Journal of Business Research xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

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Journal of Business Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jbusres

Nations as brands: Cinema's place in the branding role

⁎
Shashwat Guptaa, Mohammad M. Foroudib, Juha Väätänenc, , Suraksha Guptad, Len Tiu Wrighte
a
Actors Studio Drama School, Pace University, NY, USA
b
Foroudi Consultancy, UK
c
Lappeenranta University of Technology, Finland
d
Newcastle University, UK
e
Emeritus Professor, DMU, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper contributes to the literature on nation branding. We investigate how a country's attributes, as re-
Nation flected by its cinema, built travel destination attractiveness for consumers. Our field study adds to the literature
Place and destination branding on the role of cinema in consumer place branding. The research model analysis results show that a country's
Cinema infrastructural, cultural, political, social and environmental attributes influence nation branding. Travellers'
Globalization
personal traits act as moderators, and travellers positively view these country attributes through the lenses of
their own experiences. As practical implications, the findings are valuable to country managers whose respon-
sibility is building the brand image of their nations.

1. Introduction unspoilt environment due to its comparatively small population and

low pollution (unlike Asiatic nations and industrialised Western coun-
This paper focuses on the contribution of cinema to nation tries), Tourism New Zealand was able to develop its ‘Pure values’. 100%
branding, and the role cinema plays in branding a nation as an at- Pure New Zealand is regarded as one of the world's most admired place
tractive destination. Few studies focus on cinema's contribution to a branding efforts, and it has transformed the fortunes of New Zealand's
nation's branding. Busby, Ergul, and Eng (2013) and Mestre, Ray, and tourism industry (Yeoman & McMaho-Beattie, 2011). Film production
Stanishevski (2008) noted the paucity overall of studies in the single revenues in the country went up to US$3.16 billion in 2014. Tourism
country context, by looking at the examples of Spain and the region of New Zealand estimated that as many as a billion people in 2008–2009
South America, specifically. However, their methodological approaches viewed its coverage of the nation and its 100% ‘Pure’ values in
to measuring destination image were quite narrow, as they were limited broadcast, online and print media (Kaefer, 2017; TNZ, 2009), thereby
to fewer attributes. Hakala, Lemmetyinen, and Kantola (2013) looked influencing people's travel choice to New Zealand as a destination
at country image as a nation-branding tool but did not include the brand. As supported by The Economist, ‘consumers’ trust and support
important role cinema's characteristics play in helping develop a na- brands consistent with their broader values around society's well-being,
tion's branding. environmental responsibility and community contribution (Klein, 2017,
The issue is that the portrayal of a nation in cinema cumulatively p. 12).
affects it as a brand. The method shown in this paper regarding the study As New Zealand has shown, the phenomenon of moving images has
of cinema audiences can be used as a tool for engaging participants. a unique effect of both extending a nation's brand and encapsulating
Countries wishing to take advantage of more accurate and immediate values that develop fans for a nation's brand. This is important in the
responses regarding their efforts to promote tourism in their locations Internet era, as national governments and tourist agencies compete to
could follow the methods outlined in this paper. For example, high- attract visitors to their countries. There is also growing public access to
grossing films that exceeded traditional cinema box office records, such websites about films by advertisers with various ways to stimulate the
as Avatar and The Hobbit and Lord of the Rings trilogies, were filmed in senses, such as online advertising of ‘what's on in cinemas and theatres'
New Zealand. These films made the country of New Zealand a tangible and the popularising of digital and 3D cinematic images and sound
destination for cinema-goers who, as fans of the films, wanted to touch quality, as in IMAX theatres.
and feel ‘Destination New Zealand’. Rich in flora and fauna, with an Cinema has particular characteristics that make it a good medium

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Gupta), [email protected] (M.M. Foroudi), Juha.Vaatanen@lut.fi (J. Väätänen), [email protected] (S. Gupta),
[email protected] (L. Tiu Wright).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.02.017
Received 31 March 2017; Received in revised form 5 February 2018; Accepted 10 February 2018
0148-2963/ © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Gupta, S., Journal of Business Research (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.02.017
S. Gupta et al. Journal of Business Research xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

for nation branding. Place location is established in cities, regional and firms band together under one association's corporate brand (Kooli, Cai,
local areas of countries. Cinema impacts its audiences with big, col- Tang, Beer, & Wright, 2016). Studies (e.g. Harding, 2003; Heyer, 2008)
ourful moving images. Cinema-goers follow their favourite actors and see consumers using these moving images as a lens to cut across cul-
actresses on the large screens. People pay to experience the loud sound tural, geographical and political barriers, but there are limitations in
experiences of the movies. The audiences in cinemas are captive, in that the literature about the role of cinema in this context.
they do not have the facilities to pause, rewind or fast forward to skip We argue that, while the focus of cinema in the literature is about
bits they do not want to see or hear. Cinema has this combined appeal creatively transmitting a source of information, cinema should fulfil the
that can be positioned in the minds of audiences. Hoffman and Novak requirements of marketing in its representation of knowledge to spec-
(1996) noted that the positioning of a brand rests on the creation of an tators; hence, there is a gap in the marketing literature. There is support
appeal that is highly attractive. in the academic literature indicating that cinema plays a definitive part
In identifying limitations within the literature and supporting the in communicating the unique and specific characteristics of a country, a
research in this paper, we make a case for both a theoretical and geographic location or a community to its audience in the form of a
practical contribution regarding the role of cinema as a purveyor of story (Bberi & Audette-Longo, 2010; Gunning, 1986; Holt, 2002;
moving images that position a nation's brand image in the minds of Thompson & Tambyah, 1998). To investigate to what extent cinema
spectators. O'Shaughnessy and Jackson (2000) previously highlighted a projects realities that could be unique to a nation and create percep-
gap in academic research about the influence of images projected by tions and impressions about the country for a global audience is far less
cinema in branding a nation's image. Thus, the aim of this paper is to fill prevalent in the academic literature.
a perceived gap in the marketing literature about the proactive role Nations and commercial organisations can strategically invest in ci-
played by cinema in positioning the image of a nation as a brand in the nema as a medium that captures the characteristics and conditions of a
minds of its audiences. This focus studies the impact of images on ci- country in the form of live, visual images and presents them to spec-
nema audiences held captive in specific place locations. Our findings tators in a favourable way. The United States is the world's leading
suggest about consumer perceptions of a nation as a destination brand global producer of motion pictures. The US film industry has invested in
based on the study. Though theoretical and empirical contributions are innovative technologies, as evidenced in the array of technical appli-
available in the academic literature, marketing managers have not cations in its blockbuster movies, such as the computer-generated
utilised the understanding of travellers' experiences with methods for graphic effects in the movies of Marvel Cinematic Universe such as Iron
research, such as the one in this paper, which would assist in building a Man. A study in the Journal of Media Economics looked at 2000 films
nation's brand. To assist, we also offer managerial implications related from 1997 to 2007 shown in cinemas in eight countries: the US,
to this study. Canada, Australia, France, Germany, Mexico, Spain and the UK. The
The objectives of this research are as follows: (1) through primary study found that the average budget for films was about $41 million
research, explore how the unique features of a nation, as seen through and that the worldwide average revenue was reputedly around $76
cinema, can engage audiences; (2) examine why people are attracted to million (Walls & McKenzie, 2012). Segrave (1997) noted the conver-
a nation the way they are attracted to a brand, thus perceiving it as a ging interests of Hollywood and the US regarding the stimulation of the
destination ‘brand’. This research was conducted using mixed methods American export industry to reshape consumer tastes in overseas mar-
in two phases. During the first phase, we conducted fifteen personal kets was also useful for spreading American ideology during the Cold
interviews with respondents using open-ended questions. Based on the War. Guback (1969) traced this to the Marshall Plan for Europe
analysis of qualitative data, a research instrument was developed, (1948–1951), linking aid to recipients' willingness to accept imports of
which was used to validate the hypotheses. These hypotheses are ex- US motion pictures (Yale Global Online, 2017). While there is discus-
plained in the literature review section. The argument that nations sion in the literature, international studies of this kind have not been
should be promoted in certain communities to attract trade, tourism updated, which is a limitation to their usefulness.
and foreign direct investments is not disputed. Researchers (e.g. Loo &
Davies, 2006; Solomon, 2017) have identified target segments, such as 2.1. Nation branding
tourists, consumers, investors and businesses.
Each section of this paper contributes to an aspect important for A review of the role of national branding in building destination
understanding how nation branding can be a force within the broader branding (e.g. Clerck, 2017; Fan, 2006; Gupta, 2010; Morgan,
concept of place branding and promoting consumer awareness. Pritchard, & Piggott, 2003) shows that a country has an individual
Branding helps determine how nations or places ultimately become image positioned in the minds of outsiders. These images and percep-
attractive destination brands for people. The first section introduces a tions formed by individuals about various countries they could visit are
perceived gap regarding the limitations of the literature and the forms influenced by a country's history, current events, the values of its citi-
the study's aim and objectives. Following this, we review the literature, zens, and the lifestyles of its people. Consumer behaviour and mar-
assess its limitations and propose the theoretical underpinning of our keting sources (e.g. Solomon, 2017; Chernev, Hamilton, & Gal, 2011;
hypotheses. Third, we explain the methodology used and the analysis of Holt, 2002), and the media, film, tourism and vacation studies (e.g.
the results that drive the recognition of a nation as a brand. Fourth, we Bianchi, Pike, & Lings, 2014; Clayton, 2007; Hayes & MacLeod, 2007;
discuss the findings and conclusions concerning moving images in Hammond, 2010; Kim & Richardson, 2003) demonstrate such re-
fostering the relationships between cinema and building a nation brand, levance. Supporting evidence from other sources, such as communica-
as well as enhancing its place branding qualities. Finally, we discuss our tions, culture and social studies (Bberi & Audette-Longo, 2010; Choko,
contributions to the evolving research, the limitations of this study and 2015; Heyer, 2008) and in global business and exporting (e.g. Albaum
possible avenues for future research. & Duerr, 2016; Michie, 2017) point to the importance of many unique
national characteristics. Nations are different from each other in terms
2. Literature review of history, political systems, weather, location, geography, population
sizes, mixtures of internal races and variety of ethnic cultures. Such
There are sound reasons for researching the role of cinema as a characteristics combine to make a country attractive or not to busi-
communication medium that captures the characteristics and conditions nesses, investors and tourists alike (Albaum & Duerr, 2016). Investors
of a country in the form of live, visual images. The use of commu- and tourists can be encouraged or deterred by a variety of factors, in-
nications is strategic, such as in building companies' brands to facilitate cluding political and economic stability, the robustness of its financial
their market entry at an international level (Dinnie, 2008; Morgan & systems and exchange rate fluctuations, infrastructure, its sophistica-
Pritchard, 2005) or umbrella branding, where small proprietors and tion in communications and transport links, working conditions and the

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quality of its institutions, training programs and education system. 2003). Uricchio and Pearson (1993) reviewed Shakespeare's plays to
However, these sources do not use the context of cinema to show understand their influence in shaping cinema's reputation as a re-
how a nation's brand can be built, creating a perceived gap in the lit- spectable medium. Pearson and Uricchio (1990) saw cinema's power to
erature. Why is the study of strategic cinema important? Gunning attract a population. According to Grieveson and Kråmer (2004), a
(1995) explained that early cinema fascinated the audience using pragmatic shift in how society's current affairs were presented by ci-
images on the screen because of its ability to show rather than tell; the nema through silent motion pictures sparked debates. The theory of
image projected on the screen represented a visual reality rather than a film is seen as a technological development that not only promoted
story being narrated. Abel (1985) described cinema as the integration cinema as a medium for communication but also guided spectators to
of aesthetics of attraction, capable of representing society and natural new ways of thinking, directing their attention to critical social issues
landscapes. Film's ability to communicate through moving images is while reflecting upon the way society would operate (Lancioni, 1996).
based on the concept of the storytelling-by-enacting method (Lopez, Despite this, academic studies have not filled the gap regarding how to
2000). Gunning (1995) thought spectators rated cinema as a stronger develop methods of approaches or tools to study cinema for nation
medium of communication because of its ability, for example, to project branding. Instead, the literature has focused on the attributes of nations
close-ups. Cinema can flexibly change the focus of its content from for place branding.
current affairs to storytelling, but its attention to spectacle has not been
reduced (Keil, 2001). Since the 1950s, interest in the power of branding
2.2. Theoretical development and construction of hypotheses
as envisioned by Gardner and Levy has grown from telling consumers
‘many things not only by the way it sounds … but, more important, via
The literature has considered the implications of the types of signals
the body of associations it has built and acquired as a public object over
sent by cinema about a nation, which spectators use to build their ex-
a period of time’ (1955, p. 35) to a wider body of research concerning
pectations regarding the experiences they would have if they travelled
consumer identification of brands and the implications for manu-
to that country. This is similar to how consumers build expectations in
facturers in the effectiveness of brand management (Chernev et al.,
the case of brands. Cinema is useful in building an awareness of the
2011; Stokburger-Sauer, Ratneshwar, & Sen, 2012).
different attributes of a nation, such as the cultural values held by its
The proactive role played by cinema in creating and sustaining a
people; its infrastructure; and political, economic and environmental
nation brand has progressed over time. Cinema builds a national image
conditions before the spectators try to have any dealings with the na-
using visual moving images of its environments and the qualities of its
tion. A synthesis of the different schools of thought on the challenges
people, thereby creating a specific destination brand in the minds of
faced by cinema in its transition from silent to spoken moving images
visitors. A sudden transformation of nation branding could also be built
enables researchers to understand how cinema addresses its spectators
upon the traditional qualities of a country, set within a fictional
(Clayton, 2007; Tudor, 2008). Cinema can send signals to audiences
storyline; a documentary about places to visit, nature and wildlife; or a
about various aspects of a concept, experience or country. These signals
docu-dramatisation of a certain time period. See Gupta (2010) on the
then allow them to form images and build up expectations (Caquard,
influence of cinema and the impact of Slumdog Millionaire (a global-
Brauen, Wright, & Jasen, 2008). This individual-level perception is an
award-winning film) on the image of a nation and the effect on desti-
evolved research stream that has not been approached from the brand
nation branding.
perspective (Elliot & Papadopoulos, 2016). Individual level perception
From a demand perspective, the informational requirements of
on country image is important on travel intentions (Murphy, Moscardo,
consumers are fulfilled by cinema through the supplied characteristics
& Benckendorff, 2007). Behavioural intentions based on destination
and conditions of a country (Sheng & Lo, 2010). Repeated experiences
image is well established research stream (Chen & Tsai, 2007). Simi-
of the demand and supply of images through cinema help consumers
larly country image is linked to people's perceptions (Mossberg &
evaluate, and researchers construct analytical scales for assessing, the
Kleppe, 2005) and it has become more recognised that country image
treatment of nations as brands (Saraniemi, 2010).
can be affected through films (Beeton, 2006).
Cinema has come a long way from portraying films about current
Therefore, this study conceptualises the role of cinema in building
affairs: (1) films taken while an event occurred and (2) re-enactments of
spectators' expectations of a nation just as they would have expectations
events by actors that represented society and appeared as actualities
of a certain brand. In the following sections, each attribute of a nation is
(Abel, 2005; Keil, 2001). To fill an earlier gap, the manufacturers or
explained individually, along with corresponding hypotheses related to
producers of films depended on exhibitors and used dialogue at social
the present research.
occasions to supply missing information (Abel, 2005). Such newsreels
became highly popular with American cinemagoers during the late
1800s. During this period, films of the Spanish-American War gained 2.2.1. Country's infrastructure and travellers' intention to visit
popularity as a pictorial news service (Maltby, 2003). The academic literature supports that, in place branding, the in-
Cinema represents people's thoughts and beliefs with a creative frastructural attributes of a country affect its image, which outsiders
imagination that never ceases to engage its spectators (Cheles, 2010). retain and use when required (Saraniemi, 2010). Freeman and Pflug
Gunning (1995) called this a cinema of attractions, stimulating audi- (1999) measured the infrastructural attributes of a country as de-
ences based on eye interaction with images on the screens. Cinema has terminants of revenue generation and found them to be dependent on
gone through technological enhancements, evolving from celluloid the perception of benefits and assessment of risk. Kim and Richardson
(Gunning, 1995) to computer-generated, digitally-enhanced graphics. (2003) highlighted that cinema has the capability to cognitively alter
Early cinema was informative, presenting newsreels in their raw format images of a place, developing a familiarity that tends to increase the
(see Pathé News, founded by Charles Pathé, a UK producer of newsreels interest of viewers. The visualisation by viewers through cinema in-
and documentaries from 1910 to 1970). Narrative cinema enabled the cludes not only a country's infrastructure but also the heritage value of
manufacturers of films to innovate progressively, giving voice to the the location (Hayes & MacLeod, 2007). While Johnson (2011) reflected
silent screen and presenting current affairs to audiences with images on the influence of natural beauty, Mestre et al. (2008) highlighted the
organised in story format (Terrarum, 2006). Cinema brings the in- role of monumental architecture in the image that cinema constructs in
animate to life by projecting images using all three visual dimensions the minds of spectators. Other authors have indicated that novelty at-
and reflecting emotions and characteristics using the voices of char- tractions, entertainment venues, a cosmopolitan look and a place's
acters (Mazzanti, 2009; Tomlinson, 2013). In 1915, the release of the upkeep as essential elements that attract film spectators to a destination
controversial film The Birth of a Nation initiated various comparisons and contribute to branding (Andrew, 2002; Lee & Bae, 2004; Lopez,
about the purpose of the existence of cinema and theatre (Wallace, 2000; Morgan & Pritchard, 2005). Thus:

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H1. The infrastructural attributes of a country, as viewed by cinema motivation of novelty or education apart from pleasure seeking, which
audiences, are positively associated with a traveller's intention to visit can be socio-psychological in nature, such as the exploration and eva-
the country based on the image they hold of the nation as a brand. luation of self and strengthening a relationship or getting away from a
mundane everyday schedule (Crompton, 1979). A study conducted by
Gould, Gupta, and Grabner-Kräuter (2000) reviewed the use of cinema
2.2.2. Country's culture and travellers' intention to visit as an international medium by applying a three-pronged framework to
Various theories (Bulmer & Buchanan-Oliver, 2010; Holt, 2002) understand individual differences and interactive effects for product
have posited that culture is a motivational factor in explaining con- placement. Gould et al. (2000) looked at data collected from America,
sumer brand preferences. Attitudes toward dress, behaviour with others Austria and France to understand how product placement through ci-
and interest in the arts or sports are key factors that act as image nema can drive the purchasing behaviour of customers. Gould et al.,
builders for a country (Macleod, 2002). While Dinnie (2008) reflected 2000 found a direct impact between the variables identified. Another
on common characteristics such as religion and language for con- study, conducted by Li and Wang (2011), investigated how travel blogs
sideration as a brand, Robins and Aksoy (2000) highlighted cinema's participate in building the perceptions of tourists regarding China as a
ability to use the cultural aspects of a nation and build its image outside travel destination by changing their understanding. The investigation
the country. Taking these factors together, this paper argues that the was based on data collected from entries in blogs related to travels to
audiences' understanding of a country's culture will lead to an increased China on three dominant websites used by travellers. The content
likelihood they will consider the perception of the nation as a brand. analysis of the data collected by Li and Wang (2011) came from 89
This is supported by the literature on tourism research that includes the travel blogs that had information related to China. The authors' findings
role of destination images in demonstrating consumers' emotional be- identified the most frequently discussed experiences of tourists in
haviour, patterns of prejudice, attitudes or the shared values of in- China. They also revealed that the blog authors used images that in-
dividuals as elements of culture (Jenkins, 1999; O'Connor, Flanagan, & fluenced tourism in China. Although these studies discuss how image
Gilbert, 2010; Solomon, 2017). Such elements contribute to the and cinema can drive the perceptions of potential travellers, they fail to
building of a nation brand by creating a ‘persona’ of the nation that recognise how projecting of the social norms and environment of a
helps cinema audiences emotionally connect with the culture of a country can drive the intentions of travellers. Social norms we apply
country (Hammond, 2010). A favourable reputation based on the opi- following items living style, language, clothing, finances and diet.
nion of local and international viewers would position a country as a Therefore, we hypothesise the following:
good brand on the global platform (Anholt, 2002). Therefore:
H4. The social norms of a country, as assessed by audiences through
H2. The culture of a country, as understood by audiences through cinema, are positively associated with the traveller's intention to visit
cinema, is positively associated with the intention of the traveller to based on the image they hold of the nation as a brand.
visit based on the image they hold of the nation as a brand.

2.2.5. Country's environmental conditions and travellers' intention to visit

2.2.3. Country's political environment and travellers' intention to visit The environmental conditions of a country contribute to the image
The political conditions affecting a country's image as a destination people hold of it (Liu & Diamond, 2005). The literature on place
are varied and cannot be underestimated (e.g. O'Connor et al., 2010; branding explains how factors related to a country's environment, such
Wang, 2005; Zhang & Cameron, 2003). For instance, individuals' ability as fair weather, lack of pollution and interesting terrain, generates in-
to move around freely in a country and have freedom of speech are key terest amongst tourists (Berkowitz, Gjermano, Gomez, & Schafer, 2007;
factors that determine the image of a nation in the minds of outsiders. Sinclair, 2004). These factors also influence businesses, creating images
The EU's embodiment of its principles includes freedom of movement in the minds of managers. Such factors can drive businesses away from
for its nationals and the right to work in its countries. However, Eur- countries because of energy requirements and the country's ability to
ope's migrant crisis embodied political, economic and social con- supply the energy required (Asif & Muneer, 2007). Cinema acts as an
siderations that impacted the UK referendum on the 23rd of June 2016 important and influential mode of communication through which its
leading to ‘Brexit’. Other political aspects determining a nation's image spectators can improve their understanding of the environmental con-
include how open a society is to new ideas and freedom of information ditions of the country (Moss, 2010). The role of cinema in building a
(e.g. Voltmer, 2000). Hurwitz and Peffley (1997) added that a nation's nation as a brand by reflecting its environmental conditions has not
crime rate is also a determinant of a country's brand. This is supported been considered until now by academic researchers. Based on a review
by Manning and Trzeciak-Duval (2010), who highlighted the influence of the literature from environmental studies and research on cinema,
of terrorism on the negative image of a country. this paper proposes that the environmental conditions of a country
Kim and Richardson (2003) reflected on a study of the impact of reflected by cinema can influence spectators' consideration of the
political conditions on tourism as captured by motion pictures to show country as a brand. Hence, it is hypothesised that:
the influences of cinema on destination image. Though the role of ci-
nema in communicating the political situation of a country to the in- H5. A country's environmental conditions, as gauged by a cinema
ternational audience has been studied by various academic researchers, audience, are positively associated with the intention of the traveller to
such as Wang (2005), its contribution to building a nation's brand has visit based on the image they hold of the nation as a brand.
not been studied. We lay the foundation for understanding the re-
lationship between the political conditions reflected by cinema and 2.2.6. Personality traits travellers and travellers' intention to visit
overlay this with a research study showing cinema's ability to foster the Academic research, such as Madrigal's (1995) work, studied the
concept of a nation as a brand in respondents' minds. Hence, the fol- luxury-related behaviour of people and considered travelling as a value
lowing hypothesis is offered: held by an individual to establish their link with the personality traits of
H3. The political conditions of a country, as assessed by audiences the person. Madrigal's (1995) research also distinguished between in-
through cinema, are positively associated with the intention of the dividual and group travellers to highlight that personality should be
traveller to visit based on the image they hold of the nation as a brand. conceptualised as a locus of control. Another study, conducted by
Johansson, Heldt, and Johansson (2006), used data collected from
Swedish commuters to reveal the personality traits that determine the
2.2.4. Country's social environment and travellers' intention to visit attitude of an individual regarding their choices for travelling safely
Travellers' intentions to visit a country can be linked with the with comfort, convenience and flexibility. An individual's personality

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S. Gupta et al. Journal of Business Research xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

helps determine their intention to travel to a destination (Josiam, H8. The intentions of an individual to travel to a destination country,
Smeaton, & Clements, 1999). Various studies have focused on the de- when based on the knowledge gained through cinema, can positively
cision-making process followed by tourists while making their desti- influence the recommendations of travellers in a foreign country.
nation choices (Kurtzman & Zauhar, 2005; Petrick, Morais, & Norman,
2001). Petrick et al. (2001) focused on the effect of entertainment on
the purchasing and repurchasing behaviour of travellers, but there is no 2.2.9. Travellers' experience and country image
evidence that the personality traits of an individual can strengthen the The experiences of travellers can act as a predictor of their desti-
relationship between an entertainment source, such as cinema, and nation-related decisions during holiday periods, according to Haahti
travellers' intentions. Personality straits moderating effects have just and Yavas (1983). The authors used a sample of 681 foreign travellers
receiving attention (We apply the following selection of positive per- in Finland to gauge their perceptions of 12 favourite European desti-
sonality straits adventurous, empathetic, curious, attentive and re- nations for travellers. From their research, Haahti and Yavas (1983)
ceptive as moderators. Therefore, we hypothesise the following: concluded that, by using a marketing approach, public and private
organisations can make a strong contribution to the image of a country.
H6. The personality traits of an individual can positively strengthen the A country's image is a key factor travellers consider when making de-
effect that cinema has on the traveller's intention to visit based on the cisions to invest in travelling, and their previous experiences of a place
image they hold of the nation as a brand. may change according to the country of origin effect (Hakala et al.,
2013). Pike (2002) conducted an analysis of academic studies published
on country image and revealed that there is a gap in the current un-
2.2.7. Travellers' intentions and travellers' experiences derstanding about country image held by travellers based on their ex-
The current academic literature on tourism and the behaviour of periences. Country image has also been examined by Kim and Morrison
travellers explains how a traveller's intention to visit a place, when (2005), who used data collected from 223 tourists from Japan, 143
based on their image of that place, can positively drive the experience from Mainland China and 173 from the United States. Using analysis
of the traveller (Murphy, Pritchard, & Smith, 2000; Rezaei, Shahijan, obtained from t-tests and ANCOVA, the authors determined that big
Valaei, Rahimi, & Ismail, 2016). Dziekan and Dicke-Ogenia's (2010) events tend to change the image of a country within a short time period.
study investigated the link between the experiences of travellers and Nonetheless, these studies have not examined the direct correlation
the intention of an individual to travel, revealing that feelings of un- between travellers' experiences and country image. To fill this gap in
certainty decrease travel intentions. The study emphasised the role of the current literature, we propose that:
information absorbed at the cognitive level. Information stored cogni-
tively by travellers influences their experiences. Pham, Thi, and Mai H9. The experiences of an individual when travelling within a given
(2015) studied the intentions of travellers as driven by cinema, re- destination can positively influence the image of the country they hold
vealing that the experiences of spectators during a film about the in their minds.
characteristics and image of a place are closely linked with their travel
intentions. These studies indicate how cinema and travellers' intentions 2.2.10. Travellers' recommendations and country image
are interlinked. However, they have failed to recognise that: According to the marketing literature, recommendations are a key
H7. The intentions of an individual to travel to a destination country component in the promotion of a destination (Kim, 2011). Lee, Yoon,
when based on the knowledge gained through cinema can positively and Lee (2007) investigated the promotion of a destination based on
influence the experiences the traveller in a foreign country. recommendations by other travellers, considering different dimensions
of value to explain how the level of satisfaction of travellers influences
their recommendations to other tourists. Using data collected from 472
2.2.8. Travellers' intentions and travellers' recommendations respondents through a field survey, the authors revealed that the
In various studies in the marketing literature, the role of re- functional, overall and emotional value perceived by tourists can in-
commendations given by travellers has been recognised as referrals fluence their satisfaction and the recommendations they provide to
(Jalilvand, Samiei, Dini, & Manzari, 2012; Wang, 2012). The research fellow travellers. Another investigation was carried out by Bianchi et al.
conducted by Wang (2012) reviewed affective, cognitive and cyber- (2014), who used a consumer-based brand equity model to understand
interactive elements that can influence the intentions of potential tra- why the link between air links and free trade organisations led to in-
vellers by inspiring their perceptions and image of the destination. The crease in destination marketing organisations. Their findings revealed
author used data collected from a survey given to 323 participants that an increase in transparency and accountability to stakeholders
through a blog to indicate that the perceptions of travellers about the influences travellers' attitudes. Although these studies have discussed
image of a destination can be a predictor of their intention to travel. travellers' recommendations and country image, they have not focused
Wang (2012) identified the different factors playing an active role in on the context of travellers' intentions driven by cinema. Therefore, we
this correlation as cognitive images, which included generating em- argue that:
pathy and experiencing appeal; and interpersonal interactions, which H10. Recommendations given by travellers for a destination can
were based on social and community influence. The study conducted by positively influence the image of the country potential travellers hold
Jalilvand et al. (2012) also looked at the interrelationships between in their minds.
destination image, the attitudes of tourists and e-word of mouth re-
garding their intention to travel to a destination. Their study used a
field survey conducted with 264 international tourists, applying a 2.2.11. Travellers' experiences and nation branding
nonprobability, convenience-sampling approach on a structural model. The experiences of travellers at a destination influence the image
The findings suggested that the recommendations given by travellers they hold of the place in their minds (Florek, Breitbarth, & Conejo,
have a strong influence on a potential traveller's image of the destina- 2008). A study conducted by Hudson and Ritchie (2009) reviewed
tion. Although these studies have discussed travellers' intentions, des- features used by different countries, such as beaches, nature and cul-
tination images and travellers' recommendations, they have failed to ture, to market the idea of escape and discovery to potential travellers.
explain how the intentions of travellers, when driven by knowledge Their findings indicated that, although the tone used was very generic,
gained through cinema, can drive their recommendations. Therefore, few countries used branding theories to develop a unique and clear
we hypothesise the following: positioning beyond physical attributes. The paper described the

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rebranding exercise conducted by Canada to create brand ‘Canada’, as extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and
with tourist experiences as its focal construct, along with other con- openness, as moderators. Consequently, travellers' experiences and re-
structs, such as marketing communications, to create an emotional commendations received were considered to influence nation branding
appeal amongst the travellers. Murphy, Benckendorff, and Moscardo and destination choices in our proposed research model.
(2007a) and Murphy et al. (2007b) study linked the self-image of tra-
vellers with the brand personality of the destination location to explore 3. Methodology
connections between destination branding, the choice process followed
by travellers, tourists' needs, self-congruity, satisfaction and destination 3.1. Methods and data gathering
brand personality. The results of their analysis emphasised that tourists
tend to link destination and destination brand personality. Although Our study employed several stages during the methodological ap-
these studies have explored the branding of a nation as a key factor in proach and incorporated the triangulation of data in mixed-methods
actions taken by travellers, they have not been able to establish a link research (Creswell, 2013; Homburg, Jozic, & Kuehml, 2017). First, we
between the experiences of tourists and the brand image of the host explored the validity of our conceptualisation by gathering qualitative
destination. Hence, we argue that: insights from fifteen respondents. The participants' comments were
analysed using thematic analysis. Themes identified from the qualita-
H11. The experiences of a traveller at a destination can positively
tive analysis were operationalised to develop a scale for measuring ci-
influence the branding of a nation in the minds of travellers.
nema's effectiveness in building a nation brand by its reflection of a
country's infrastructure, culture, politics, social norms and environ-
2.2.12. Country image and nation branding mental conditions, thereby adopting the multi-dimensional approach
The notion of nation branding was initially introduced in the mar- advocated by Blackman and Funder (1998). The sampling procedure
keting literature by Fan (2006). Fan's (2006) concept was based on the required the exposure of the respondents to the role of cinema in nation
idea that a nation has a brand image with or without nation branding. branding. An informal sampling frame helped us to carry out the re-
The author differentiated nation branding from product branding to search using random sampling strategy.
draw comparisons between the two, particularly within the context of The relevant literature was analysed to generate a pool of 44 items
country image. Fan (2006) argued that nation branding could develop to use while conducting the quantitative research (Churchill, 1979). We
the economic conditions of a country but that non-marketing factors followed this step by developing and conducting fifteen open-ended and
also influence the branding of a country. Scholarly studies, such as in-depth interviews to verify the items. Interviewees were selected
Olins's (2002), argue that a favourable image of a country is an im- based on their understanding of the concept of a country as a brand;
portant aspect for marketing a nation. Kotler and Gertner (2002) pre- they were then asked about the contributions made by cinema to their
sented another perspective of nation branding regarding the influence relevant understanding. The interviews were conducted in the homes of
of country image on the attitude of travellers toward its products, ser- respondents and each interview lasted an average of 45 min. All the
vices, the ability to strategically attract tourists and its business in- interviews were recorded by the researcher and transcribed verbatim
vestments. Kaneva (2011) also studied nation branding, using 186 for analysis. To clarify, the inductive phase asked the respondents to
sources of information and arguments about nation branding across focus on how cinematic images and narratives about nations as brands
different disciplines based on critical theories of nation branding at a engaged their emotions, feelings and perceptions, especially regarding
global level. Although many studies (Brijs, Bloemer, & Kasper, 2011; their decisions about travel destination choices. The literature indicates
Elliot & Papadopoulos, 2016; Zeugner-Roth & Žabkar, 2015) have ex- that the inductive nature of the qualitative approach allows researchers
amined the interrelation between the image and branding of a desti- to determine better directions when asking questions, and facilitates the
nation, they have not discussed how travellers link country image with recruitment of research participants through improved targeting
nation branding. To address this gap in the literature, we hypothesise (Wright & Wright, 2016). The in-depth interviews refined the survey
the following: instrument utilised in the quantitative research stage, as the qualitative
results could be checked and validated for the formalised, structured
H12. The image of a country held by travellers can positively influence
questionnaire. Due to the in-depth information received during the
the branding of the nation.
interviews, two additional items were added to the research instrument.
To finalise the scale construction, the measures were modified to
2.2.13. Travellers' recommendations and nation branding adapt to the context of this research (Guillemin, Bombardier, & Beaten,
Nepia (2013) studied the value creation mechanism of a nation's 1993). A multi-item Likert scale was introduced to facilitate the col-
brand by considering its cognitive and affective utility. The author lection of cross-sectional data (Diamantopoulos & Winklhofer, 2001).
studied the semiotics, personality and branding literature to explore the This scale was then used to assess the role of cinema in building the
affective component of nation branding using the theoretical aspect of brand of a nation. Dinnie (2008) and Anholt's (2002) research con-
brand personality and semiotic analysis as the cognitive component. tributed to the understanding of nation branding and the con-
Research, such as Shani, Chen, Wang, and Hua's (2010) study, has ac- ceptualisation of the role of cinema based on the works of authors such
knowledged the link between destination image and traveller destina- as Gunning (1986), Abel (2005), Sheppard (2005) and others. Six items
tion selection. Particularly in the online setting, travellers' empathy can related to a country's infrastructural attributes were taken from the
help the creation of a nation brand. Although these studies have dis- research of Timothy (2005), with one item added from the qualitative
cussed recommendations made by travellers, they have failed to justify insights. Seven measures related to a country's cultural aspects were
and establish a direct link between recommendations made by tra- mainly adapted from Uwah (2017). Items related to a country's political
vellers and nation branding. Hence, we would like to propose that: aspects were supported with five variables by Gupta and Gupta (2013)
and one from the qualitative findings (terrorism). The study of Foroudi,
H13. Recommendations made by travellers about a destination can
Gupta, Kitchen, Foroudi, and Nguyen (2016) was employed to develop
positively influence the branding of that nation.
five measures regarding a country's social norms. Swiderska, Roe,
Based on these hypotheses, we created our proposed research Siegele, and Grieg-Gran (2008) provided three variables related to a
model, shown in Fig. 1, with an aim to test the relationships hypothe- country's environmental aspects. The five-item scale for traveller per-
sised. We recognise that nation branding might be influenced by factors sonality traits was borrowed from Roshchina, Cardiff, and Rosso
other than those presented in our proposed model. In our model of (2015). The five-item traveller's intention scale was taken from the
travellers' intentions, we have included traveller personality traits, such study conducted by Foroudi et al. (2016). Foroudi, Gupta, Sivarajah,

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S. Gupta et al. Journal of Business Research xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 1. Proposed research model.

and Broderick (2018) provided the five-item traveller's experience 4. Findings

scale. The five-item scale related to a country's image was adapted from
the research conducted by Bui and Perez (2010). We used the findings As supported by the literature (Cresswell, 3013), this research
of Gupta and Gupta (2013) to measure travellers' recommendations. compared the field data from both qualitative and quantitative studies
Dinnie's (2008) study provided four items to test the nation branding to refine the constructs for our investigations. Homburg et al., 2017, p.
construct. 384) indicated that applying ‘principles of data and researcher trian-
Both demographic and other background information was collected gulation ensured the general trustworthiness and credibility’ of results.
from the respondents. In all, we contacted 365 respondents. The criteria Table 1 provides a complete list of the items used to test the constructs.
for qualification was whether they had ever travelled nationally or in- The reliability and validity of the data were assessed using the Statis-
ternationally for tourism, education or business purposes. The data tical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Cronbach's alpha provided
were collected over five days, by two field workers. Film viewers were reliability scores, and the average variance extracted (AVE) indicated
selected as subjects for application of the quantitative research stage reliability and convergent validity. The Cronbach's alpha for all con-
with the questionnaire as the research instrument. Using random structs indicated reliability with scores above 0.779, reliable with the
sampling, individuals who had come to see a film were approached sample and meeting the recommended threshold (Kline, 2015). It is
personally and asked to respond to a series of questions. The random important to assess whether the responses suffer from a social desir-
sampling was implemented by asking potential respondents if they had ability bias that may have driven the respondents to respond in a
ever visited a country based on their perception of the place built on the manner that would project their image in a favourable light (Fisher,
moving images seen in any film. Before asking the respondents to an- 1993). The corrected-item-total correlation was also reviewed to un-
swer the questions, the study was explained (Altheide, 2000). This derstand the degree to which each item correlates with the total score.
helped us understand the suitability of each respondent's profile re- Values of < 0.3 indicate that the item measures something different to
garding the requirements of the study. All five constructs under in- the scale. Twelve items were removed due to lower reliability and inter-
vestigation about attributes reflected by cinema (country's infra- item-total correlation. The inter-item-total correlation score for all the
structure, country's culture, country's politics, country's social norms other items scored above the required level of 0.3, indicating the va-
and country's environment) and other key constructs (the personality lidity of the construct (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955). The results for re-
traits of travellers, traveller's intentions, traveller's experiences, country liability and validity enabled the researchers to accept or reject devel-
image, traveller's recommendations and nation branding) were ex- oped hypotheses (Malhotra, Mukhopadhyay, Liu, & Dash, 2012).
plained to each respondent. Additionally, questions related to the fre- Table 1 presents the main scale dimensions, item sources and reliability
quency of cinema visits and their preferred types of films were also measures.
asked. Out of the 365 respondents, we found missing values in the re-
sponses from 23 respondents. Consequently, data from 342 respondents 5. Analysis and results
were found to be useful for the analysis. To assess the bias amongst
respondents, we compared the two datasets received separately from A two-step approach was adopted for validating the developed
the two field workers by reviewing the mean of the variables. No sig- measures (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). The results provided by KMO
nificant differences were found in the two datasets for any of the score were 0.914 > 0.6, suggesting the suitability for conducting EFA.
variables. First, EFA was conducted to understand the patterns in the data (De

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Table 1
The main scale dimensions, item sources and reliability measures.

Construct Items Factor loading Mean Std. D. Cronbach's alpha AVE CR Reference

Attributes reflected by cinema

Infrastructure of the country shown in how the cinema reflects on 0.897 0.792 0.76
Heritage value AI2 0.791 5.8392 1.12314 Natural beauty; cosmopolitan look; entertainment Timothy (2005)
Monuments AI4 0.816 5.7661 1.20518 removed.
Novelty attractions AI6 0.811 5.5614 1.29085
Cleanliness AI7 0.750 5.4035 1.24471 Based on qualitative
study
Country's culture shown in how the cinema reflects on its peoples' 0.905 0.755 0.79
Attitude toward self AC2 0.684 5.6374 1.16024 Attitude toward education; attitude toward sports Uwah (2017)
Attitude toward others AC3 0.799 5.9503 1.10737 removed
Attitude toward arts AC5 0.785 5.7544 1.18070
Openness to religion AC6 0.734 5.3567 1.24491
Attitude toward regulations AC7 0.777 5.5994 1.21588
Country's politics shown in how the cinema reflects on 0.947 0.784 0.76
Safe movement AP1 0.761 5.6345 1.29664 Right to information removed. Gupta and Gupta (2013)
Freedom of speech AP3 0.750 5.6345 1.30341
Crime rate AP4 0.838 5.6871 1.22955
Terrorism AP5 0.788 5.6404 1.27319 Based on qualitative
study
Country's social norms shown in how the cinema reflects on the 0.947 0.813 0.76
Language spoken by people AS3 0.802 5.8538 1.27540 Living style; mode of transport removed. Foroudi et al. (2016)
Dress worn by people AS4 0.846 5.8070 1.26220
Financial condition of people AS5 0.817 5.7690 1.28235
Food habits of people AS6 0.787 5.7076 1.33392
Country's environment shown in how the cinema reflects on its' 0.915 0.813 0.71
Weather AE1 0.783 5.2836 1.36299 Swiderska et al. (2008)
Terrain AE2 0.795 5.3480 1.29921
Air quality AE3 0.821 5.1520 1.45115
Personality traits of travellers affect their intention to be 0.898 0.773 0.76
Adventurous PT1 0.802 5.1023 1.51185 Receptive removed Roshchina et al. (2015)
Empathetic PT2 0.829 5.0936 1.48601
Curious PT3 0.702 4.9825 1.56754
Attentive PT4 0.762 5.6111 1.29886
Travellers' intention is based on their perception of 0.891 0.695 0.99
Trust TI1 0.541 5.4825 1.24127 Risk removed. Foroudi et al. (2016)
Cultural experience TI2 0.675 5.4591 1.25248
Adventure TI3 0.765 5.2778 1.37490
Relaxation TI4 0.801 5.2632 1.41247
Travellers' experience is based on their perception of 0.957 0.863 0.78
Information about local activities TE1 0.816 5.7222 1.22368 Trust removed. Foroudi et al. (2018)
Advance bookings TE2 0.896 5.9357 1.23794
Food TE3 0.880 5.9649 1.22244
Public transportation TE4 0.863 5.9327 1.22469
Country's image is based on the reflection in cinema about its 0.952 0.897 0.78
Natural beauty CI1 0.899 4.9064 1.42763 Events removed. Bui and Perez (2010)
Leisure CI3 0.870 4.9620 1.33584
Entertainment CI4 0.916 4.9240 1.46316
Price CI6 0.903 4.9795 1.34498
Travellers' recommendation is based on their intention about visiting country due to its' 0.936 0.891 0.78
Accessibility TR1 0.855 5.4211 1.21738 Crime removed. Gupta and Gupta (2013)
Value TR2 0.865 5.3304 1.34149
Public sanitation TR3 0.919 5.4415 1.18437
Societal feeling TR4 0.926 5.4181 1.23868
Nation branding built through how the cinema reflects on its peoples' 0.779 0.914 0.79
Prosperity NB1 0.864 4.9795 1.37089 Dinnie (2008)
Equality NB2 0.947 4.9269 1.48815
Health NB3 0.943 4.9474 1.42768
Internet security NB4 0.903 4.9357 1.48164

Vaus, 2002). Second, IBM SPSS AMOS 21was used to conduct the or higher indicates adequate convergent validity.
analysis using the default method of maximum likelihood. During this A structural model approach was used to analyse the structural fit of
stage, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) enabled the researchers to the research model. The goodness-of-fit indices of the model mod-
measure the unidimensionality of the constructs. The scores indicated ification indicated good fit for our model. The CFI (0.915), IFI (0.915)
internal consistency for each item and provided confirmation of the and TLI (0.908) indicated good fit. The RMSEA (0.067) indicates a
measurement model (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). Also, the dis- reasonable fit (< 0.08). The results of the direct path attributes hy-
criminant validity score revealed that the relationship between the potheses (H1–H5) are presented in Table 2. All these hypotheses are
constructs being investigated was less than the suggested value (0.92) supported and positively associated with travellers' intentions. A cor-
(Kline, 2015). The homogeneity of the constructs was also examined by relation between a country's infrastructure and travellers' intentions
observing convergent validity using the reliability score of the con- was supported (H1: β = 0.115, t = 2.082). The effect of country's cul-
structs (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006). The AVE scores ture and politics on travellers' intentions was also supported by the
of all constructs ranged from 0.695 to 0.914. Generally, an AVE of 0.5 results (H2: β = 0.138, t = 2.516; H3: β = 0.156, t = 3.053). Similarly,

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S. Gupta et al. Journal of Business Research xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 2
Results of hypothesis testing.

Standardised regression paths Estimate S.E. CR p Hypothesis

H1 Country's infrastructure → Travellers' intention 0.115 0.055 2.082 0.037 Supported

H2 Country's culture → Travellers' intention 0.138 0.055 2.516 0.012 Supported
H3 Country's politics → Travellers' intention 0.156 0.051 3.053 0.002 Supported
H4 Country's social norms → Travellers' intention 0.301 0.050 6.065 ⁎⁎⁎ Supported
H5 Country's environment → Travellers' intention 0.133 0.062 2.139 0.032 Supported
H6 Personality traits of travellers → Travellers' intention 0.127 0.060 2.128 0.033 Supported
H7 Travellers' intention → Travellers' experience 0.462 0.055 8.351 ⁎⁎⁎ Supported
H8 Travellers' Intention → Travellers' recommendation 0.295 0.057 5.215 ⁎⁎⁎ Supported
H9 Travellers' experience → Country image 0.292 0.076 3.829 ⁎⁎⁎ Supported
H10 Travellers' recommendation → Country image 0.051 0.073 0.698 0.485 Not supported
H11 Travellers' experience → Nation branding 0.133 0.040 3.322 ⁎⁎⁎ Supported
H12 Country image → Nation branding 0.940 0.037 25.232 ⁎⁎⁎ Supported
H13 Travellers' recommendation → Nation branding −0.027 0.038 −0.718 0.473 Not supported

Notes: Path = Relationship between independent variable on dependent variable; β = Standardised regression.
Coefficient; S.E. = Standard error; p = Level of significance.
⁎⁎⁎
p < 0.001.

a country's social norms and environment were recognised to have builder of nation branding (Cullity, 2002) and to describe the various
significant effect on the intentions of travellers (H4: β = 0.301, aspects of cinema that would drive the perceptions of spectators (Tudor,
t = 6.065; H5: β = 0.133, t = 2.139). 2008). In a similar vein, different constructs regarding what, exactly,
Hypothesis six, regarding the effect of travellers' personality traits cinema can communicate about a nation have been identified
on their intentions, was also supported (H6: β = 0.127, t = 2.128), as (Levasseur, 2008).
was the link between travellers' intentions and travellers' experiences In our research, we identified cinema's ability to silently commu-
(H7: β = 0.462, t = 8.351). Hypothesis eight, which reflected on the nicate through moving images about the infrastructural, cultural, so-
influence of travellers' intentions on travellers' recommendations was cial, political and environmental attributes of a country, through which
also supported (H8: β = 0.295, t = 5.215). We also tested the influence spectators can build their expectations about the experiences the
of travellers' experiences on a country's image and found that the effect country can provide. The results met our expectations and provided
on the country's image was significant (H9: β = 0.292, t = 3.829). evidence supporting cinema's ability to communicate about the five
Surprisingly, the relationship between travellers' recommendations and proposed attributes of a country. These items were included based on
a country's image was insignificant (H10: β = 0.051, t = 0.698, the response of one respondent during the qualitative data collection,
p = 0.485 > 0.05), probably because different respondents have dif- who reflected on the environmental attributes with the following
ferent understandings regarding societal feeling, accessibility, and fa- words:
cilities. The relationship between travellers' experiences and a country's
Oh yes, I will surely look at the environmental attributes of a
image to nation branding was significant (H11: β = 0.133, t = 3.322;
country if I have to visit the country either for work or pleasure. I
H12: β = 0.940, t = 5.232). Results regarding the final hypotheses
will look at the temperature of the country, when it rains in that
showed that travellers' recommendations had no impact on nation
country or if it is a hilly area or a plateau kind of a place. If I am
branding (H13: β = −0.027, t = −0.718, p = 0.473 > 0.05). These
doing it for pleasure, I should know these aspects of the country
results could reflect respondents' understanding of a country's pros-
because I will have to understand if I would like to travel in that
perity, equality, health, and internet security-related issues. Hence, we
kind of weather and if I am doing it for business, I need to under-
claim that our structural model (Fig. 2) demonstrates cinema's ability to
stand the resources required to operate in that kind of terrain or
communicate country image to cinema-goers and build a nation brand.
weather.
Table 2 provides the detailed results of the hypothesis testing with the
tested paths. Various countries earn revenue by promoting themselves as edu-
cation centres and positioning themselves in competitive international
markets by promising the additional value of an enjoyable experience,
6. Findings and discussion which drives international students to travel to their country for edu-
cation (Mbaiwa, 2005). Our research also presents this relational aspect
The inclusion of measures used to test the constructs was adopted of nation branding by assuming the influence of the knowledge about a
from existing but different streams of literature that were found to be country gained by an audience through cinema. Many respondents
reliable and valid by either previous researchers or the respondents of highlighted this dimension by discussing how the country-specific
the qualitative interviews. Cinema is a cornerstone for communicating knowledge they acquire through cinema influences their destination
to the masses (Petro, 1986), but its role in communicating about a selections. One of the respondents reflected on her understanding about
nation has never been studied in a systematic manner. This research infrastructural attributes when considering a country for education by
provides evidence for the often-discussed but not empirically examined saying:
relationships between the reflections made by cinema and the ac-
knowledgement of a country as a brand. This conceptualisation exceeds I have seen a number of universities in different countries in films.
previous discussions regarding the role of cinema and drivers of nation That is how I know about the kind of buildings they have and the
branding in the academic literature. Since communication is the central kind of libraries and dormitories they have. If ever I think of sending
aspect of this study for both building a nation as a brand (Dinnie, 2008) my children for higher education in a foreign country, this knowl-
and the role of cinema in this process (Gunning, 1986), the synthesis of edge will be very useful.
two different streams of literature highlights arguments providing While our results support the dimension regarding the political at-
adequate measures for understanding cinema's ability to communicate tributes of a country as determinants of nation branding, one re-
about a nation. The authors have adopted a pragmatic approach for spondent commented on the influence of the political aspects of a
ensuring conceptual precision to introduce the concept of cinema as a

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S. Gupta et al. Journal of Business Research xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 2. Measurement model with results.

country understood through cinema in the following way: all are highly relevant to travellers' intentions. Travellers' intentions
show support of country image and, consequently, nation branding.
In many films, I have seen how citizens are dealt with in certain
These attributes are, thus, highly relevant to the study of nation
countries. I don't want to visit these countries because I am afraid:
branding. These results imply interesting findings in that travellers'
How will they deal with me if something goes wrong with me in
intentions support travellers' experience and demonstrate cinema's
their country? I don't mind going to a country where the people and
ability to affect country image and nation branding. However, these
government are open-minded, and their attitude toward humans is
attributes have an impact only through the inner experiences of cinema-
good and supportive.
goers and not through recommendations received from other travellers.
Furthermore, we empirically demonstrate the role played by cinema
in communicating the cultural attributes of a country and the influence
of these attributes on spectators when considering the country as a 6.1. Managerial implications
destination. Our assumption was supported by our discussions with the
respondents. One respondent commented: Our research model results have managerial implications related to
destination branding. When, as consumers, audience anticipation is in
When I watch a film from a cultural point of view, it fascinates me. I
accordance with their consideration of a nation as a destination brand,
tend to understand it better by watching it being enacted by in-
a country's infrastructural, cultural, political, social and environmental
dividuals on the screen.
attributes become determinants. Our research model elaborates on the
In a similar vein, one respondent also discussed the acquired un- respective implications of such attributes for forming the image of a
derstanding of the social aspects of a country in the following words: nation as a brand and provides support for destination or place
branding. Using its framework of destination branding attributes, this
I love to see the different styles of dress, of living etc. of people in
model will be highly useful for governments or country managers
different countries. Through cinema, I have come to know that in
whose responsibilities include building their nation's brand image. The
many countries some people are very, very poor and in others, there
implication is that communicating about a country through cinema
are no poor people.
should be matched to the attributes of the country regarding the mar-
Although previous research on the role of cinema has demonstrated keting theories of branding (Anholt, 2002).
the abilities of the moving image to communicate various aspects of the From a theoretical perspective, the impact of all the country attri-
narrative to the audience (Abel, 1985; Gunning, 1986; Gunning, 1995), butes together increases the understanding of cinema's role in nation
this research was conducted on cinema-goers to demonstrate the rela- branding. Empirical findings support the theoretical conceptualisation
tional aspects of cinema in specifically communicating about a country. of this research related to five attributes: infrastructural, cultural, so-
Our study contributes to research on the role played by cinema in cial, political and environmental. These characteristics trigger the
building a nation brand and proposes cinema's use in creating a fa- building of a nation brand. During this process, travellers' personal
vourable image in the minds of the global audience, who constitute the traits act as moderators, and travellers positively view these country
market as consumers. attributes through the lenses of their own experiences. We use the re-
The results of our study provide evidence for cinema's ability to search model and subsequent findings to fill a gap in the academic
communicate about the attributes of a country, namely its infra- literature on the role of country attributes related to branding.
structural, cultural, political, social and environmental attributes. These

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S. Gupta et al. Journal of Business Research xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

6.2. Conclusion and limitations Bberi, B. E., & Audette-Longo, M. (2010). Revis(it)ing personal, theoretical and national
histories: A critical review essay of 'Encountering Modernity': Twentieth century
South African cinemas' with an interview with Keyan G Tomaselli. Journal of African
To understand the potential of a nation regarding place and desti- Cinemas, 2(2), 151–165.
nation branding, global knowledge acquired by individuals through Beeton, S. (2006). Understanding film-induced tourism. Tourism Analysis, 11(3), 181–188.
diverse sources of communication can be very useful (Kubacki & Berkowitz, P., Gjermano, G., Gomez, L., & Schafer, G. (2007). Brand China: Using the
2008 Olympic Games to enhance China's image. Place Branding and Public Policy, 3(2),
Skinner, 2006). Consumers seek information about subjects such as a 164–178.
country's law practices, societal values, lifestyles, literacy levels and Bianchi, C., Pike, S., & Lings, I. (2014). Investigating attitudes towards three South
facilities. The literature reveals limitations in academic sources re- American destinations in an emerging long-haul market using a model of consumer-
based brand equity (CBBE). Tourism Management, 42, 215–223.
garding the role played by cinema in contributing to a nation's brand Blackman, M. C., & Funder, D. C. (1998). The effect of information on consensus and
and its destination branding. This relates to how audiences are affected accuracy in personality judgment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 34,
by specific film images. It also indicates a gap in the literature about 164–181.
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