MECHANICAL WAVES

AND SOUNDS
WAVES
 A wave is a disturbance propagating in a
medium or in a vacuum, carrying energy with
them.
 A single unrepeated disturbance is a wave

pulse.
 A succession of periodic disturbances is a
wave train.
16.1 The Nature of Waves

1. A wave is a traveling disturbance.

2. A wave carries energy from place to place.

CLASSIFICATION OF WAVES
 Periodic Waves – consist of cycles or patterns
that are produced over and over again by the
source of the wave.
 Mechanical waves – require a medium to

propagate and cannot travel in a vacuum

 Examples: sound waves, ripples, tsunamis
 Electromagnetic waves – can travel in a
vacuum and do not require a medium to travel
 Examples: radio waves, microwaves, light
16.2 Periodic Waves

Periodic waves consist of cycles or patterns that are produced over and
over again by the source.

In the figures, every segment of the slinky vibrates in simple harmonic

motion, provided the end of the slinky is moved in simple harmonic
motion.
CLASSIFICATION OF WAVES
 Transverse waves – particles of the medium
are vibrating perpendicularly to the direction
of the wave propagation.
 Longitudinal waves – particles of the medium

vibrate parallel to the direction of the direction

of wave propagation.
 composed of compression (particles of the medium are
closer together) and rarefactions (particles are far
apart to each other)
16.1 The Nature of Waves

Longitudinal Wave
16.1 The Nature of Waves

Transverse Wave
PROPERTIES OF A WAVE

 Amplitude
 the distance from the
center line of a wave to
the highest point of the
wave (crest) or the lowest
point of the wave (trough)
 Amplitude measures the wave’s energy.

 The higher the amplitude, the greater the energy.

PROPERTIES OF A WAVE

 Wavelength
 isthe distance measured
at a fixed time over which
a wave pattern repeats.
 the distance between

two crests or two troughs

of a wave.
PROPERTIES OF A WAVE

 Wave period
 Isthe time it takes for
one complete wave cycle
to pass a fixed point or
position
 Wave frequency
 is the number of complete wave cycles passing a
given point in one unit of time.
PROPERTIES OF A WAVE

 Wave speed
 Wave speed is related
to wavelength and period.
If an observer standing
At a fixed point sees one
wavelength go by, the
wave moves one wavelength in one period.

 Therefore 𝑣 = λ𝑓.
WAVE FUNCTION
 A wave function is a detailed description of the
position of any particle in the medium where
the wave is propagating.

 Consider a wave travelling from left to right

(positive x-direction) with a speed v assuming
that it is at time t = 0, x = 0, and the particles
is at y = 0.
WAVE FUNCTION
 The mathematical expression for a wave
motion travelling at the +x -direction is:

2𝜋
𝑦 = 𝐴 sin (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)
λ
or
𝑦 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝐾𝑥)
WAVE FUNCTION
 The mathematical expression for a wave
motion travelling at the – x -direction is:

2𝜋
𝑦 = 𝐴 sin (𝑥 + 𝑣𝑡)
λ
or
𝑦 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝐾𝑥)
WAVE FUNCTION
 The wave number, K, is the number of
wavelength per unit distance.
 Solving for K,
2𝜋
𝑘=
𝐴

 Speed, frequency, and period can be

calculated by the same formula.
Speed of Transverse Wave in a String

 The speed of a transverse wave in a string varies

directly to the square root of the tension in the
string and it varies inversely to the square root of its
linear mass density.
𝑇
𝑣=
𝜇
where T is the tension in N, 𝜇 is the linear mass density
in kg/m, and v is speed in m/s
 Speed of Transverse Wave in a String

 Linear mass density 𝜇 is the mass of the string divided

by its length.
 It may be also obtained by multiplying the mass density 𝜌
by the cross-sectional area A of the string. Since the string
is circular in cross section A = 𝜋𝑟 2 where r is its radius.
𝑚
𝜇= = 𝜌𝐴 = 𝜌𝜋𝑟 2
𝑙
 Therefore,
𝑇
𝑣=
𝜌𝜋𝑟 2
Example:

 What is the speed of the wave in a guitar

string with a length of 0.65 m and a mass
of 3.5 g when subjected to a tension of
250 N?
Speed of Longitudinal Wave
 The speed with which a longitudinal wave
propagates through a medium depends upon the
density and elastic modulus of the medium.
 Elastic modulus refers to the ratio of force applied
to an object that measures the object’s resistance
from being deformed elastically.
 The higher the elastic modulus, the faster the wave
propagates because of greater force acting on the
vibrating particles of the medium.
Speed of Longitudinal Wave
 The denser the material, the slower the wave
propagates.
 The speed of a longitudinal wave is given by the
equation:
𝐸
𝑣=
𝜌
where E is the elastic modulus of the medium in N/m2
and 𝜌 is its density in kg/m3.
Speed of Longitudinal Wave
 For solids,
𝑌
𝑣=
𝜌
where Y is the Young’s modulus of the solid.
 For liquids,

𝛽
𝑣=
𝜌
where β is the bulk modulus of the fluid.
 Speed of Longitudinal Wave
 For gases, it can be shown that 𝛽 = 𝛾𝑃, where P is
the pressure in N/m2 and 𝛾 is the ratio of the specific
heat of gas at constant pressure to its specific heat at
constant volume.
 Thus,
𝛾𝑃
𝑣=
𝜌
 Speed of Longitudinal Wave
 If the gas is ideal,
𝛾𝑅𝑇
𝑣=
𝑀
where R is the universal constant equal to 8.314 J/mol K
T is the temperature in Kelvin
M is the molar mass in kg/mol
𝛾 has the approximate value of 1.40 for air and
other diatomic gases while 1.66 for monatomic gases
 In general, longitudinal waves travel fastest in solids and
slowest in gases.
Example:
 A dynamite explodes and its sound propagates
through the sea where the temperature is 25⁰C. The
sound of the explosion also propagates through air
at a temperature of 25⁰C. What will be the
difference in the time of arrivals between the two
signals at a station that is 5 km away? (bulk
modulus of water = 2.0 𝑥 109 𝑁/𝑚2 ; density of
seawater = 1025 kg/m3; molar mass of air =
0.029 kg)
Interference
 Interference occurs when two or more waves
meet while passing through the same medium
at the same time.

 According to the superposition principle, then

two or more waves travel simultaneously in the
same medium, each wave will proceed
independently of the others.
Interference
 Constructive interference happens when two
waves of the same frequency, in phase, and
traveling in the same direction meet.

 The resulting wave is of the same frequency

but with an amplitude equal to the sum of the
amplitudes of the two component waves.
Interference
 When two waves of the same amplitude and
frequency but are 180˚ out of phase with each
other meet, a total destructive interference
occurs.

 The waves completely cancel each other out

and there will be no resultant wave.
Interference
 Partial destructive interference happens when
the abovementioned waves have different
amplitudes.

 The resultant wave has an amplitude equal to

the difference of the amplitudes of the
component waves.
 Sound
 Sound is a longitudinal wave created by vibrating
objects and capable of producing a sensation in our
auditory system.
 The audible frequency range for humans is from 20 Hz
to 20 000 Hz.
 Sounds with frequency lower than 20 Hz are called
infrasounds.
 Sounds higher than 20 000 Hz are called
ultrasounds. These can be used to produce images of
tissues like fetus.
 Speed of Sound
 Speed of sound in a medium like solids, liquids, and
gases using the equations discussed a while ago.
 The effect of temperature to the speed of sound is
negligible in solids and liquids but not in gases.
 The speed of sound in air as a function of temperature
was determined by Isaac Newton to be
𝑚 𝑚
𝑣 = 331 + (0.6 ∙ 𝐶°)𝑇𝑐
𝑠 𝑠
 The speed of sound in air is 331 m/s at 0˚C. for each
Celsius degree rise in temperature, the speed of sound
in air increases by 0.6 m/s.
Characteristics of Sound
 Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of a sound.

 It depends upon the frequency of the vibrating

object.

 High-pitched sound is a high frequency sound with

short wavelength while a low-pitched sound is a low
frequency sound with long wavelength.
Characteristics of Sound
 Loudness is associated to the intensity of a sound.

 Sound intensity is perceived by the human ear as

the loudness. Greater intensity means louder sound.

 Intensity is proportional to the square of amplitude

and square of frequency but is inversely
proportional to the square of the distances from the
source of sound.
Characteristics of Sound
 Human ear can tolerate a wide range of intensities.

 The faintest sound we hear is called the threshold

of hearing and has an intensity of 10-12 W/m2.

 The loudest tolerable but painful sound has an

intensity of 1W/m2. This intensity is called the
threshold of pain.
Characteristics of Sound
 Intensities of sound are oftentimes compared on a
logarithmic scale.
 The unit of sound intensity level β on this scale is
defined by
𝐼
𝛽 = 10 log
𝐼0
where I0 is the threshold of hearing equal to 1 x 10-12
W/m2
 The unit of intensity level is decibel (dB).
 Characteristics of Sound
 Quality or timbre is a property of a tone that
distinguishes it from another tone of the same pitch
and intensity produced by a different instrument.

 When you hear a sound, it not only produce a

frequency but also its harmonics.

 Hermann Helmholtz found out that quality of sound is

determined by the number and relative intensities of
the harmonics superimposed with the fundamental.
Beats
 When two sounds of slightly different frequencies
are produced at the same time, a regular rise and
fall in the loudness may be heard.
 These alterations is called beats.
 The beat frequency fB is equal to the difference
between the frequencies of the two sound waves f
and f’.
fB = f – f’
Echo
 Sound may be reflected on barriers. The reflection
of sound is called echo.

 SONAR (sound navigation and ranging) is an

underwater system for detecting and locating
objects by means of echoes.

 Echolocation is the use of sound waves and their

corresponding echoes to navigate.
Echo
 Doctors use echocardiography or diagnostic cardiac
ultrasound to detect heart problems.
 A probe called a transducer produces sound waves
as it passes over a patient’s chest.
 These waves send back echoes to the probe and is
converted into pictures that can be viewed on a
video monitor.
 The same principle applies to other forms of
ultrasound imaging.
Doppler Effect

 The Doppler effect is the change in

frequency detected by an observer
because the sound source and the
observer have different velocities with
respect to the medium of sound
propagation.
 Doppler Effect
 If the observer and source move with speeds vo
and vs, respectively, and if the medium is
stationary, the frequency fo detected by the
observer is
𝑣𝑜
1 ± 𝑣
𝑓𝑜 = 𝑓𝑠 𝑣𝑠
1 ∓
𝑣
where fs is the frequency of the sound emitted by
the source and v is the speed of sound.
 Doppler Effect
 In the numerator, the plus sign applies when the
observer moves toward the source, and the minus
sign applies when the observer moves away
from the source.

 In the denominator, the minus sign is used when

the source moves toward the observer, and the
plus sign is used when the source moves away
from the observer.
 FLUID
MECHANICS
Fluids
 Consist of the liquid, gas and plasma phases of
matter
 Fluid mechanics – the study of the properties of
fluids
 Hydrostatics or fluid statics – deals with fluids at
rest
 Hydrodynamics or fluid dynamics – deals with
fluid in motion
Mass Density (Density)
 Is a property of matter defined as the ratio of its
mass (m) to its volume (v).
 Denoted by the Greek letter rho
𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= with SI unit of
𝑣 𝑚3

 Different substances have different densities.

 Gases are the least dense because their molecules
are very far apart
Specific Gravity
 The specific gravity of a substance is its mass
density divided by the density of water at 4 °C
(1.000 x 103 kg/m3):

Density of substance
Specific gravity =
1.000 x 103 kg/𝑚3
Density of a Solid
 Determine the mass and volume using a
weighing scale.

 For regular-shaped objects, volume may be

determined from their dimensions.

 For irregular-shaped objects, volume may be

determined using the displacement method.
Density of a Liquid

 Density of a liquid is usually determined

by using a bottle called pycnometer with
a known volume capacity.

 The pycnometer is weighed twice: (a)

when it is empty and (b) when it is filled
with a given liquid.
Density of an Ideal Gas
 The density of gases is sensitive to temperature and
pressure changes.
 The density of an ideal gas may be determined
sing the ideal gas law PV = nRT.
 Solving for density:
𝑃𝑀
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇
where R = 8.314 J/mol K, P is pressure in Pa, M is
molar mass in kg/mol, and T is temperature in K
Pressure
 Is defined as the magnitude of the force acting
perpendicular per unit area of the surface.
 In symbols
𝐹̝
𝑃=
𝐴

 Pressure is a scalar quantity with SI unit measure of

pascal (Pa) named after the French scientist Blaise
Pascal.
Pressure
 One pascal is equal to one newton/meter2.
 The atmosphere (atm) is a commonly used unit of
pressure and is defined as the average air pressure
at sea level.
 Other units of pressure equivalent to 1 atm are
given as follows:

1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa = 1.013 bar = 14.7 lb/in2 =

760 mm Hg = 760 torr
Pressure Real Life Applications
FACT: Small surface area would result in a greater
pressure.
 Choose bags with bigger/wider straps to avoid
shoulder pain.
 In chairs, round rubber pads are used to prevent
damage on the floor.
 In injecting substances into the body or extracting
fluids, needles with very small tip area is used.
 Ladies’ stilettos may give immense pressure on the
foot under a high heel.
 Hydrostatic Pressure
 Is the force per unit area that a confined liquid exerts
on all parts of its container or on any part of the
object immersed in it.
 The forces exerted by the liquid are perpendicular to
the walls of the container.
 The pressure on a given point in the liquid is the same
in all directions.
 However, the pressure that a liquid exerts on an
object immersed in it depends on the depth of the
object and the density of the liquid.
 Hydrostatic Paradox
 Discovered by Simon Stevin, a Flemish mathematician,
physicist and engineer
 States that the downward pressure of the liquid does
not depend on the shape of the container but only on
the height of the liquid.
 Blaise Pascal built an apparatus known as the Pascal
vases to demonstrate the paradox.
 Pascal vases consist of a number of interconnected
containers of different shapes, heights and volumes.
 If liquid is poured into them, the liquid will stand at
the same level in each container.
Atmospheric Pressure
 Earth’s atmosphere exerts pressure over its entire
surface. At sea level, the atmospheric pressure is
equal to 1.013 x 105 Pa or 1.0 atm.

 Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of the

air. However, air is compressible, and therefore its
density varies with height.
Atmospheric Pressure
 The density of air decreases at higher altitudes. A
reasonable idea on the variation of pressure with
altitude in Earth’s atmosphere can be deduced using
the following assumptions:
 Air is an ideal gas
 The temperature of he air is constant

 The variation of the acceleration due to gravity with

altitude is negligible
 Density is proportional to pressure
Pressure Measurements
 Pressure can be measured using a mercury
barometer, an aneroid barometer, a U-tube
manometer or a Bourdon tube.
 Modern pressure sensors work based on the
principle called piezoresistance.
 A piezoresistive material is one that changes its
electrical resistance when compressed strained or
when a force is applied on it.
 Pascal’s Principle
 Pascal’s principle states that any change in the
pressure applied to a completely enclosed fluid is
transmitted undiminished to all parts of the fluid and
the enclosing walls.
P1 = P2
𝐹1 𝐹2
=
𝐴2 𝐴2
 A small force applied on the small piston can produce
a greater force that can be applied to the big piston.
Archimedes Principle
 The buoyant force is the upward force that a fluid
applies to an object that is partially or completely
immersed in it.
 Archimedes’ principle states that the magnitude of
the buoyant force equals the weight of the fluid that
the partially or completely immersed object
displaces:
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑊𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
Flotation
 CASE 1: If the object is denser than the liquid, the
buoyant force exerted by the liquid is less than its
weight. Hence, the object will sink.

 CASE 2: If the object is less dense than the liquid,

then its weight in the liquid is less than the weight of
the displaced liquid. The object will rise until the
buoyant force equals its weight. Hence, the object
will be partially submerged.
Flotation

 CASE 3: if the density of the object is

equal to the density of the liquid, buoyant
force is equal to the weight of the object.
Thus, the object will float.
Continuity Equation
 In steady flow, the velocity of the fluid particles at
any point is constant as time passes.
 An incompressible, nonviscous fluid is known as an
ideal fluid.
 The mass flow rate of a fluid with a density 𝜌,
flowing with a speed v in a pipe of cross-sectional
area A, is the mass per second (kg/s) flowing past a
point and is given by
Mass flow rate = 𝜌Av
Continuity Equation
 The equation of continuity expresses the fact that
mass is conserved: what flows into one end of a
pipe flows out the other end, assuming there are no
additional entry or exit points in between.
Expressed in terms of the mass flow rate, the
equation of continuity is
𝜌 1A1 v 1 = 𝜌 2A 2v 2
where the subscripts 1 and 2 denote two points along
the pipe
Continuity Equation
 If a fluid is incompressible, the density at any two
points is the same, 𝜌1 = 𝜌2. For an incompressible
fluid, the equation of continuity becomes
A1 v 1 = A2v 2

 The product Av is known as the volume flow rate Q

(in m3/s):
Q = Volume flow rate = Av
 Bernoulli’s Equation
 For steady flow, the speed, pressure, and elevation of
an incompressible and nonviscous fluid are related by
an equation discovered by Daniel Bernoulli (1700–
1782).

 This relates the velocity, pressure and elevation at

points in a line of flow.
 Bernoulli’s Equation
 In the steady flow of an ideal fluid whose density is
𝜌, the pressure P, the fluid speed v, and the elevation
y at any two points (1 and 2) in the fluid are related
by Bernoulli’s equation:

P1 + ½ 𝜌v12 + 𝜌gy1 = P2 + ½ 𝜌v22 + 𝜌gy2

When the flow is horizontal (y1 = y2), Bernoulli’s

equation indicates that higher fluid speeds are
associated with lower fluid pressures