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1
Contents
2 Propagation of EM Waves 13
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Maxwell’s Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Maxwell’s Field Equations in Free Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Maxwell’s Equations for Harmonically Varying Fields . . . . . . . . 16
2.5 EM Wave in Homogeneous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6 Wave Equations for Lossless Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7 Uniform Plane Wave in Free Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.8 Solution of Maxwell’s Equation for Uniform Plane Wave . . . . . . 21
2.9 EM Wave Equation for Conducting Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.10 Propagation of EM Wave in Perfect Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.11 Propagation of Uniform Plane EM Wave in Conducting Medium . . 27
2
2.12 Conductor and Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.13 Propagation of Plane EM Waves in Good Dielectrics . . . . . . . . 30
2.14 Propagation of Plane EM Waves in Good Conductors . . . . . . . . 31
2.14.1 Skin Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.15 Impedance of Homogenous Isotropic Perfect Dielectric Medium . . . 34
2.16 Electromagnetic Wave Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.16.1 Linear Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.16.2 Elliptical Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.16.3 Circular Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.17 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3
3.8 Directivity of Electric Current Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.9 Gain of Half-wavelength Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.10 Radiation Pattern of Alternating Current Element . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.11 Radiation Pattern Expression of Center-fed Vertical Dipole of Finite
Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.12 Radiation Pattern of Center-fed Vertical Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.13 Radiation Pattern of Center-fed Horizontal Dipole . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.14 Radiation Pattern of Vertical Monopole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.15 Two-element Uniform Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.16 Field Strength of Uniform Linear Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.16.1 First Side-lobe Ratio (FSR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.17 Broadside Array and End-fire Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.17.1 Broadside Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.17.2 End-fire Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.18 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4
5.5 Space Wave or Tropospheric Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.6 Field Strength Due to Space Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.7 Duct Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.8 Duct Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.9 Troposcatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.10 Fading of EM Waves in Troposphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.11 Line of Sight (LOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.12 Ionospheric Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.13 Characteristics of Ionosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.13.1 Characteristics of D-Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.13.2 Characteristics of E-Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.13.3 Characteristics of Es -Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.13.4 Characteristics of F1 -Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.13.5 Characteristics of F2 Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.14 Refractive Index of Ionosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.14.1 Critical Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.15 Mechanism of Ionospheric Propagation—Reflection and Refraction . 102
5.16 Characteristics Parameters of Ionospheric Propagation . . . . . . . 103
5.17 Faraday Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.18 Ionospheric Abnormalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.18.1 Normal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.18.2 Abnormal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.19 Ionospheric Storms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.20 Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance (SID) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5
Chapter 1
A
a=
A
6
1.1.1 Dot Product
The dot product of two vectors is given by
A · B orB · A
A · B = B · A = AB cos θ
A · B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
Where θ is the angle between vectors A and B. The dot product of two vectors is
scalar.
A × B = AB sin θan
ax ay az
A × B = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
7
1.2.1 Cartesian Coordinate System
In this system a point P is represented by P (x, y, z). The variables are x, y, z. A
point is obtained by intersection of three planes given by x = k1 , y = k2 , z = k3 .
The unit of x,y and z is meter. The three axes x,y, z are mutually perpendicular.
These are said to be orthogonal to each other.
ax · ax = 1 ay · az = 0
ay · ay = 1 az × ay = az
az · az = 1 ay × az = ax
ax × ax = 0 az × ax = ay
ay × ay = 0 ay × ax = −az
az × az = 0 az × ay = −ax
ax · ay = 0 ax × az = −ay
ax · az = 0
8
All the three surface are mutually perpendicular. These are said to be mutually
orthogonal. A point in Cylindrical coordinate system is shown as P (ρ, φ, z). The
coordinate ρ is radius of the cylinder, φ is measured from x−axis and z is measured
the same way as for cartesian system. Here aρ , aφ , az represents unit vectors along
the coordinates ρ,φ and z. Their magnitude is unity and they are in the increasing
directions of ρ,φ, z respectively. It is obvious that increase in ρ results in cylinders
of greater radius, φ increases in anti-clockwise direction, z is same as in cartesian
system. The relations between x, y, z and ρ,φ, z:
x = ρ cos φ
y = ρ sin φ
z=z
and
p
ρ= x2 + y 2 0 ≤ ρ < ∞
y
φ = tan−1 , 0 ≤ φ < 2π
x
z=z 0≤z<∞
ax · aρ = cos φ
ax · aφ = − sin φ
ay · aρ = sin φ
ay · aφ = cos φ
az · aρ = 0
az · aφ = 0
9
aρ = cos φax + sin φay
aφ = − sin φax + cos φay
az = az
That’s is
Aρ = Ax cos φ + Ay sin φ
Aφ = −Ax sin φ + Ay cos φ
Az = Az
10
unit vectors along the coordinate axes. Their magnitude is unity and they are
in the increasing directions of r, θ and φ axes. Increase of r results in sphere of
large radius, θ increases in clockwise direction and φ increases in in anti-clockwise
direction. The variables of cartesian and spherical coordinates system are related
by:
and
p
r= x2 + y 2 + z 2 0≤r≤∞
z
θ = cos−1 p 0≤θ≤π
x2 + y 2 + z 2
y
φ = tan−1 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π
x
The relations between the variables of cylindrical and spherical coordinates are
given by:
ρ = r sin θ
φ=φ
z = r cos θ
p
r = ρ2 + z 2
r
θ = tan−1
z
φ=φ
11
1.3 DEL ∇ Operator
The del or nabla is known as differential vector operator and is defined as
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = ax + ay + az
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂V ∂Ay ∂Az
∇V = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
12
Chapter 2
Propagation of EM Waves
2.1 Introduction
This chapter starts with Maxwell’s equations in point form and differential form
from which we derive the vector wave equation whose solution is a wave propa-
gating with the speed of light. We give detailed treatment of the behaviour of
uniform plane wave in lossless dielectric media or free space and the behaviour of
uniform plane wave inside the conductor. The behaviour of uniform plane wave
in dielectric and conductors has been substantiated with the help of some mathe-
matical formulas for attenuation constant, phase shift constant, phase velocity and
intrinsic impedance. In the end, depth of penetration or skin depth has been taken
into consideration when the EM wave encounters conductor which attenuates the
E and H fields of EM wave with 1/e of it maximum value.
13
2.2 Maxwell’s Field Equations
We have following Maxwell’s equations in differential form:
D = εE (2.2a)
B = µH (2.2b)
J = σE (2.2c)
I
B · ds = 0 Net flux is zero (2.3a)
Is Z
= D · ds = ρv dv (2.3b)
Is Iv
∂B
E · dl = − (2.3c)
∂t
I Z s
∂D
H · dl = (J + ) · ds (2.3d)
s ∂t
Maxwell’s first equation says that net flux passing through closed surface is
14
zero i.e. there is no magnetic monopole. Maxwell’s second equation can be in-
terpreted as total electric flux density through surface enclosing volume is equal
to total charge within that volume. From Maxwell’s third equation we see that
electromagnetic force around closed path is equal to the time derivative of mag-
netic flux density which is followed by corrected version of Ampere’s law which
is magnetic force around closed path is equal to conduction current density plus
time derivative of electric flux density or displacement current.
I
B · ds = 0 Net flux is zero (2.5a)
Is
= D · ds = 0 (2.5b)
s
I I
∂B
E · dl = − (2.5c)
∂t
I Z s
∂D
H · dl = · ds (2.5d)
s ∂t
15
2.4 Maxwell’s Equations for Harmonically Vary-
ing Fields
We shall now rewrite Maxwell’s field equations in differential form and integral
forms as harmonically varying fields. We know that D = D0 ejωt and B = B0 ejωt
where D0 and H0 are the magnitudes of electric flux density and magnetic flux
density respectively.
∇·B=0 (2.7a)
∇·D=ρ (2.7b)
∇ × E = −jωµH (2.7c)
∇ × H = (σ + jωε)E (2.7d)
H · dl = (σ + jωε) E · ds (2.8d)
s
16
2.5 EM Wave in Homogeneous Medium
Let us obtain electromagnetic wave equations from Maxwell’s field equations con-
sidering a homogenous and isotropic medium.
Homogeneous Medium: In homogenous medium the medium parameters i.e. per-
mittivity ε, permeability µ and conductivity σ are constant throughout medium.
Isotropic Medium: In isotropic medium ε is scalar constant so that D and E pos-
sess same direction such that D = εE
∇·B=0 (2.9a)
∇·D=ρ (2.9b)
∇ × E = −jωµH (2.9c)
∇ × H = (σ + jωε)E (2.9d)
∇·B=0 (2.10a)
∇·D=0 (2.10b)
∂B
∇×E=− (2.10c)
∂t
∂D
∇×H= (2.10d)
∂t
17
∂ ∂ ∂D
(∇ × H) = ( ) (2.11)
∂t ∂t ∂t
Curl is differentiable with respect to space hence order can be changed
∂H ∂ 2D
∇× =
∂t ∂t2 (2.12)
∂H ∂ 2E
∇× = ε0 2 ∵ D = ε0 E
∂t ∂t
∂B
∇ × ∇ × E = −∇ ×
∂t (2.13)
∂H
= −µ0 (∇ × ) ∵ B = µ0 H in free space
∂t
∂ 2E
∇ × ∇ × E = −µ0 ε0
∂t2
∂ 2E
∇(∇ · E) − ∇2 E = −µ0 ε0 2 (2.14)
∂t
2
2 ∂ E
−∇ E = −µ0 ε0 2 ∵∇·E=0
∂t
∂ 2E
∇2 E = µ0 ε0 (2.15)
∂t2
This is wave equation for E-field in free space. Similarly, the wave equation can
also be derived in terms of magnetic field as follows:
∂ 2H
∇2 H = µ0 ε0 (2.16)
∂t2
Equations 2.15 and 2.16 are homogenous vector wave equations for free space
(vacuum)
In problem of rectangular coordinate system, the wave equation assume the
18
form of scalar wave equations in terms of its components. Therefore, the scalar
wave equations:
∂ 2 Ex
∇ 2 E x = µ 0 ε0 (2.17a)
∂t2
∂ 2 Ey
∇ 2 E y = µ 0 ε0 2 (2.17b)
∂t
∂ 2 Ez
∇ 2 E z = µ 0 ε0 2 (2.17c)
∂t
∂ 2 Hx
∇2 Hx = µ0 ε0 (2.18a)
∂t2
2 ∂ 2 Hy
∇ Hy = µ0 ε0 (2.18b)
∂t2
∂ 2 Hz
∇2 Hz = µ0 ε0 2 (2.18c)
∂t
∂
In terms of complex time harmonic wave equations i.e. replace ∂t
with jω
∂ 2E
∇ 2 E = µ 0 ε0
∂t2 (2.19)
∇2 E = µ0 ε0 (jω)2 E
∇2 E = −ω 2 µ0 ε0 E (2.20)
∇2 H = −ω 2 µ0 ε0 H (2.21)
Velocity of Wave
19
We know that homogenous vector wave equations in free space are as follows:
∂ 2E
∇ 2 E = µ 0 ε0
∂t2 (2.22)
∂ 2H
∇2 H = µ0 ε0 2
∂t
1 ∂ 2X
∇2 X = (2.23)
ν 2 ∂t2
1
= µ 0 ε0
ν2
1
=⇒ ν 2 = (2.24)
µ 0 ε0
1
ν=√
µ 0 ε0
• At every point in space, the electric field vector E and magnetic field vector
H are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation.
The direction of E and H is perpendicular to everywhere in plane. A uniform
plane wave is one in which E and H lie in a plane and have the same value
everywhere in that plane at any fixed instant.
20
• Velocity of propagation of a wave in free space is given by 3 × 108 m/s.
• Whatever may be the frequency, the EM wave travels in space with velocity
of light.
∂ 2E
∇2 E = µ0 ε0 (2.26)
∂t2
∂ 2 ∂2 ∂2
We know that ∇ · ∇ = ∇2 = ( ∂x2 + ∂y 2
+ ∂z 2
) and E = ax Ex + ay Ey + az Ez :
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
ax ( + + )Ex + a y ( + + )Ey
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
(2.27)
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
az ( 2 + 2 + 2 )Ez = µ0 ε0 2 (ax Ex + ay Ey + az Ez )
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
21
∂ 2 Ex ∂ 2 Ey ∂2
ax + a y = µ ε
0 0 (ax Ex + ay Ey ) (2.28)
∂Ez2 ∂z 2 ∂t2
Now by comparing LHS and RHS of eq. 2.28 we can rewrite E-field wave
equations as follows:
∂ 2 Ex ∂ 2 Ex
= µ 0 ε 0 (2.29a)
∂z 2 ∂t2
2
∂ Ey ∂ 2 Ey
= µ ε
0 0 (2.29b)
∂z 2 ∂t2
Equation 2.29 relates space and time variation of scalar magnitude Ex of the
electric field intensity and is known as a wave equation. Ex and Ey represent
scalar magnitudes of electric field intensity of a plane EM wave travelling in z-
direction. Equation 2.29 is most general view of describing the motion of this field
as function of time and space. Similarly, the magnetic field is identical:
∂ 2 Hx ∂ 2 Hx
= µ ε
0 0 (2.30a)
∂z 2 ∂t2
∂ 2 Hy ∂ 2 Hy
= µ 0 ε 0 (2.30b)
∂z 2 ∂t2
Equation 2.29 and eq. 2.30 are second-order partial differential equation and
the general solution of such differential can be written as:
In eq. 2.31 f1 (z − ct) and f2 (z + ct) are any two functions and may assume any
form like a sin(βz − ct) and ae(βz−ct) . Term-I represents wave travelling in +ve z
direction and Term-II represents wave traveling -ve z direction. General solution
of wave equation in this case has two waves one travelling in positive direction of
z away from source and the other travelling in negative z direction . If there’s no
reflection surface then term-II is zero. Therefore
E = f1 (z − ct) (2.32)
22
Now putting general solution in trigonometric form and trying with particular
function
Ey = sin β(z − mt) + sin β(z + mt) (2.33)
2π
We can rewrite eq. 2.33 by using βc = λ
· f λ = 2πf = ω:
If only positive direction wave is taken, then there may be number of choice of
solution in trigonometric form:
This is preferable solution and has got advantage because t is positive when the
wave is travelling in +ve and -ve direction
23
The solution could be more attractive in which time of propagation is visible
βz
Ey = E0 sin ω(t − )
ω (2.39)
2π z
= E0 sin ω(t − · )
λ 2πf
z
Ey = E0 sin ω(t − ) (2.40)
c
Ey = E0 sin ω(t − tp ) (2.41)
∇·B=0 (2.43a)
∇ · D = ρv (2.43b)
∂B
∇×E=− (2.43c)
∂t
∂D
∇×H=J+ (2.43d)
∂t
24
Now by taking curl of eq. 2.45 and using vector identity ∇×∇×E = ∇(∇·E)−∇2 E
∂H
∇ × ∇ × E = −µ(∇ × )
∂t
∂
∇(∇ · E) − ∇2 E = −µ (∇ × H)
∂t
(2.46)
∂E ∂ 2E
− ∇2 E = −∇(∇ · E) − µσ − µε 2
∂t ∂t
2
∂E ∂ E
∇2 E = ∇(∇ · E) + µσ + µε 2
∂t ∂t
2 ρ ∂E ∂ 2E
∇ E = ∇( ) + µσ + µε 2 (2.47)
E ∂t ∂t
∂E ∂ 2E
∇2 E = µσ + µε 2 (2.48)
∂t ∂t
∂E
∇ × ∇ × H = σ(∇ × E) + ε(∇ × )
∂t (2.49)
∂H ∂
∇(∇ · H) − ∇2 H = σ(− ) + ε( (∇ × E))
∂t ∂t
Using ∇×E = − ∂B
∂t
and ∇·B = 0 and vector identity ∇×∇×H = ∇(∇·H)−∇2 H
we can write
∂H ∂ ∂B
− ∇2 H = −σµ( ) + ε( (− ))
∂t ∂t ∂t (2.50)
∂H ∂ 2H
− ∇2 H = σµ − µε 2
∂t ∂t
Hence
∂H ∂ 2H
∇2 H = σµ + µε 2 (2.51)
∂t ∂t
25
This is wave equation for conducting medium in H.
For uniform plane wave propagating in +ve z-direction there are no x and y com-
ponents and also Ez component. Thus wave equation in E and H reduces to
∂ 2 Ex
2
= −β 2 Ex (2.55a)
∂z
∂ 2 Ey
= −β 2 Ey (2.55b)
∂z 2
Similarly for H
∂ 2 Hx
= −β 2 Hx (2.56a)
∂z 2
∂ 2 Hy
2
= −β 2 Hy (2.56b)
∂z
Taking y component of E field only , the solution of wave equation 2.55 can be
written as:
Ey = A1 e−jβz + A2 ejβz (2.57)
26
form. The solution in terms of time-varying fields may be written as:
n o n o
jωt −jβz jβz jωt
Ẽy (z, t) = < Ey (z)e = < (A1 e + A2 e )e
n o (2.58)
= < A1 ej(ωt−βz) + A2 ej(ωt+βz)
"
n o
Ẽy (z, t) = < A1 cos(ωt − βz) + j sin(ωt − βz) +
# (2.59)
n o
A2 cos(ωt + βz) + j sin(ωt + βz)
∂E ∂ 2E
∇2 E = µσ + µε 2 (2.61)
∂t ∂t
Converting above equation in phasor form by replacing ∂/∂t with jω and ∂ 2 /∂t2
with (jω)2
∇2 E = µσ(jω)E + µε(jω)(jω)E
(2.62)
∇2 E = jωµ(σ + jωε)E
∇2 E = γ 2 E
(2.63)
∇2 H = γ 2 H
27
Where γ 2 = jωµ(σ + jωε) and γ = α + jβ is propagation constant. According
to phasor notation, sinusoidally time-varying electric and magnetic fields Ẽy (z, t)
and H̃x (z, t) are
n o
Ẽy (z, t) = < Ey (z)ejωt (2.64a)
n o
H̃x (z, t) = < Hx (z)ejωt (2.64b)
Ey (z) and Hx (z) are complex space vectors called phasors of time-dependent
real fields E(z, t) and H(z, t) respectively.
Phase Shift Factor: We can write phase shift factor for plane EM wave in con-
ducting medium as following:
2π
β= (2.65)
λ
Phase Velocity: We can write phase velocity of uniform plane EM wave in con-
ducting medium as:
ω
νp = f λ = λ
2π
λ ω (2.66)
= ω ∵ ω = 2πf =⇒ f =
2π 2π
Refractive Index: Refractive index of the medium is ratio of the speed of light c to
phase velocity of the wave νp . Mathematically
c 3 × 108 m/s
η= = (2.67)
νp νp
For the solution of plane wave progressing in +ve z-direction, the wave equation
becomes as usual
∂ 2 Ex
= γ 2 Ex (2.68a)
∂z 2
∂ 2 Ey
2
= γ 2 Ey (2.68b)
∂z
28
We have in phasor notation Ey (z) = E0 e−γz such that
Ẽ(z, t) = < E0 e−γz ejωt = < E0 ejωt e−γz
(2.69)
= < E0 e(α+jβ)z ejωt = < E0 e−αz ej(ωt−βz)
h n oi
−αz
Ẽ(z, t) = e < E0 cos(ωt − βz) + j sin(ωt − βz) (2.70)
∂D
∇×H=J+ = Jc + JD
∂t (2.71)
= σE + jωεE
• σ
ωε
1 which leads to ωε σ i.e. good dielectrics
29
J~D = jωεE
~
σ
θ = tan−1 ωε
J~c = σ E
~
Figure 2.1: Loss tangent (conduction current density and displacement current
density vectors are orthogonal to eachother)
• σ
ωε
1 which leads to ωε σ i.e. good conductors
• σ
ωε
= 1 which leads to ωε ∼
= σ i.e. quasi-conductors
• attenuation constant: α = σ
pµ
2 ε
N p/m
30
• phase constant: β = σ
pµ
2 ε
rad/m
σ2
• phase velocity: νp = ν0 1 − 8ω 2 ε2
+ ··· m/s
Ey = E0 e−γz
√ ωµσ (2.76)
= E0 e{(1+j) 2 }z
√ ωµσ √ ωµσ
Ey = E0 e 2 z · e−j( 2 )z (2.77)
31
r r
1 2 1
δ= = =
α ωµσ πf µσ
(2.78)
1
=√
πf µσ
2π 2π 2π
λ= = p ωµσ = q
β 2
2πf µσ
2
1 (2.81)
= 2π · √
πf µσ
=⇒ λ = 2πδ
32
ponentially as eαz at distance z which makes αz = 1, the amplitude is only 1/e
times its original value at z = 0. According to definition this distance is depth of
penetration or skin depth i.e. z = δ.
Which implies that αδ = 1 and α = 1/δ. E-field wave in y-plane when EM wave
is propagating in z-direction can be given as follows:
Ey = E0 e−γz = E0 e−(α+jβ)z
(2.83)
= E0 e−αz · e−jβz
Ey = E0 (2.85)
When wave penetrates distance δ, the field Ey decreases to 37% of its initial value.
33
6
4
E/e field
34
This is the solution of plane wave progressing in +ve z-direction and the solution
for Ex representing the a wave in +ve z-direction is given by:
∂Ex ∂Hy
=µ
∂z ∂t
∂ ∂Hy
(E0 sin(ω − βz)) = µ (2.90)
∂z ∂t
∂Hy ∂Hy E0 β
E0 cos(ωt − βz)(−β) = µ =⇒ =− cos(ωt − βz)
∂t ∂t µ
Integrating both sides of eq. 2.90
Z
βE0
Hy = − cos(ωt − βz) dt
µ
(2.91)
βE0 sin(ωt − βz)
Hy = − considering k = 0
µ ω
Ex E0 sin(ωt − βz)
= βE0
Hy − µ0 sin(ωt − βz)
(2.92)
Ex µω 2πf 1
=− = −µ = −µc = −µ √
Hy β 2π/λ µε
Hence r
Ex µ
=− (2.93)
Hy ε
35
From eq. 2.93
r
µ
− Hy = E0 sin(ωt − βz)
ε
r (2.96)
ε
Hy = − E0 sin(ωt − βz)
µ
Ex q
and Hy are identical functions of x and t but their magnitudes differ by a
factor µε and its reciprocal µε . The dimension of η is Ω in SI units. Thus free
p
space impedance is
r
µ0
η0 = = 120π = 377Ω (2.97)
ε0
E-field varies between +ve and -ve value of E and the direction confined to y-
direction only. Figure 2.3 shows E-field vector which trace line, circle and elliptical
polarization
36
2.16.2 Elliptical Polarization
E-field rotates as a function of time. The tip of E-field vector describes an ellipse
which is known as ”polarisation ellipse”. Ellipse is defined by axial ratio which is
the ratio of major axis to the minor axis of polarisation.
E2
AR = (2.99)
E1
37
Figure 2.4: Circularly polarized EM wave with right hand sense of rotation[1]
2.17 Examples
Example#01
If the electric field strength of a radio broadcast signal of a TV is given by
E = 5 cos(ωt − βy)ay V /m. Determine displacement current density, If the same
field exists in a medium whose conductivity is given by 2 × 103 mho/cm find the
conduction current density.
Solution:
We know that
E = 5 cos(ωt − βy) az V /m
38
Electric flux density
Jc = σE
= 2 × 105 × 5 cos(ωt − βy) az
Example#02
If H = cos(108 t − βz) ay A/m and E = 377 cos(108 t − βz) ax V /m in free space.
Find the frequency, wavelength, phase shift constant and intrinsic impedance of
the medium.
Solution:
We know the angular frequency
108
ω = 2πf = 108 =⇒ f = = 15.9 M Hz
2π
c 3 × 108 300
λ= = = = 18.86 m
f 15.9 × 106 15.9
2π
β= = 0.3329 rad/m
λ
39
Impedance η
r
E µ0
η0 = = = 377Ω
H 0
Example#03
Find the propagation constant for a wave with 100 M Hz of frequency that prop-
agates in free space.
Solution:
We know that propagation constant
γ = α + jβ
=β ∵ For Free Space α = 0
√ √
β = ω µε for free space β = ω µ0 ε0
OR
2π
β=
λ
γ = jβ
√ ω
= jω µ0 ε0 = j
ν0
2πf 2π × 100 × 106
= =
ν0 3 × 108
j2π × 108
= = j2.094
3 × 108
γ = j2.094(1/m)
40
Example#04
If H field is given by H(z, t) = 48 cos(108 t + 40z) ay A/m. Identify the amplitude,
frequency and phase constant. Find the wavelength.
Solution:
Amplitude of the magnetic field is 48 A/m
Angular frequency ω is
108
ω = 108 =⇒ 2πf = 108 =⇒ f = = 15.9 M Hz
2π
−40 rad/m
Wavelength λ
2π 2π
λ= = = 0.157 m
β 40
Example#05
When the amplitude of the magnetic field in a plane wave is 2A/m (a) determine
the magnitude of the electric field for plane wave in free space (b) determine magni-
tude of electric field when the wave propagates in a medium which is characterised
by σ = 0, µ = µ0 and ε = 4ε0 .
Solution:
We have
41
(a) σ = 0, µr = 1, εr = 1
r
E µ0
= η0 = = 120π Ω for free space
H ε0
E = ηH
E = 120π × 2 = 240π V /m
E = 240π V /m
(b) σ = 0, ε = 4ε0 , µr = 1
r
r r
µ µ0 µ0
η= = =
ε ε0 4ε0
r
1 µ0 1
η= = × 120π = 60π Ω
2 ε0 2
E = ηH = 60π × 2 = 120π V /m
Example#06
If εr = 9, µ = µ0 for the medium in which a wave with a frequency f = 0.3 GHz
is propagating. Determine Propagation constant γ, intrinsic impedance η of the
medium when σ = 0.
Solution:
For free space propagation constant is given by:
γ = jβ
√ p
γ = jω µε = jω 9ε0 µ0
2π × 0.3 × 109
γ=j
3 × 108
γ = j2π(1/m)
42
Intrinsic impedance η
r r
jωµ jωµ p
η= = = µ0 9ε0
σ + ωε ωε
1
η= × 120π
3
η = 40π Ω
Example#07
The wavelength of x-directed plane wave in a lossless medium is 0.25 m and the
velocity of propagation is 1.5 × 1010 cm/s. The wave has z-directed electric field
with an amplitude equal to 10 V /m. Find the frequency and permittivity of the
medium. The medium has µ = µ0 .
c c
λ= =⇒ f =
f λ
f = 600 M Hz
and we have
1 1
ν=√ =√
µε µ r µ 0 εr ε0
1 ν0 3 × 108
ν=√ =√ = √
µ 0 εr ε0 εr εr
√ 3 × 10 8
=⇒ ε =
1.5 × 108
εr = 1.141
43
Example#08
Earth has conductivity of σ = 10−2 V /m, εr = 10, µr = 2. What are the conduct-
ing characteristics of the earth at:
(a) f = 50 Hz (b) f = 1 KHz (c) f = 1 M Hz (d) f = 100 M Hz
(e) f = 1 M Hz
Solution:
The parameters of Earth are σ = 10−2 , εr = 10, µr = 2. Let us write the ratio
σ
ωε
in a more convenient way:
(a) f = 50 Hz
σ 18 × 106
= = 3 × 105 1
ωε 50
σ 18 × 106
= 3
= 18 × 103 1
ωε 10
σ 18 × 106
= = 18 > 1
ωε 106
σ 18 × 106
= = 0.18 ≡ 1
ωε 100 × 106
44
(c) f = 10 GHz
σ 18 × 106
= = 18 × 10−4 1
ωε 10 × 109
Example#09
A medium like copper conductor which is characterised by the parameters σ =
5.8 × 107 mho/m, εr = 1, µr = 1 supports uniform plane wave of frequency 60 Hz.
Find the attenuation constant, wavelength and phase velocity of wave.
Solution:
Let us decide based on ratio:
σ 5.8 × 107
= = 173 × 1014 1
ωε 2π × 60 × 8.854 × 10−12
r
ωµσ
Attenuation constant α = = 117.2 N p/m
2
r
ωµσ
Phase shift constant β = = 117.2 rad/m
2
Propagation constant γ = α + jβ = 117.2 + j117.2 (1/m)
2π 2π
Wavelength λ = = = 0.053 m
β 117.2
Example#10
Find the depth of penetration δ of an EM wave in copper at f = 60 Hz and
100 M Hz. For copper σ = 5.8 × 107 mho/m, µr = 1, εr = 1.
45
σ 5.8 × 107
= = 175 × 1014 1
ωε 2π60 × 8.85 × 106−12
σ 5.8 × 107
= = 0.104 × 1011 1
ωε 2π × 8.85 × 10−4
Hence, copper is very good conductor at f = 100 M Hz. Now, the depth of
penetration
r r
1 2 2
δ= = =
α ωµσ 2π × 100 × 106 × 4π × 10−7 × 5.8 × 107
δ = 6.608 × 10−6 m
Example #11
The magnetic field H of a plane wave has magnitude of 5 mA in a medium defined
by εr = 4, µr = 1. Determine (a) average power flow (b) maximum energy density
in the plane wave.
Solution:
(a) We know that
46
r r
E µ µ0 µr
= =
H ε ε0 εr
r
E µ0 120π
= = √ = 60π = 188.4Ω =⇒ E = 188.4H
H ε0 εr εr
1
WE = εE 2 = ε0 εr E 2 = 4 × 8.854 × 10−12 × 942 × 942 × 10−6
2
WE = 31.42 × 106 × 10−8
WE = 41.42 pJ/m3
Example#12
A plane wave transmitting in a medium of εr = 1, µr = 1 has an electric field
√
intensity of 100 × π V /m. Determine the energy density in magnetic field and
also the total energy density.
1 1
WE = εE 2 = ε0 εr E 2
2 2
1
WE = × 8.85 × 10−12 × 1 × 1002 × π
2
WE = 13.9 × 10−8 = 139 × 10−9
WE = 139 nJ/m3
47
As the energy of electric density is equal to that of magnetic field for a plane wave:
WH = 139 nJ/m3
WT = 278 nJ/m3
Example#13
A plane wave of frequency 2 M Hz is incidental normally upon a copper conduc-
tor. The wave has electric field amplitude of E = 2 × 10−3 V /m. Copper has
µr = 1, εr = 1 and σ = 5.8 × 107 mho/m. Find the average power density absorbed
by the copper.
Solution:
Copper is good conductor
r r
µω 4π × 10−7 × 2π × 2 × 106
η= =
σ 5.8 × 106
4π 4π
η=√ × 10−4 = × 10−4
5.8 2.40
η = 5.235 × 10−4 Ω
Average Power
1 E2 0.5 × 4 × 10−6
Pav = = = 0.382 × 10−2 W/m2
2 |η| 5.235 × 10−4
Pav = 3.82 mW/m2
48
Chapter 3
3.1 Introduction
This section shall explain the basic mechanism of radiation and the fundamental
types of antennas.
49
3.3 Retarded Vector Potential
If the expression for vector potential is integrated it follows that potential due to
various current elements are added up. Let the instantaneous current I in element
be sinusoidal function of time as I = Im sin ωt, where Im us maxim current and
I is instantaneous current. The effect reaching a distance point P from a given
element at an instant t is due to current value which followed at an earlier time or
current effective in producing for field. finite amount of time must be taken into
consideration. Mathematically,
r
I = Im sin ω t − (3.1)
c
For uniform plane wave travelling in +ve z direction sin(ωt − βz) but now
sin(ωt−βr) or sin ω t− rc indicates travelling of spherical waves in radial direction.
Thus retarded current and retarded density in exponential form may be written
as:
r
[I] = Im ejω(t− c ) = Im ej(ωt−βz) Amp (3.2)
r
[J] = Jm ejω(t− c ) = Im ej(ωt−βr) Amp/m2 (3.3)
J(t − rc )
Z
µ
[A] = dv (3.6)
4π v r
50
For sinusoidal current element, retarded vector potential is
J(t − rc )
Z
µ
[A] = ds · dl (3.7)
4π r
Since dv = ds · dl, where ds is cross sectional area and dl is the differential length
R
and I = J ds
I(t − rc )
Z
µ
[A] = dl
4π r
(3.8)
Im sin ω(t − rc )
Z
µ
[A] = dl
4π r
Similarly, scalar potential into the form of retarded scalar potential is written as:
Z
1 [ρ]
[V ] = dv
4πε r
r (3.9)
ρ0 ejω(t− c )
Z
1
[V ] = dv
4πε v r
r
Where [v] is retarded scalar potential and [ρ0 ] = ρ0 ejω(t− c ) is retarded charge
density C/m3
• It’s used to direct radiated energy into desired directions and suppress it in
unwanted directions.
51
• It’s used to sense the presence of electromagnetic waves.
• It has identical impedance when used for transmitting and receiving pur-
poses. This is called equality of impedances.
• It has identical directional patterns when it’s used for transmitting and re-
ceiving purposes. This property is called equality of directional patterns.
• It has same effective length when it’s used for transmitting and receiving
purposes. This property is called equality of effective lengths.
Vi
Za = (3.10)
Ii
Za = Ra + jXa (3.11)
Here the reactive part Xa results from fields surrounding the antenna. The resistive
part Ra represents losses in the antenna. Rr is called radiation resistance.
52
3.6.2 Radiation Resistance
Radiation resistance Rr is a fictitious or hypothetical resistance that would dissi-
pate an amount of power equal to radiate power. Mathematically
Power radiated
Rr = 2
(3.12)
Irms
It’s variation of the absolute value of the field strength as a function of θ. Therefore.
E versus θ is called field strength pattern.
Power Pattern
It’s equal to length of an equivalent linear antenna which radiates the same field
strength as the actual antenna and the current is constant throughout the length
of the linear antenna. If le of transmitting antenna is defined as
Z l/2
1
le (Tx ) = I(z) dz m (3.13)
I −l/2
53
Effective length of receiving antenna
It’s defined as ratio of the open circuit voltage developed at the terminals of the
antenna under the received field strength E i.e.
VOC
le (Rx ) = m (3.14)
E
RI RI
Gd = =
RIav Wr /4π
(3.16)
4π(RI)
Gd =
Wr
54
3.6.7 Directivity
It’s defined as ratio of maximum radiation intensity to the average radiation in-
tensity. Mathematically
4π(RI)
Gp = (3.18)
Wt
2
Irms Rr
ξ= 2 (R + R
Irms r loss )
(3.19)
Rr
ξ=
(Rr + Rloss )
Or equivalently
Wr Wr Gp
ξ= = = (3.20)
Wt Wr + Wl Gd
Therefore, antenna efficiency can be defined as ratio of power gain to directive
gain.
55
3.6.10 Effective Area
Effective area of an antenna depends on wavelength and directive gain. Hence
λ2
Ae = Gd m2
4π (3.21)
WR
Ae = m2
P
Where WR is received power in watts and P is power flow per square meter
(Watts/m2 ) for incident wave.
1
Za = Rj (XL − XC ) WhereXL = ωL , XC = (3.22)
ωC
1
Ya = = g + jb (3.23)
Za
56
3.6.13 Front-to-Back Ratio (FBR)
FBR is defined as ratio of radiated power in the desired direction to the radiated
power in the opposite direction.
3.6.14 Polarization
Polarization of an antenna is defined as the direction of the electric vector of the
EM wave produced by an antenna. It’s of the following three types:
• Linear Polarization
• Circular Polarization
• Elliptical Polarization
• Current element or Hertzian dipole: It’s short linear antenna in which the
current along its length can be considered constant.
• Short dipole: It’s linear antenna whose length is less than λ/4 and the current
distribution is assumed to be triangular.
• Short monopole: It’s linear antenna whose length is λ/8 and the current
distribution is assumed to be triangular.
57
• Half-wave dipole: It’s linear antenna whose length is λ/2 and the current
distribution is assumed to be sinusoidal. It’s usually center-fed.
• Quarter-wave monopole: It’s a linear antenna whose length is λ/4 and the
current distribution is assumed to be sinusoidal. It’s fed at one end with
respect to earth.
η(Im dl)2 1
G = 4πr2 × I2
8λ r2 2
40π ( dlλ )2 m
2
(3.30)
η 120π
G= = = 3/2 = 1.5
90π 80π
58
The linear value of gain can also be converted in dB value as follows:
Equivalently
Pr
G=
Wi /4πr2
(3.33)
Pr
G = 4πr2
Wi
The above expression for Pr (av) becomes maximum when θ = 900 ∵ cos2 θ = 1.
Therefore, eq. 3.34 can be rewritten as:
2
30Irms
Pr (av) = (3.35)
πr2
2
Wi = 73.14Irms (3.36)
59
Hence, the gain of λ/2 antenna is given by
Pr (av) 4πr2 2
30Irms
Gλ/2 = 4πr2 = 2
·
Wi 73.14Irms πr2 (3.37)
Gλ/2 = 1.641
60πIdl
E= sin θ V /m (3.39)
λr
E = Em sin θ (3.40)
60πIdl
Where Em = λr
. The normalised field is
E
En = = sin θ (3.41)
Em
The horizontal pattern of elementary dipole is a circle. This could be obtained
for θ = 900 . It is evident from above expression that the field is independent of φ.
60
3.11 Radiation Pattern Expression of Center-fed
Vertical Dipole of Finite Length
Half-wave dipole antenna is shown in the following figure 3.1 which shows the
current passing through half-wave dipole fed through transmission line and also
the current distribution along the arms of half-wave dipole.
We can substitute the required of length and can get the corresponding nor-
malised field strength value. For example, the normalised field strength of half-
wave dipole l = λ/2 is
61
cos βλ/4 cos θ − cos βl2
En =
sin θ
2π 2π
cos λ λ/4 cos θ − cos λ λ/4
(3.44)
En =
sin θ
π
2
cos θ
En =
sin θ
En = constant
62
3.12 Radiation Pattern of Center-fed Vertical Dipole
63
3.13 Radiation Pattern of Center-fed Horizontal
Dipole
Where d is spacing between antennas, φ is angle between the axis of the array
and line of the observer, EA field strength due to antenna A alone, λ is operating
wavelength, αe is excitation phase. If point P as shown in Fig. 3.4 is far away
from the array, Ray A and Ray B can be assumed to be parallel. Hence the path
difference between two rays is
64
P (Observer)
RayB
RayA
rA
rB
rA − rB
φ Array Axis
rA − rB
rA − rB = d cos φ ∵ cos φ =
d (3.47)
rB = rA − d cos φ
This exact expression must be used in the phase term of the field. But in the
magnitude term of the field, we can use the approximation i.e. RA ≈ RB . Now
the resultant phase difference due to spacing of antennas is given by
αd = β × d cos φ (3.48)
ψ = βd cos φ + αe (3.49)
65
!
ER = EA 1 + ejψ (3.50)
!
|ER | = EA 1 + ejψ
= EA 1 + cos ψ + j sin ψ
q (3.51)
= EA (1 + cos ψ)2 + sin2 ψ
q
= EA 1 + cosψ +2 cos ψ + sinψ
p p
= EA 2 + 2 cos ψ = EA 2(1 + cos ψ)
ψ
∵ 1 + cos ψ = 2 cos2 2
q
ψ
E = EA 2 × 2 cos 2
(3.52)
ψ
= 2EA cos
2
Now, substituting eq. 3.49 into eq. 5.20 we can write field strength expression
as
!
βd cos φ + αe
E = 2EA cos
2
! (3.53)
βd cos φ αe
= 2EA cos +
2 2
Hence !
πd cos φ αe
EA = 2EA cos + (3.54)
λ 2
66
more number of elements are used to get high directivity and gain and have con-
trol over more parameters like spacing, current amplitude, phase and antenna
configuration.
ER ejψ = E1 ejN ψ − 1
(3.59)
ER ejN ψ − 1
=
E1 ejψ − 1
67
The normalised magnitude of field strength
E ejN ψ − 1
R
= jψ (3.60)
E1 e −1
Now
jψ
e − 1 = cos ψ + j sin ψ − 1
q 2
= cos ψ − 1 + sin ψ
p
= 1 + cos ψ − 2 cos ψ + sin ψ
q (3.61)
= 2 1 − cos ψ
√ p
= 2 1 − cos ψ
ψ ψ
= 2 sin sin = 1 − cos ψ
2 2
Similarly, √
jN ψ Nψ
e − 1 = 2 sin (3.62)
2
From eq. 3.60
ejψ − 1 sin N ψ
2
E = jψ = (3.63)
e − 1 sin 2 ψ
68
maximum occur when numerator of
sin N ψ
2
E= (3.65)
ψ
sin 2
Secondary maximum occur approximately at the centre between nulls i.e. they
occur at
Nψ
= ±2 2m + 1 π/2 m = 1, 2, 3, · · · (3.68)
2
Hence the first SRL maxim occurs at
Nψ 3π
= ± 2 + 1 π/2 = (3.69)
2 2
69
1 1
= (3.71)
3π 3π
sin 2N 2N
2N
3π
SLR = = 0.212 (3.72)
N
Hence logarithmically SRL is given as
ψ = βd cos φ + αe (3.74)
0 = βd cos φ + αe (3.75)
2λ
F N BW = (3.76)
Nd
70
Proof We know the normalised field strength of ULA
sin N ψ
2
E= (3.77)
sin ψ2
Nψ
= ±kπ k = 1, 2, 3· (3.78)
2
N ψ1
= ±π (3.79)
2
2ψ
ψ1 = (3.80)
N
Now consider the phase difference due to path difference and excitation phase
difference
2ψ π
= βd cos + ∆φ
N 2
(3.83)
2ψ 2π
= βd∆φ =⇒ ∆φ =
N βN d
71
Figure 3.5: Radiation patterns of broadside array, intermediate array and end fire
array [2]
FNBW = 2∆φ
2πλ 2λ (3.84)
=2× =
2πdN Nd
Therefore, FNBW is
2λ
FNBW = (3.85)
Nd
0 = βd cos(0) + αe
(3.86)
αe = −βd
Which is condition for end-fire array. Now, the null-to-null beamwidth of end-fire
array is
r
2λ
FNBW = 2
Nd
72
Proof :
sin N ψ
2
E= (3.87)
ψ
sin 2
Nψ
= ±kπ k = 1, 2, 3, · · · (3.88)
2
Nψ
First null occur at 2
= ±kπ. Consider the negative sign for convenience
−2π
ψ1 = (3.89)
N
ψ1 = βd cos ∆φ − βd (3.90)
Because φ = ∆φ and αe = −βd from eq. 3.86. From eq. eq. 3.89 and eq. 3.90
−2π
− = βd cos ∆φ − βd (3.91)
N
= βd cos ∆φ − 1 (3.92)
∆φ2 ∆φ4
cos ∆φ = 1 − 2!
+ 4!
+ · · · For small ∆
∆φ2
cos ∆φ = 1 − (3.93)
2
73
r
2λ 2λ
∆φ2 = =⇒ ∆φ = (3.97)
Nd Nd
FNBW = 2∆φ
r
2λ (3.98)
FNBW = 2
Nd
3.18 Examples
Example#01
Calculate radiation resistance of current element whose overall length is λ/50
Solution:
Radiation resistance Rr of λ/50 antenna can be calculated as follows:
!2 !2
dl λ
Rr = 80π 2 = 80π 2
λ 50 × λ
1 1
= 80π 2 × ×
50 50
788.768
=
2500
= 0.315Ω
Example#02
Calculate the power radiated by λ/16 dipole in free space if it carries uniform
current of I = 100 cos ωt Amp. What’s radiation resistance?
Solution:
74
Radiated power in watts
2
π Im dl
Pr (av) = η0 W atts
3 λ
2
π 100 × λ
= 120π W atts
3 16 × λ
= 1.540 × 1064 W atts
Pr (av) = 15.4 KW
Rr = 3.081 Ω
Example#03
A transmitting antenna with an effective height of 10 m has a current of 50 Amp
at the base. The operating frequency is 600 KHz. Calculate the power radiated.
Solution:
From the problem statement le = 10 m and Irms = 50 Amp and λ = c/f =
75
2 × 108 /600 × 103 = 500 m
!2
le
W = 160π 2 2
Irms
λ
!2
2 10
= 160π 50 × 50
500
1
= 160π 2 × 2500 = 160 × 9.8956
2500
= 1577.536W atts
W = 1.58 KW
Example#04
A short vertical transmitting antenna erected on the surface of a perfectly con-
ducting earth produce an rms field strength Eθ = 100 sin θ mV /m, where θ is polar
angle at a distance of 1 Km from antenna. Calculate the total power radiated by
an antenna.
Solution:
1 |Eθ |2
Prad = W att/m2
2 η
!2
100 sin θ × 10−3
1
=
2 120π
125 × 10−6
= W att/m2
9.42
= 13.2696 × 10−6
Prad = 13.27 µW att/m2
Example#05
Calculate radiation resistance of λ/8 long dipole antennaWhat’s efficiency of an-
tenna if the equivalent loss resistance is 1.5Ω?
76
Solution:
Radiation resistance of such antenna can be given as follows:
!2
λ
Rr = 80π 2
8×λ
80 × 9.8596
=
64
98.596
=
8
Rr = 12.3245
Power radiated
ξ=
Power input
2
Irms Rr
= 2
Irms Rr + Rl oss
Rr
=
Rr + Rloss
12.3245
= = 0.89149
12.3245 + 1.5
ξ = 89.149%
Example#06
Calculate the strength of electric field at a distance of 100 Km due to power of
100 KW radiated from an antenna of 100 m effective height if the wavelength is
500 m and absorption effects are negligible.
Solution:
77
√
90 Wt
Erms = V /m
√ r
90 × 100 × 103
= V /m
√ 100 × 103
9 × 106
= 2
10 × 103
Erms = 0.03 V /m
Example#07
If transmitting antenna carries a current of 25 A at a frequency of 150 KHz and
produce a field strength of 1.5 mV /m at a distance of 25 Km. Estimate the effective
height of antenna.
Solution:
From the problem statement λ = c/f = 2000 m. Erms = 1.5 × 10−3 V /m,r =
25 × 103 Km and Irms = 25 A. Now the electric field strength is given by
60πIrms le
Erms =
λr
Erms λr
=⇒ le = m
60πIrms
1.5 × 10−3 × 2000 × ×2.5 × 10−3
=
60π × 25
3000 300
= =
60π 6π
le = 15.9235 m
Example#08
Calculate the radiation resistance, power radiated and efficiency of antenna having
total resistance of 50 Ω, an effective height of 60.96 m and current of 50 A(rms) at
frequency of 480 KHz.
Solution:
78
From the problem statement le = 60.96Ω,Irms = 50 A, R = 50Ω,f = 480 KHz
and λ = c/f = 625 m. The radiation resistance can be given by
!2
2 le
Rr = 160π
λ
!2
60.96
= 160 × 9.8596 ×
635
1577.536 × 3716.12
=
625 × 625
Rr = 15 Ω
2
W = Irms Rr
= (50)2 × 15
W = 37.5 KW atts
Rr
ξ=
Rloss + Rr
15
=
35 + 15
ξ = 30%
It’s obvious that this antenna is less efficient because loss resistance is greater
than radiation resistance that means a sufficient amount of input power is being
dissipated in the form of heat in Ohmic resistance.
Example#09
A transmitting antenna radiates 100 KW of power. Calculate the field strength
at a distance of 3000 Km.
79
Solution:
√
90 Wt
Erms =
√ r
90 × 100 × 103
=
√ 3000 × 10
3
900 × 104
=
3000 × 103
Erms = 1 mV /m
Example#10
What’s the effective area of half-wave dipole operating at 500 M Hz?
Solution: The effective area of an antenna is:
λ2
Ae = Gd
4π
3 × 108
λ=
500 × 106
λ = 3/5 = 0.6 m
Therefore
0.62
Ae = 1.644
4π
Ae = 0.047 m2
80
Example#11
Find the effective area of Hertzian dipole operating at 100 M Hz.
Solution: Wavelength at a frequency of 100 M Hz
3 × 108
λ= = 3m
100 × 106
λ2 9
Ae = = × 1.5
4π 4π
Ae = 1.07 m2
81
Chapter 4
4.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with various antennas that find their usage at HF, VHF and
UHF part of radio frequency band. These antennas are used in classical com-
munication that takes place in aforementioned bands. However, some of these
antennas are still used in modern communication systems and others evolved in
new shapes. To name a few are V-antennas, inverted V-antenna, Rhombic antenna,
folded dipole arrays, Yagi-Uda antenna, log-periodic antenna, loop antenna, helical
antenna, whip antenna and ferrite rod antenna etc.
82
lobe ratio. Additionally, highest gain is obtained when reflector is slightly greater
than λ/2 in length and spaced λ/4 from driven-element and the length of director
is 10% less than λ/2 with optimal spacing of about λ/3.
Design Parameters of Yagi-Uda Antenna The design of six-element Yagi-Uda
antenna which gives directivity of about 12 dBi at the centre of bandwidth of 10
percent of half-power are given by:
83
• It’s single antenna but consists of two elements
• When the same power is applied, only half of the current flows in the first
arm. Therefore, input impedance is four times that of straight dipole Rr =
4 × 73 = 292Ω
• It has advantage of high input impedance, greater bandwidth, ease and low
cost of construction with better impedance-matching
4.4 V-antenna
It’s an antenna in which conductors are arranged in V-shape. It’s balanced fed
at the apex and the included angle, length and elevation are chosen to obtain the
desired directional properties.
Salient Features of V-antenna
• It consists of two long wire antennas arranged in the form of V and it’s fed
at apex. The excitation to each wire is out-of-phase
• It offers greater gain and directivity when length of each leg or wire is in-
creased. Its radiation pattern is bidrectional and these antennas are useful
at HF band
• These antennas are easy to construct and hence cheap. The only main dis-
advantage is that of high side lobes
• There are two types of V-antennas i.e. resonant V-antennas and non-resonant
V-antennas.
84
• Resonant V-antennas have bidirectional radiation pattern. Non-resonant
V-antennas two wires forming V are terminated with load and have unidi-
rectional radiation pattern
• Gain is function of angle of tilt, leg lengths, and terminating resistance. Main
disadvantage is that it has high side lobes.
• It’s used up to 60 M Hz for receiving purpose and it’s not preferred for trans-
mitting purpose.
85
Figure 4.1: Rhombic antenna geometrical structure and its radiation pattern[2]
sin pi`/λ(1 − cos θ)Big)
" #
60I
D(θ) = sin θ (4.3)
r (1 − cos θ)
Tilt angle φ varies from 40◦ to 75◦ . It’s inefficient, difficult to erect and power is
lost in termination. It is used for transmission and reception at HF band.
Design Parameters Leg length and heigh of rhombus above the surface of
ground are given as follows:
λ λ
`= = (4.4)
2 cosφ 2 sin2 ∆
and
λ
H= (4.5)
4 sin ∆
Where ∆ is elevation angle and is complement of φ (sin φ = cos ∆). H is
height of Rhombus. Fig. 4.1 shows geometrical structure and radiation pattern of
Rhombic antenna.
86
4.7 Helical Antenna
It’s an antenna which has a shape of helix. Its polarization and radiation properties
depend on diameter, pitch, number of turns, wavelength, excitation and spacing
between helical loops.
Length of one turn L is given as follows:
√
L= S2 + C2 (4.6)
• Input impedance
C
140 (4.8)
λ
• HPBW
52λ3/2
4 √ (4.9)
C La
• FNBW
115λ3/2
4 √ (4.10)
C La
• Directivity
C 2S
D = 15N (4.11)
λ3
• Axial Ratio (AR)
2N + 1
(4.12)
N
• Normalized axial field
87
Figure 4.2: Helical antenna operating modes
π sin N2ψ
E = sin sin θ (4.13)
2N sin ψ
2
• Helical antenna generates circularly polarized signal and is used at VHF and
UHF bands
• It operates in two modes i.e. axial mode and normal mode. It is normally
used in axial mode because in normal mode beam width and efficiency are
very small
• It’s used to transmit and receive VHF waves for ionospheric propagation
88
Figure 4.3: Whip Antenna
89
Chapter 5
Ground wave is also called surface wave when transmitter and receiver antennas
are close to earth and are vertically polarized. This type of wave propagation is
useful at broadcast and low frequencies. It’s useful for communications at VLF,
LF and MF.
Space wave is also called tropospheric wave. Here wave propagates directly
from transmitter to receiver in tropospheric region. This portion of the atmosphere
above earth and within 16Km is called Troposphere. This is useful above 30MHz.
Fr reception is normally uses space wave propagation.
Sky wave propagation is also known as ionospheric wave propagation. The
signal reception is by reflection of waves from ionosphere. The Ionosphere is ionised
region which lies approximately between 60 Km to 450 Km of the atmosphere.
Long distance communication is possible by this mode of propagation. It’s useful
for frequencies below 2 MHz to 30 MHz.
90
5.2 Factors that Influence the Propagation
The factors that influence the propagation are as follows:
AE0
E= (5.1)
d
Where E0 is field strength of the wave at unit distance from transmitting
antenna reflecting earth’s losses, A factor of the ground losses and d is distance of
the point from transmitting antenna. E0 depends on
A depends on
• Conductivity σ
91
• Permittivity of earth εr
• Frequency of wave f
• It exists for antennas close to surface of earth and with vertically polarization
• Ground wave require relatively high transmitter power and losses vary con-
siderably with type of earth terrain
• Ground wave can be used to communicate between any two points on the
globe if there is sufficient transmit power
– Radio Navigation
– Ship-to-ship communication
– Ship-to-shore communication
– Maritime mobile communication
92
5.4 Reflection of Radio Waves by the Surface of
Earth
If an EM wave is incident on the earth, it’s reflected back. Moreover, angle of
incidence is equal to angle of reflection. The ratio of reflected wave to the incident
wave is know as reflection coefficient ρ and can be written as follows:
reflected wave Er
ρ= = (5.2)
incident wave Ei
Where Ei and Er are the incident and reflected wave field strengths respectively.
The reflection coefficient ρdepends on:
• Dielectric constant εr
• Conductivity of Earth σ
4πσs sin θi
R= (5.4)
λ
Where σs is standard deviation of the surface irregularities relative to mean
surface height, θi is angle of incidence measured from earth’s surface, λ is operating
wavelength. Now
93
• if R < 0.1 then earth is considered electrically smooth
Keeping this in mind, the reflection coefficient for horizontal polarization is given
by
Er
ρh =
Ei
p (5.6)
sin θi − (εr − jDf ) − cos2 θi
= p
sin θi + (εr − jDf ) − cos2 θi
σ
Where Df = ωε0
. For vertical polarization
p
(εr − jDf ) − cos2 θi
(εr − jDf ) sin θi −
ρv = p (5.7)
(εr − jDf ) sin θi + (εr − jDf ) − cos2 θi
94
• Reflected and refracted rays from the troposphere
Space wave propagation is useful at frequencies above 30 MHz. It’s useful for
FM, TV and Radar applications. It’s also used in VHF, UHF and higher frequency
bands.
Where E0 is field strength due to direct ray at unit distance. This depends on
directivity of transmitting antenna and transmitter power, ht is height of transmit-
ting antenna, hr is height of receiving antenna, d is distance between two antennas.
Proof
The field strength at the receiver is mostly contributed by direct and ground
reflected rays.
We have
h h − h 2 i1/2
t r
r12 = (ht − hr )2 + d2 orr1 = d 1 + (5.9)
d
From Binomial series we have (1 ± x)1/2 = 1 ± 12 x − 2.4
1 2
x + · · · . If x is small higher
1
order terms can be neglected then (1 ± x)1/2 = 1 ± 2 x. Therefore eq. 5.9 can be
rewritten as
h 1 ht − hr 2 i
r1 =d 1 +
2 d (5.10)
h (ht − hr )2 i
= d+
2d
95
Similarly, r22 = d2 + (ht + hr )2
h (ht + hr )2 i
r22 2
=d 1+ (5.11)
d
h (ht + hr )2 i
r2 = d + (5.12)
2d
From eq. 5.9 and eq. 5.12, the path difference between two rays is given by
(ht + hr )2 (ht − hr )2
r2 − r1 = d + −d−
2d 2d
2 2
! ! (5.13)
ht + hr + 2ht hr h2t + h2r − 2ht hr
= −
2d 2d
4ht hr 2ht hr
r2 − r1 = = (5.14)
2d d
The pass difference due to path difference α is
When a wave is incident on earth, it’s reflected with same amplitude but with phase
reversal. Therefore, the total phase is ψ = 180◦ + α. Moreover, Ed = Er = Es .
Now eq. 5.16 becomes
ER = Es [1 + e−j(180+α) ]
= Es [1 + cos(180 + α) − j sin(180 + α)] (5.17)
= Es [1 − cos α + j sin α]
96
Now the magnitude of ER is
α
E = 2Es sin (5.19)
2
E0
But Es = d
. Therefore
2E0 2πht hr
E= sin (5.20)
d λd
4πht hr
E= E0 (5.21)
λd2
• It happens when dielectric constant changes with height suddenly and rapidly.
• It takes place at VHF and UHF and microwave range and in areas contiguous
to oceans
97
• It’s not standard propagation and it’s rare phenomenon. It’s dependable
propagation and happens during monsoons.
• The transmitting antenna should be within the duct. Otherwise, the signal
even if it’s powerful will not propagate
• The radio horizon extends beyond optical horizon for standard atmosphere.
This is due to bending or refraction of the radio wave.
98
5.9 Troposcatter
This is a mechanism by which propagation is possible by the scattered and diffracted
rays. The scattering takes place by the tropospheric region. This mode of propa-
gation occurs in high frequency range from 160 MHz onwards.
The EM wave generated by high powered transmitters with high gain directive
gain antennas reach the upper layer of troposphere. Scattering of wave takes place
due to considerable variation of refractive index.
• Presence of eddies
99
5.12 Ionospheric Wave Propagation
Ionospheric wave propagation is also known as sky wave propagation. EM waves
directed upward at some angle from earth’s surface are called sky waves. Sky
wave propagation is useful in the frequency range of 2 MHz and 30 MHz and for
long distance communication. Ionosphere is the upper portion of the atmosphere
between approximately 60 Km to 450 Km above the earth which is ionised by
absorbing large quantities of radiation energy from the sun. The major ionisation
is from α, β and γ radiations from the sun and cosmic rays and meteors.
• D-layer
• E-layer
• Es layer
• F1 layer
• F2 layer
100
5.13.2 Characteristics of E-Layer
It exists next to D-layer and at average height of 100 Km and its thickness is about
25 Km. It exists only in day time. The ions are recombined into molecules due to
absence of the sun at night. It reflects some HF waves at day time and it disappears
at night time. E-Layer has electron density of N = 5×105 electrons/cc. Its critical
frequency fc = 4 M Hz and maximum hop range is 2350 Km.
101
5.14 Refractive Index of Ionosphere
Refractive index of ionosphere is defined as ratio of phase velocity of wave in
vacuum to the velocity in ionosphere. The refractive index of ionosphere:
√
ν0 1/ µo ε0
η= = √
νp 1/ µ0 ε
√ (5.23)
µ 0 ε0 √
= √ = εr
1/ m0 ε0 εr
102
5.16 Characteristics Parameters of Ionospheric
Propagation
Generally, propagation characteristics of the the layers are described in terms of
the following parameters:
• Virtual heigh hv : virtual height of the layer is greater than actual height
fc
MUF = (5.26)
cos θi
or
fc
MUF = (5.27)
sin θc
or in terms of height h of the layer and distance between transmitting and
receiving antennas:
!1/2
d2
M U F = fc +1 (5.28)
4h2
2h
ds = (5.29)
tan θc
Where h is height of the layer and θc is critical angle. Skip distance in terms
of MUF can be given as:
" !2 #1/2
fM U F
ds = 2h −1 (5.30)
fc
103
• Lowest Usable Frequency (LUF): The lowest frequency that can be used for
communication is called LUF.
5.18.1 Normal
Normal variation in the characteristics of the ionosphere occur due to the following:
• Diurnal
• Seasonal
• Thickness
5.18.2 Abnormal
The abnormal variations in the characteristics of the ionosphere occur mainly due
to changes in solar activity. The common abnormal variations are:
104
• Ionospheric storms
• Sunspot cycle
• Fading
• Whistlers
105
Bibliography
[1] William Hart Hayt and John A Buck. Engineering electromagnetics, volume 7.
McGraw-Hill New York, 2001.
[2] Warren L Stutzman and Gary A Thiele. Antenna theory and design. John
Wiley & Sons, 2012.
106