Review of Related Literature

Study of Sports Competition Anxiety

Singh and Gaurav (2011) study is mainly concerned with volleyball players who
participated in the inter-college competition. Now days, the Game volleyball is becoming as a
professional sport rather than the competitive sport. So the competitiveness among the volleyball
players is growing up day by day with different color. The main purpose of this study was to
compare pre-competitive anxiety and post-competitive anxiety in inter- collegiate volleyball
players. A group of 170 volleyball players (boys=85 and girls=85) were selected from different
colleges affiliated to Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India through purposive
sampling technique. Their age was ranged from 18 to 25 years. Data were collected from athletes
using a Sports Competitive Anxiety Test - (SCAT) consists of fifteen items which include 5
spurious items, 8 positive items and 2 negative items. The t-test was used to test the effect of
anxiety level between pre and post completion. The significance level was determined as p<0.01.
The result of the study reveals that there was significant difference in 0.01 levels of pre-
competitive anxiety and post-competitive anxiety among the male and female inter-collegiate
volleyball players.
Kumar and Prabhakaran (2011) studied the comparative result of the Psychological
Profiles of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh International & National Level Male Cricket Players.
The subject’s age ranged between 18-25 years, they all were selected randomly from the
Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh U-19,U-22 Cricket teams, and the experts has made two groups
of 49-49 players, one group made up of Madhya Pradesh cricket players and another group made
up of Rajasthan Cricket players, those who are continuously participating at National and
International level. The experts used questionnaires of Rainer and Martin’s Sports Competition
Anxiety Test and the Eysenck, Maudsley Personality Inventory; the questions addressed various
aspects of Sports Competition Anxiety and Personality traits of cricket players respectively. The
questionnaire has filled by the Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh U-19 & U-22 Cricket teams
players respectively. For the evaluation of questionnaire Two Sample T-test was employed, and
the findings reveled that there was a significant difference found i.e. 2.8 in their Personality
parameters, it means Rajasthan Cricketers were better in their Personality as compare to Madhya
Pradesh Cricketers and found Insignificant i.e. 0.11 in the SCAT, which means there was no
difference in Sports Competition Anxiety of Rajasthan Cricketers and Madhya Pradesh
Cricketers. Sports Psychology can help a lot in assessing the personality and sports anxiety
characteristics of the players or individuals performance in cricket not only demands systematic
training to develop physical and physiological variables but also demands training and
considerations of psychological characteristics for success in this field.
Nigam (2009) investigate the effects of self-efficacy on sports competition anxiety. A
total of Forty students of psychology belong to D. P. Vipra College, Bilaspur (CG) affiliated to
Guru Ghasidas University, Bilaspur were randomly selected for the purpose of study. Sports
Competition Anxiety Test and the Physical Self-Efficacy Scale were administered upon all
subjects who volunteers to participate in the experiment. Results of the study revealed that
females who are high in self-confidence will have low levels of competitive trait anxiety. The
findings from this study also indicated that private and public self-consciousness and social
anxiety are all contributing factors in predicting competitive trait anxiety.

Ujwala and Jigmat (2011) studied competitive anxiety among male and female state level
baseball players, who participated in 3rd senior state level Maharashtra baseball champion. In
this study Sports Competitive Anxiety Test (SCAT Martin et al., 1990) was used to measure
sports competitive anxiety. Questionnaire was distributed among 40 (20 each) male and female
players 30 minutes before the warm-up session. Descriptive statistics (mean and standard
deviation) and t- test were used to analysis the data. The results showed significant difference
(p>0.05) in sports competitive anxiety between male and female state level baseball players.
Singh et al. (2011) studied compares the pre-competitive and post-competitive anxiety in
inter- university basketball players. A group of 30 players (15 of each sex with age group of 18-
25) were selected from Amritsar, Punjab, India through purposive sampling technique. Data
were collected from athletes using a Sports Competitive Anxiety Test. The result of the study
reveals that there was significant difference in 0.01 levels of pre-competitive anxiety and post
competitive anxiety among the male and female inter-university basketball players.
Behzadi et al. (2011) studied the relationship between goal orientation and competitive
anxiety and comparing them in female athlete students engaging in individual and team sports.
Using Morgan’s table, 120 athletes were randomly selected from the team sports and 80 were
selected from the individual sports. The Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire
(TEOSQ; Duda and Nicholls, 1992) and Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT; Martens, 1990)
were used for data collection. The results of Spearman’s test revealed that only in team sports is
there a negative significant relationship between task orientation and competitive anxiety.
Moreover, the results of Mann-Whitney U test showed that there is no significant difference
between individual and team sports in task orientation and goal orientation and that there is only
a significant difference between team and individual sports in competitive anxiety andego
orientation with higher competition anxiety in the team athletes and higher ego orientation in the
individual athletes (p>0.05 ). Apparently, since the performance of an athlete in team sports
depends on the team performance, the role given to the individual may interfere with their inner
role and this issue leads to anxiety in the individual.
Elaziz (2010) studied a psychological rehabilitation program for soccer players of
anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury and to find out the impact of this program on self-
confidence level and competition anxiety dimensions (cognitive -physical - confidence) to
injured players. The researcher applied experimental method by using two groups (control and
experimental).The sample included 8 of soccer players of (ACL) injury who were divided into
two groups and he also used some tests to measure the functional state of injured knee to make
sure of players' safety as control procedure, added to sports confidence test and competition
anxiety state inventory. Most important results that the researcher could reach were that the
proposed program impacted positively on improving self-confidence level, decreasing of
cognitive and physical anxiety dimensions and increasing of confidence which is the positive
dimension of sports competition anxiety.
Azimirad and Jalilvand (2012) studied the relationship between spiritual transcendence
and competitive anxiety in athletes. For this field, 400 of men athletes in Kermanshah city by
stratified sampling were selected and completed the spiritual transcendence and competitive
anxiety scales. Results of Pierson correlation indicated that was positive correlation between
connectedness (r=0.331), prayer fulfillment(r=0.411), universality (r=0.156) and spiritual
transcendence (r=0.234) with sportive self-confidence, and negative correlation between
connectedness (r=-0.124), prayer fulfillment(r=-0.443), universality (r=-0.415) and spiritual
transcendence(r=-0.397) with sportive self confidence with somatic anxiety and between prayer
fulfillment(r=-0.271), universality (r=-0.312) and spiritual transcendence (r=-0.221) with
sportive self-confidence with somatic anxiety. Results of multiple regression by inter method
showed that connectedness, prayer fulfillment and universality were explained 0.287 variance of
competitive anxiety (cognitive-somatic) and this variables were explained 0.319 variance of
sportive self-confidence (p<0/05).
Dunn and Dunn (2001) examined the degree to which the Sport Competition Anxiety
Test (SCAT; Martens, 1977) and the Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS; Smith, Smoll, & Schutz, 1990)
shared variance with the four subscales of the Collegiate Hockey Worry Scale (CHWS; Dunn,
1999)—a sport-specific measure of athletes’ dispositional tendencies to worry about
performance failure, negative social evaluation, physical danger, and situational uncertainty.
Participants were 178 male intercollegiate ice hockey players. Correlation and regression
analyses reinforced the links between worries about failure and negative social evaluation to
competitive trait anxiety (CTA). However, neither the SCAT nor the SAS shared more than
5.8% of the variance surrounding athletes’ worries pertaining to physical danger and situational
uncertainty. Findings are discussed in the context of Martens, Vealey, and Burtons’ (1990)
recommendation to develop instruments with separate subscales measuring different situational
components of CTA.
Torkfar et al. (2011) studied mental role in sports competitions and also the consequences
of anxiety in sports psychology from the topics to be discussed is undeniable. One of
environments rich in excitement and anxiety, the sports environment deal with the excitement
and anxiety is inevitable. The purpose of this study investigated the relationship between
dimensions of emotional intelligence and competitive anxiety in male and female student athlete
group and individual courses are. 270 student athletes (180 team sports, individual sports in
1990) from the University of Fars province, all of which have 6 to 15 years had the
championship, once the night before the race and the second time within half an hour before the
contest conducted by questionnaire competitive anxiety and emotional intelligence Martnez
(1970) to fill. Kendall correlation test to determine the relationship between variables, Smirnov
test for normal distribution of data, independent samples T-test for comparing normal and test
agents "U" Mann-Whitney to compare variables that were not normal. Also SPSS software for
data analysis was used. Results showed that the only spontaneity between the dimensions of
emotional intelligence with self-confidence was a significant relationship (p <0.05) but the
relationship between all these dimensions except for anxiety, cognitive empathy was significant
(p <0.05). All aspects of the relationship between self-awareness and empathy with the exception
of physical anxiety were not significant (p> 0.05). Between athletes of individual and group
about emotional intelligence and social skills and self-regulation variables that there are
significant Differences (p <0.05). But between these two variables on self-awareness, empathy
and spontaneity differences were not significant (p> 0.05). EI competitive anxiety is associated
in most cases.
Faridnia et al. (2012) studied the effect of neuro feedback training on the anxiety of elite
female swimmers. To that aim, 20 professional swimmers were selected through purposive
sampling and were randomly divided into an experimental and a control group. The procedure of
the research involved 12 sessions (45 min per session) of neuro feedback training with two
protocols: (1) increased SMR activity and decreased high beta and theta activity, (2) increased
beta activity and decreased high beta activity. Before the training, the pretest was administered
using SCAT and then the posttest was administered. Two-factor analysis of variance (2 _ 2) was
applied for data analysis and the results were: the main effect of test and the interaction between
test and group were significant, but the main effect of group was not significant. Given the
significance of the interaction between test and group, correlated t-test was applied to compare
the pretest and posttest scores of each group. The results indicated that there is a significant
difference between the pretest and posttest scores of the experimental group in anxiety. Yet this
difference was not significant in the control group. Correlated t-test was also applied to compare
the two groups in the pretest and the posttest. The results revealed that in the pretest there was no
significant difference between the groups in terms of anxiety, but this difference was significant
in the posttest. It can thus be concluded that neurofeedback training reduces anxiety in elite
female swimmers.
Avramidou et al. (2007) examined state and trait anxiety in competitive lifesavers and
swimmers. The participants completed the SAS and the CSAI-2d before a training session and
the CSAI-2d again before a competition. The competitive lifesavers were found to have lower
levels of cognitive and somatic anxiety than competitive swimmers. Both groups were found to
have lower levels of self-confidence but higher levels of somatic anxiety before a competition
than before regular training sessions. Lifesavers found their levels of somatic anxiety to be more
facilitative than the swimmers did. Both groups perceived that higher levels of self-confidence
were more facilitative before competition than before training. Differences in the relationship
between state and trait anxiety for swimmers and lifesavers were observed. The generally lower
levels of cognitive and somatic state anxiety in lifesavers and their interpretation of somatic
anxiety during competition would benefit their performance and decision making.
Campball and Jones (2012) examined the pre competition temporal patterning of anxiety
and self-confidence in wheelchair sport participants. The subjects comprised of 103 male (n =
87) and female (n = 16) wheelchair sport participants who participated at national level or above
in a variety of sports. All the subjects completed a modified version of the Competitive Trait
Anxiety Inventory-2 (CTAI-2) which measured three dimensions of their normal competitive
anxiety response (intensity, frequency, and direction), at three time periods preceding
competition (1 week, 2 hours, and 30 minutes before). The findings suggest that wheelchair sport
participants show a similar pre competition anxiety response to nondisabled sport participants.
However, there appears to be some differences, particularly in the intensity of somatic anxiety
symptoms experienced and the reduction in self-confidence just prior to competition. The
findings also provide further support for the distinction between intensity, frequency, and
direction of competitive anxiety symptoms.
Levy et al. (2009) investigate the relationship between confidence and subjective
performance in addition to exploring whether coping mediated this relationship. A sample of 414
athletes completed a measure of confidence before performance. Athletes also completed a
measure of coping and subjective performance after competing. Correlational findings revealed
that confidence was positively and significantly associated with subjective performance.
Furthermore, mediational analysis found that coping partly mediated this relationship. In
particular, task-orientated coping (i.e., mental imagery) and disengagement- orientated coping
(i.e., resignation) had positive and negative mediational effects, respectively. Additionally,
athletes who employed mental imagery generally coped more effectively than those using
resignation. These findings imply mental imagery has the potential not only to improve
confidence, but also subsequent performance, while resignation coping may have the opposite
effect. Overall, these results lend some credence to Vealey’s integrated sports confidence model.
Hays et al. (2009) examined the role of confidence in relation to the cognitive, affective,
and behavioural responses it elicits, and identified the factors responsible for debilitating
confidence within the organizational subculture of world-class sport. Using Vealey’s (2001)
integrative model of sport confidence as a broad conceptual base, 14 athletes (7 males, 7
females) were interviewed in response to the research aims. Analysis indicated that high sport
confidence facilitated performance through its positive effect on athletes’ thoughts, feelings, and
behaviours. However, the athletes participating in this study were susceptible to factors that
served to debilitate their confidence. These factors appeared to be associated with the sources
from which they derived their confidence and influenced to some extent by gender. Thus, the
focus of interventions designed to enhance sport confidence must reflect the individual needs of
the athlete, and might involve identifying an athlete’s sources and types of confidence, and
ensuring that these are intact during competition preparation phases.
Woodman and Hardy (2003) investigated two relationships in competitive sport: (1) state
cognitive anxiety with performance and (2) state self-confidence with performance. The
cognitive anxiety mean effect size was r =70.10 (P50.05). The self-confidence mean effect size
was r =0.24 (P50.001). A paired-samples t-test revealed that the magnitude of the self-confidence
mean effect size was significantly greater than that of the cognitive anxiety mean effect size. The
moderator variables for the cognitive anxiety–performance relationship were sex and standard of
competition. The mean effect size for men (r =70.22) was significantly greater than the mean
effect size for women (r =70.03). The mean effect size for high-standard competition (r=70.27)
was significantly greater than that for comparatively low-standard competition (r=70.06). The
significant moderator variables for the self-confidence–performance relationship were sex,
standard of competition and measurement. The mean effect size for men (r =0.29) was
significantly greater than that for women (r =0.04) and the mean effect size for high-standard
competition (r = 0.33) was significantly greater than that for lowstandard competition (r= 0.16).
The mean effect size derived from studies employing the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2
(r =0.19) was significantly smaller than the mean effect size derived from studies using other
measures of self-confidence (r = 0.38). Measurement issues are discussed and future research
directions are offered in light of the results.
Hatzigeorgiadis et al. (2009) examined the effects of motivational self-talk on self-
confidence, anxiety, and task performance in young athletes. Participants were 72 tennis players.
The experiment was conducted in five sessions: baseline assessment, three training sessions, and
final assessment. After the baseline assessment participants were divided and assigned randomly
into experimental and control groups. The two groups followed the same training program with
the experimental group practicing the use of self-talk. In the last session, the final assessment
took place. A forehand drive test was used to evaluate task performance, and the Competitive
Anxiety Inventory-2R was used to assess self-confidence and anxiety. A two-way mixed model
MANOVA revealed that task performance improved for the experimental group (p < .01) and
remained stable for the control group; self-confidence increased (p < .01) and cognitive anxiety
decreased (p < .05) for the experimental group, whereas no changes were observed for the
control group. Correlation analysis revealed that changes in task performance were moderately
related to changes in self-confidence (p < .05). The results of the study showed that self-talk can
enhance self-confidence and reduce cognitive anxiety. Furthermore, it is suggested that increases
in self-confidence can be regarded as a viable function explaining the facilitating effects of self-
talk on performance.
Chen and Wang (2010) investigate the relationship between the competition confidence
and the career development of college table tennis players in Taiwan. A total of 360 players (256
males and 104 females) were surveyed. The competition confidences of different categories are
described. The findings include the career exploration, career orientation, career decision and
environmental exploration are presented in contrast with the competitor confidence scale. With
the positive correlation of competitor confidence and careers development, but player's academic
record with negative correlation.
Dureja and Singh (2011) compare the self-confidence and decision making abilities
between psychology and physical education students. A total of eighty (N = 80) male subjects
participated; forty (N = 40) psychology students and forty (N = 40) physical education students
from various affiliated colleges of Panjab University, Chandigarh were randomly selected for the
collection of data. The age of the subjects ranged between 19 to 25 years. Self-confidence was
measured by applying self-confidence questionnaire and decision making was measured by
applying decision making questionnaire. The ―t‖ test was applied to find out the difference
between mean scores of psychology and physical education students. The level of significance
was set at 0.05. The results revealed significant difference with regard to variable self-confidence
between psychology and physical education students. However, the results with regard to the
variable decision making were found statistically significant between psychology and physical
education students. Physical education students have better self-confidence and decision making
level as compared to their counterpart psychology students.
 Balaji and Jesudass (2011) study was to find out the differences in Mental Toughness
among Cricket Players of different age groups. To achieve this purpose, ninety Cricket players at
the age group of 10-21 years were selected from Chennai District, who regularly practice the
game and participate in various tournaments. ―Mental Toughness Questionnaire‖ a standardized
sports psychological inventory designed by Dr. Goldberg, was responded by all the subjects. The
collected data was analyzed using simple analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results of the
study showed that there was a significant difference in Mental Toughness among Cricket Players
of different age levels at 0.05 level of confidence. It was concluded that Cricket Players of age
group 18-21 years showed significantly greater mental toughness than the other two age groups.
This may be due to their experience in the game.

Kuan and Roy (2007) examined the association between goal orientations and mental
toughness and its influence on performance outcomes in competition. Wushu athletes (n = 40)
competing in Intervarsity championships in Malaysia completed Task and Ego Orientations in
Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) and Psychological Performance Inventory (PPI). Using cluster
analysis techniques including hierarchical methods and the non-hierarchical method (k-means
cluster) to examine goal profiles, a three cluster solution emerged viz. cluster 1 - high task and
moderate ego (HT/ME), cluster 2 - moderate task and low ego (MT/LE) and, cluster 3 -
moderate task and moderate ego (MT/ME). Analysis of the fundamental areas of mental
toughness based on goal profiles revealed that athletes in cluster 1 scored significantly higher on
negative energy control than athletes in cluster 2. Further, athletes in cluster 1 also scored
significantly higher on positive energy control than athletes in cluster 3. Chi-square (χ2) test
revealed no significant differences among athletes with different goal profiles on performance
outcomes in the competition. However, significant differences were observed between athletes
(medallist and non medallist) in self-confidence (p = 0.001) and negative energy control (p =
0.042). Medallist’s scored significantly higher on self-confidence (mean = 21.82 ± 2.72) and
negative energy control (mean = 19.59 ± 2.32) than the non-medallists (self confidence-mean =
18.76 ± 2.49; negative energy control mean = 18.14 ± 1.91).

Bhambri et al. (2005) examining the effect of psychological interventions such as

General relaxation , Imagery and combination of both on the mental toughness dimensions of
Table-Tennis players. The study was carried out on 32 national level table –tennis players in the
age group of 12-17 years. Loehr psychological performance inventory was administered to
assess their mental toughness on seven variables viz. self confidence, negative–energy,
Attentional control, visual and Imagery control, motivational level, positive energy and attitude
control. The data obtained was analyzed using ANOVA, t test and percentage distribution. The
results indicate that all the 3 psychological interventions enhanced mental toughness dimensions
of sports persons. However combined intervention consisting of both relaxation and imagery
therapies showed the maximum effect on mental toughness dimensions.

Golby and Sheard (2004) studied mental toughness and hardiness at different levels of
rugby league The increasingly business-like environment of professional sport has resulted in
greater scrutiny and analysis of players_ performance. The roles of physiological parameters in
predicting success in the world of professional and amateur sport are well established. However,
to date, evidence is sparse concerning the role of personality traits in predicting such success.
The present study examined the potency of measures of personality style and mental skills in
predicting success in the criterion sport of professional rugby league. Mental toughness was
assessed by questionnaire using the Psychological Performance Inventory. Hardiness was
assessed by questionnaire using the Personal Views Survey III-R. Subjects in this study were 115
professional rugby league footballers representing the top three playing levels in the game in
Great Britain (International, Super League, and Division One). Findings demonstrated that
performers playing at the highest standard (International players) scored significantly higher in
all three hardiness subscales (commitment, control and challenge) and in two of the seven mental
toughness subscales (negative energy control and attention control). Results are discussed
relative to previous findings, in particular, of the efficacy of high levels of hardiness. Practical
implications focus on the advocacy of mental toughness and hardiness training to improve sports
performance.