprehension. You can do this orally, or make it a
paper and pencil task and call it a self-evaluation
test to allow students to assess their own progress.
If you have sufficient preparation time, it is also
useful to construct a cloze exercise in which, follow-
ing your mini-lecture, you re-read some parts to the
students while they follow along and fill in the
blanks. This exercise can be checked immediately in
class so students receive feedback on their understand-
ing. An example of such an exercise is given in Chap-
ter Four.

16
23
2. Reading aloud to your students. They will enjoy listening
to you read short passages aloud as they read them silently.
They can listen to your intonation patterns and pronuncia-
tion and absorb some of the features of native speaker
spoken language, which will provide additional clues for the
interpretation of complex sentences which might otherwise be
beyond the students' competence. If possible, tape recor-
dings of reading assignments can be made available to stu-
dents out of class.
3. Number recognition. Any technical field requires that stu-
dents understand spoken numbers. From your initial needs
assessment, you will have identified certain math language
that students will need to understand in English. Number
recognition exercises give them practice doing so. Such
exercises develop Aistening comprehension and numeracy in
English and can easily be constructed in advance of each
class period.

Ask the students to number a piece of paper from I. to 10.

Then read a sentence which has a number in it. Ask them to
write the number they hear. Initially, the numbers you use
can be the simple cardinal numbers (differences between
sixteen and sixty, for example, often give students prob-
lems), but as the course progresses this exercise can become
more challenging, as you include numbers in the thousands or
millions, monetary expressions, decimals, fractions, percen-
tages, and other specialty uses of numerical expressions
which occur in the content area.
Read each sentence twice. Have a student at the blackboard,
and as you read the sentence a third time, ask the student
to write the number so that the others can check their
answers and get immediate feedback about whether or not they
understand. An example of this type of exercise is,given in
Chapter Four.
4. Dictation exercises. Dictation combines listening and
writing practice. When dictating, read the whole sentence
at normal speed three times, allowing time for writing
between each repetition.

When evaluating dictation, do not focus on spelling as a

primary goal of the exercise. /f you think of dictation as
a listening comprehension exercise, you can evaluate the
product according to whether or not meaning is reflected in
what is written. For example, plural endings or past tense
endings are necessary for correct interpretation of meaning.
Spelling errors which reflect the irregularities of English
orthography may not affect meaning.
 READING
Reading is the primary channel through which your students
will progress in English after your course is over. A good
reading program provides instruction in the skills required at
various levels of reading, along with plenty of practice in this
skill, which can only be developed through extensive and contin-
ual practice. Pollow the guidelines in Chapter Five, Materials
Selection and Development, for selection of appropriate reading
materials.

Two types of skills are needed in reading: simple identifi-

cation skills, (decoding) and higher level cognitive skills such
as analyzing, synthesizing, and predicting. Your reading program
should work on two levels to develop both types of skill.
In order to do this, your program should incorporate two
types of reading tasks: intensive and extensive. Intensive
reading is close analysis of a short passage and can be used to
develop vocabulary, grammar skills, and comprehension. Extensive
reading is faster reading of longer passales to develop under-
standing of writers' organizational strategies, to improve read-
ing speed, and to focus on main ideas.

Fluent reading depends primarily on knowledge of vocabulary

and subject matter, and secondarily on knowledge of grammatical
structure and familiarity with the ways that writers organize
texts in English. Vocabulary development, then, is a vital
aspect of reading (and listening) development. Your students
will need to develop a good vocabulary in English in order to be
efficient readers and listeners. You will probably find that
they already know quite a lot of technical vocabulary in English
in their fields. You can help them to expand their technical
vocabulary and develop the additional vocabulary they need for
further study.

Vocabulary should be taught only in context, never in word

lists to be memorized with dictionary definitions. Use real ob-
jects or pictures whenever possible to introduce new words. The
vocabulary you teach should be words which are useful for the
students in the situations in which they encounter English. Do
not give long lists of words each week; instead, focus on useful
words that are present in the reading and listening passages
students are working with.

Grammar is best taught in connection with writing (see be-

low), but exercises related to the reading and listening passages
the students have worked with can also help them to increase
their reading comprehension. Help students focus on grammatical
structures which appear in reading texts, such as verb forms,
possessives, adjectives and adverbs, and comparative forms.

Higher level cognitive skills necessary for good reading

depend on knowledge of the subject matter of the texts and know-
ledge of the way that information is organized in writing. Your

18
25
ESP students already bring their knowledge of the subject matter
to the reading task, and their backgrounds in their fields will
help make the reading materials more comprehensible to them.
Students' higher level cognitive skills can be tapped by giving
them advance information about the texts they are asked to read,
and by teaching them to preview texts before bevinning to read.
Previewing is a quick reading for general familiarity, in which
students a) read the introductory paragraph; b) read the first
sentence of each of the body paragraphs; and c) read the entire
concluding paragraph. This should take students only a few
minutes, and will enhance their reading comprehension.

Tbe SQ3R technique is commonly used to help students get the

most from their reading. SQ3R means Survey, Question, Read,
Recite, and Review. Students are asked to complete these five
activities:

1) to puny; looking over headings, reading introduc-

tory and concluding paragraphs, and identifying the
core ideas of the passage.
2) to formulate guastiom from text headings.
3) to make a conscious effort to find the ans rs in
the text as they re0.
4) Raving read the first section, to look away f m the
book and try to 19ci.te the answers to their ques-
tions, using their own words and trying to give an
example.

5) to take notes, and, when they have finished reading,

to ggyiew their notes.

Training in this procedure will help students to read more effi-

ciently.

Students should receive practice in reading for different

purposes, such as finding main ideas, finding specific informa-
tion, or discovering the author's point of view. Students should
have a clear idea of the purpose of their reading before they
begin. Background information is very helpful in understanding
texts. Students need advance guidelines for approaching each
assignment. Knowing the purpose of the assignment will help
students get the most from their reading effort. From the title,
for instance, they can be asked to predict what the text is about.
It is also helpful to give students some questions to think about
as they read. The way they approach the reading task will depend
on the purpose for which they are reading.

Use different texts for different reading tasks. Teach the

skills of &Waring and scanning. Sklmming is quick reading to get
the general drift of a passage. Students can be asked to skim a
text to discover the author's purpose. 5gannina is a focused
search for specific information. Students can be asked

19
26
to scan a text to answer a specific question.

Comprehension checks can be built into reading as well as

listening exercises. figure A is an example of how a reading
exercise can incorporate comprehension checks. Students read
part of the passage, then mark statements as "true" or "false"
based on what they have read, and then continue reading. You can
also teach them to read the questions about the text first, and
then read the text itself.

Use long articles as well as short passages. Students need

practice with long blocks of text which they read for main ideas
as well as intensive work with paragraphs and short passages.
Long articles can be read outside of class to provide background
for the work that will be done during the class period. You can
make long passages more accessible to students by dividing the
text into sections and adding appropriate sub-headings.

Train students to recognize patterns of organization of

texts. These include the following:

Description: Descriptions include physical descriptions or

persons, places, or objects, or descriptions of
processes, such as step-by-step explanations of how
something is done or directions for doing something.
Example paragraph: Description by enumeration of steps in a
process.

fn his will, Alfred Nobel _A specific instructions as to how the

winners of the science awards he ende ed are V) be selected. First, each
year the Swedish Academy of Science (physics and chemistry) and the
Caroline Medical Institute (physiology and medicine) solicit nearly two
thousand recommendations f'rom past laureates, university professors,
and otl-)r experts from all over the world. The second step is the review
of recommendat ,ns received and the selections of preliminary
candidates by special committees within the two Swedish Institutions.
The committee members are specifically instructed that those chosen
"shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind," and that no
consideratio'_. be given to the candidates' nationalities. Next, after
lengthy investigation and discussion, the final choices are made for
each discipline. Finally, telegrams informing them of their awards are
sent to the new Nobel laureates about one month prior to the award
ceremony.

From Paragraph Development by Martin L. Arnaudet and

Mary Mien Barrett, Copyright 1981 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Used NT permission.

20
27
1 Engineering Materials

I READING AND COMPREHENSION

'Engineers lutv: to know the best and most economical materials to use.
'Engineers mum aho understand the properties of these materials and how
they can be worked. 'There are two kinds of materials used in engineering
metah and non-metals. "We can divide metals into ferrous and non-ferrous
metals. 'The former contain iron and the latter do not contain iron. 'Cast
iron and steel, which are both alloys, or mixtures of iron and carbon, arc the
two most important ferrous metals. 'Steel contains a smaller proportion of
carbon than cast iron contains. °Certain elements can improve the properties
of steel and are therefore added to it. 'For example, cbromium may be
included to resist corrosion and tungsten to increace hardness. 19duminium,
copper, and the alloys, bronze and brass, are common non-ferrous metals.

Study the following statements carefully and write down whether they are
true or not true according to the information expressed above. Then check
your answers by referring to solutions at the end of the passage.'
(a) Non-metals are used by engineers.
(b) Cut iron contains more carbon than steel.
(c) Chromium improves the properties of steel.
(d) Copper contains iron.
(e) Bronze is an alloy
'Plastics and ceramics are non-metals; however, plastics may be machined
like metals. "Plastics are classified into two types thermoplastics and
thermosets. "Thermoplastics can be shaped and reshaped by heat and
" The following symbols are used in the solutions:
equals, means the same as
efi does not equal, mean the same SS
Cr. that is to say
therefore

Figure 4. From English in Mechanical Eneneering by

Eric H. Glendinning. Copyright 1973 by Oxford
University Press, Inc. Reprinted by permission.

21 28
Comparison
and Contrast: In this pattern the main idea is developed through
comparison and contrast with other things. Often
examples are used to illustrate. Definitions and
descriptions are often included in this pattern.

Example paragraph: Comparison and Contrast.

In studying the phenomenon usually referred to as sleep, we are

actually dealing with more than one phenomenon. In point of fact,
we spend the night alternating between two different types of sleep,
each with different brain mechanisms and different purposes. As a
person: rlils asleep, his brain waves develop a slower and less regular
patter:, 'clan in a waking state. This is called orthodox sleep. In this
state the brain is apparently resting. Its blood supply is reduced, and
its temperature falls slightly. Breathing _and heart rate are regular.
The muscles remain slightly tensed. After about an hour in this
state, however, the brain waves begin to show a more active pattern
again, even though the person is apparently asleep very deeply. This
is called paradoxical sleep because it has much in common with
being awake. Paradoxical (active) sleep is marked by irregular
breathing and heart rate, increased blood supply to the brain, and
increased brain temperature. Most of the muscles are relaxed.
There are various jerky movements of the body and face, including
short bursts of rapid eye movement (REM's), which indicate that we
are dreaming. Thus, we spend the night alternating between these
two vital "restoration jobs": working on the brain (paradoxical sleep)
and working on the body (orthodox sleep.)

From Paragraph Development by Martin L. Arnaudet

and Mary Ellen Barrett. Copyright 1981 by Prentice-
Hall, Inc. Used by permission.

Other patterns of organization of texts include:

Analysis: In this pattern, a topic is broken down into causes,
effects, reasons, methods, purposes, or other
categories that support the main idea.
Analogy: In this pattern the main idea is implied by the use
of analogy. This organizing principle is often used
to make complex concepts easier to understand by
relating them to better known ones.
Definition: The purpose of a text in this pattern is to define,
explain, or clarify the meaning of something. It
may involve analysis, comparison or contrast,
description, or even analogy. Help students to
become adept at recognizing implied and explicit
definitions.

22 29
 Do not ask students to read aloud in class to test their
comprehension. When reading aloud, the reader focuses on pronun-
ciation, not comprehension. In any case, listening to other
students' inaccurate reading is boring and counterproductive.
Students should read silently when reading is to be done in class.
Students will appreciate hearing you read aloud, however, because
listening to native speakers is one way they accustom themselves
to the sound patterns of English.

Students often believe they must understand every word in

order to read English. In fact, good reading means the ability to
process chunks of language larger than single words, so striving
for word-for-word recognition will actually slow students down and
irterfere with their overall comprehension. Encourage them to use
the context of the passage to understand it, rather than reaching
for the dictionary every time they do not recognize a word.
Context clues include use of functional definitions, as in "The
scientist used a caliper to measure the thickness of the paper"
where the meaning of "caliper" can be inferred from the
description of the function of a caliper. Using context clues
also includes noting grammatical clues, such as recognizing that a
word is an adjective because of its position in the sentence, or
noting past tense endings or possessive forms.
Context clues also include understanding the meaning of the
other words in the sentence and applying such understanding to
infer the meaning of an unknown word or phrase. For example,
students can be taught to infer the meaning of the word "drought"
in the sentence "Because of the drought, many communities in the
Sahel region of Africa are having to leave their homes to search
for water."

Be sure to get the most out of any reading passage you

assign, using it in various ways so that students work with
familiar material that they understand well in doing various types
of reading and study skills exercises. Flgure 5 shows how a
reading passage can be used to develop several different types of
exercises. Guidelines for preparing reading comprehension ques-
tions are given in Chapter Five, Materials Selection and
Development.

Objectives for_Taachina_Raadiaci

1. Students will demonstrate their understanding of au-

thentic material in their content area, including
stating the main points of the text and giving the
author's point of view.
2. Students will be able to scan a passage quickly to
find specific information.
3. Students will use an increasing large vocabulary in
the subject area and in general academic language.

23
30
Activities fuSieysj_munt of Reading Skills_
1. Use fill-in-the-blank vocabulary exercises like the one given
in Chapter Four, Plogran Design, to develop students' vocab-
ulary. This type of exercise also doubles as a listening
comprehension exercise if you read the sentence aloud and
ask students to write in the missing vocabulary word.
2. Vocabulary can also be developed through instruction about
prefixes and suffixes that carry meaning in English. These
include:

a) prefixes which convey negative meaning, such as un-;

in-; non-; a--; dis-; anti-; de-; counter-; contra--;
mis--; mal--; under--; over-;. Examples:
like/dislike; understand/misunderstand.

b) Noun-agent suffixes such as -er; -or; -ent; -ant;

-ist; -ian. Examples: teach/teacher;
science/scientist.

c) Verb-forming suffixes such as -ize; -ify; -ate.

Examples: organize; specify.

d) Noun-forming suffixes such as -ation; -cation;

-tion. Examples: organization, specification.

3. Have students use what they read in order to perform a

task. Following is an example of such an activity from
the plyclgus series (see Appendix A, Resources):
"In a given system the chances of a component failing
after the first five thousand hours are one in a
thousand. During the next three thousand hours the
chances of failure uniformly decrease until after
eight thousand hours the chances are one in two
thousand. The failure rate remains constant for the
next four thousand hours. It then enters the wearout
period and the chances of the component failing in
the next three thousand hours increase uniformly to
one in eight hundred.

Now draw a graph to plot the changes in failure

rate as a percentage. Make the vertical axis
the failure rate and the horizontal axis the
operating hours."

(From Engineerj.ng by T. Dudley-Evans, T. Smart, and

J. Wall. Copyright 1978. Used by permission of
Longman Group, Ltd.)
4. Exercises can be developed which help make explicit the
organizational pattern and/or main idea of the author. The
outlining exercise in Chapter Four, Program Design, is an
example of this.

24 31
5. Encourage students to read extensively by asking them to
report on material they have read outside of class which is
relevant to the topic under consideration.
6. If time permits, incorporate some time for silent reading
into your instructional program.

25 32
 UNIT 19
Computer arithmetic

pi The digital computer is an electronic machine which contains thousands

of tiny circuits characterized by the fact that they have only two states:
complete and broken. A complete circuit signifies that the electricity is
on, whereas a broken circuit signifies that the electricity is off. lt is
through the on and off states that information is transmitted by the
computer. Substituting numbers for these states, one can say that 1 is on
and 0 is off; this is the number system on which the computer operates.
Because there are only two digits in this system, it is termed* binary
system with the 0 and 1 being called bits B from binary and it from
digit. They can represent all other numbers, the alphabet, and special 10
characters such as $ and 0.
m In our everyday arithmetic, we use the decimal system, which is based
on ten digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. In the decimal system,
maiplication by ten would yield the following results:
10 .= (10° x 0)+ (10' x 1) 15
100 = ()0°x 0)+ ()01x 0)+002 x 1)
woo = (10° x 0) + (101 x 0) + ()02 x 1) + (105 x 1)
In tabulating this, we notice that we multiply by 10 each time we move
a number one column to the left; that is, we increase the base number
10 by the power 1. 20
(103) (102) (101) (10°)
1000 100 10 1

1 (1)
1 0 (10)
1 0 0 (100)
1 0 0 0 (1000)
Therekte, 652 in the decimal system is equal to 2 + 50 + 600:
100 10 1

2 (1 x 2)
5 0 (10 x 5) 30
6 0 0 (100 x 6)

Fisture 4. From English for Computer Science by Norma

D. Mullen and P. Charles Brown. Copyright 1983 by
Oxford University Press, 1,c. Reprinted by permission.

26
33
192 Mr 19 Coosa(' arithmetic

131 Since the binary system is based on two digits, 0 and 1, we multiply by
'2 instead of by 10 each time we move a number one column to the left.
So to convert binary to decimal, we use the base number 2 with
sequentially increasing powers. 35
(23) (22) (2i) (20)
8 4 2 2
As an example, the decimal number 1 is 0001 in binary.
13 4 2 1 (decimal)
0 0 0 1 (1 x 1) ,to
The decimal number 2 is equal to 1 x 2 plus 0 x 1 or 0010 in binary.
8 4 2 1

O 0 1 0 (0 x 1) plus (1 x 2)
The decimal number 3 is equal to 1 x 1 plus 1 x 2 or 0011 in binary.
13 4 2 1 45
O 0 1 1

Let us tabulate the decimal numbers. 0 to 15 in the binary system.

(23) (22) (21) (20)
8 4 2 1

0 0 0 0 (0) so
0 0 0 1 (1)
0 0 1 0 (2)
0 0 1 1 (3)
0 1 0 0 (4)
0 1 0 1 (5) ss
0 1 1 0 (6)
0 1 1 1 (7)
1 0 0 0 (8)
1 0 0 1 (9)
1 0 1 0 (10) so
1 0 1 1 (11)
1 1 0 0 (12)
1 1 0 1 (13)
1 1 1 0 (14)
1 1 1 1 (15) Bs

Pll The binary system is very tedious for humans, especially in the handling
of long numbers, and this increases the possibility of committing errors.
To overcome this limitation, two number systems were developed which
are used as a form of shorthand in reading groups of four binary digits.
These arc the octal system with a base of 8, and the hexadecimal 70
system with a base of 16. CDC computers use the octal system, whereas
IBM computers use the hexadecimal.
fiattl. Con tin ued .

27 34
 UM, 19 Cowl:Ago arithmetic 193

is) The table above shows that four binary digits may be arranged into 16
different combinations ranging from 0000 to 1111. This forms the basis
of the hexadecimal system. To represent these binary combinations, the 75
system uses the digits 0 to 9 and 6 letters of the alphabet: A, B, C, D,
E, and F. Following is a table that shows the relationship between the
binary, the octal, the hexadecimal, and tbe decimal systems.
Decimal Hexadecimal Octal Binary
0 o o 0000 50
1 1 1 0001
2 2 2 0010
3 3 3 0011
4 4 4 0100
s 5 5 0101 as
6 6 6 0110
7 7 7 0111
8 a 10 1000
9 9 11 1001
10 A 12 1010
11 B 13 1011
12 C 14 1100
13 D 15 1101
14 E 16 1110
15 F 17 1111 es
PI On some computers, addition is the only arithmetic operation possible.
The remaining arithmetic operations are based on the operation of
addition (+): subtraction () can be thought of as the addition of
negative numbers; multiplication (x) is repeated addition; division (+)
is repeated subtraction. How do we add in tbe binary system? There are loo
four basic rules of addition which we must remember:
1+0=1
0+1=1
0+0=0
1 + 1 = 0 and carry 1 or 10 (read from the right 105
to the left as zeroone).
Here is an example:
Binary Decimal
1110 14
1000 8 110
10110 22

fiv_r_z_li. Continued.

26
35
104 NU 19 Composer arilbserir

Exercises
1 Main idea
Which statement best expresses the main idea of the text? Why did you
eliminate the other choices?
O 1. There are four different number systems.
O 2. Most arithmetic operations can be analysed in terms of addition.
O 3. Computer arithmetic is based on 0 and 1.

2 Understanding the passage

Decide whether the following statements are true or false (TT) by
referring to the information in the text. Then make the necessary
changes so that the false statements become true.
T F
O 0 1. The digital computer uses the decimal number system.
O 0 2. In the decimal system, the 0 is called a bit.
O 0 3. The binary system has only two digits.
O 0 4. In binary arithmetic l + 1 = 0.
O0 5. Unlike IBM computers, CDC computer arithmetic is
based on S digits.
O 0 6. The hexadecimal system is based on 16 numbers.
O 0 7. To subtract a number really means to add a negative
number.
O 0 8. The computer transmits information through the
principle of connected or broken electrical circuits.
O 0 9. The $ sign cannot be represented in the binary system
because it is not a number.
O 0 10. The hexadecimal system is an economical way of
representing the binary system.

3 Locating information
Find the passages in the text where the following ideas are expressed.
Give the line references.
1. To do calculations using the binary system is laborious work.
2. The computer gets information by means of electric circuits
which are either on or off.
3. In binary, 1 + 1 equals 0 and 1 is carried to the next column.

rilture 5. Continued.

29
36
 thea 19 Computer arithmetic
195

4 Roth numbers and letters are used in the hexadecimal system.

5. The binary system has two digits only.

4 Contxtual reforsnc
Look back at the text and find out what the words in bold typeface refer to.
1. that they have only MO stiteS (I. 2)
2. h is termed a binary system (1. 8)
3. They can represent all other numbers (1. 10)
4. which is based on ten digits (I. 12)
5. this increases the possibility (I. 67)
6. These are the octal (1. 70)
7. This forms the basis (I. 74)
8. that shows the relationship (/. 77)

B Understanding words
Refer back to the text and find synonyms for the following words.
1. means (1. 3)
2. replace (1. 6)
3. conditions (I. 6)
4. give (I. 14) .............
5. uninteresting (1. 66)

Now refer back to the text and find amonyms for thc following words.
6. incomplete (I. 3)
7. completed circuit (I. 4)
8. decrease (I. 19)
9. impossibility (I. 67)
10. the same (1. 74)

Word forms
1. characterize, characteristic, characteristically, characterized,
character
a. My daisy wheel printer can print 132 per
line.
b. Daisy wheel printers are by having a superb
print quality.
c. Can you describe the most imponant of the
computer?
d. The 0 and 1 in computer arithmetic represent the alphabet, oll
numbers, and special such as $ and E. EhoL____e 5.
Continued.

30
37
196 OW 19 Compaer arithmetic

2. substitution, substituting, substituted, substitute

a. The 0 and 1 in computer arithmetic are . for
the two states of electricity, i.e. off and on.
b. There is no for the speed at which a
computer performs arithmetic operations.
3. conversion, convert, converted, converter
a. Canada has frorn the British to the metric
system. Now centimetres are used instead of inches.
b. from an old computer system to a Dew one
can be time-consuming and complicated.
c. Before the computer can do the necessary computations for a
problem, the number should be to machine
code.
4. combination, combine, combined, combining
a. To represent the 16 different .
of four binary
digits, the hexadecimal system uses the digits 0 to 9 and A, B, C,
D, E and F.
b. Today's microcomputers are almost as powerful as yesterday's
minis, mainly because of man's creativity
with the advancement in chip technology.
S. basis, base, based, basic
a. The binary system is on two digits: 0 and 1.
b. The decimal system uses 10 as a whereas
the hexadecimal system uses 16.
c. Data management involves structuring and
organizing data so as to make them useful and available to more
than one particular user.
d. Flowcharting is a sten in programming.

7 Content review
/Write the appropriate words for the following definitions.
1. a number system based on 10
2. a number system bawd on 8
3. a number system bawd on 16
4. a number system based on 2
5. 0 and 1 when they are the only
digits of a number system

Figure 5. Con tin u ed.

31
. 38
 WRITING/GRAMMAr
Although your students wixi plohaoly place great emphasis on
learning grammar, you should assure them that grammar is not the
most important aspect of language learning. This is easily
demonstrated by reference to the person who knows many grammar
rules and yet cannot understand or expLevt, anything in the spoken
language. Students whose language courses have always focused
exclusively on grammar may urge you to spend lots of class time
explaining various points of English gramnar and structure. Such
explanation is actually teaching English linguistics, and there
is controversy in the field of EFL teaching regarding the real
value of such instruction for language learners. Students may
have a false sense that they are learning English, when, in fact,
they are learning about English, but making little progress
toward comprehending and being able to use the language in the
contexts for which they need it.

Understanding and communicating in English is within the

students' reach even if they don't understand the fine points of
grammar. The ability to function in English is not directly
linked to accuracy of grammatical use or pronunciation. Students
need to be encouraged to use English even if they make mistakes.
The main purpose of language use, after all, is communication.

Some instruction in grammar is necessary, however.

Especially in written work, learning grammar rules can help
students to recognize and correct their errors. In preparing to
teach grammar, be sure you have a good understanding of the
structures that you want to teach, so that your presentation is
clear. It is also important that your students be able to use
the grammar they practice. One way to ensure that students can
make effective use of what they learn is to teach grammar in
conjunction with writing, the skill in which it can best be
practiced. In speaking, we do not usually have the time to
remember and apply rules of grammar, but in writing we have ample
opportunity to monitor our usage. It is in writing that grammar
instruction is most useful. The grammatical forms which are most
useful and most learnable are those which control sentence-level
functions such as question form, negation, relative clause forma-
tion and other structures involved in subordination and coordina-
tion. These features are more important than correct usage of
articles or other non-sentence-level features. Focusing on para-
graph features such as tense continuity across clauses, parallel
structure, and connectors, will help students in reading compre-
hension as well. (See section on READING, above, for more ideas
on teaching grammar with reading.)

Development of writing ability takes lots of practice.

Start with simple, structured exercises and allow students to
develop confidence as writers before you give them longer free
writing tasks. As in other skills, development of writing can be
enhanced through the use of appropriate visuals. See Figu_re
for an example of how a text uses a diagram of the carbon cycle

32
39
7. Reed this wow sod loots al the ifintrust: Look at these:

The carton eyek (A um cause. B se result)

The life of plants and animals depends on chemical substances
A results M B.
containing carbon atoms. Plants obtain carbon from the very results from
small amounts or carbon dioxick in the atmosphere. This atmo- A.
As a rook of A. It occurs.
spheric COI is continually absorbed and given off (released) in the
'carbon cycle% A kads ro 8 (eventua)ly: other events occur between A

absorption As a mutt of
eating plants.
photosynt hesis.
n
Now make ten true sentences from the tables below:

combustion or cool.
embers dioxide is gis
carbohydrates are pi
teoduction of of whole
food by plants.

\
ca,bohydrel Anfesels
decomposition of
dead plants. animals absorb carb

ose:,
411\1\ohotollmfwvi decompoett,Off Decomposition of plants respiration.
bsofohoo of COI relesse of COs under pressure photosynthesis
decomvoirhon Release of CO, into the the fomiation i
under wetly., 14. atmosphere results in and bones in
decant:colon Decomposition or deed the formation I
miens or co, lownenon of bones animals
ob. end teeth results from the re""it4:41 i
Formation of hard water the release of C
sheortition Absorption of CO, by the atmosphi
ersin the st'l leads to the formation t
!Ilogrc I Production of carbohydrates
Formation of carbonic acid
the comhinatio
and CO, in t
forrnshoo ts,CO,
of Coe Formation of shells 'rnosevre.
.;

'
lonoshon of held mites
CCHC01),
sin

Figure 6. From General Science by Bates and El

(Nucleus: English for Science and Technology Se
Copyright 1878 by Longman Group Ltd. Reprinte
(9TA
founspon of shells
41 am as sa git permission.

40
to guide students in writing true sentences. Students need only
choose the correct combination of elements to write the senten-
ces. Another such exercise is shown in Figuxe 2. Here the
students write statements which establish relationships among
animals based on information from a diagram.

Writing assignments should be carefully structured. They

should also be practiced and reviewed often and used as a basis
for more complex writing assignments. Paragraph writing exer-
cises can be based on models which the students first complete,
and then expand or build on. An example of this is given in
figure Students first complete a paragraph based on a dia-
gram, and then use another diagram to write a paragraph in simi-
lar style.

If development of skill in writing longer compositions is a

goal of your writing program, work gradually toward this goal.
Compositions are very time-consuming to correct and should be
limited in length and scope. Following are the structural errors
most often found in student compositions:
1. Subject-verb agreement
2. Articles
3. Word order problems: adverbs, wh-clauses.
4. Present perfect tense
5. Verb + Verb-ing (gerunds) vs. Verb + to 4- Verb
(infinitive)
6. Passive Voice
7. Spelling
S. Punctuation

(From Quide tia language gn0 gtpdy BkIljs for Co1).ege

5tvg1ypt8 a Enalisb Aa A gecongi language by A.V. Martin
It al.)

"Dialogue journals" have recently become quite popular as a

way for teachers to communicate with students individually in
writing without spending massive amounts of time in correction.
The students are encouraged to keep a notebook, a dialogue jour-
nal, in which they write anything they want. The teacher col-
).ects the journals at regularly scheduled intervals, reads them,
and writes notes or comments to the student; hence, a "dialogue"
is created. Error correction can be done through teacher en-
tries, where the correct forms are modeled. Dialogue journals
are an effective way for you to get to know students individually
if you have large classes.

If students write during class time, the teacher can circu-

late among the students, monitor their progress, and offer sug-
gestions. This can be a useful activity.

34 42
 6. Look at this diagram:
hawks

\
snakes

held mice hz.rds \ids bads

hwhiverous insects

green plants
Figure 7. From Biologv, by Adamson and
(Nucleus: English for Science and Technology
A food-web Copyright I' 1977 by Longman Group Ltd. Repri
permission.
Look at these examples:

Possibility: Green plants may be eaten by herbivorous insects or

they may be eaten by field mice. They may also be
eaten by snails.

Probability: Field mice are likely to feed cn green plants.

Now make other statements about possible and probable feeding habits of
the following:

snakesihawks
field mice/snakes/hawks
snails/green plants
herbivorous insects/toads/snakes/birds/lizards
lizards/herbivorous insects
snails/snakes

43
 The Heart 79
!II INFORMATION TRANSFER

I. Look at the following diagram. Write out the paragraph and complete it
with reference to the diagram.

cirouletion of fluid through the

osmotic tissue Stmices
preuure of. osmotic
pressure

hychottatec
peuure hydrostatic
Preuure

CiernOtiC
pleuure

As tbe blood from the arterial to the of the ,

the pressure decreases. In this example, it from mm of
mercury to mm. The , however, remains constant at mm.
At the arterial end, the exceeds the by mm, and so
fluid passes out of tbe capillary into the At the end, the
is less than the by mm, and so approximately the same amount
of passes out of the into the Thus the difference in
pressures causes the through the

FiKure 4. From English in Basic Medical Science by

Joan Maclean. Copyright C 1975 by Oxford University
Press, Inc. Reprinted by permission.

36
02j_g2tiygg_f_gs_tiag_psyslcip n

1. Students will be able to summarize material which

they have read.

2. Students will be able to take notes on lectures or

readings.

3. Students will be able to compose coherent paragraphs

on familiar topics.

4. Students will be able to write short letters in

standard format.

5. Students will be able to write for a variety of

purposes, depending on the needs of their specialty
area.

Actiyities for_Developing Writing Skills

1. Copying exercises are helpful for beginning learners,
especially if their native language uses a writing system
different from English.
2. Writing exercises include dictation and completion of cloze
or fill-in-the-blank exercises. Completion of cloze exer-
cises forces students to hypothesize and to recognize rela-
tionships between sentences.
3. Sentence-combining eY %Uses require students to combine
short sentences into .i-inger ones. This gives them practice
with coordination and subordination without requiring the
composition of coherent prose passages.
For example, given the sentences:

Wheat is subsidized by the government.

The subsidy is paid for local wheat.
The subsidy is also paid for imported wheat.
The purpose of the subsidy is to keep bread prices
low.

Students can form the sentence:

Both local and imported wheat are subsidized by the

government in order to keep bread prices low.
4. Re-ordering jumbled sentences helps students build under-
standing of paragraph structure.
5. Note-taking exercises give students practice recording
information. Guide them in developing good note-taking
style. Teach them that when they take notes they should
include content words, important diagrams, correct figures

37 46
 (such as percentages, quantities), transitional expres-
sions, and appropriate abbreviations and symbols. See
page 12 for more tips on teaching note-taking skills.
6. Outlining exercises for reading, shown in Chapter Four,
Program Design, help students to see the organizational
structure of material they read. In writing, outlining
exercises can prepare the students to write by forcing
them to make their own organizational patterns expli-
cit. Ask students to write a sentence giving the main
thesis of their composition, and then to outline the
pain points they will develop in support of the thesis.
7. Summarizing exercises can be combined with reading or study
skills assignments. Such exercises can also be used to
develop skills in paraphrasing and to caution students
against plagiarism. For example, students can be asked to
read and summarize information in preparation for writing a
research paper. The teacher can evaluate the summary in
terms of how well the students express the information in
the article in their own words.
4. Writing descriptions can include descriptions of substances,
places, and objects. At more advance3 levels this might
include interpretations of illustrations, graphs, and
charts.

9. Writing descriptions of processes, including writing in-

structions or "how to" exercises as well as descriptions of
how things happen over time. See Ixample. rigure
10. Writing definitions. See example, Figure 10,

38 47
 1
Activity 7 Study the following sentences about radio com-
munication and label the diagram using words
from the list given.
Microphone
y4444-1/ Receiving aerial
Transmitter
Loudspeaker
* iv Receiver
Transmitting aerial

A radio transmitter generates radio-frequency

waves.
A transmitting aerial radiates the waves into space.
A receiving aerial intercepts a portion of the radi-
ated waves.
The receiving serial often consists of a piece of wire
or a loop.
The wire conducts small electrical signals to the
radio receiver.
The radio receiver selects and amplifies the signals.
The radio receiver contains a detector.
Audio signals are sent out by the detector.
An amplifier strengthens the audio signals.
A loudspeaker converts the amplified audio signal
into sound waves.
Now complete the following description of the
whole process. Make information previously men-
tioned the theme of each sentence.

The first element in radio communication is a

radio transmitter which .... ... into space by a
.... ... is intercepted .... ... a piece of wire
or a loop. ... conducts small electrical signals to
the radio receiver. ... by the .... The radio
receiver.... The detector .... ... are strength-
ened .... ... by a loudspeaker into ....

46

rhaire 9. From Reading and Thinking In English:

piscovering Discourse by John Moore et. al. Copyright *

i
1979 by the British Council. Reprintad by permission.

39
48
EXERCISE B Making definitions
Study the following diagram:

[Is) scaly mown" so Ibi Phystaw QuentitY

gC ismIQnh1iObQ1
not doecoon

We can make a classifying sentence about a scalar quantity by joining (a)

and (b):
A scalar quantity is it physical quantity.
We can then expand the sentence by including (c):
A scalar quantity is a physical quantity which has magnitude but not
direction.
The expanded etntenct defines a scalar quantity. It is a definition. Now write
as many definitions as you can using the following table.

English in Mechanical Engineering

a b c

a vector quantity can extend a body

a load has magnitude and direction
a tensile force straight line represents a vector quantity
a linear dimension force is a product of basic units
a vector unit can be measured in a straight line
a compressive force dimension can stretch or compress a body
a derived unit physical quantity can compress a body
friction opposes motion

Figure 10. From English in Mechanical Enzineering by

Eric H. Glendinning. Copyright 1973 by Oxford
University Press, Inc. Reprinted by permission.

40
49
 SPEAKING

Your needs assessment will determine whether the development

of speaking skill is a goal in your ESP class. For many ESP
situations, development of speaking skills may be beyond the scope
of what it is possible for you to provide. To provide every
student wlth practice in speaking is an inefficient use of
classroom time. Discussion groups are notoriously difficult to
manage. Students rarely listen to each other talk and "conversa-
tion" degenerates into one student after another saying unrelated
things. Aggressive students usually take and hold the floor, and
it becomes impossible to give everyone the same amount of prac-
tice. Even if everyone did get the same amount of practice, in
the typical class of 50 students and two hours of class time, each
student could not possibly get more than two minutes of practice!

You and your students should not despair, however, because

although in your situation the direct teaching of speaking may not
be practical, studies have shown that increased listening
comprehension leads to increased ability to speak. You can assure
the students that the exercises they are doing to increase their
listening comprehension will make them better able to hold
conversations with native npeakers of English.
If teaching speaking skills is one uf your objectives; for
example, in an ESP class in English for Tc you will need to
select activities that reflect the real fu. for which your
students will use English.

Asking the class to repeat in unison is not teaching speak-

ing. They will not necessarily repeat correctly, you cannot
correct their errors, and repetition may only reinforce their
mistakes. Memorizing and repeating dialogues will also not im-
prove the speaking skill. Speaking is a connunication activity
and improves only with practice in communication. Therefore you
are better off using class time for activities which will increase
overall language proficiency and ability to comprehend spoken
English.

Give students practice in conversation management. Teach

them greetings and closings, and replies to greetings and clos-
ings. Teach them how to introduce themselves and others. Teach
them forms they can use when they do not understand, such as
"Pardon me. What was that again?" or "What does mean?"
or "Please speak more slowly."

Pronunciation is often overstressed in language teaching and

should play a restricted role in your class. Perfect, or native-
like, pronunciation need not be a goal. English is now a world
language and different pronunciations are standard throughout the
world. Learners also need to show themselves to be learners --
lengthy drills to achieve perfect pronunciation of a few words is
not only time-consuming, but may also mislead native speakers into
thinking that the student is more fluent than he or she actually
is, leading to breakdowns in communication.

41
50
 Role playing is an effective way to stimulate conversation
in the classroom. You can use flowcharts to outline a situation
which you want to use as a base for developing your students'
speaking skills. You may want to select a small group of stu-
dents to demonstrate this method until the whole class under-
stands the procedure. Once this is done, you can divide the
class into groups, vary the flowcharts for each group, and then
ask each group to act out their situation for the rest of the
class.

The steps for this exercise are as follows:

1. Choose a situation. This could be based on a text
your students are studying, either with you or in
another class. For example, students of hotel
management may be studying public relations, and
you could devise a flowchart which requires
students to exercise their public relations skills
in English.

2. Teach the required vocabulary, language functions

and grammar. (See suggestions on pages 16 and 24
for teaching vocabulary.) You could then ask stu-
dents to use these same vocabulary items, functions
and grammar points in their role play. This would
provide you with a focus when you are noting errors.
Concentrate on correct use of the selected items,
but otherwise ignore errors, except, of course,
those that lead to major breakdowns in
communication.

3. Design a flowchart similar to the one in Figure 11,

The kinds of exchanges this flowchart might generate
include:

Receptionist: Good morning sir (madam). Can I help

you?
Guest: Yes. My name is Mr. I
have reservations for two nights.
Receptionist: Let me see. I'm afraid I can't see
your name on my list. Are you sure
the reservations were made?
Guest: Yes, of course I'm sure. This is
very annoying. These reservations
were made weeks ago.
Receptionist: I'm sorry, sir. Let me check again.
Guest: This is too much. I would like to
talk to the manager. (Etc.)

42
 Receptionist(s) Guest(a) Manager

Name
Reservation Problem: Irritated
No reservation

ufteswO'...

Still Explain
situation Request
Irritated to
Manager
manager

~1
Leave fur
!tom

Igure 11. Flow Chart for Role Playing Request

Activity. Explanation
Other situations for tourism and hotel management ESP could
include tracing lost luggage, renting a car, discussing a hotel
bill, visiting a historical monument, etc.

Pbjeotives for_the Development of Speakinq Malls

1. Students will be able to carry on a short conversation on a
familiar topic.
2. Students will be able to give a short oral presentation that
they have prepared in advance, fluently and with few errors.
3. Students will be able to ask for information, using appro-
priate language forms.
4. Students will be able to answer a complaint or apologize
appropriately.

Activl.ties for Developing Spgaking Skills

1. Debating. You can divide students into teams and have them
present opposing sides of an issue.
2. Interpreting pictures or explaining diagrams.
3. Giving directions; for example, looking at a map and
explaining how a person would get from point A to point B.

54
44
 STUDY SRILLS

Your students will probably have had little practice in

study skills that we take for granted. They will need instruction
in how to use English dictionaries, grammars, and other reference
books. They will also need practice in basic library skills such
as using pn index or bibliography. In order to do effective
research, they will need to know how to look at a book and
determine the author, publisher, date and place of publication.
You should plan to devote some part of each instructional unit to
development of these skills.

The students will need pr:iAce using good English language

dictionaries, not just bilingual dictioharies which translate from
their language into English. Bilingual dictionaries seldom
contain the technical terms needed for subject-area study.
If your institutipn has a library with English-language
materials, ask the librarians to give your students an orientation
session to show them where English-language materials relevant to
their subject area are kept. They can also point out bibliogra-
phies and indexes which are available for your students' use. You
can assign follow-up activities asking students to take notes,
paraphrase, or compile bibliographies on topics in their fields.
If no library is available to you, you will be more limited
in the skills you can teach. You can still show students how to
get the most from the texts that are available to them, however,
by giving them practice using the index or bibliograpy of a text
that is available.

Give students practice taking notes and writing summaries.

Use these activities to introduce the notion of plagiarism and
ensure that they are aware of academic protocols regarding quota-
tion and use of paraphrased material. Introduce conventions for
citation and footnotes, and preparation of bibliographies.

pbjectives_for Development of Study Skills

1. Students will be able to identify the parts of a
book, including title page, table of contents, in-
dex, glossary, etc.

2. Students will be able to use dictionaries for

information about pronunciation and syllable divi-
sion, to identify the way words are commonly used in
sentences (parts of speech), to find correct mean-
ings, and to determine whether the word is British
or American, formal or informal.

3. Students will be able to use indexes, including

being able to use alternate search words when the
topic they have in mind is not listed.

45 55
 4. Students will be able to use biblio7r3phies, inclu-
ding being able to identify titles which might pro-
vide additional information on their topic of
research.

5. Students will develop note-taking skills, including

outlining and paraphrasing.

6. Students will be able to summarize information they

have heard or read.

Act/Vitigs tor_DeYelOPOct_StOY_SisillQA.
1. The efficient use of a dictionary should be a focus of
your work on study skills. One technique for learning
frequently used words is for students to make a small dot
beside a word every time they look it up in the diction-
ary. If students find certain words accumulate a number
of dots, they should make a list of those words for more
intensive study.
2. Other activities which develop dictionary skills include:
a) Alphabetizing exercises. Especially if the stu-
dents'native language does not use the Roman alpha-
bet, they will need practice putting words in alpha-
betical order, particularly words that begin with the
same letter or letters. This skill is necessary for
any library work and in order to efficiently consult
dictionaries, encyclopedias, and other reference
works. It is also necessary for office work, hotel
management, tourism, and other fields.
b) Syllable division exercises. Students will need to
use the dictionary to find syllable divisions in
order to correctly divide words when writing.
c) Guide word exercises. Students can practice using
guide words to locate words more quickly.
d) Pronunciation key exercises. Dictionaries use
common words, called key words, to illustrate the
pronunciation of the various symbols used by the
publisher to show how words are pronounced. See the
illustration of this in Yiqure 22. Students can be
taught to use these symbols, along with stress mark-
ings, to get full use of their dictionaries.
e) Definition identification exercises. Students should
practice identifying which definition is most appro-
priate when several are given for the same word.

46
56
3. Encyclopedia exercises. If encyclopedias are available in
the library, students should be shown how they are organized
and instructed in the use of the encyclopedia's index. They
can be asked to locate and summarize or paraphrase
information.
4. Yearbooks. Reference books such as the Wor3.0 Allunsw and
WWP 1Jb9, and other yearbooks can be used to get current
information on a wide variety of topics.
5. Atlases. Students can use atlases to get many kinds of
information; for example, about geographical features,
population distributione major resources, and climate.
6. Bibliographies. Students can be asked to use bibliographies
to identify other sources of information about topics of
interest to them.
7. Students' abilities to read and understand published
research in their fields of study may depend on their
knowledge of such research vocabulary as Hypothesis,
Experimental Design, Data Collection and Compilation,
Interpretation of Results, and Evaluation. It may be
helpful to give students an example of a research paper
which uses an experimental researe, -re)cess and discuss
together the components of the r?.., Al design.

47
57
Pronunciation table

VOWELS CONSONANTS

Symbol Key Word Symbol Key Word

i7 beat P Poo
I bit b ban
CY toy t tip
c bet cl dip
re bat k eap
o box, car 9 PP
v bought,
horse tJ church
ow bone d3 judge
u book
f fan
ow bout
V Van
A but
6 thing
a banana,
sister a then
s
at by z rip
au bound
J ship
ot boY MASI=
3
h hot
ur blIrll
tar beer m sum
rat bare Il illn
VW tour song
0

IV means that the It/ sound is said as vi wet

a voiced sound (like a quick English
isV). hw what
loi means that /a/ may or may not be I lot
toed.
l'I show: main strem.
r rot
If shows secondary stress. Y yet
/ 4/ shows stress shift.

Eigl_irtig. From Longman Dictionary of American

Enslish: A Dictionary For Learners of En lish.
Copyright c 1983 by Longman Inc. Reprinted by
permission.
 Chapter Four
PROGRAM DESIGN

This Chapter gives guidelines for the design of an ESP

program. It takes you through the process of setting goals,
designing units, and preparing lesson plans. The steps for
designing a program are shown in Flque

Evaluation

'Lesson Plans:
Activities
Objectives

Text

Unita: Theme
Topic
Goals

Figure 13. Steps in ESP Program Design.

Betting_goals

Setting goals is the first step in the development of your

instructional program. These goals will reflect what you intend
for the students to be able to slg with English at the end of your
course of instruction. Identify relevant, concrete,
ting goals appropriate for your students. and motiva-

Setting goals for learning will become easier as you become

more familiar with the institution and your students. Initially,
you should recognize that your goals will be limited. Your
students will not be able to acnieve complete fluency in English
in a semester- or year-long program. Your task is to specify
just what goals are reasonable. For most year-long Peace Corps
ESP programs, the following are reasonable goals:
o Students will be able to read and comprehend text-
books and research articles in their fields.
o Students will be able to understand short lectures in
English in their technical fields.

49
59
 o Students will be able to write short summaries of
material they have read.
o Students will be able to locate resources for further
information in 111tr specialty area.
o Students will. 'le to ask questions to get infor-
mation or clarify points.
o Students will be able to give short oral reports.

These goals encompass the skills needed for academic study

in an ESP situation where students' needs for English are limited
to reading and attending lectures in English. You may need to
set different goals for students in other contexts. In formula-
ting your goals, you will need to set priorities for the develop-
ment of language skills, and in doing so it is useful to bear in
mind that reception precedes production in language learning. In
other words, students cannot learn to say or write something
which they cannot understand. A manageable initial objective,
then, is to improve the students' receptive competence; that is,
their listening comprehension and reading skills. Listening
comprehension is a must for the student who wishes to attend
presentations or training in English and is a prerequisite for
achieving oral fluency. A good speaker must first of all be a
good listener. As a native speaker, you are in an excellent
position to focus on developing students' comprehension of spoken
English, which will give them the basis they need to develop
skills in speaking and conversational interaction.

Development of c.-mversational skills may be an unrealistic

goal for most Peace Corps ESP courses, where large class size and
varying levels of English proficiency make it impossible to
provide each student with adequate practice in speaking. It may
also be an unnecessary goal, since students' primary ..11ed for
English will most likely be to gain access to informat..on or
training in English, tasks which rely less on speaking than on
reading and listening. If you are teaching ESP for tourism, on
the other hand, you may need to put a high priority focus on
developing listening and speaking skills.
Having set long-term goals, you are ready to select mater-
ials and classroom exercises that lead to development of appro-
priate skills. The range of English abilities in your classroom
will undoubtedly be large. The task you face is to design a
program which challenges the more advanced students without in-
timidating and discouraging those whose English skills may be
weak. You may also face the added challenge of large classes,
few materials, and little equipment. The suggestions given here
are designed to overcome those obstacl2s.

50
60
 Daaignias_Unitg
It is impractical to think of designing your entire semester
or year-long ESP program in advance. It is impossible, at the
beginning of the course, for you to know how quickly students will
progress. Instead, try to outline one or two units of instruction
before classes begin and then be flexible in adapting or modifying
your program as you get to know the students better. As you
becc,me better acquainted with the resources of the institution and
the backgrounds of the students, you will also become aware of
other ways to enrich your program.

A unit can be developed by identifying a major theme, selec-

ting a topic and an appropriate text, and setting appropriate
instructional objectives. Activities can then be selected to
develop the skills you have identified as needed by the students.

1. Theze is a general organizational concept. Build your

course around a theme or series of themes, rather than
choosing different topics at random. In a course in English
for Economics, for example, your general theme might be
price policies, and your topics tlelected from that area of
economics.

2. Tonle. is a convenient unit of syllabus organization. Eng-

lish is learned best in context, and the topics you choose
will provide a context for learning. For computer science,
in a unit whose theme is hardware and software, a list of
topics might include the following:
A. Hardware
1. Mainframes, minicomputers, and microcomputers
2. Computer capabilities and limitations
3. Computer components: the processor, memory, input
and output devices.
B. Software
1. Word processing
2. Data processing
3. Programming.

The topics of interest and importance to your students can

be identified from your interviews with the subject-area in-
structors at your institution. Ideally, you can make your
English instruction parallel to what the students are learn-
ing in theix content courses for maximum transfer of know-
ledge and skills.

3. Texts which address your chosen topic should be selected

with the students' needs in mind. Select one or more read-
ing passages concerned with each topic you have chosen. Try

51 61
 to select readings and topics which build on each other and
develop common vocabulary. The passages can be taken from
commercial ESL or ESP textbooks relevant to the content
area, or from authentic content-area materials such as re-
search papers or textbooks. Guidelines for choosing texts
of appropriate difficulty are provided in Chapter Five.
The reading passage serves as the unit core from which
classroom activities and exercises are developed. Vocabu-
lary, listening comprc)hension exercises, and grammar and
writing exercises can be based on the reading selection
chosen for each unit. The length of the passage will depend
on your assessment of students' abilities, but it should be
long enough to provide opportunities for practicing inten-
sive reading and for increasing reading speed through exten-
sive reading. Appropriate use of any text, of course, will
depend on the skills that your students need to develop.

4. Dbjectives: Following your selection of topics and read-

ings, appropriate objectives for instruction should be iden-
tified. Not only do log need to know the skills that you
plan to teach in each unit, but your students will also
benefit from knowledge of what your objectives are. Objec-
tives should be written for each unit of instruction to
address the specific skills that you want to develop in your
students. Examples of broad objectives for the development
of language skills are provided in Chapter Three; these can
be used as references in writing specific objectives for
each unit.

A spiral concept of program design is recommended. Such a

design calls for "recycling of materials to provide review and
reinforcement of vocabulary and structures covered in earlier
units. For example, the same text can be used to teach the four
skills by using it one week for reading activities, another week
for listening activities, and then using it again later in the
program for writing or speaking activities.

f]ann q Lepsons

After you have developed a unit outline, you will need to

select and schedule activities for each lesson. It is helpful to
build your lessons around a common format. For example, each
Monday class might begin with a listening activity and then have
a series of reading activities. On Wednesday you might work on
grammar and writing. Saving a common format to your lessons
gives you a framework on which to build each unit and helps your
students to become accustomed to your teaching routine.

Following is an example of how a topic and text can be used

to develop a unit outline for a course in English for Computer
Science. Following the unit outline is a two hour lesson plan.

52
62
 The activities given here would be appropriate for a wide range
of topics. Suggestions for other activities can be found in
Chapter Three, Developing Language Skills. This sample unit has
the following format:

I. Text of the reading passage which forms the basis of the

unit Crigqx /4).

//. Unit Outline: Content of unit, skills focus, and teacher's

objectives.

//I. Lesson Plan: Detailed outline of activities for a two-hour

meeting.

/V. Student worksheets to accompany the lesson.

You should evaluate your program to determine whether you

have met your goals and objectives, and then make adjustments to
your program based on this evaluation. See Chapter Six, Program
Management and Evaluation, for suggestions for testing.
 UNIT OUTLINE
(Content of unit, skills focus, and teacher's objectives)
Program: ESP for Computer Science
(This unit outline forms the basis for two class sessions.
The lesson plan for one of the class sessions, which
develops listening and reading, and study skills, follows
this unit outline. The other class session would develop
the grammar and writing skills outlined below.)
Torlie: Software

Copttat:

Reading Assignment: Scientific Applications Software by John C.

Nash, from 131rte, December 1985.
(See Figure 14).

Vocabulary terms: program, style, computations, convenient,

categories, package, equipped, programming
language, operating system.
Visual Aid: Catalog/Chart: Software Tools for Scientific
Computations.
Mini-lecture
topic: Selecting Software: Reading a Catalog.

Bkijle focus:

Listening: Listening for specific information.

Number practice: Dollar amounts from $100.00 to $1000.00; deci-
mals to one place.
Reading skills: Recognizing the author's organizational
patterns.
Study skills: Using a catalog.
Writing skills: Writing a business letter.
Grammar focus:
Reading: Sentences that begin with subordinate
clauses. See how the author uses them.
Example: "When considering a particular
program or package, you first have to
determine what it is supposed to do."
Writing: Structures used to make requests: Example:
"Please send me information about..." "I
would like to know ...", etc.

54
64
Objectivtsi

Listening: Students will be able to understand a

lecture which describes the characteristics
of software programs, as demonstrated by
their ability to answer questions about the
lecture.

Students will be able to understand dollar

and decimal amounts used in context, as
demonstrated by their ability to correctly
write the numbers they hear.
Reading: Students will be able to recognize the
organizational pattern of a text, as
demonstrated by their completion of an
outline of that text.
Study Skills: Students will be able to use catalog
descriptions in English to identify software
appropriate for their applications, as
demonstrated by their selection of such
software.
Writing: Students will learn the form of a basic
business letter in English, as demonstrated
by their ability to write a short letter
asking for information about software
programs.
Grammar: (Reading) Students will learn the structure
of subordinate clauses, as demonstrated by
their ability to find such structures in the
reading text.
(Writing) Students will learn how to make
polite requests in writing, as demonstrated
by their ability to use such structures in
writing a business letter.

55
65
 LESSON PLAN
(This is the teacher's lesson plan. Worksheets needed by
the students for completion of the exercises outlined below
follow this lesson plan.)

Homework AsSignment, Read "Scientific Applications Software"

and answer the questions about the article.
(A reading selection appropriate to the unit topic serves as
the core content of the unit. The students will find it
helpful they are given the reading assignment as homework
before the unit is introduced. This background reading will
prepare them for the content of the lesson and give them
added context for comprehension of the classroom exercises.
See Student Worksheet 1: Reading Comprehension Questions.)
Class Activities:
A. Mathematics language comprehension exercise. (5-10 minutes)
Read the following and ask students to write the number they
hear:

1. The software sources are listed on page 146.

2. The MATH/LIBRARY Program is available for $440.

1. The program costs $320 when purchased by universities.

NAG FORTRAN can be used with Microsoft FORTRAN 3.13.

5. You will need MS-DOS 2.0 to run most scientific programs.
(This activity is described more fully in Chapter Three,
LISTENING COMPREHENSION)
E. Vocabulary building. (10 minutes)

See vocabulary exercise on Student Worksheet 2: Listening

Comprehension Exercises. Read the sentences aloud and ask
students to write the words they hear.
C. Listening Exercise: Mini-lecture (15-30 minutes)
Read the Mini-lecture (See Teacher's Script, below) asking
students to answer the questions they hear on their
worksheets. Then read the passage again so they can
complete the cloze exercise. (See Student Worksheet 3:
Cloze Exercise).

D. Reading/Study Skills (20-40 minutes)

Outlining: Complete the outline exercise together in class.
(See Student Worksheet 4: Reading Activity)

56
66
 Teacher's Script for Mini-Lecture:

MINI-LECTURE: SCIENTIFIC SOFTWARE PRODUCTS

Software provides useful tools for scientific computations.
For those,who do not know how to program computers, software makes
the full power of the machine available. Even those who pan
program the computer often find it more convenient to use a
commercial software package to save time and effort.
Look at the catalog, "Software Tools for Scientific
Computations." Bere you see four categories of sclentific
software. Look at numbecs one through four on your worksheet.
Write the four categories of scientific software there.

Now look at the information given for each software package.

Four pieces of information are given for each software package.
The information given for each package includes the name of the
package, the cost, a short description of the program, and an
address where the software is available.

Look at the first program listed, "MATH/LIBRARY." What is

the cost of this program for individuals? Now look at number five
on your worksheet. Wtite the cost of MATB/LIBRARY at number five.

The description of MATH/LIBRARY tells which computers it is

designed for. It is designed for an 1DM PC or PC XT. The
computer must be equipped with Microsoft FORTRAN, a programming
language, and the operating system MS-DOS 2.0.

Now look at the description of NAG FORTRAN at the bottom of

the first column of the catalog. For which computers is it
designed? Write the name of the two computers at number six on
your worksheet.

The catalog descriptions also list the kinds of mathematical

problems that the programs can solve. These differ from package
to package, and it is this information which tells you whether the
software package will be useful to you. But the description does
not tell the whole story. In order to really know if a program
will help you in your application, you'll have to try itl

57
67
SCIENTIFIC a.
Esins C. Nash (Nash Infannation
Services
Fiore 14. Reprinted with'permiasi
APPLICATIONS f975 Bel Air De. Ottawa. Ontario, Canada
OXI) is a computational mathematician
wipse resarth and writings cm" many arras
from the December 1985 issue of Bi
magazine. Copyright* by McGraw-
SOFTWARE BY IcHIN C NASH
of aimputfr applications. He is also a BYTE
contributing editor.
inc., New York 10020 All rights retie
How to find and
select suitable ,11.1...11.
STYLE
scientific software
The way a software producer prese
Because the subject matter of scien-
To determine whether a tific software Is complicated. it is and packages his creation is the f
scientific applications soft- wonhwhile subdividing topics, not by tor that most often causes buyers
ware package is suited to rave or curse about software If seve
scientific discipline, but by the
your needs. you should author's intended audience. software packages can perform t
consider three thinger-the purpose of A program may have been devel- same function, style may become t
the package. the style in which it's oped to perform a particular compu- hinge of your buying decision.
presented. and its overall quality. tational task or tasks for a limited set lb determine if a program's st)
Most of the software mentioned in of scientific or engineering problems. suits you. you should consider thn
the text boxes for this article is An example of this type of program thingsthe way in which the progra
targeted for microcomputers. and the is one that does structural analysis of must be used. the level of satisfactic
applications are scientific and engi- buildings. or frustration you experience whi
neering tasks. But the suggestions I Or the software may have been de- using It. awl the suitability (or fit
present should help you find and veloped as a general tool for use in application) of the program's packa
select scientific software in general. data reduction, data analysis. or docu-
ing and documentation.
mentation of work in a number of Although it is relatively easy to It
Tim PURPOSE Ot A fields. such as a word-processing sys- the features of a software produc
SorrwARE PACKAGE tem for mathematical or scientific even extensive reviews may fail t
When considering a particular pro- systems or a statistical package. capture the style of the product. lb
gram or package. you first have to de- Alternatively, the package may have expanding availability of demonstra
termine what it is supposed to do If been designed primarily to educate tion disks (especially those that &Oa
it does not address your problems or users in a certain subject area rather you to try all of a program's functions
needs. it is unlikely to be of further in- than to provide serious cornputa Is to be welcomed as an aid to soft
terest to you. donel power to practitioners. An ex- ware selection.
Various sources of information can ample of this kind of program is one The three subdivisions of softwar,
help you determine which software that Illustrates how simultaneous I described eariiersoftware
de
products have the functionality you lirelir equations are solved or one signed to perform certain tasks. to be
need. Some of these sources are t prepares test questiors in a used as a tool. or to be used as a
listed in the text box "Search Aids- rttallic discipline from a master set. teaching aldcan also be aPited to
on page 1415. the discussion of stYie
ramoW011aanl.
voiessosslisftsawnwer
;8
For your own
protection, you should Early scientific software took the
form of single programs or subrou-
ke aware of lite tines (tasks) (for example, the col-
lected algorithis of the Association
quality of a scientific for Computing Machinery). Libraries
of subroutines are still a common and
program before useful form of software packaging. QUALITY
However, unless source code is avail- The degree to which software per-
you buy it. able. this form of packaging requires forms as claim& l far too often taken
that you write driver programs and for granted.
learn how to fink to the compiled sub- In scientific computations subtle in-
routines teractions between th, problem pre-
Mote recently. the microcomputer sented and the floatog-point arith-
has tome to be viewed as a worksta- metic used to solve NI problem may
tion. whkh In turn has led to the de- dramatically alter the results a pro-
velopment of more scientific software gram obtains. 'thus. scientific software
In the form of command- or menu- must operate correctly on the tasks it
driven peciv.4es (tools) that do not re- shares with such programs as word
quire that you ptogram them. As the processors ot database managers.
command set becomft ridte r. you are However. it r lust also be roduced in CONCLUsION
given mote control over dsta manipu- such a way Mat the appoximations The text boxes "Software lbols
lation. and you can group commands and Iterative processes it uses give Scientific Computations" on page
Into procedures that are Interpreted, results that wellinformed users con- and "Microcomputer Software
compiled. or othetwlse processed for sider reasonable. Alternatively. diag- tconomeuic Modeling and Pomo
execution. The end product Is a new nosficinfonnaoon that allows trouble- Ing" at left list a number of scient
programming language in all but some situations to be understood and software packages However, with
nsme. corrected in an appropriate way must devekvnent of new products and
Another approach some software be output. Improvement of existing ones, this
developers take is to provide a pro- For your protection, you should be formation will soon be dated. In on
totype program that is designed to be aware of a program's quality before to obtain more up-to-date Inforr
easily modified by the uset (the yvu buy P. This means you should pay tion, you should also consider I
teaching aid approach). You can adapt attention to reviem by competent following sources: reviews in scient
tt to particular tasks or personal pref- professionals in the field the docu- journals reviews In computer joum
erences This approach is not widely mentation of authorship, methods of and magazines. publicatio
used commercially, partly because program development, the history of dedicated to scientific software and
there are difficulties In protecting the the software. and the reputation of uses and public-access softwz
authorship of programs. the software producer and vendor. databases to

Figure 14.
Continued.
 SOFTWARE 1bOLS
FOR SCIENTIFIC COMPUTATIONS
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 STUDENT WORKSHEETS
(Note: Answers are given in parentheses for the convenience
of the teacher. These answers would not, of course, be
included in the student copies of the worksheets.)

Student Woricsheet 1: Reading Comprehension Questions

Reading: Scientific Applications Software by John C. Nash,
from j3.xtg, December 1985.

Assignment: Read the article and ansuer these questions before

coming to class.
Comprehension Questions:
1. According to the author, what are three major considerations
in choosing scientific applications software?
(The purpose of the package, the style in which it's
presented, and its overall quality.)
2. What are some purposes for which scientific software has
been developed?
(To perform particular computational tasks, as a general
tool for data analysis, or to educate users.)
3. What are the three aspects of program style that the author
considers important?
(The way in which the program must be used, the level of
satisfaction or frustration you experience while using it,
and the suitability of the program's packaging and
documentation.)
4. Why is it difficult to find commercial software that is
easily modified by the user?
(Because there are difficulties in protecting the authorship
of such programs.)
5. What considerations does the author mention regarding
software quality?
(Interactions between the scientific software and word
processors or database managers, reasonable results on
approximations and iterative processes such as floating
point decimal operations, and Oiagnostic information that
allows troublesome situations be understood and
corrected.
6. How can the buyer assess the quality of software?
(By reading reviews by professionals in the field and
checking authorship, methods of program development, the
history of the software, and the reputation of software
producer and vendor.)

62 76
Student Worksheet 2: Listening Comprehension Exercises.
Topic: Scientific Applications Software

Vocabulary Practice
Choose the word from the list below which best completes each
sentence:

operating system convenient computations

equipped programming language package
categories program style

1. Software provides useful tools for scientific

2. This catalog lists four of scientific
software.
3. If several programs can perform the same function,
may become the most important feature.
4. Software usually requires that your computer be
with particular features.
5. Most programs are written for a particular
and

MINI-LECTURE: SCIENTIFIC SOFTWARE PRODUCTS

Directions: Listen to the mini-1ecture and answer the questions
on L.he spaces below.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

63 77
Student Wbrksheet 3: Cloze Exercise.

MINX-LECTURE: SCXENTIFIC SOFTWARE PRODUCTS

Directions: Some words are missing from this passage. The
missing words are contained in the word list. First read the
passage silently. Then listen as you hear it read twice. After
the first reading, you will have two minutes to fill in the
missing words. Then you will hear it again and can check your
answers.

EU& Li Lt.

software where /BM

individuals the kinds
those lists linear
for must can
tells program you'll
of description package
find be order
commercial include does
computations how full

software provides useful tools for scientific

For those wbo do not know to program computers,
software makes the power of the machine available.
Even who can program the computer often
it more convenient to use a software product to eve
tine and effort.

The catalog, "Software Tools for Scientific Computations,"

four categories of scientific 'software- These
General Scientific Software Collections, Software for

Algebra, Software for Nonlinear Equations, and for

Mathematical Programming.

The information given in the catalog each

software package includes the name the package, the
cost, a short of the program, and an address
the software is available.

64
78
 The first program listed, "MATH/LIBRARY," costs
$440. It is designed for an PC or PC
XT. The computer be equipped with Microsoft FORTRAN
and operating system MS-DOS 2.0.
The catalog descriptions also list the of

mathematical problems that the programs solve.

These differ from package to and it is this
information which you whether the software package
will useful to you. But the description
not tell the whole story. In to really
know if a will help you in your application,
have to try it!

65 79
Student Worksheet 4: Reading Activity

READING ACTIVITY: Completing r.r Ovt7ine

Directions: Use the reading text to complete the korg
outline. [NOTE: Suggested answers are given in
parentheses.]

SCIENTIFIC APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE

A. Purpose of a Software Package
1.
(for a particular computational task)
2.
(as a general tool for data analysis)
3.
(to educate users)
S. Style Considerations for Purchasing Software
1.
(the way the program is used
a.
(single programs or subroutines)
...
b.
(menu-driven)

C.
(user modifiable)

2.
(level of satisfaction you experience using it)

3.
(packaging or documentation)
C. Quality Considerations
1.
(operates correctly on tasks shared with other programs)
2.
(approximations and iterative functions are reasonable)
3.
(diagnostic information is output)

66 SO
D. How to Judge i'3oftware Quality

1.
(reviews by competent professionals)
2.
(documentati of authorshi0
3.
(methods of program development)
4.
(history of the software)
5.
(reputation of producer and vendor)

67
 Chapter Five

MATERIALS SELECTION AND DEVELOPMENT

The, materials you teach should be chosen primarily for their

relevance to the content area. You may select them from authentic
materials used in content-area instruction or from commercial
materials. Developing materials is time- and energy-consuming, so
you should take advantage of any materials which are already
available for your use. The Resources section (Appendix A of this
Manual) describes materials that are available through Peace
Corps' ICE. All of the materials listed have been evaluated for
use in Peace Corps ESP programs and are highly recommended. You
are encouraged to order copies.

EtAdins Diffimlix
When choosing texts for use in the language classroom, your
goal is to select passages that challenge the students without
being too difficult. If you want to determine in advance whether
a particular text will be too difficult ',or your students, you can
use the following procedure to find out whether your students will
be able to understand it. This exercise should not be overdone --
use it to check a few passages you plan to use and then use those
as general guidelines for selection of other texts.
Following is a procedure for construction of a cloze passage
to check reading level and difficulty. such a passage is easily
made and easily scored. Follow these steps:

1. Choose a passage of approximately 250 words from the text

you are considering for use in the classroom.
2. Reproduce the 200 words on a mimeo worksheet, deleting every
5th word and replacing it with a blank. (Use 50 blanks for
an easy percentage calculation when you correct them.) Note
that names and numbers should be skipped when they come up
as potential blanks, and the next word chosen.
3. Number the blanks for easy scoring. If you provide an
answer sheet, students will not need to write on the
exercise itself and you will be able to re-use it.
4. Stress to the _lents that this is not a test. Tell them
you are determiA,ng whether the material is at the right
level of difficulty for them to read. Ask them to read the
passage and write an appropriate word in each blank. Do not
time the test; give students ample time to complete it.

69
82
Evaluating the results:
1. For ease and speed in correcting the papers, accept as
correct answers only those words from the original text
which were deleted- Students may provide synonyms which are
appropriate, but accepting these will not help you decide if
the reading qiection is appropriate for the whole class.
(Looking at au.lh answers may help you when working with
studer individually or as they work together in diagnostic
or le n:".ng situations.)

2. Compute the average score of the whole class's perfor-

mance. Second language students will not be able to fill
in wore than 60-70% of even easy material. Evaluate the
results according to these guidelines:

If the class's average score is greater than 53% (inde-

pendent reading level), they can probably read the story
on their own or at home. If the average score is less
than 43% (frustration level) it is too difficult even for
classwork. The ideal is to get a set of scores for all
students which is greater than 43% and less than 53%.
This material can then be used for instructional pur-
poses.

(From John F. Haskell, in glaggzasaLltgstigg_g_jo,

BAIA, TESOL, Washington, D.C. Copyright 1976 by Teachers of
English to Speakers of Other Languages. Reprinted by per-
mission of the publisher and John Haskell.)

These figures are not absolute, but they can provide you
with an initial indication of the suitability of materials for
classwork and independent reading. Experiment with your own
group to find the right level of material.

Selectills Materials

Look at potential materials in terms of their comprehensibi-

lity to the students. In order to judge complexity, look at the
following features:

1. Length: shorter texts will be e.71siet to read, in gen-

eral, than longer trIxts.

2. Internal complexity: texts made up of simple

sentences will generally be easier to read than
texts which contain many complex constructions.
3. Density of new informatiqn: texts whose content is
already somewhat familia co students will be easier
to read than those with unXaniliar content.
 4. Presence of supportive graphics: Pictures, charts,
and other graphics provide context and make reading
easier.

5. Organizational pattern: texts which Id:low a chron-

ological or logical progression in the sequence of
events or actions are more likely to be understood.
6. Degree of abstraction: texts that provide a con-
crete discussion of events rather than analysis or
speculation will be clearer.

If passages are complex and dense, they sl!ould be short so

that they can be read intensively. But stueents also need prac-
tice in developing their reading speed, and to 6o this they need
to read longer selectiona as well. Passages which follow a
chronological order or provide clear descriptions can be long and
still be acceeeible to the students. Supportive graphics are
particularly Jeeportant. Select texts which present a concept
clearly through visual or graphic exampleR. Visual aids contri-
bute much to the comprehensibility of a reading passage.

Othez aspects of texts which affect their readability are

the relevance of the topic to the students' interests, the task
students are asked to do with the material, and the cultural
context of the reading. Material which ic not apparently relevant
will be more difficult for students to comprehend. Tasks
appropriate to different levels of reading complexity are sugges-
ted in Chapter Three, Developing Language Skills. Texts should
also be assessed to ensure that they are not so culture-bound as
Z.o be incomprehensible to learners from other cultures. The
cultural context is crucial because materials whose cultural
content the students find objectionable will not only be incom-
prehensible, but may in some cases also alienate them.

Students do not have to understand every part of every

reading passage they work from. You can use materials from which
students can gain some skill or insight, even if total comprehen-
sibility is not achieved. Students will accept this if they are
told that they are reading a particular text for specific infor-
mation or for a particular purpose; for example, if students are
asked to scan an article to find the answer to questions you give
them. The text can then later be "recycled" at a higher level as
the students gain in proficiency.

eyelopinQ

Developing appropriate materials takes lots of time and

effort, but the end product is usually something that meets the
specific needs of your students better than commercial materials.
You will probably have a good collection of materials you have
prepared yourself by the end of your course. You can ensure that
other Volunteers who follow you in your position will be able to

71
84
make good use of your work if you label each exercise and organ-
ize your materials in a way which will be clear to someone new
coming into your job.

Peace Corps' ICE is also constantly looking for Volunteer-

developed materials which have broader value. Send copies of the
materials you develop to ICE so that they can review them for
possible publication. In this way materials with wider applica-
bility can be made available to other Volunteers teaching ESP in
the same content area.

This Manual stresses the use of authentic subject area

reading texts as the core for your instructional units. If you
are unable to find texts at a reading level appropriate for your
students, you may consider simplifying or adapting more difficult
materials. Such a process should be undertaken with caution.
however. Studies have shown that when material is simplified, it
often becomes more difficult to understand. Features which con-
tribute to comprehensibility are unintentionally eliminated by
the native speaker who attempts to simplify a text. The rela-
tionships between sentences may become unclear, or natural redun-
dancy may be eliminated. The coherence of the passage may
suffer.

If you cannot find texts at the right level cf difficulty

for your students, however, the following guidelies can help you
to adapt texts for students with low-level skills.

First, start with an original text which expresses an idea

or presents some information that you want your students to know.
Reduce this text to a list of separate points. Then recombine
these points, using maximum redundancy and clarity. For example:
Figure 11 is an article from TIME magazine veth content interes-
ting to a science class. Some main points were selected from the
article:

1. A massive object has been discover?d in space.

2. The object was discovered when physicists realized that

what appeared to be two quasars was actually the same
quasar.

3. The light from the quasars is diverted by the intense

gravitational field of the object in space.
These points, along with details from the article, were used to
develop the simplified text in gliqure 11. The diagram was also
simplified to eliminate extraneous information and to highlight
the most relevant features. The important point here is that
instead of starting with a complex text and simplifying it, you
should start with the ideas that are important and compose a text
youra,elf. In this vay the features of natural language will best
be preserved.

Often authentic materials can he used in ESP classrooms

72 85
without simplification, especially if the students' readi i;)i-
lity is at a higher leval than their other skills, as is L the
ease. Some commercial publishers use authentic reading pft 3es
in their texts, glossing words that students may not ktotl. .51
example of such a passage is given in rigurp

If you select rtading passages from subject area texts or

articles, you will have to develop your own reading comprehensioz
activities to accompany them. The type of questions you ask
depends, first, on whether the students are reading intensively or
extensively (see Chapter Three, READING.) Questions for intensive
reading first ask about f:amrete informatic and general ideas.
In both types of reading, questions should be asked about the
author's point of view or the student's own opininn of what was
said. In extensive reading, check only comprehension of important
points in the story, not minor details.
Following are some types of comprehension questions, fol-
lowed by examples based on figure
1) Questions which refer to persons, identification of
place, etc. Example: What are some American
products that are recogni2ed for their high quality?
(Answer: commercial aircraft, tractors, sheets,
plastics, chemicals, machine tools.)
2) Finding sentences or words that are redundant (that
express the same meaning). Example: Find three
words in paragraph five that have the sane n-ning
as the word "company." (Answer: pacesetters,
industries, makers.)
3) Making a of words which belong to the same
category. Example: Find several w,.):ds in the arti-
cle which are used to describe high quality. (An-
swer: long-wearing, stronger, purer, flawless,
etc.)

4) Questions which ask what is being referred to in the

text when a reference is make to some other part of
the text. Example: What does "the word" In the
first sentence of paragraph six refer to? (Answer:
quality.)

5) Find and underline the sentence or sentences which

express the main idea of the passage. (Answer: The
first sentence of paragraphs two and three.)
6) Outlining. Initially, you can prepare a skeleton
outline for the students to fill in. (See example in
Chapter Four, Program Design). Eventually, they can
prepare their own. The outline should be designed
to reveal discourse organization features; that is,
how the author has organized the material. Focus on
transitions and other words used to structure the

73
66
 Science
i le none of these previous multiple
images was separated in the sky by more
Through a Lens Darkly than seven arc seconds, the latest dual
quasar images are 157 arc seconds, or
Twin images signal the discovery ofa mysterious cosmic object snore than 22 times 111.1 far apart. In order
to bend light that much, the lens must
t was a coal-black night in March, the nal path by the intense field (ree diagram) have the mars of a thousand galaxies.
kind astronomers like best: At Arizo- and produces what earthbound observers Says Turner: "It was like looking for a
na's Kitt Peak National Observatory, see as multiple images. cat in the backyard and coming up with
Princeton Astrophysicist Edwin Turner As long ago as 1915, Albert Einstein an elephant."
pointed the 158-in. reflecting telescope predicted that. as a sonsequence of his So far, however, it is an invisible
first at one distant pinpoint of light in the general theory of relativity, light lays elephant. Says Co-Author Maarten
sky, then at a neighboring one. A few would be bent if they passed through the Schmidt, the Caltech astronomer who 23
hours later, studying the results of his intense gravitational field of a massive ob- years ago discovered that quasars were
night's labors, Turner could hardly be- ject. That prediction was confirmed by the most distant and intrinsically bright-
lieve his eyes. "It was a big surprise," he British Astronomer Arthur Eddington in est objects in the sky: "The fact that we
lays. "But a big surprise is al- do not see anything there makes
ways a clue you might be on the it rather challenging. It is diffi-
track of something." cult to bide an appropriate clus
Something indeed. After an- I . I ter of mass between us and the
alyzing the light from the distant : ' quasar."
sources, 'Avner and seven other 11 . Rising to the challenge,
scientists concluded that they Turner's team suggests another
had apparently found evidence possible source of the powerful
of the most massive object ever gravitational lens: a black bole
detected. That object, they sur- at least a thousand times as large
mise ka a report poblished lut " the Milky Way &ataxy (which
week in Natars, could be a huge consists of hundreds of billions
cluster of galaxies or a black of stars, including tlle sun). ir
hole far larger tba.n any ever an- that black hole exista, it should
ticipated. More startling, it be producing dual images of oth-
might be t "cosmic string," a hi- er quasars nearby in the ::ky, and
tam hypothetical remnant of I astronomers have begta to seek
the:chaotic birth of the universe. them Wt. Still, astrcphysirirA:.
find it difficult ID I bow .:LI
The Kitt Peak telescope bad
been aimed at what app,utred to tremendous a bla,:k he wJ:1
be two MAWS, mystenous, in- have formed.
tensely bright bodies so far away II
The Naive .
that the light they emit travels another intriguins
for billions of years before the lens effect: the
teaching the earth. Gathered by 'This weird one-dimensional
the telescope'a parabolic minor, t_- I
creature viLaderived mathemat-
the light from each of the qua- ically by physicists pondering
tars was coovert=1 111to a spec- the events that occurred in the
trum, from which a quesar's characteris- 1919, when he traveled to an bland oir ) irIction of a second after the Big
tics and even its distance Can be Wftt Africa to observe a total tabu created the universe. In theory,
dtterniined. Most scientists believe that eclipse, From there he was able to mea- strings were either infinitely long or
each of the some 3,000 known au- sure Precisely the location of a star that enclosed in a bap and could move at
and thus the spectnun of each, la r."..A became visible in the suddenly darkened nearly the speed of light. Although irthni-
Says Caries Lawrence, ataltecht,o..71. sky near the edge of the sun. Decease light tesimally thinner than the nucleus of an
coer and a co-author of the Nature paper. from the star was bent by solar gravity as atom, those that have survived should
"Quasar spectre are something like fin- it passed the sun, the apparent position of have formidable gravitafional fields.
and no two are the same." the star in the sky was slightly displaced Each mile of length could contain a mass
But es Turner confirmed, the two from its known position by the amount equivalent lo that of the earth. As in the
spectra recorded at K.itt Peak were virtu- that Einstein had predicted. case of black ho- ...".ings would theoreti-
ally identical. This meant that if each By the 1930s, Einstein and other sci- cally produm aie image.: of other
were from a different quasar, the two ob- entists had recognized tbe possibility of a nearby quasars. Explains Schmidt: "Since
jects would not only have identical chemi- gravitational lens effect but doubted that there are other q;_ssars in the region, one
cal properties and temperatures but also it would ever be observed. Then, in 1979, would expect to see some of them doubled
would be the same distance (about 5 bil- two Britons and an American working at as well,"
lion light-years, in this case) aways IC.itt Peak observed the first lensing phe- Turner also has reservations. "I give
highly unlikely coincidence. "If you get nomenontwo quasar images with virtu- the cosmic string theory less than a filly-
matching fingerprints," Turner says, "you ally identical spectral characteristics. fifty chance of being the answer," be says.
could have images from the same quasar." Their cronclusion: something, later shown "But if it is, it would be extremely excit-
Row does one quasar produce two im- to be a cinsttr <if galaxies, was serving as ing. Just think, we would be looking at a
ages? The answer, astronomers say, lies in the graviteticntsd lens, obscuring the actu- fossil of the Big Bang." tyy.twate auphy.
a "gravitational lens," an immense object al quasar but bending its light rays to rm 16,11/Les Mvics end
Rog:kat...116y Jon
with a powerful gravitational field located an image on either side. Since then, five Soraskt/New York
somewhere between the quasar and the other examples of quasar multiple images 'Each degree oftre in the sky is divided inio 60 Arc
earth. As light from the quasar approach- have been observed, and intervening lens minutes and 3.600 arc seconds. The full moon spans
es the object, it is diverted from its origi- galaxies found for three of them. a half deo*. or 10 arc minutes.

1134E, MAY 19.19$6 87

74
87
Sinvlified Version:
Astrophysicists at an observatory in Arizona have discovered a mysterious cosmic
object. 'Their telescopes had been aimed at what appeared to be two quasars;
mysterious, intensely bright bodies so far away that their light travels for billions of
years before reaching the earth. Most scientists believe that each of the 3,000 known
quasars is unique. Says astronomer Charles Lawrence, "Quasars are like
fingerprints, and no two are the same."
However, when the astrophysicists in Arizona put together information on the
characteristics of the two quasars, including their distance from the earth, they
discovered to their amazement that the two quasars were identical.
This is such an unlikely possibility that the astrophysicists realized they must be
receiving two images from one quasar. But how does one quasar produce two
images? The answer, say astronomers, lies in a "gravitational lens," an immense
object with a powerful gravitational field, located somewhere between the quasar
and the earth. As light from the quasar approaches the object, it is diverted from its
ori -.al path by the inunense gravitational field (see diagram), and produces what
pet ,e on earth see as two images.

Image 1
elso
dor es.
mo
o."

Path of light

Real position of
Earth Quasar

Path of light
Image 2

Fiture 18, (Opposite Pagel Reprinted with permission

from the May 19, 1996 Issues of TIME magazine.
Copyright 0 by Time-LIfe, Inc. MI rights reserved.

75
CHAPTER EIGHT: The Battle
for Quality Begins
Jeremy Main . Fortune

Vito My" Ins wails] wearLiss in industry Why are we suddenly so worried about the quality of Aintliican
k so only odscates doe tacellerm or wren- products? Boeing makes the best commercial aircraft ic th *orki.
airy a product. bus Own isiIie also the
amsures hal rout' be lokeo in ceder to rm. International Harvester and Deere & Co. produce the mast reli-
s- Amor quality able° uactorsequipped, if farmers want, with stereos, sir condi-
LA.abk: dependable. *bid will email, in
working order over the gonna life of she tioning. orthopedic seats, and adjustable* steering wheels. Euro-
!endue'. pew tourists carry off American-made permanent-press sheets
Amiable: whit* con be mood or changed
aceordsng to need
!because they're cheap, long-wearing, and dazzlingly patterned. Our
Wade tin pow: twin little to do with the plastics are stronger, our chc:nicals purer, and our machine tools
arabssci. irrelevant. built to finer tolerances than ever. This is all true enoughyet,
unhappily, it is also largely beside tbe point.
hapercepalkly: wo slowly lo be America's le43ership in quality has been almost imperceptibly'
iibk anding for yeilfs. More and more U.S. executives have awakened
ChM: ovwer. Wolsence
%sites (sho ~dem) tbree odso sell les to the fact that they are caught in a fateful struggle. They are turn-
iscriatly so minufacturersi ing their companies upside down to give qualiry specialists more
Pers...dical:y: moo arid Then. aornetunes. from
Woe so tow clout. Vendors are being told to supply better pans or lose the
business. In hundreds of factories, unall groups of workers are sit-
ting down periodically' to search for ways of improving quality
and productivity.
Ascirkssody: w tonone cire. sbibprate. or While U.S. companies have steadily improved quality, they are
pertinence. coming under pressure largely because the Japanese have advanced
ears: esuresnify mann mums onnicow
einurs4 wasirssal Nod i oucro-elactionses by leaps. Building assiduously° for 30 years on a foundation of
theories developed in the U.S., the Japanese have made quality the
weapon that wins obe world's markets. A few bald facts show how
vie)] they have done: A Dew American car is almost twice as likely
to have a problem as a Japanese model. An American color TV
needs repoir half again as often as a Japanese set. U.S.-made
computer-memory chips were judged in one test this year to bc
three times as likely to fail as Japanese chips. *There's no question
that the Japanese have set new world standards:* says Robert E.
73

Yleure tE "rbe Battle for Quality Begins" by J. Main.

FORTUP,Z magazine, December 29, 1980. (c) Time Inc.
AU righ..a !,,;:served. From Business World by R. Speegle
and Giesecke. Copyright 0 1983 by Oxford
University Press. Reprinted by permission.
 Cht 'ter Eight 9
Cole. who has worked in Japanese factories and now directs the
University of Michigan's Center for Japanese Studies. "Their best
factories.are baner than our best factories."
Roben B. Reich, director of policy planning in the Federal Trade Coorocpwocest molts. effects.
Commission, summarized the consequences of the relative decline
in American quality in a speech this year (19801: "In industry after
industry, consumers in America and elsewhere are tuming their backs
on U.S.-manufactuntd products in favor of fottign competitors; 28%
of our automobiles are now manufactured abroad by non-U.S. com-
panies. 30% of our sport and athletic goods, 34% of microwave
ovens, 90% of Cb radios and motorcycles. almost 100% of video
cassette recorders. The list goes on and gets longer year by year:
radial tires, calculators, tekvisions, food processors, premium beer,
cameras, stereo components, digital watches, pianos. bicycles, out-
board motors."
Among U.S. companies. it's often hard to identify the special raceme:eery thaw who crate the atamdardi.
characteristics that divide those that lead in quality from those that espectall) the Nehru standard*
Voloalsation: formation of emsoctstions
have fallen behind. Certainly the pacesetters are run by people who (unarm/ foe the pupae a itopporunt work.
insist on 'c:allence, often by an individual or family with a repu- en' rawest*
tation Coosa istrasety: the extent to which costal
Beyond that, though, none of the usual influences Must be invested per product
on indus,..)al performanceunionization*, capital intensity* . the Plapoeties: differences. gaps
number of competitorsseems to explain quality disparities* among Ileasouse: not inbject or auscosibk eo hoax.
thing?. free horn
companies or industries. Nor is there reason to suspect that today's
makers of even the best U.S. productsfarm Nuipment. aircraft.
machine tools, large applianceswill be immune to future threats.
One thing that complicates thinking about quxlity is that the Worthect: practtrat. effective
word can mean just about whatever a CusiofTICt thinks it means. To
the fashion-conscious, qualit)' might mean the patch that transforms
a $20 pair of jeans into a $40 pair. To a space scientist, quality
represents a million parts so carefully made, tested, and assembled
that they will function flawlessly for years. A work.* definition
of the quality most sought today might be "fitness for use, plus
reliability. deliverrl at a marketable` price."
The principles fe: improving quality !Yen': developed in the U.S. PtitOollad: rven too or sof aloof', cart o r at.
before and duns; Wcrld War lland then neglected here. But Iowan
Vacusow: a space occupied h) nothing
Americans have been teaching the principles to the Japanese for 1Alp4ot omit: destrorine. raison,
three decades, with extraordinary results. When inclooxialists moved letevryor: teller
into the postwar power vacuum in Japan, they MU that the econ-
omy depended on wiping out the nation's image as the world's
purveyor of junk. In 1950. the Japanese invited W. Edwards Dem-
ing, a Census Bureau statistician, to lecture on ritlhods he had
developed for statistical analysis of quality. Four years later, they
asked Joseph M. Juran. a Western Electric quality manager, to in-
struct them on management's role in improving quality.

rigure le. Continued

77
90
 material. The outline should reveal the intent of
the writer, and what and where new information is
introduced.

7) With texts that are chronologically organized or

which describe a process, students can be given a
scrambled version to re-order.

8) students can be asked to make a sketch of something

which is described in the text.

9) Students can be asked to summarize the text, inclu-

ding showing how the author perceives and addresses
the audience.

10) Students can be asked to give an opinion of the

text.

ligiaaSconmargiaLlatesialg
Because you wil7 probably be unable to order class sets of
books for your student-sr the commercial materials you do have
available will be useful to you more as resources than as text-
books. You will be able to select those activities and exercises
which are relevant to your students' needs. See Appendix A for
titles and descriptions of materials available through Peace
Corps' ICE.

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 Chapter Six

PROGRAM MANAGEMENT AND EVALUATION

Depending on your teaching experience, you may at first feel

overwhelmed by the large classes and diverse needs that you face
as an ESP teacher. The purpose of this chapter is to provide some
tips to help you manage the language learning environment in the
classroom.

Initially, students may experience problems in listening

comprehension, remaining attentive, and following instructions.
Your first class meetings, then, should be seen as opportunities
to establish a routine, communicate your objectives, and allow the
students to become accustomed to your teaching style.
You may have to adapt your style of speaking at the beqin-
ning of your program so that students can understand you. some
controversy does exist in language teaching about whether or not
teachers should adapt their speaking style. It is argued that
this exposes the students to inauthentic language and will not
prepare them for understanding English spoken at a normal rate of
speed. Of course, your ultimate goal is to enable your students
to understand natural speech, spoken at normal speed, but at first
you may need to speak more distinctly, allow more frequent pauses
than normal, and say things more than once and in more than one
way in order to be understood. As students get to know you better
their understanding will improve.

The students will feel most comfortrble and secure in their

learning situation if you design a program which is well-
structured and in which your expectations for the students are
clear. Take extra time in the initial class meetings to explain
how each exercise should be approached. This time will be well
spent, as later class meetings will then fall into a routine,
assignments will be coupleted as expected, and students will
recognize their steady progress.

Make your initial introduction of concepts and vocabulary

highly conteztualized through demonstration. Do not deny students
the extra help that contextual clues give, or comprehension will
be more difficult and the students will not develop strategies for
exploiting context clues. The visual is the most important clue.
A typical lesson should demonstrate. Use language, gestures, and
eye contact to establish meaning, and take advantage of the
students' knowledge of the world. Tasks appropriate to this kind
of treatment include description of a process, conducting of
experiments, and explanations of charts or graphs. When you
ask questions, discourage rapid reaction replies. save a slow-
paced classroom in which everyone has time to think. If you are
lecturing, stop every few minutes to allow students to get down
nctes, discuss briefly among themselves and ask questions. You
may find it valuable to circulate through the class from time to
time to discuss and answer questions.

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92
 Use short handouts and visuals. Give a handout satr. your
first treatment of a theme to give students the opportunity for
listening comprehension practice before they read the handout to
confirm, correct, or expand their notes.

When students ask questions in class:

1) Do not say too much. Omit all information that is not
demanded by the question. Do not give in to the temp-
tation to show everything you know about the subject.
2) Leave tine and opportunity for students to answer each
other's questions.
3) If you observe that students do not appear to understand the
question, you nay need to paraphrase it for the benefit of
the other students.

Use class time to go over the exercises the students have

completed. The sooner they get feedback on their answers, the
more learning will take place. Students enjoy this activity as
they check their own work. You can save tine and ensure fairness
by preparing small tokens (cardboard or slips of paper) with a
student's name on each. Shuffle the tokens and call students'
names in random order, rather than stopping at each question to
call on a student with raised hand. This will give every student
an equal opportunity to participate and will ensure that students
remain attentive. It will also give you an indication of which
students do not understand the exercise.

rup yprk
Many arguments can be made in favor of group work. It
allows you to assign different tasks to students with different
needs. It stimulates classroom communication since it obliges
students to discuss the problem with each other. It fosters
cooperative activity which gives students with non-equivalent
skill levels an opportuniry to interact and learn from each
other.

In the typical ESP situation with large classes, inflexible

furniture arrangements, and students who are unaccustomed to
working in groups, it may not be possible to ta5e group work
effectively. Do not feel that you must break the class into
groups in order to teach them. Your students may Le most comfor-
table with the lecture format, and if your class session has a
variety of activities as suggestcd above, group work is not
necessary for language learning.

However, if you are able to do group work and want it to be

most effective, the following principles should be followed:

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93
 1) When you set a question for the group focus on, frame the
question in several alternative forms be sure it is
understood. Allow sufficient time for thought and be sure
students know just how much time they will have ("You've got
5-8 minutes to think about this.")
2) Small groups are best. Have no more than three to five
students in 4 group. Spread the good students out (good
students are not necessarily only those who are good in
English, but also include those who are good in the content
area you are teaching.)
3) Give a short, manageable task (5-20 minutes). Make sure
groups know what to do -- ask them to repeat your instruc-
tions, say what materials are needed, or outline how they
will accomplish the task.
4) Circulate among the groups as they work to be sure groups
are on task and to answer their questions.
51 If groups are making class presentations, allow the presen-
tations to continue only until the problem they are working
on has been solved. Groups which do not get an opportunity
to present on any given day will have an opportunity another
day. Do not allow presentations to become dragged out and
boring for the other students.

Errpr cgrrycliop
Errors are a natural part of second language learning. It
is impossible to learn without making errors. Because of this,
students' production of spoken and written language is full of
errors. The teacher cannot correct every error, and even if it
were possible to do sof excessive error correction intimidates the
students, decreases their se7r-confidence and makes them hesitate
to use the language. Therefure the teacher must decide how and
when errors will be corrected and communicate this policy, to the
students.

Errors should be corrected oLly when it can be done without

interfering with coromunication. If you are speaking with a
student individually, you should be focusing on the content of
what the student is saying, and not on the structure of the
language. Error correction in conversation will certainly cause
the student to "clam up." In class recitations, questions which
are comprehensible as stated should not be corrected, since this
destroys the Illow of the interaction and often the real question
is lost as the student struggles for grammatical accuracy. Eval-
uate student responses to your questions accorCing to the results
of the response, that is, if the response answers a question on
content in a way that is comprehensible, do not make grammatical
corrections. When you or other students do not understand a
student's question or answer, correction is desirable to get at

81
94
the intended meaning. And of course, if the purpose of the
question iS to verify a point of grammar, correction is neces-
sary. This policy can be discussed with the students so that
they understand how and when you will make corrections, and soon
they will find it natural that not all spokeli errors are cor-
rected when they occur.

Writing is the ideal medium for error correction, and most

students expect that errors will be corrected in their written
work. If on particular assignnents you do not plan to correct
all errors because you want to encourage students to write exten-
sively without worrying about mistakes, explain this to them so
that they realize that what they have written is not necessarily
error-free, even if you have not corrected it.

The most noticeable errors a student makes may be the

most important. Errors in article usage, for example, while
quite noticable to the native speaker, do not often interfere
with understanding. Focus on those errors which disrupt communi-
cation, rather than those which are surface mistakes.

Testing

Testing, an important aspect of teaching, is, however, often

overstressed. Teaching should not be confused with testing, and
material which has not yet been taught should not be tested. The
purpose of daily classroom activities is learning. Students
should not be put on the spot to demonstrate instant proficiency
in whatever is being taught.

Appropriate testing will, however, give you an accurate

picture of the students' abilities and progress.

A daily comprehension quiz at the end of each class period

is a quick way for students to judge their grasp of what has been
taught. Such a quiz might consist of five questions which re-
quire a yes/no, true/false, or one-word answer. This can be
given in the last five minutes of class and checked by the stu-
dents themselves as a closing activity.

Formal examinations should be based on what has been taught

in class. Your initial performance objectives can be the basis
for test questions. Be sure that the exam relies on the same
skills chat class activities are designed to build. An oral
test, for example, would be a poor test medium if the development
of oral skills is not one of the objectives of your program. use
formats that are familiar to students from class activities.
Belping stpdents learn outside the classroom

Your best students will want more from their English program
than you are able to provide. They need help in learning how to
go about improving their English on their own. You can offer them
the following suggestions:

1. Take advantage of every opportunity to have an English

language experience: see a movie in English, listen to the
radio, go to a lecture.
2. Find a news program on the radio (from the BBC or other
source) and listen to it every day. Comprehension will
increase rapidly as the daily listening reinforces vocabu-
lary heard previously. If students find that initially they
cannot understand enough to benefit from listening, suggest
they read the newspaper in their native language before
listening to the English. Knowing the big stories of the
day in advance will make the radio program more comprehensi-
ble.

3. Read for pleasure in English. This point cannot be over-

stressed. Illustrated English language magazines are avail-
able in most parts of the world, and students will benefit
from the contextualization they offer. Point out to them
that when they read for pleasure they should not focus on
understanding every single word; instead they should set
their dictionaries aside and strive to comprehend the global
meaning of what they read.
4. Take every opportunity to communicate with native speakers
of English. Such opportunities include both conversing with
native speakers, when possible, and exchanging letters with
native speakers. A pen pal can provide good practice in
informal writing as well as information about the culture of
English-speaking countries.

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83
 4_

In some cases you may be preparing students for a program of

study in the U.S. or U.K. If so, you should incorporate cultural
information into your curriculum to help them in their transi-
tion. Following are some topics to include:

Greetings and_ Introduction: Formal and informal situations, when

to use first names, how to keep a conversation going.
Punctuality: American standards and expectations. How to apolo-
gize for being late. Bow to talk about time ("it's a quar-
ter after", "it's fifteen minutes after", etc.)
Asking questions: Asking for directions or other information.
gniymity life: The U.S. system of education, features of
campus life. How to talk with professors and other stu-
dents.

Food: Common foods, types of restaurants.

Medigal gam: Vocabulary relating to health and illness, pre-
scription vs. over-the-counter drugs, types of medical care
available.

Male-Female gelationships: The roles of men and women in

American society; dealing with women and men in all walks of
life.

Transportatign: Air, bus (inter and intra-city), train, and

automobile. How to read a schedule. Driving laws.

VIPpping: Types of stores. U.S. money; use of checks, tipping

customs.

Other information which your students will find useful includes:

- Geographic and demographic features of the U.S.
- Weather and climate
- The U.S. political system: state and federal government.
- Sports

84 97
 Appendix A

RESOURCES

Theie are two categories of books in this Appendix. The

first deals with books and a journal which you can use for refer-
ence, and from which you can build your professional ESP skills.
The second deals with textbooks which can be used either as course
books, or sources from which you can develop your own courses.

Reference Bgoks
A. For a background of the evolution of ESP:

John Swales, Episodes_in EP, (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1985).

This book is a source and reference book on the develop-
ment of English for Specific Purposes. It aims to both
explain and illustrate the major lines of development in
ESP. It achieves this by focusing on fifteen landmark
publications in the field. Each publication -- eleven
articles and four extracts from textbooks -- is analyzed as
follows:

1. Setting - The background of the publication and its

role in the development of ESP.
2. Text and Commentary
3. Activities - Questions on the text: for example, "Here
again is the short "authentic" passage
from Example 1. What language work can
you derive from it?"
4. Evaluation - Discussion points: for example, "How much
say should the students have in the kind
of ESP course they get?"
5. Related Readings.

B. For Grammar:

G. Leech & J. Svartvik, A Gramm4r of cgmmunicat4ve English.

C. For Language and Methodology:

1. Bernard A. Mohan, Language And Content, (Addison-Wesley,

Reading, MA, 1986).

A comprehensive treatment of the teaching of language

through content. Presents a "knowledge framework" for inte-
grating language and content, giving general principles for
organizing information and activities. Useful for the

85 98
 teacher interested in learning theory and program develop-
ment. Designed as a course text, this book also includes
exercises and suggested reading for each chapter.

2. F. Dubin, D.E. Eskey, & W. Grabe, Teactipq gpcond

liffinguage Beadjnq for Acaderqc Purposes, (Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co., Reading, MA, 1986).

A good introduction to reading theory and the reading

process, especially as it applies to the second language
learner. Separate chapters discuss reading skills develop-
ment at the beginning, intermediate, and advanced levels. A
section on texts discusses authentic vs. adapted texts and
teacher-made lessons. Reading testing and assessment are
also discussed. This book is designed as a course text for
ESL teachers and contains discussion questions and sugges-
tions for further reading.

D. For an update on what's going on in ESP:

ESPMENA Bulletin.

Published twice a year by the English Language Servicing

Unit, Faculty of Arts, University of Khartoum, Sudan. News
about research, materials development projects, new courses,
and conferences and workshops related to teaching languages
for special purposes, especially in the Middle East and
North Africa.

E. For Cultural Orientation

1. To the United States:

E. N. Kearny, M.A. Kearny, & J.A. Crandall, The Mari...cm

Way (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1984.)
An introduction to American culture, including such top-
ics as "Basic American Values and Beliefs," "Government and
Politics," "Education in the United States," "The American
Family," and others. Includes vocabulary, comprehension,
and other exercise types, questions for discussion and com-
position, and suggestions for further reading. This book
provides useful information about the United States and is
richly illustrated with photos, graphs, and charts.
2. To Great Britain:

Britaint 1986, published annually by the Central Office

of Information, 49 High Holborn, London, WCIV 6HB. In-
tended for the use of scholars planning to study in
Britain.

86 99
 A smaller publication, DtltAin And its people is avail-
able from the Rraus-Thompson Organization, Rt. 100,
Milwood, N.Y. 10546.

Course Books

The'books recommended in this category were selected because

of their conceptual endurance, their teaching support, and their
emphasis on reading skills. It is unlikely that you will have
access to large budgets for buying books, so the ones you do buy
will have to last and should be examples of sound, practical
teaching based on solid ESP theory. They should also offer
stimulation and support to you, the teacher, who will frequently
have to develop and adapt the books' ideas and activities. In
addition, these books will have to be flexible enough to train
students with varying levels of English in their most pressing
task of extracting important information from texts written in
English.

The books in this category are:

For the sciences:

A. Pugleus Series
B. pnglieh ia foc9.5

For computer science:

C. Eaglish t9k_goirtpliter scignce

For business management and accounting:

D. gusinesa 'goad
E. Diiess_ggrigepts_fsmiLalleaLlkostimus
F. glpenCy Eguarga
For tourism:
G. Restaugamt gnglish
H. 09tel gnglish
For study skills:

I. Rep:ling au0 Thiatiag ia Brialieh

J. Skills fps. Learning

87
100
A. &clew: ;ieries1 English for Science and TechnolOPY,
C. Barron & D. Stewart, Editors. (Longman Group Ltd.,
London)

The General Science book in this series has become one of

the most successful ESP textbooks ever written, with sales of
over one million copies. The Nucleus Series, for which Gene_ral
acience is the core book, originated at a university in northwest
Iran. It was written for students entering university with a low
level of English, whose medium of instruction at university was
not English, and whose main need of the language was to study
English textbooks for their science courses.

There are nine titles in the series, including Genual

Science, which can precede or accompany the study of a special
subject book. The titles are:

Gentrel Science Geology

Biology rathepatics
Agrjcultuse redicine
Snglneeripg rutslng Science
The student's book is accompanied by a teacher's book with
notes on methodology and scientific background, together with the
texts of listening comprehension passages and answers to the
exercises. Each course has a listening cassette containing the
pieces for listening comprehension.

All nine of the books have been organized in the same way,
following the concepts of form - which includes properties, loca-
tion/ and structure - then process/ and finally measurement in
each individual subject. In this way the contents pages for
gngineeriog and Diolgmy are almost identical, though students of
biology will study the properties and shapes of living organisms,
while students of engineering will study the properties of
materials.

Each unit is organized into sections of Presentation,

Development/ Reading and Listening. The simplicity of this
organization provides an efficient model which you can follow
when you are designing additional material.
The series receives high marks for:

a. The visuals/ drawings/ diagrams/ charts/ etc., which

are inventively used to generate language.
b. The exercises/ which are firmly contextualized, either
by visuals/ or by sentences in the exercise which
relate to each other or the text.

88
101
 C. The exercises which promote active learning of reading
and listening skills, which have often been given a
passive role.
The series is criticized for:
a. The reading texts which are too short and not
authentic.
b. The insufficiently developed reading strategies, which
compare poorly with the more sophisticated strategies
found in the Focus series.

B. English la Focus Series: J. P. B. Allen and H.G. Widdowson,

editors (Oxford University Press, London).
There are eight books in the series:
English ja Pbysigal Sawa&
English jij. Meghanigal Engineering

English .112, Wprgbop Practice

English in_ Basic NeOical Egisnga
English it Agricgltikre
Bnglish in. Education
English in. Sgcial Studies

English irk Siplogical Science

Each of the books in the series follows the same format,

with chapters divided into six sections:
I. Reading and Comprehension
II. Use of Language
III. Information Transfer
IV. Guided Writing
V. Free Wtiting
The student's book is accompanied by a teacher's book and
cassettes containing recordings of the reading texts and some of
the exercises. However, the courses can be taught without these
tapes.

The series receives high marks for the variety and number of
exercises it offers. The following exercises are particularly
useful:

89
102
 a. Reading comprehension: Each chapter opens with a
reading passage which has comprehension checks
inserted in it. Students are encouraged to think
about what they are reading by deciding, for exam-
ple, whether the inserted statements are true or
not, according to the information they have just
read.

b. Rephrasing: After the reading passage, students

are asked to replace selected words in the reading
passage with listed expressions which have similar
meaning. This exercise is useful in developing
voc,abulary consolidation and search reading
teeL:iiquva.

c. Information Transfer: This activity uses exercises

such as completing paragraphs with information from
diagrams. The main regret among both teachers and
students is that these exercises are not used more
frequently.

The series is criticized for:

a. The texts which are too short and are too thorough-
ly worked over. In the process, some students
become bored with the repetitious monotony of the
exercises' format.
b. The grammar exercises which are frequently mechani-
cal, and contain sentences which are not related to
the reading passage.
c. The exercises which vary in level of difficulty and
which require more explanation than is given.
However, the last two books in the series, Social Studieq
and Diologickl atuOies, have responded to these criticisms by
adding more study skills exercises and by giving more appropriate
explanations where necessary.

C. proallsb for_cOmputer Science, Norma D. Mullen and P.

Charles Brown (Oxford University Press, 1983).

ELEalElir_g_c_Lpx_k_i_utecence is one of the few books written

for the field of computers in ESP. It comes from Canada and was
pilot tested among police officers in Kuwait. It is for use by
people studying at post-secondary institutions who need a reading
knowledge of computer science in English.
The course is divided into three parts: The Computer, with
descriptions of the characteristics and kinds of computers avail-
able; Compute; Cpmpopents, with descriptions of the processor,

90
103
memory and input/output devices; and pata nogesqlno, with de-
scriptions of programming.

The student's book is accompanied by an answer book, so it

can be used as a self-study course.

Chapters with reading passages are followed by exercises

interspersed with Focus chapters, (printed in green), which deal
with grammar, vocabulary and language functions.

The book receives high marks for the variety of exercises it

includes to develop reading skills. For example, there are
exercises to promote:

- understanding information directly stated or implied,

- understanding concepts,

- understanding grammatical and lexical devices which

bind a text,

- deducing meaning of new lexical items from context,

- scanning to locate specific information,
- distinguishing main ideas from supporting details,

- selecting important points to summarize an idea.

In contrast to the field of computer science, business man-

agement has provoked an abundance of ESP courses. Here, three
books from the many are recommended to you - two for upper inter-
mediate to advanced level students, and the third for lower inter-
mediate level.

D. pusiness World: A Collegtign of Readings on Qgntemporary

;ssuea, by Roger Speegle and William B. Giesecke, (Oxford
University Press, 1983).

This is a collection of articles from prominent American

business magazines, adapted for students at upper-intermediate
through advanced levels of English as a second language. The aim
of the book is to improve business reading comprehension, as well
as listening and oral performance.
Each chapter is centered on the reading of an article. The
rest of the chapter is divided into business vocabulary, structur-
al review, business communication (summarizing, note-taking, iden-
tifying the main idea), action (debating, discussing, interview-
ing), and reaction (discussing in an open session).

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104
 The book receives high marks for:
a. Using authentic materials. The texts are shor-
tened, but the original sentence structure remains
unchanged. Potential problems in understanding
vocabulary or the cultural context are dealt with
by explanatory notes in the margin. Dealing with
these problems in this way saves time and prevents
fragmentation of your lesson.
b. Being lively. The action and reaction sections
provoke student participation. While much of ESP's
focus is on developing reading skills, students at
this level will want to keep up their oral perfor-
mance skills, and these exercises provide simulated
role play situations. The topics chosen for these
exercises relate to the text, but are also expanded
to include concerns of interest to developing coun-
tries. For example:

"The need for environmental protection has created more than

200 new companies in Germany alone. In the U.S., environmen-
tal divisions of large companies continue to employ more and
more people. Clearly, environmentally related business bene-
fits the economy. Will this sort of business be of interest
to businessmen in the developing nations? Where will busi-
ness in the developing nations be most concerned with inves-
ting its money? Do you foresee environmental business becom-
ing an important part of the economy of developing nations?"
The book is criticized for:
a. The exercises in the structural review, which be-
come predictable and monotonous.
b. The exercises in business communications, which are
insufficiently developed to teach study skills such
as note-taking.

E. pusineg_s_concepts for_Engllsh kractice, B. Dowling & M.

McDougal, (Newbury House, Rowley, MA, 1982).
This book is intended for intermediate to advanced students
of English as a Foreign Language, with an academic or profes-
sional interest in the English of business or accounting. The
book aims at providing practice in reading comprehension, tech-
nical and business vocabulary, and activities for general lan-
guage practice and the improvement of study skills. The book was
field tested in American colleges and international corporations.
The book has eight units. These unit titles are: Business
Basics, Marketing, International Business, Data Processing,
Accounting, Finance, Management and Decision Making. Each unit
is divided into three parts. The first two parts contain texts

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1 05
followed by exercises, and the third part contains an authentic
article excerpted from a journal or newspaper.

The teacher's manual provides additional information on the

business and linguistic aspects of the student's book, as well as
notes on how to present each lesson.

The book receives high marks for:

a. The thoroughness of its teaching approach. For
example, exercises are preceded by proficiency
markers indicating whether the level is for inter-
mediate, upper-intermediate or advanced students.
b. The comprehensive approach to the subject matter.
Both vocabulary and concepts of business and
accounting are thoroughly covered.
The series is criticized for:
a. Failing to exploit the authentic articles more
fully.
b. Being insufficiently international in its approach.
Attempts are made to refer to other countries and
cultures, but this does not quite balance out the
strongly American flavor.

F. Fluency Squares For Business and Technology by Phillip L.

Knowles and Ruth A. Sasaki (Regents Publishing Co., 1981).

This book was developed at the Language Institute of Japan,

for students with intermediate levels of English who require
English training for their work as bankers, engineers and execu-
tives. There is little emphasis on the reading of conventional
texts; rather, the thrust is towards active listening. This is
ESP as in English for Shy Persons, in that students are encouraged
to take an active role in their learning, but need not talk much
to do so.

The course consists of one book with an answer key at the

back. Large scale visuals are also available to facilitate class-
room use of the book; however, it might not be too difficult to
produce your own enlarged versions of many of the visuals.
The chapter format is as follows:

Oral Presentation of Information, in which the teacher reads

the text while students follow visual renderings of the same
text.

Oral Practice, in which students are guided in question and

answer sessions on the text.

93 1 06
 Written Reinforcement; for instance, writing down the
questions and answers of Oral Practice.
Dictation

Follow-up Activities, for example, "Make a presentation

to your class. Compare two models of cameras, pens,
tape recorders, etc. Give your recommendations and the
reasons for your recommendations."

Quantitative English, in which students work with

numbers.
Test

The book receives high marks for:

a. The careful and attractive layout, and the good use
of information transfer exercises.
b. The emphasis on numbers, graphs, and numerical
relations essential to technical communication in
any subject.

This book contains no reading passages, and at first this

may appear to be a weakness. However, Fluency Vquares is direc-
ted towards the lower intermediate learner who may well appre-
ciate the use of visuals and numeracy, which provide a non-
threatening approach to discussions on concepts of business man-
agement. The introduction of basic reading skills from a book
such as Culcepts In Use, (discussed in the section on study
skills, below), could easily follow after.

G. gestAurant BrIglish, Philip Bingham, Riitta Lampola, James

Murray. (Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1982. U.S. distribution
through Alemany Press.)
H. Botel EnctlIsh, Philip Bingham, Riitta Lampola, James Murray.
(Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1982. U.S. distribution through
Alemany Press.)

These books are written for students or professionals "se,o

have a knowledge of English, but need to familiarize themselves
with the language and phraseology" of hotel management. The
books were written with European students of English in mind, but
since their target is to teach the English of international
tourism, most of the situations covered are applicable to almost
any country in the world. The books emphasize listening wid
speaking skills. For that reason, the books cannot be properly
taught without the accompanying cassette tapes.

RPstaurant English has fifteen chapters which cover most

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107
restaurant situations from paying the bill to discussing special
diets customers may require for religious or health reasons. Each
chapter follows a format of presenting information, either on the
cassette or in the form of menus, table charts or pictures of a
place setting for dinner, etc. Each presentation is exploited
through a series of comprehension questions, completing sentences
or role-pXay situations.

Rotel Engligh has twelve chapters covering reservations,

giving directions, telephoning, handling complaints, and other
topics, in a format like that described above for Restaurant
English.

These books receive high marks for:

a. The good exploitation of cassettes as teaching tools.

The dialogues are authentic, recorded at "almost normal
speed" and with a variety of accents. The two cassettes
for each book cover two different levels. The first
requires students to listen and reproduce; the second
requires students to manipulate the items presented by,
for instance, responding to statements.
b. The emphasis on real-life situations, rather than rigid
sets of artificial language exercises.
c. The inclusion of sets of useful phrases.

These books are criticized for:

a. The emphasis on Europe, especially when dealing with

food.

b. The sketchy support offered to the teacher in organizing

such activities as role-playing or discussions.

I. Reading and Thinking In English, B.G. Widdowson, editor.

(Oxford University Press).
This series of four books originated in Latin America in a
writing project carried out at the University of the Andes,
Bogota, Colombia. The series is designed to "relate ESP with the
teaching of more general reading competence", and as such is an
example of the study skill materials now coming on the market.
The series contrasts with others that have been recommended here
in that the focus is on preparation for reading, and not on
reading comprehension after the text has been read.
The authors explain the relationship between the four books
in the preface:

"The series starts at a near beginner level. It is assumed

that the beginning learner has a minimal know3edge of basic

9 5 108
 grammar and vocabulary...The course then takes the
learner progressively through the intermediate stages of
language learning by extending his ability to understand the
devices of the language and how they are used in academic
communication. By the final book he is expected to have
developed a sophisticated awareness of the communicative
resources of English and an ability to perform a range of
challenging reading tasks."
The four books in the series are:

C.Q.D_CtRik_111_12122. (near beginner)

X:xploring _functions (pre-intermediate)
Discovering DiscaUrae (intermediate)
Discourse in Action (advanced)

The student's book is accompanied by a teacher's book which

contains teaching notes, notes on the units, and answers to the
exercises.

The series receives high marks for:

a. The clarity of its teacher support and the way in
which it draws students into tha learning process
by explaining the learning goals.
b. une attractive layout, (the books are coded with
different colored print), and the full exploitation
of the information transfer activities, with many
visual cues used to generate language.
The series is criticized for:
a. The generality of the texts, which attempt to address
students from any scientific background, and which
frequently end up being too general.
b. The insufficiency of the vocabulary work.
C. The inclusion of more discourse analysis discussion
than is pedagogically useful.

J. pq.11s in Learpinq, Thomas Nelson and Sons, Ltd., Walton-on-

Thames, England. (University of Malaya Press).
This series originated at the University of Malaya. It was
designed to teach students with little knowledge of English how
to extract important information from textbooks and journals
written in English. Both this series and Eggcling_anciminging
In EpglIsh are based on the assumption that it is more cost-
effective to teach a core of academic language common to most

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disciplines, rather than to prepare subject-specific materials.
However, this series does include one book, Reading Projects:
Science, which focuses on texts specifically for students of
science. With this book the authors hope to keep the attention of
science students.

There are five books in the series:

fpundations Application
Revelopment p.rogression

Beading Projects: sc,ience

The first four books cover a variety of general texts suit-

able for students with intermediate levels of English. Beading
Bp9igetp complements the main course books by familiarizing stu-
dents with the linguistic forms and reading strategies appropriate
to the particular subject they are studying. These subjects are
geology, chemistry, biology, ecology and physics. The student's
book is accompanied by a teacher's book.

The books receive high marks for:

a. The explanations and support given to the teacher
for organizing classroom activities.
b. The organized way in which it breaks down study
skills into manageable units. For example:
Arriving at main points
Making sense of word behavior
Reading for relevant information

Using contextual clues

Using symbols, abbreviations and equations

Learning about graphs
c. The variety of exercises it offers. For example:
Checking illustrations. This involves consulting
other books and then correcting illustrations which
have been incorrectly drawn and labelled.

Writing appropriate headlines for articles.

Checking statements against flow charts, diagrams
or graphs.

Putting pictures in the right sequence and then

writing subtitles for the pictures.

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 Hoy /2 Obtain Copies of These Books

1. Check to see if the book you want is in the Information

Collection and Exchange (ICE) catalogue. If it is, you can
either ask your associate director to cable ICE asking for
the book, or you can contact ICE yourself. The staff at ICE
is willing to help and would like you to take full advantage
of the services ICE has to offer. Do not hesitate to con-
tact them if you have any inquiries about materials. For
instance, you may want to know what books, other than the
ones mentioned in this chapter, are available on ESP in
chemistry. ICE can get you a list of titles. Also, you may
want photocopies of articles or excerpts from books in the
ICE reference section. Again the staff at ICE will be
pleased to help.
2. If the book you want is not in the ICE catalogue, you have
several options. First, check to see if Peace Corps funds
are available for your purchase. If they are, you can work
through your country staff. Ways of ordering books vary
from country to country, but your associate director will be
able to tell you the way he or she has devised. A second
option is to ask family or friends to order and pay for the
book for you. If you check ahead with your country desk
officer, it may be possible for U.S. publishers or bookshops
to send the book to you via your desk officer. But in this
r I remember to ask the publisher to put your name and the
L., try desk clearly on the package. A third option is to
order the book yourself.

When writing to publishers:

a. Ask how much has to be included in the price to
cover postage.
b. Check on the method of payment. The most accept-
able are credit cards, international money orders, or
U.S. checks for books ordered from the U.S.
c. Specify whether you want airmail or surface delivery.

In considering how long ordering will take, calculate that

from the U.S. it will take two to four weeks to process your
order, one week to get the book to your desk officer in
Washington, and two to three weeks for the pouch to deliver the
book to the Peace Corps office in your country. From Europe
calculate two to four weeks to process your order, two weeks for
airmail delivery and up to three months for surface mail.

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 Appendix B
TRAINING MODULES FOR PEACE CORPS ESP PROGRAMS
80 hour pre-service training

Week One
Session 1 (4 hours): The theory of language learning
Reading: Manual Chapter One
What is ESP? Why teach for specific purposes?
The role of the teacher.
The task of the student.

Review of approaches to teaching languages

Grammar/translation
Direct Method
Audio-lingual
Communicative
Comprehension-based
What modern language teaching theory tells us:
Developing communicative competence
Learning vs. acquisition
Developing the receptive skills
The importance of affective variables (motivation,
attitude, etc.)
Activity: Ask PCV's to share their individual language
learning and teaching experiences and discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of various approaches from
their personal points of view.

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Session 2 (4 hours): ESP Needs Assessment
Reading: Manual Chapter Two.
Purpose of the needs assessment: Identifying what students
need to learn.

Getting to know your Institution and colleagues.

Language functions and uses: What to look for.

Getting to know your students: Observing spoken language.
Assessing written materials in the subject area.
Interview techniques for talking with administrators,
content-area instructors, and students.
Activities: 1) Ask PCV's to construct interview outlines
with appropriate questions. 2) Choose a content area and
provide examples of the kinds of texts that students of that
subject would have to work with. Ask PCV's to identify
language functions and uses appropriate to the subject area.

Session 3 (4 hours): Teaching Languuge Skills: Listening

comprehension
Reading: Manual Chapter Three: Listening
"Teacher talk" -- practicing comprehensibility.
Incorporating comprehension checks into your lesson.
Helping students 1:ecognize clues to meaning in speech.

Exercises which develop listening comprehension.

Activity: PCV's use a visual aid to design a mini-lecture:
practice making their speech comprehensible, using "teacher
talk" and incorporating comprehension checks.
Session 4 (4 hours): Teaching Language Skills: Reading
Reading: Manual Chapter Three: Reading
Wbat is reading? Getting meaning from print; the role of
background knowledge.
Voc.abulary development.

Extensive vs. intensive reading.

Assessing difficulty and appropriateness of materials for

reading and listening.

Teaching reading techniques: previewing, SQ3R, skimming,

scanning.

Recognizing the author's purpose; recognizing patterns of

discourse.
Activity: Design and conduct a readability test.

Session 5 (4 hours): Teaching Language Skills: Writing and Study

Skills
Reading: Manual Chapter Three: Writing/Grammar and Study
Skills.

Building writing skills from sentence to report.

Teaching writing skills: definition, classification,
hypothesis.

Teaching library skills.

Teaching note-taking.

Teaching summarizing and avoiding plagiarism.

Activity: Prepare a writing lesson which includes
appropriate pre-writing activities.

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 Week Two

Session 6 (4 hours): Teaching Language Skills: Grammar in

Reading and Writing
Reading: Manual Chapter Three: Reading and Writing/Grammar
Using texts for grammar instruction.

Techniques for teaching grammar.

Activity: Prepare a reading or writing assignment;
identifying relevant grammatical features for focus and
developing a lesson plan for teaching them.

Session 7 (4 hours): Teaching Language Skills: Speaking

Reading: Manual Chapter Three: Speaking
The role of speaking in the classroom.

Developing appropriate speaking activities; the importance

of maintaining a communicative emphasis rather than
meaningless chill.
Activity: Prepare and demonstrate a lesson which develops
speaking skills.

Session 8 (4 hours): Course and Materials Design

Reading: Manual Chapter Pour
Setting goals and objectives.

Designing a program: Choosing topics and texts.

Using standard formats: making the materials development
process easier.
Unit design: incorporating all language skills.
Writing lesson plans: providing a variety of activities.
Activity: Write a unit outline based on a sample text.
(This should be considered an ongoing process
under the supervision of an experienced teacher.)

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Session 9 (4 horJrs): Materials Selection
Reading: Manual Chapter Five and Appendix A
Review of resource section of handbook.
Addj.tional sources of materials.

Selecting appropriate authentic materials: features which

make materials comprehensible to learners. Authentic vs.
"simplified" materials.

Teacher-developed materials.
Activities: PCV's look at a wide array of authentic
materials and practice selecting texts appropriate for ESP
classes and giving rationales for their choices by
identifying features which make the texts accessible and
readable. Prepare comprehension exercises for a text you
select.

Session 10 (4 hours): Program Management

Reading: Manual Chapter Six.
Classroom management techniques, including group work and
error correction.

Testing and evaluation

Teaching cultural orientation

Activity: Look at test and quiz formats. Design a quiz on
the text you have been working with this week.

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 Weeks Three and Four
Volunteers prepare ten lessons for students, including:
1) Teaching reading technigues
2) Recognizing patterns of discourse.

3) A vocabulary lesson.
4) Teaching grammar in reading.
5) Listening for note-taking.
6) Teaching writing

7) Teaching speaking: communication exercises

8) A study skills lesson.
9) A lesson using group work and speaking skills.
10) Prepare and administer a test.

3.04 117
 Appendix C

TRAIN/NG MODULES FOR PEACE CORPS ESP PROGRAMS

20 hour in-service training

(Ten two-hour sessions)

Session 1: Teaching ESP

Time ii.ctiVit.Y.

15 min. Introductions
10 min. Presentation: Goals of the in-service.
30 min. Group brainstorming: What is language learning and
teaching? Sharing of experiences. Participants
report on what has been successful and unsuccessful
for them. This sets the stage for the presentation
on methods which follows.
45 min. Presentation: Review of approaches to language
teaching; what modern language acquisition theory
tells us.

Review of approaches to teaching languages

Grammar/translation
Direct Method
Audio-lingual
Communicative
Comprehension-based

What modern language teaching theory tells us:

Developing communicative competence
Learning vs. acquisition
Developing the receptive skills
The importance of affective variables
15 min. Group work: Why ESP? What are the advantages and
disadvantages? Groups brainstorm and report. see
Chapter One for the advantages of the ESP approach.
5 min. Summary and conclusion.

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Session 2: ESP Needs Assessment

2ima IQiiytty

10 min. Presentation: Purpose of ESP needs assessment. See

Chapter Two.
10 min. Group brainstorming: Oses and functions of language.
What do participants consider important to teach?
30 min. Group work: preparing for needs assessment.
Groups construct interview protocols to interview
administrators and content-area instructors at their
prospective institutions. Groups share results and
individuals revise protocols.
20 min. Presentation and demonstration: observing spoken
language. How to identify uses and functions in
order to prepare relevant lessons.
15 min. Presentation: Evaluating written materials.
Identifying features to incorporate into teaching
materials.
30 min. Group work: Assessing written materials in subject
areas. Give participants samples of subject area
materials and have them identify features needed by
ESP students.
5 min. Summary and conclusion.

Session 3: Teaching Reading

Ming ActiltitY
20 min. Presentation: Overview of the four skills. Today's
focus on reading. What is reading? See Chapter
Three.

45 min. Presentation and demonstration with sample materials:

Guidelines for selecting appropriate reading
materials. Groups work on selecting and justifying
choices.
20 min. Presentation: techniques for teaching reading.
Types of exercises. Extensive vs. intensive reading.
Show examples of exercise types and how they can be
used in the classroom to promote reading skills.
30 min. Groups look at exercise types and make short
presentations to the class.
5 min. Summary and conclusion.

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106
Session 4: Teaching Listening Comprehension
2ima Activity
15 min. Presentation: What is listening comprehension? See
Chapter Three.
30 min. Notetaking: clues to meaning. Sample exercise. Give
a short lecture. Partners take notes and compare to
identify what is necessary for good note-taking skills.
45 min. Group work: Participants construct listening mater-
ials to be used in their classes.
25 min. Presentation and demonstration: practicing
comprehensibility. Teacher talk, comprehension checks.
S min. Summary and conclusion.

Session 5: Writing and Study Skills

Tire Activ.itY
30 min. Presentation: building writing skills. Sample
activities and materials. See Chapter Three.
30 min. Group work: prepare writing lesson incorporating pre-
writing activities.
15 min. Presentation: Study skills. See Chapter Three.
15 min. Group brainstorming: research skills -- what is
needed? Identify features which should be taught.
25 min. Group work: prepare lesson on teaching study skills.
5 min. Summary and conclusion.

107 120
Session 6: Teaching Grammar and Speaking
lima AatiYitY
15 min. Presentation: Sow to teach grammar. See Chapter
Three.
40 min. Group work: prepare a grammar lesson in reading or
writing which identifies relevant features and shows
how to teach them.
15 min. Presentation: Teaching speaking. See Chapter Three.
15 min. Group brainstorming: Sow to encourage speaking in
the classroom. Participants share ideas.
30 min. Group work: prepare a lesson for teaching speaking
skills.

5 min. Summary and conclusion.

Session 7: Course Design

30 min. Setting goals and designing a program Chapter
Four.

10 min. Demonstration: Sample unit outline.

20 min. Group work: Writing objectives. Participants write
objectives for various skills.
15 min. Presentation: lesson planning. Using standard
formats. Providing a variety of skill practice.
40 min. Group work: groups select a text and design a unit
based on that text. See Chapter Four for model.
5 min. Summary and conclusion.

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108
Session 8: Materials Selection.
10 min. Presentation: Sources of materials. See Chapter
Five.
45 min. Group work: groups review an array of materials and
.
evaluate them in terms of interest, level, and skills
addressed. Groups present their evaluations.
30 min. Presentation and demonstration: developing materials;
making materials comprehensible to low-level students.
Give guidelines for simplification.
30 min. Group work: practice in writing materials following
guidelines given above.
5 min. Summary and conclusion.

Session 9: Program Management and Testing

15 min. Group brainstorming: Problems you anticipate as you
begin your ESP program. Participants present their
concerns.
45 min. Presentation and discussion: Classroom management
techniques. Teaching cultural orientation. See
Chapter Six. Answer concerns brought out in
brainstorming.
25 min. Presentation: ?sting and evaluation issues. See
Chapter Six.
30 min. Group work: groups design a quiz for the unit they
developed in Session Seven.
5 min. Summary and conclusion.

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Session 10: The Total Program
30 min. Group work: Review of what you will do when you go
to your site. Groups develop action plans. Plans
should include steps for needs assessment, program
development/ and materials preparation.
20 min. Groups present plans.
20 min. Brainstorming: questions and issues in ESP. Final
opportunity for participants to raise concerns.
30 min. Presentation: summary and final words of
encouragement.
15 min. Evaluation of in-service. (Evaluation instrument
needed.)

5 min. Conclusion.

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