FLUID FLOW BASIC EQUATIONS

This lecture will introduce the student to some of the important aspects of fluid flow (momentum transfer). Later,
other subjects will be introduced to give the fledgling engineer the competence required to meaningfully deal with
this overall area of momentum transport and fluid flow.
The subjects in this lecture will include:
 Fluid statics
 Fluid flow phenomena,
 Categories of fluid flow behavior,
 Equations of change relating the momentum transport,
 Macroscopic approach to fluid flow.
FLUID STATICS:
 The behavior of fluids at rest
 This can be involved in process operations in a number of ways. One such case is in the measurement of
pressure differentials in a system.
Fluid Static 1
 Directly Vertical
o An important equation relating to fluid statics is the barometric equation:

Where:
P = pressure,
Z = vertical distance,
= fluid density,
g = acceleration of gravity,

MASS LENGTH TIME FORCE

Gram Cm Sec Dyne

Kilogram Meter Sec Newton

Pound Feet Sec Lb-force

Slug Feet Sec Lb-force

Hydrostatic Equilibrium

 For engineering calculations and for incompressible fluid with density constant and between the
two definite heights ,
“Consider the barometric equation with respect to the world itself. If, for example, we find ourselves on the surface
of the Pacific Ocean, then we know that the pressure is atmospheric. On the other hand, if we dive to the bottom of
the ocean until you reach the ocean floor, we would find that the pressure is many times atmospheric with the
difference due to the effect predicted by the barometric equation for ocean water.
Likewise, if we would go to California, we would find that the pressure in Death Valley (282 feet below sea level) is
higher than that at the top of Mount Apo (elevation 14,494 feet). Once again the difference in pressure would be
governed by the barometric equation.”

 Directly Not Vertical direction

o An important equation relating to fluid statics is the barometric equation:

Where:
= angle between the vertical Z and the dimension

*Note:

In using the barometric equation, we also must consider the usage of the terms absolute, gauge, and atmospheric
pressure.

Where:
= ambient pressure at that point where we make the reading.
= gauge pressure read by some measuring device for a vessel or a container.

 Barometric equation for ideal gas:

( )

If T is constant and by integration between level a and b,

∫ ∫

[ ]

Fluid Static 2
  Another aspect of fluid statics that will be utilized later in this text is the Principle of Archimedes relating
to buoyant force.
 Buoyant force for an object floating in a liquid is:
[ ]
Where:

 Hydrostatic Equilibrium in a centrifugal Field:

Where:

∫ ∫

Sample Problem:
Suppose a manometer is used to measure a pressure differential in a pipe with a flowing fluid ‘‘x” at room
temperature as shown in figure below The manometer reads a differential height of 1.09 feet. The liquid in the pipe
has a density of 78.62 lb mass/ ft3 . Mercury (density of 848.64 lb mass/ ft3) is the manometer fluid. What is the
pressure measured?

Solution:
= the overall pressure differential in the system

Using the barometric equation step by step.

Pt. 1 to Pt. 2 The interface between the flowing fluid(x)and manometer fluid (y)

Pt. 2 to Pt. 4 The interface between the flowing fluid(x)and manometer fluid (y)

Pt. 4 to Pt. 5 The interface between the flowing fluid(x)and manometer fluid (y)
Substituting the values from the problem,

Since English system is employed and lbm is employed,

For simple manometer,

Where:

( ) .

For Well-type manometer,

 Where:

For inclined Manometer,

Where :

FLUID DYNAMICS -A PHENOMONOLOGICAL APPROACH

The fluid is put into motion,
Fluid behavior is determined by its physical nature, the flow geometry, and its velocity.

Osborne Reynolds’ Experiment on Newtonian fluids (those that obey Newton’s Law of Viscosity).
 Reynolds experiment - streamline flow

Experiment results and discussion:

 Reynolds injected a dye stream into water flowing in a glass tube.
 At certain fluid velocities the dye stream moved in a straight line
 This behavior was found to occur over the entire cross section of the tube for a given overall flow rate.
 Also, the dye streams' velocity was the same for a given radial distance from the tube center (or wall).
Hence, at a particular circumference. the velocity had the same value.
 Also, the maximum fluid velocity occurred at the tube's center line and then decreased as the radius
approached the radius of the tube wall.

Conclusion:
 These behavior patterns led to conclusion that such flows were streamline (i.e., the dye stream showed a
straight line behavior with a given velocity at a circumference). Furthermore, since the velocity moved
from a maximum at the tube center to a minimum at the wall, the fluid itself moved in shells or lamina.
Because of these patterns of behavior, it was termed such flows as streamline and laminar

Laminar flow Pattern

 By increasing the flow rate, the stream line began to move in a sinuous or oscillating pattern and ultimately
developed into a chaotic pattern of eddies and vortices. The chaotic flow was termed turbulent flow, and
the intermediate range was called transition flow.

Transition and turbulent flow Pattern

Two principal forces involved in the experiment:

1. Inertia forces
̅
Where:
̅
2. Viscous Forces
̅

Where:

3. Ratio of Inertia Forces and Viscous Forces

 ̅ ̅
̅

The significance of the Reynolds number:

 “At the laminar region (lower flow rates) the viscous forces predominate, giving low Reynolds number
values.
 As flow rates increase, inertia forces become important until in turbulent flow these forces predominate,
giving high Reynolds number values”
Laminar Flow: Re:
Transition Flow: Re: >2,100
Turbulent Flow: Re

Transition length for laminar and turbulent flow:

 Approximate length of straight pipe necessary for completion of the final velocity distribution

For laminar flow,

Where:

For turbulent flow,

Flow characteristics as a function of the shape of relative velocity profiles/distribution in a tube or pipe:

Laminar Flow: Parabolic Shape

Turbulent flow: Blunter in shape
*Note: The Ultimate beyond Laminar and Turbulent is “Ideal” or Plug flow where all velocities
across the tube cross section are the same just like in the flow reactors or flow-through paced bed.

CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID BEHAVIOR

 Many fluids obey Newton’s Law of Viscosity. In these fluids, which are called Newtonian, the viscosity is
a property of the system.
 As such, it depends on the substance or substances in the system, temperature, and pressure but not on the
velocity gradient, which is the rate of shear or on the time parameter.
In nature there are many other fluid systems other than the Newtonian fluids. Therefore, the general classification
of fluid system according to its behavior are:
1. Newtonian
2. “Simple” non-Newtonian (the viscosity is a function of shear rate )
3. “Complex” non-Newtonian (the behavior is a function of both rate of shear and the time parameter)
4. Fluids influenced by external force fields
5. Fluids that are non-continuous
6. Relativistic fluids

“Simple” non-Newtonian (the viscosity is a function of shear rate)

 Those fluids in which the rate of shear influences the flow behavior

Comparison shear stress versus shear rate for Newtonian (A), shear-thinning (B), and shear-thickening (C) fluids.

Using Newton’s Law of Viscosity so that we have an apparent viscosity :

If we plot the behavior of on a log-log plot, we obtain Figure below:

Logarithm apparent viscosity vs. Logarithm shear rate for Newtonian (A), shear-thinning (B), and
shear-thickening (C) fluids.

Figure Interpretation:
 The for a Newtonian is a constant.
 The other fluids show a decreasing apparent viscosity with increasing shear rate (shear-
thinning fluid) or an increasing apparent viscosity with an increasing shear rate (shear-
thickening fluid).
 Shear-thinning fluids are also called pseudoplastic, whereas shear-thickening fluids are
termed dilatant.
 The overall science that considers flow and deformation of fluids (as well as solids) is termed
“rheology”.
  The velocity profile of a pseudoplastic fluid flowing in a circular tube is not a parabola (not
even in laminar flow) but rather a blunted profile ( same as that of a Newtonian turbulent
flow).

Fluid Behaviour Effect on shear rate Time-dependent Examples

Pseudoplastic Thinning No Polymer solutions, starch suspension,
mayonnaise, paints
Thixotropic Thinning Yes Some polymer solution, shortening,
some paints
Newtonian None No Gases, most simple liquids
Dilatant Thickening No Corn flour-sugar solution, wet beach
sand, starch in water
Rheopectic Thickening Yes Bentonite clay suspension, gypsum
suspension

It is obvious that the “simple” non-Newtonians cannot be treated by Newton’s Law of Viscosity. As such, other
approaches must be taken which lead to rheological constitutive equations:

Ostwald-De Waele Power Law :

| |
Where:
| |
k = consistency index
n = flow behavior index.
Also:
| |
 The power law is not applicable over the entire range of shear rate behavior but
rather only where is a straight line.
 Also, note that the flow behavior index, n, is the slope of such a plot.

System Values for flow behavior index (n)

Fluid Type N Examples
Shear-thinning (pseudoplastic) Polymer solutions; polymer melts; foods
Newtonian 1.0 Water, Organic fluids
Shear-thickening (dilatant) Continuous & dispersed phases (water-sand; cement, water-corn;
starch; etc.)

“Complex” non-Newtonian:
Fluids in which the time parameter becomes a factor.

( )
If for Newtonian fluid,

MULTIDIMENSIONAL FLUID FLOW - THE EQUATIONS OF CHANGE

Mass Balance:
 Consider the conservation of mass, using “stationary Volume element for mass balance”:
 Mass rate in - Mass rate out = Mass accumulation rate

Based on the above figure, by letting approach zero, the differential equation will be:

( ( ) )

Using differential and separated into density and velocity derivatives:

( ) [ ]

( )

[ ]

For a fluid of constant density (i.e., incompressible, usually being assumed in the fluid transport):

( )

[ ]

Momentum Balance: (Equation of Motion in Rectangular Coordinates)

 For a momentum balance using “stationary Volume element ”
(Momentum rate in) - (Momentum rate out) + (Sum of all forces acting on the system)
 = (Momentum accumulation rate)

Note:
 The momentum rate expressions would include both a convective (for example, ) and
a molecular transport term (involving shear stress).
 The force term would include both pressure and gravity forces.

Using the approach for the equation of continuity and letting approach zero,

( ( ) )

a. For Simple non-Newtonian Fluids

For x-component:

( ( ) )

( ) ( )

For y-component:
( ) ( )
For z-component:
( ) ( )

b. For Newtonian fluids of constant densities and viscosities:

For x-component:
( ) ( )
For y-component:
( ) ( )
For z-component:
( ) ( )
A. Equation of Continuity for Cylindrical Coordinates (r, :

Momentum Balance: (Equation of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates)

In terms of shear stress,

For r-component:
( ) ( )
For -component:
( ) ( )
For z-component:
( ) ( )

In terms of velocity gradients for a Newtonian fluid with constant and :

For r-component:
( )

[ ( ) ]
For -component:
( )

[ ( ) ]
For z-component:
( ) [ ( ) ]

B. Equation of Continuity for Spherical Coordinates (r, :

Momentum Balance: (Equation of Motion in Spherical Coordinates)

In terms of shear stress,

For r-component:
 ( )

( )
For -component:

( )

( )

For -component:
( )

( )

In terms of velocity gradients for a Newtonian fluid with constant and :

For r-component:
( )

[ ( ) ( )]
For -component:

( )

[ ( ) ( ) ( ) ]

For -component:

( )

[ ( ) ( ) ( )

]
Sample Problem 1:
Consider a Newtonian fluid flowing in a circular tube at constant temperature as shown on figure below. The fluid
(in laminar flow) is in steady-state flow and has a fully developed velocity profile.
a. What is the velocity profile across the tube?
b. Also, find the shear stress profile

Laminar flow in a tube

Solution:
a. Velocity profile across the tube
For cylindrical coordinates,
Let: z = axial dimension
r = radial dimension
Assume constant

Using: Equation of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates

In terms of velocity gradients for a Newtonian fluid with constant and :

*Since there is only a (velocity in the axial direction) and no pressure gradients for both components r and ,
component r and = 0

For r-component:
( ) [ ( ) ]
For -component:
( ) [ ( ) ]
For z-component:
( ) [ ( ) ]

Also Equation of Continuity for Cylindrical Coordinates (r, :

 Therefore,
Since is constant,
Using the z-component of Equation of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates in terms of velocity gradient,
( ) [ ( ) ]

Therefore,
( )

( )

( )

( )

̅
̅
( )
̅
̅ ̅
( )

̅ ̅
( )

̅ ̅
( )
*Since only r is involved, we can write the above equation as ordinary differentials

̅ ̅
( )
 Integrating and using the boundary conditions,

̅ ̅
∫ [ ] ∫ [ ( )]

̅ ̅

̅ ̅

Again integrating and using the boundary conditions,

̅ ̅

̅ ̅
∫ [ ] ∫

Where: R = cylinder radius

̅ ̅

̅ ̅

̅ ̅
[ ( ) ]

̅ ̅

[ ( ) ]

b. Shear stress profile

As in the previous computation , only the Equation of Continuity and the z component of the Equation of Motion
apply.
From the Equation of Continuity,

The z-component of Equation of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates in terms of velocity gradient:

( ) [ ( ) ]
Using the z-component of Equation of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates in terms of shear stress, :
( ) ( )

Therefore,

Therefore,

̅
̅

̅
̅ ̅

̅ ̅

Integrating and using the boundary conditions,

̅ ̅
∫ ∫

̅ ̅

̅ ̅
( )

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

Shear stress profile in a tube

Sample Problem 2:
An incompressible fluid is flowing at steady state in the annular region (i.e., torus or ring between two concentric
cylinders). The coaxial cylinders have an outside radius of and inner radius of Find:
a) Shear stress profile
b) Velocity profile
c) Maximum and average velocities

a. Shear stress profile

As in the previous computation , only the Equation of Continuity and the z component of the Equation of Motion
apply.
From the Equation of Continuity,

Using the z-component of Equation of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates in terms of shear stress, :
( ) ( )

Therefore,

Therefore,
 ̅
̅

̅
̅ ̅

̅ ̅

Integrating and using the boundary conditions,

̅ ̅
∫ ∫
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

.
̅ ̅

̅ ̅

̅ ̅

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

b. Velocity profile across the tube

For cylindrical coordinates,
Let: z = axial dimension
r = radial dimension
Assume constant

Using: Equation of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates

In terms of velocity gradients for a Newtonian fluid with constant and :

*Since there is only a (velocity in the axial direction) and no pressure gradients for both components r and ,
component r and = 0

For r-component:
( ) [ ( ) ]
For -component:
( ) [ ( ) ]
For z-component:
 ( ) [ ( ) ]

Also Equation of Continuity for Cylindrical Coordinates (r, :

Therefore,
Since is constant,
Using the z-component of Equation of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates in terms of velocity gradient,

( ) [ ( ) ]

Therefore,
( )

( )

( )

( )

̅
̅
( )
̅
̅ ̅
( )
 ̅ ̅
( )

̅ ̅
( )
*Since only r is involved, we can write the above equation as ordinary differentials

̅ ̅
( )

**The above equation still holds, but the velocity in the annulus will reach a maximum at some radius r =
which is between as shown in the above figure.

Integrating and using the boundary conditions,

̅ ̅
∫ [ ] ∫ [ ( )]

̅ ̅
[ ] [ ]

̅ ̅

̅ ̅

Re-Integrating and using the boundary conditions, (for inner radius, )

̅ ̅

̅ ̅
( )

̅ ̅
∫ ∫ ( )

̅ ̅
∫ [∫ ( ) ∫ ( )]

̅ ̅
∫ [∫ ∫ ( )]

̅ ̅
[ ]
 ̅ ̅
[ ]

Re- Integrating and using the boundary conditions, (for outer radius, ),

̅ ̅

̅ ̅
( )

̅ ̅
∫ ∫ ( )

̅ ̅
∫ [∫ ( ) ∫ ( )]

̅ ̅
∫ [∫ ∫ ( )]

̅ ̅
[ ]

̅ ̅
[ ]

Combining the Re-integrated equation for inner radius,

̅ ̅
[ ]

̅ ̅
[ ]

√ ( )
( )

̅ ̅
[ ( ) ]

̅ ̅
[ ( ) ]
 √ ( )
( )

√ ( )
̅ ̅ ( )

{ [ ] }

FLUID FLOW EQUATION - THE MACROSCOPIC APPROACH

The First Law of Thermodynamics for a closed system: Constant Mass

Where:
U = internal energy
W = work,
Q = heat
In general,
Where:
E = all the energy types involved
= (internal, kinetic, potential, electric, etc.)
The First Law of Thermodynamics for an open system : Constant Volume and steady state situation

First law flow system

( ) ( )

Injection work + potential energy+kinetic energy = - Shaft work - internal energy + heat.
Where:
P= pressure

or pump work
*
 *All of the quantities in equation (pressure, density, etc.) except internal energy ( and heat
( can be directly measured.

Evaluation of ( ):

A. For incompressible fluid (good approximation for most liquids and also for gases under certain
conditions):
( )

Therefore, the first law flow system will be:

( )

Sample Problems 1:
What is the volumetric flow rate for the tank (h = 3.048 m; exit cross-sectional area of 0.279 m2) shown
in figure below if is taken to be zero.

Solution:
Using Bernoulli Equation,
(Using orderly and systematic approach),
Inlet 1: Liquid surface in the tank
Outlet 2: Exit
( )

( )

*Z2 = 0 (Datum plane) and Z1= h

* the average velocity from the exit will be much greater than the velocity
̅
 ̅ √ √

Volumetric Flowrate, Q:
Q = V x Conduit Cross sectional Area
( )

Bernoulli Equation (Frictionless Form) : Basis for many fluid-flow measuring devices.

*Neglecting friction, height effects and shaft work

A. Pitot Tube

B. Pitot-Static Tube

C. Venturi Meter
 ( )
[ ] [ ]

Where: = coefficient of discharge for venture meter to compensate for friction

heating & non-uniform flow

D. Orifice Meter

( )
[ ]
 Where:
= coefficient of discharge for orifice meter to compensate for friction
heating & non-uniform flow

*Note:

Sample Problem 1:
What is the water velocity as measured by an orifice plate (0.06-m diameter) in a 0.305-m-diameter pipe with the
measured pressure drop being 75,150 ?
For Orifice meter:

( )
[ ]
 : as a

* cannot be determined unless is known (by using the volumetric flow rate, ). However, neither
is known, which gives the initial aspect of an unsolvable problem.
* However, if we consider the behavior of the curve, where =

From the graph, Reynolds number (Re) is about 40 to 40,000 with ,

By trial and error / Iteration,

Assume

( )
[ ]
( ) [ ]
[ ]

[ ]

̅ ̅ ( ) ( )

Assume
 ( )
[ ]
( ) [ ]
[ ]

[ ]

̅ ̅ ( ) ( )

Sample Problem 2:
Water with a density of 998 enters a 50 mm pipe fitting horizontally as shown below at a steady velocity of
and a gauge pressure of . It leaves the fitting horizontally , at the same elevation, at an angle of with the
entrance direction. The diameter at the outlet is 20 mm. Assuming the fluid density is constant, the kinetic energy
and momentum correction factors at both entrance and exit are unity, and the friction loss in the fitting is negligible,
calculate the gauge pressure at the exit of the fitting

Given:
̅
Solution:
( )

( ) or
(Kinetic energy and momentum correction factors at both entrance and exit are unity and fluid enters and
leaves at the same elevation)
( )

a. Using the volumetric flow rate equation:

( ) [( ) ( ) ]
{ ( )}