ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI.

(2012), 6, 13-33

Neutralization and utilization of red mud for its better waste management
Suchita Rai1*, K.L. Wasewar2, J. Mukhopadhyay1, Chang Kyoo Yoo3, Hasan Uslu4
1
Jawaharlal Nehru Aluminium Research Development and Design Centre, Wadi, Amravati Road, Nagpur-440 023,
India
2
Visvesaraya National Institute of Technology (VNIT), Nagpur- 440 010, India
3
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, Kyung Hee University, Gyeonggi- Do,
446 701, South Korea
4
Beykent University, Istanbul, Turkey
*To whom correspondences should be addressed
E-mail: [email protected]
Received September 10, 2011, Revised manuscript received December 26, 2011, Accepted January 24, 2012

Abstract
In the Bayer process of extraction of alumina from bauxite, the insoluble product generated after
bauxite digestion with sodium hydroxide at elevated temperature and pressure is known as ‗red mud‘
or ‗bauxite residue‘. Enormous quantity of red mud is generated worldwide every year posing a
very serious and alarming environmental problem. This paper describes the production and
characterization of bauxite and red mud in view of World and Indian context. It reviews
comprehensively the disposal and neutralization methods of red mud and gives the detailed
assessment of the work carried until now for the utilization of red mud in the field of building
(geopolymers, clay material, cements, ceramics, fired and nonfired building materials, concrete
industry), pollution control (in wastewater treatment, absorption and purification of acid waste
gases), metal recovery (iron, titanium, aluminium, alkali, rare earths), coagulant, adsorbent, catalyst
and in soil remediation. It also reviews the work carried out for rehabilitation of red mud ponds.
This paper is an effort to analyze these developments and progress made which would be very
useful in the context of environmental concerns for disposal and utilization of red mud.
Keywords: Bauxite Residue, Red Mud, Characterization, Disposal, Neutralization, Utilization
bauxite. The Bayer process of extraction of
1. Introduction alumina from bauxite remains the most
Aluminium is a light weight, high strength economical process till date. In the Bayer
and recyclable structural metal. It plays an process, the insoluble product generated after
important role in social progress and has a bauxite digestion with sodium hydroxide at
pivotal contribution in transportation, food and elevated temperature and pressure to produce
beverage packaging, infrastructure, building and alumina is known as ‗red mud‘ or ‗bauxite
construction, electronics and electrification, residue‘. The waste product derives its colour
aerospace and defense. It is the third abundant and name from its iron oxide content. Red mud
element in the earth‘s crust and is not found in is a mixture of compounds originally present in
the free state but in combined form with other the parent mineral, bauxite and of compounds
compounds. The commercially mined aluminium formed during the Bayer process. As the bauxite
ore is bauxite, as it has the highest content of has been subjected to sodium hydroxide
alumina with minerals like silica, iron oxide, and treatment, the red mud is highly caustic with a
other impurities in minor or trace amount. The pH in the range of 10.5-12.5. Bauxite ore mined
primary aluminium production process consists of globally amounts to be around 205 million tones
three stages: Mining of bauxite, followed by per year for 2008 and 201 million tones per year
refining of bauxite to alumina by the Bayer for 2009 [1], posing a very serious and alarming
process (invented by Karl Bayer in 1887) and environmental problem. Considerable research
finally smelting of alumina to aluminium (Hall – and development work for the storage, disposal
Heroult process). Production of alumina is and utilization of red mud is being carried out
basically a chemical enrichment process. It is a all over the world. The paper reviews the World
process of separating alumina from undesired and Indian aspects of production of bauxite and
components like oxides of iron, titanium, generation of red mud. It describes the
silicium, calcium, vanadium, manganese etc. in characterization, disposal, various neutralization

13
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

methods and utilization of red mud. It gives the same period in 2007. Expansions of bauxite
detailed appraisal of the work being carried out mines in Australia, Brazil, China, and India
for making use of red mud in building, pollution accounted for most of the increase in worldwide
control, metal recovery and soil remediation. production of bauxite in 2008 [1]. Reduced
This paper reviews matters in the context of output from bauxite mines in Guinea, Guyana,
environmental concerns of disposal of red mud Jamaica, Russia and Suriname was partially
and its utilization. offset by increases in production from new and
expanded mines in Australia, China, Brazil and
2. Origin of Bauxite India and accounted for most of the slight
The name bauxite was derived from the decrease in worldwide production of bauxite in
French province Les Baux and is widely used to 2009 as compared to 2008.
describe aluminium ore containing high Table 1. Worldwide metallurgical bauxite
amounts of aluminium hydroxides. production
Bauxite is a member of the family of lateritic
rocks. It is characterized by a particular Country Mine production (1000 tonne)
enrichment of aluminium-hydroxide minerals, 2008 2009
such as gibbsite, boehmite and/or diaspore. Australia 61,400 63,000
Bauxite forms by weathering of aluminous China 35,000 37,000
silicate rock (lateritic bauxite) and less Brazil 22,000 28,000
commonly of carbonate rock (karst bauxite) India 21,200 22,300
mainly in tropical and sub-tropical climate. Guinea 18,500 16,800
Bauxite forms by weathering under conditions Jamaica 14,000 8,000
favorable for the retention of alumina and the Russia 6,300 3,300
leaching of other constituents of the parent rock. Venezuela 5,500 4,800
Bauxite rock has a specific gravity between 2.6 Suriname 5,200 4,000
to 3.5 kg/m3. It is usually, an amorphous or clay Kazakhstan 4,900 4,900
like substance which is, however, not plastic. Greece 2,200 2,200
The usual color of bauxite is pink but if of lower Guyana 2,100 1200
iron content it may tend to become whitish in Vietnam 30 30
color and with increase in iron it is reddish Other 6,550 5410
brown in color [2]. countries
World total 205,000 201,000
3. Production and Classification of Bauxite (rounded)
(World and Indian Context) (Source: [1]
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/201
3.1. World Resources
0.pdf)
Bauxite resources are estimated to be 55 to Bauxites can be classified in function of the
75 billion tons, located in Africa (33%), ore type. Alumina occurs in 3 phases defining
Oceania (24%), South America and the ore type: gibbsitic (γ-Al(OH)3), boehmitic (γ-
Caribbean (22%), Asia (15%), and elsewhere AlO(OH)) and diasporic (α-AlO(OH)). These
(6%) [1]. The worldwide metallurgical bauxite are crystallographically different and their
production for the year 2008 and 2009 is given occurrence in various countries is given in Table
in Table 1. Based on the production data from 2. The mineralogical characteristics of the
the International Aluminium Institute, world bauxite ore determine the type of process
alumina production during the first two quarters needed for alumina production.
of 2008 increased by 4% as compared to the
Table 2. Bauxite ore type of different countries
Gibbsitic Boehmitic Diasporic
Australia, Brazil, Ghana, Guyana, India Australia, Guinea, Hungary, China, Greece,
(eastern coast), Indonesia, Jamaica, Malaysia, USSR, Yogoslavia, India Guinea, Romania,
Sierra leone, Suriname, Venezuela (Central part) Turkey

14
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

3. Boehmitic bauxites (boehmite > 10 and

3.2. Important Bauxite Deposits of India
diaspore < 2%; Central Indian bauxite
Reserves and production of bauxite 4. Diasporic bauxites (diaspore > 5%; J&K and
India has confirmed 3 billion tonnes of some part of Central Indian and Gujarat
bauxite reserves out of the global reserve of 65 deposits
billion tonnes [3]. India is self-sufficient in Typical compositions of industrially used
bauxite. Bauxite deposits are mostly associated bauxite are Al2O3 (40-60%), combined H2O
with laterite, and occur as blankets or as capping (12-30%), Fe2O3 (7-30%), SiO2 free and
on the high plateaus in peninsular India. India combined (1-15%), TiO2 (3-4%), F, P2O5, V2O5
has the fifth largest bauxite reserves which are and others (0.0.5-0.2%) [5].
7% of world deposits. India's share in world
aluminium capacity rests at about 3%. India has 4. Production of Alumina in India
large resources of high-grade bauxite deposits The worldwide alumina production is around
of the order of 3037 million tonnes (proved + 58 million tonnes in which India counts for 2.7
probable + possible). The recoverable reserves million tonnes [3]. The Indian aluminium sector
are placed at 2525 million tonnes. The proved is characterised by large integrated players like
and probable reserves are 1218 million tonnes, Hindalco and National Aluminium Company
placing the country 5th in rank in the world, next (Nalco, Alumina plant at Damanjodi, Orissa),
only to Australia, Guinea, Brazil and Jamaica and the newly started Vedanta Alumina Ltd
[4]. About 89% of the recoverable reserves of (Alumina plant at Lanjigarh, Orissa). The other
bauxite are of metallurgical grade. Orissa is the producers of alumina include Indian Aluminium
largest bauxite producer (43.6 per cent of total Company (Indal having two plants at Belgaum,
production in 1998-99) followed by Jharkhand Karnataka and Muri, Jharkhand), now merged
(19.2 per cent), Maharashtra (13.3 per cent) and with Hindustan Aluminium Company (Hindalco,
Madhya Pradesh/Chhattisgarh (11.4 per cent). Renukoot, Uttar Pradesh), Bharat Aluminium
Production from Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and (Balco) and Madras Aluminium (Malco) the
Tamil Nadu is also worth mentioning [2]. erstwhile PSUs, which have been acquired by
Bauxite is found in Gujarat, the Kutch- Sterlite Industries. Consequently, there are only
Jamnagar belt, in the east coast bauxite belt three main primary metal producers in the sector
covering Andhra Pradesh and Orissa, Ratnagiri namely Balco (Vedanta), National Aluminium
in Maharashtra, the Madhya Pradesh bauxite Company (Nalco) and Hindalco (Aditya Birla
belt covering Amarkantak-Phutkapahar, Group) [3].
Jamirapat-Mainpat etc. besides this, bauxite
mines are also found in the Satna-Rewa belt 5. Bayer Process of Alumina Production
(Madhya Pradesh), the Netarhat plateau and Though alumina can be produced from
adjoining areas in Gumla and the Lohardaga bauxite under alkaline conditions using lime
district of Bihar. (Lime Sinter process) [6], sodium carbonate
Distribution of bauxite in India (Deville Pechiney process) [7], at high
temperature in reducing environment with
Indian bauxite deposits are grouped into five presence of coke and nitrogen (Serpeck process)
major geological-geographical areas; they are as [8], the alkalinisation by the use of sodium
follows: Eastern Ghats, Central India, West hydroxide (Bayer process) [9] is the most
Coast, Gujarat, Jammu & Kashmir. economical process which is employed for
Based on the mineralogy and order of
purification of bauxite if it contains
preference, Indian bauxite can be divided into 4 considerable amount of Fe2O3.
types: In the Bayer process, bauxite is digested by
1. Gibbsitic bauxite (Eastern ghats, Gujarat and leaching it with a hot solution of sodium
coastal deposits of western India) hydroxide, NaOH, at 106-240°C and at 1-6 atm
2. Mixed gibbsitic- boehmitic bauxite (boehmite pressure. This converts the aluminium minerals
< 10%, diaspore < 2%; parts of Western into tetrahydroxidoaluminate Al(OH)4-, while
Ghats and Gujarat deposits dissolving in the hydroxide solution. The other
components of bauxite except silica (present in
15
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

kaolinite) do not dissolve. The insoluble The sodium aluminate liquor is separated
compounds are separated by settling and the from the undigested bauxite which is called as
decant solution is further clarified by filtering ‗Red mud‘ or ‗Bauxite Residue‘ and is disposed
off remaining solid impurities. The waste solid off in red mud ponds. Sodium is present mainly
is washed and filter pressed to regenerate in two forms in red mud, free sodium as ionized
caustic soda and is called red mud presenting a sodium aluminate and sodium hydroxide and
disposal problem. Next, the hydroxide solution bound sodium in desilication product (sodium
is cooled, and the dissolved aluminium aluminosilicates) which are least soluble
hydroxide precipitates as a white, fluffy solid. sodalites.
When heated to 1050°C (calcined), the Precipitation
aluminium hydroxide decomposes to alumina,
giving off water vapor in the process. A large Crystalline alumina hydrate is extracted from
amount of the alumina so produced is then the digestion liquor by hydrolysis.
subsequently smelted in the Hall Heroult 2 NaAlO2  4H 2O   Al2O3  3H 2O  2 NaOH
process in order to produce aluminium.
5.1. Reactions in Bayer Process 6. Production and Main Characteristics of
Red Mud/Bauxite Residues
Desilication
6.1. Output of Bauxite Residues
In the Bayer process, scaling problems are
caused by silica dissolving in the caustic liquor About 1 tonne of alumina is produced from 3
affecting the quality of the product. This silica tonnes of bauxite and about 1 tonne Aluminium
arises from the presence of kaolinite is produced from 2 tonne of alumina [4].
(Al2O32SiO2H2O) in the bauxite. A process for Depending on the raw material processed, 1-2.5
removing this kaolin comprises contacting the tons of red mud is generated per ton of alumina
bauxite with sodium hydroxide solution to form produced [10].
a mixture, and subjecting the mixture to 95- 6.2. Chemical and Mineral Compositions of Red
100°C for 10-12 hrs. This enhances both the Mud [11]
dissolution of kaolin and precipitation of
Chemical analysis shows that red mud
sodium aluminium silicate or DSP (desilication
contains silicium, aluminium, iron, calcium,
product) also called sodalite causing loss of
titanium, sodium as well as an array of minor
alumina as well as caustic soda.
elements namely K, Cr, V, Ba, Cu, Mn, Pb, Zn,
2 NaOH  SiO2   Na2 SiO3  H 2O (1) P, F, S, As, and etc. The variation in chemical
Na2 SiO3  Al2O3 
 Na2O  Al2O3  SiO2 (2) composition between red mud worldwide is
high. Typical composition of red mud is given
Digestion of bauxite with NaOH in Table 3. Typical chemical composition of red
After desilication, the bauxite undergoes a muds generated by Indian alumina plants is as
digestion process at elevated temperatures. The given in Table 4 [12].
alumina phases get dissolved in caustic solution Table 3. Typical composition of red mud
to form sodium aluminate.
Gibbsite Composition Percentage

Al 2 O3  3H 2 O  2 NaOH 106 150C
 Fe2O3 30-60%
(3) Al2O3 10-20%
2 NaAlO 2  4 H 2 O SiO2 3-50%
Boehmite Na2O 2-10%
C
Al2O3  H 2O  2 NaOH 240  CaO 2-8%
(4)
2 NaAlO2  2 H 2O TiO2 trace-25%
Diaspore (Source: Red mud Project.
C http://www.redmud.org/Characteristics.html
Al2O3  H 2O  2 NaOH 280 
(5) [11])
2 NaAlO2  2 H 2O Mineralogically, red mud has a very high
number of compounds present. These are:

16
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

Hematite (Fe2O3), goethite Fe(1-x)AlxOOH (x = The newly formed inorganic red mud phases
0.33), gibbsite Al(OH)3, boehmite AlO(OH), which are not contained in bauxite can be
diaspore AlO(OH), calcite(CaCO3), calcium divided into three groups [13]:
. . .
aluminium hydrate (x CaO yAl2O3 zH2O), quartz ―NAS‖ phases: 3(Na2OAl2O32SiO2)Na2X
(SiO2), rutile (TiO2), anatase (TiO2), CaTiO3, (X=CO22-, 2OH-, SO42-, 2Cl-)
. .
Na2TiO3, kaolinite Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O, sodalites, ―CAS-CFS‖ phases: 3CaO(Fe2O3)x(Al2O3)1-x
aluminum silicates, cancrinite kSiO2(6-2k)H2O
(NaAlSiO4)6CaCO3, hydroxycancrinite ―NT-CT‖ phases: Na2Ti3O7.3H2O, kassite,
(NaAlSiO4)6NaOH.H2O, chantalite perovskite, portlandite
CaO.Al2O3.SiO2.2H2O, hydrogarnet
Ca3Al2(SiO4)n(OH)12-4n.
Table 4. Chemical composition of Indian red muds
Company Al2O3 Fe2O3 SiO2 TiO2 Na2O CaO LOI
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
BALCO, 18.10-21.0 35.0-37.0 6.0-6.5 17.0-19.0 5.2-5.5 1.7-2.2 11.8-14.0
Korba
HINDALCO, 17.5-19.0 35.5-36.2 7.0-8.5 16.3-14.5 5.0-6.0 3.2-4.5 10.7-12.0
Renukoot
HINDALCO, 19.0-20.5 44.0-46.0 5.5-6.5 17.0-18.9 3.3-3.8 1.5-2.0 12.0-14.0
Muri
HINDALCO, 17.8-20.1 44.0-47.0 7.5-8.5 8.2-10.4 3.5-4.6 1.0-3.0 10.8-14.0
Belgaum
MALCO, 18.0-22.0 40.0-26.0 12.0-16.0 2.5-3.5 4.0-4.5 1.5-2.5 11.0-15.0
Metturdam
NALCO, 17.7-19.8 48.2-53.8 4.8-5.7 3.6-4.1 3.8-4.6 0.8-1.2 10.8-13.5
Damanjodi
Source: Chaddha et al. [12]
A wide variety of organic compounds are mines and as slurry having a high solid
also present. The following compounds have concentration of 30-60% and with a high ionic
been reported [14]: the organic compounds such strength. The environmental concerns relate to
as polybasic and polyhydroxy acids, alcohols two aspects: very large quantity of the red mud
and phenols, humic and fulvic acids, generated and its causticity.
carbohydrates, sodium salts of succinic, acetic Problems associated with the disposal of red
and oxalic acids that give red mud a distinctive mud waste include:
odour and are derived from decomposed  its high pH (10.5-12.5)
remains of vegetation. Under the alkaline  alkali seepage into underground water
oxidative conditions existing in the Bayer  Instability of storage
process, they break down to more simple  alkaline air borne dust impact on plant life
compounds such as the sodium salts of succinic,  Vast areas of land consumed
acetic and oxalic acids. Predominant among Up to 2 tons of liquid with a significant
these salts is sodium oxalate. alkalinity of 5-20 g/l caustic (as Na2CO3)
Red mud is a very fine- grained material. accompany every ton of red mud solids.
Typical values for particle size distribution are
90 weight % below 75 microns. The specific 8. Storage and Disposal of Red Mud
surface area (BET) of red mud is between 10 Red mud waste is usually managed by
and 30 m2/g, depending on the degree of discharge into engineered or natural
grinding of bauxite. impoundment reservoirs, with subsequent
dewatering by gravity-driven consolidation and
7. Environmental Concerns sometimes followed by capping for closure. Red
Red mud is disposed as dry or semi dry mud disposal methods include traditional closed
material in red mud pond or abandoned bauxite cycle disposal (CCD) methods and modified

17
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

closed cycle disposal (MCCD). A new class of seawater [15] and CVG Bauxilium (Venezuela)
dry stacking (DS) technology has also emerged still use wet disposal method by disposing their
which requires much less land. Due to various red mud in lagoons [16]. In dry stacking method,
problems associated with disposal of red mud, it the residue slurry is thickened to 48-55% solids
may cause economical as well as ecological and discharged in thin layers, dewatered and air
problem in near future. dried before discharge of next layer on it. After
the consolidation of paste to about 65%, it can
8.1. Red Mud Disposal
be safely stacked. This reduces the area of
Safe treatment and storage of high volume disposal but may increase dust generation and
industrial waste streams pose unique waste requires funds for its long-term closure. This
management challenges. Seawater discharge, method have been successfully applied at the
lagooning, dry stacking and dry disposal are the MOTIM plant in Hungary [17]. The original
methods currently in use for the disposal of wet disposal method at NALCO, India has been
bauxite residue. replaced by Thickened Tailings Disposal (TTD)
In seawater discharge, after washing and system [18]. Dry disposal is a method in which
thickening process of red mud, the slurry is the residue is filtered to a dry cake (>65% solids)
disposed directly via a pipeline into the deep sea. and the material is washed on the filter with
This process reduces environmental impact of water or steam to recover soda and minimize the
land disposal but may release toxic metals to the alkalinity of residue. Without further treatment,
marine environment and increase the turbidity the dry residue is carried by truck or conveyor
of the sea due to the fine mud and the formation to the disposal site. This reduces the storage
of colloidal magnesium and aluminium area but requires installation and operation of
compounds. Nevertheless, French and Japanese filtration plant. Solids contents of greater than
practices have favoured disposal at sea as the 75% have been achieved with Bokela
best option on economic and environmental hyperbaric filtration technology at the Stade
grounds. In Japan, the alumina plants are plant in Germany [19]. Even with the excellent
restricted to available land area for disposal of washing performance offered by hyperbaric
residues, and so have discharged the residue steam filtration, significant alkalinity remains
into the deep sea. The plants of Gardanne associated with the solids because of the
Alumina in France and Aluminium De Greece complex nature of red mud. Hence these
in Viotia, Greece still use marine dumping but hazards associated with alkalinity may be
are now pursuing other alternatives. further reduced by employing suitable methods
Lagooning is the conventional disposal of neutralizing the red mud slurry.
method in which the residue slurry is directly
pumped into land- based ponds. This consists of 8.2. Red Mud Neutralization
the construction of clay- lined dams into which Neutralization of red mud will help to reduce
bauxite residue slurry is simply pumped and the environmental impact caused due to its
allowed to dry naturally [14]. This minimizes storage and also lessen significantly the ongoing
the liquor leakage to the underlying water. The management of the deposits after closure. It will
red mud ponds are lined with soil and bentonite. also open opportunities for re-use of the residue
This process requires lowest capital cost, which to date have been prevented because of
suppresses dust generation but requires the high pH. The cost of neutralization will, to
substantial storage land and increases some degree at least, be offset by a reduction in
environmental hazards such as contact of the need for long-term management of the
humans and wild life with caustic liquor and residue deposits. Instead of accruing funds to
contamination of ground water. Most of the deal with a future liability, the funds can be
alumina refineries till 1975 were using invested in process improvements, which reduce
lagooning method for red mud disposal but or remove the liability. As per the Guidelines of
some of them such as Pinjarra, Kwinana and Australian and New Zealand Environment and
Wagerup refineries in Australia have shifted to Conservation Council (ANZEX) and
Dry stacking method. Queensland Alumina Ltd Agriculture and Resource Management Council
(Australia) after treatment of its red mud with of Australia and New Zealand (ARMCANZ),

18
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

the liquor being strongly alkaline with a high drops rapidly upon exposure to CO2 gas, it soon
pH, requires neutralization to a pH below 9 with rises again to unacceptable levels as additional
an optimum value of 8.5-8.9 before becoming alkaline material leaches from the mud. The pH
environmentally benign [20]. Neutralisation of of water exposed to gaseous CO2 is not likely to
red mud to pH around 8.0 is optimal because the drop below 5.5 (approximately), and hence the
chemically adsorbed Na is released, alkaline rate of neutralization of the solids in the
buffer minerals are neutralized and toxic metals aqueous slurry is typically not fast enough to
are insoluble at this pH [21]. satisfy industrial needs. Hence researchers [25]
Efforts are being carried out to study the have investigated the use of high-pressure liquid
amelioration of red mud by possibly carbon dioxide rather than vapor phase carbon
incorporating a pH-reduction processing step dioxide for the pH reduction of red mud. A
during disposal of red mud and include studies laboratory study on neutralization of red mud
on processes based on acid neutralization, CO2 using CO2 in multiple cycles has been
treatment, seawater neutralization, bioleaching investigated [26].
and sintering. Seawater neutralization
Acid neutralization When seawater is added to caustic red mud,
Various aqueous acidic solutions have been the pH of the mixture is reduced causing
considered for neutralization of alkalinity, hydroxide, carbonate or hydroxycarbonate
including acidic industrial wastewater. The use minerals to be precipitated [27]. Average
of carbonic acid has also been considered. A seawater contains 965 gm of water and 35 gm of
number of studies have been done to assess the salts (i.e. 3.5% salinity). The concentration of
feasibility of treating bauxite residue with acid various salt ions in seawater is 55% Chlorine
as for instance on Kwinana red mud slurry. (Cl-), 30.6% sodium (Na+), 7.7% sulphate (SO4-
2
Large volumes of reagent are required to fully ), 3.65% magnesium (Mg2+), 1.17% calcium
neutralize the residue at a relatively high cost, (Ca2+), 1.13% potassium (K+) and 0.7% others
even if spent (waste) acid could be used. The [28]. Seawater neutralization does not eliminate
use of acid also introduces large volumes of hydroxide from the system but converts the
impurities to the process water stream (sulphate readily soluble, strongly caustic wastes into less
in the case of sulfuric acid, chloride in the case soluble, weakly alkaline solids. The carbonate
of hydrochloric acid. It is therefore likely that and bicarbonate alkalinity of the waste is
the return of any water from the residue deposits removed primarily by reaction with calcium to
to the production process will be unacceptable form aragonite and calcite [29]. The neutralizing
without further treatment to remove these added effect of the calcium and the magnesium ions is
impurities. initially large but decreases rapidly as pH 8.5 is
Treating red mud with acidic spent pickling approached and calcium and magnesium
solutions (SPSs), derived from the steelmaking carbonates precipitate. Neutralization is
process, provides a coagulant – a mixture of considered to be complete when the liquid that
aluminium and iron salts- for waste water can be separated from the treated red mud has a
treatment [22]. pH less than 9.0 and a total alkalinity less than
200 mg/l (as calcium carbonate equivalent
CO2 treatment
alkalinity) and decant of seawater neutralized
Gas phase CO2 or CO2-containing flue gas red mud can be safely discharged to the marine
has been bubbled through aqueous slurries to environment [30].
form carbonic acid in the aqueous phase [23].
Bioleaching
Mechanisms of neutralization of red mud by
carbon dioxide gas have been studied [24]. The Bioremediation of bauxite residue in Western
carbonic acid reacts with basic components of Australia by Alcoa of Australia [31] has been
the red mud, lowering its pH. At the short carried out by adding some organic substrate to
contact times which industrial process rates the red mud for growth of microorganisms
demand, only a fraction of the alkaline material which generate different organic acids and CO2
in red mud is neutralized using gaseous CO2. (in some cases) which in turn neutralize the red
Hence although the pH of the aqueous phase
19
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

mud. Similar work has also been carried out by deformability was studied by means of the
[32] using microbes. elastic behavior theory. This is an attractive
option with a high potential for large volume
Sintering
reuse of red mud use. Bauxite residues have
Sintering of residue can be carried out to fix other options for its reuse in preparation of
all leachable soda, but the cost would be very construction materials as stated below:
high due to the elevated energy consumption Geopolymers
required for high temperature sintering of red Geopolymer is a term covering a class of
mud. But the mechanism can be made use of in synthetic aluminosilicate materials with
making bricks and blocks from red mud. potential use in a number of areas, essentially as
A comparison of all the neutralization a replacement for Portland cement and for
processes has been made by [33]. advanced high-tech composites and ceramic
applications. The geopolymerization process
9. Red Mud Utilization involves a chemical reaction between red mud
A considerable research has been done on the and alkali metal silicate solution under highly
utilization of red mud as a raw material for alkaline conditions. The product of this reaction
production of a range of products. It can be used is an amorphous to semi-crystalline polymeric
as a constructional/building material in bricks, structure, which binds the individual particles of
blocks, light weight aggregates, in cement red mud transforming the initial granular
industry as cements and special cements and in material to a compact and strong one. The
concrete industry. Bauxite residues can be used potential use of red mud for synthesis of
for soil remediation, as geopolymers and as a inorganic polymeric materials through a
clay material. It can also be used as an additive geopolymerization process was studied to use it
to cements, mortars and concretes, construction in the construction sector as artificial structural
of dykes and as ceramic/refractory product. In elements such as massive bricks [35]. Red mud
iron and steel industry it can be used after was reacted with fly ash, sodium silicate via
recovery of iron and titania. In environmental geopolymerization reaction to get red mud
field, it can be utilized in pollution control by geopolymers which are a viable cementitious
acting as adsorbent for cleaning of industrial material that can be used in roadway
gases, as synthetic coagulants in waste water constructions [36].
treatment and as a catalyst especially for coal Giannopoulou et al. [37] studied the
hydrogenation. Red mud can as well be used in geopolymerization of the red mud and the slag
paints and pigments. generated in the ferronickel production, in order
to develop inorganic polymeric materials with
9.1. Building Materials advanced mechanical and physical properties.
Among the uses standing out, are those The inorganic polymeric materials produced by
reported on the utilization of red mud for the geopolymerization of the red mud developed
building materials production such as cement, compressive strength up to 21 MPa and
bricks, roofing tiles and glass-ceramics. The presented water absorption lower than 3 %.
bulk production of building materials could They stated that red mud may be viewed as
eliminate the disposal problem. Red mud is alternatives in the industrial sectors of
considered as a raw material for production of construction and building materials.
these materials. Clay material
Investigations of the use of red mud and fly
Preparation of construction materials from
ash for the production of heavy clay products
bauxite residues
have been extensively undertaken at the Central
A successful pilot project of a road Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India [38].
embankment construction using Greek bauxite Ekrem [39] studied the potential use of red mud
residue has been carried out by laboratory of for the preparation of stabilization material. The
Road Engineering of the Aristotle University of test results show that compacted clay samples
Thessalniki, Greece [34]. The performance of containing red mud and cement–red mud
the embankment with regards to its additives have a high compressive strength,

20
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

decreased hydraulic conductivity and swelling Preparation of building materials from bauxite
percentage as compared to natural clay samples. residues
Consequently, it was concluded that red mud Vast usage of red mud can be made in
and cement–red mud materials can be preparation of building materials such as
successfully used for the stabilization of clay ceramics, glass ceramic products, fired and non-
liners in geotechnical applications. Study on the fired bricks and concretes.
exploitation of red mud as a clay additive for the
Ceramics
ceramic industry or as a compound for self- Red mud is made into useful ceramics
binding mortars in the fabrication of stoneware articles by mixing 51-90% by weight of red
[40] was carried out at National Institute of mud with 49-10% by weight of at least one
Technology, Rourkela, Orissa, India. A study mineral and/or silicate containing material,
carried out by Pontikes. et al. [41,42] was aimed shaping the mixture and firing it at a
at using bauxite residue in heavy clay industry temperature of 950°-1250°C [46]. The
in which the plasticity of clay mixtures with investigators [47] have successfully converted
bauxite residue and polymer addition was red mud into glass ceramic products which
evaluated. They found that addition of 30 wt% involves addition of a small quantity of glass
bauxite residue substituting the clay mixture former along with traces of nucleating agents to
increases the max. cohesion of the mixture. To a specific mixture of red mud, fly ash, followed
make its use as a traditional ceramic, behavior by melting at around 1200°C and vitrification
of bauxite residue was studied in different firing by cooling. The feasibility of recycling red mud
atmospheres (Air, N2, Ar/4%H2), for different and fly ash by producing glasses and glass-
maximum temperature (950-1050°C) and ceramics has also been investigated by Yanga et
different soaking time (30-300 min). al. [48]. Glass has been obtained by melting red
Cements mud from Shandong Province in China with
Red mud from HINDALCO, Renukoot, India
different additives. Suitable thermal treatments
was investigated for its application in cements were employed to convert the obtained glass
and they found that cements made from lime + into nano-crystal glass-ceramics. X-ray
red mud + bauxite + gypsum exhibit strengths diffraction (XRD) patterns showed that the main
comparable or superior to ordinary Portland crystalline phase in both the glass-ceramics is
cement (OPC) [43]. It was stated that as red wollastonite (CaSiO3). These crystals are
mud is very rich in iron, red mud can be used as homogeneously dispersed within the parent
cheap pigment for coloured concrete [44]. Also glass, with an average crystal size of less than
a uniform and durable coloured concrete could 100 nm. The size of nano-crystals varies when
be obtained using white cement interground different thermal processes were used. These
with 11% of burnt red mud. The red coloration glass-ceramics have potential for a wide range
could be enhanced by calcination in the range of of construction application [49].
600 to 800°C. They found that such operation
Fired building materials
transforms the aluminium hydroxides (goethite United States Patent 3886244 [50] claims a
and boehmite) and clays minerals into process for manufacturing fired bricks wherein
pozzolanic admixtures that are able to consume 50-90 wt % of red mud can be used along clay
the calcium hydroxide produced by cement and a water fixing agent. The raw bricks are
hydration. Thus, it is possible to develop a new dried with heated gases at a temperature below
admixture for concrete: a pozzolanic pigment. 70°C, and subsequently fired at a temperature
Tsakiridis et al. [45] in Greece studied the
between 900°-1,100°C. Efforts have been made
addition of red mud residue by 1% in the raw at Central building Research Institute, CBRI,
mix for the production of Portland cement and India [51] to produce burnt clay bricks by
found that it did not affect either the sintering or partially replacing the clay with red mud (from
the hydration process and concluded that the red the Indian Aluminium Company), lime and fly-
mud can be utilized as a raw material in cement ash.
production, at no cost to the producer,
Non-fired building materials
contributing in reduction of the process cost. Efforts have also been made at CBRI to
incorporate a small percentage of lime in red

21
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

mud and compress the mix at optimum moisture Compressive strengths from 14.83 to 27.77 MPa
content in the form of bricks with the purpose of of the blocks that contained red mud between 1
examining their strength and stability to the and 32% were considered satisfactory. The
erosive action of water. A maximum wet reported tests have shown that neutralized, dried,
compressive strength of 3.75 MPa with 5% lime calcined and ground red mud is usable as
and 4.22 MPa with 8% lime has been obtained pigment in the building materials industry. Red
after 28 days of casting and humid curing of oxide pigment containing about 70 % iron oxide
these bricks in the month of August. Studies was prepared from NALCO red mud by [56]
were carried out at Jamaica Bauxite Institute after hot water leaching filtration, drying and
and the University of Toronto [52] using red sieving.
mud to make bricks for inexpensive housing. 9.2. Application in Pollution Control
The red mud was pressed into bricks using a
standard brick press, immersed in sodium The interesting applications of red mud are
silicate followed by drying in the sun. Non-fired however in the environmental field, after
bricks by mixing red mud, Portland cement and adequate neutralization, for the remediation of
river sand were also made by the researchers at contaminated sites and treatment of
the institute. Liu et al. [53] studied the recovery contaminated liquid waste.
of iron from Bayer red mud with direct Wastewater treatment
reduction roasting process followed by magnetic
separation, and then building materials were Red mud presents a promising application in
prepared from aluminosilicate residues. Then water treatment for removal of toxic heavy
brick specimens were prepared with metal and metalloid ions, inorganic anions such
aluminosilicate residues and hydrated lime and as nitrate, fluoride, and phosphate, as well as
the mean compressive strength of specimens organics including dyes, phenolic compounds
was 24.10 MPa. It was indicated that main and bacteria [57]. The researchers have used
mineral phase nepheline (NaAlSiO4) in acid and acid-thermal treated raw red mud to
aluminosilicate residues transformed into develop effective adsorbents to remove
gehlenite (Ca2Al2SiO7) in brick specimens as phosphate from aqueous solution. Study on the
demonstrated by X-ray diffraction (XRD) use of red mud for removal of dyes from textile
technology. Combining the recovery of iron effluents has also been conducted. Efforts have
with the reuse of aluminosilicate residues, it can been made to use red mud for the removal of
realize zero-discharge of red mud from Bayer chlorophenols from wastewater [58].
process. Unsintered bricks have been developed Neutralized red mud in batch adsorption
from red mud disposed from Chinese sintering technique was used for the removal of phenol
alumina process cured at ambient conditions. from aqueous phase [59]. Tor et al. [60] have
The optimal proportions of red mud brick are also used granular red mud for removal of
suggested as the following: 25–40% red mud, fluoride from water. Removal of boron from
18–28% fly ash, 30–35% sand, 8–10% lime, 1– aqueous solution has also been studied by using
3% gypsum and about 1% Portland cement [54]. neutralized red mud [61]. Red mud has been
Concrete industry converted into an inexpensive and efficient
Red mud from Birac Alumina Industry, adsorbent to remove cadmium, zinc, lead and
Serbia was tested as a pigment for use in the chromium from aqueous solutions [62,63].
building material industry for standard concrete Brunori et al. [64] studied the possibility of
mixtures. Red mud was added as a pigment in reusing treated red mud (through the technology
various proportions (dried, not ground, ground, patented by Virotec International, consisting of
calcinated) to concrete mixes of standard test a seawater treatment for pH neutralization) in
blocks (ground limestone, cement and water) the Eurallumina SpA bauxite refinery, located in
[55]. The idea to use red mud as pigment was Sardinia (Italy) for treating contaminated waters
based on extremely fine particles of red mud and soils. Researchers have investigated the
(upon sieving: 0.147 mm up to 4 wt%, 0.058 effectiveness of using thermally activated
mm up to 25 wt% and the majority smaller than seawater neutralised red mud for the removal of
10 microns) and a characteristic red colour. arsenate, vanadate, and molybdate in individual
and mixed solutions [65,27]. They found that
22
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

thermally activated seawater neutralised red concentration of 0.5 mg/l while other metals at
mud removes at least twice the concentration of 2.0 mg/l in the wastewater. Selenium removal is
anionic species than thermally activated red very pH dependant with an optimum pH around
mud alone, due to the formation of 40–60% 6.0.
hydrotalcite during the neutralisation process in A laboratory investigation to evaluate the
seawater neutralised red mud. Hydrotalcite capacity of red mud to inhibit acid mine
structure in the seawater neutralized red mud drainage has been carried out [71]. The
has been determined to consist of magnesium investigators have studied the effectiveness of
and aluminium with a ratio between 3.5:1 and covers and liners made of red mud and/or
4:1 [27]. Removal of arsenate from aqueous cement kiln dust for limiting acid mine drainage.
solutions has also been studied by other It has been proposed to use red mud that is very
researchers [66]. Fuhrman et al. [67] studied alkaline to neutralise acidic tailings [72,73].
arsenic removal from water using 4 sorbents Previous experiments showed that red mud has
namely seawater-neutralised red mud (Bauxsol), a good neutralizing capacity for a short time, but
acid treated Bauxsol (ATB), activated Bauxsol the long-term neutralization potential is
(AB), Bauxsol coated sand (BCS), and activated uncertain. So brine was added to red mud to
Bauxsol coated sand (ABCS). The affinity of verify if it can improve long-term alkalinity
the developed sorbents towards arsenic in a retention of red mud. McConchie [74]
decreasing order is AB > ATB >ABCS > BCS > investigated that the sea water-neutralised red
Bauxsol, and sorptive capacity of all tested mud can strip all trace metals in cyanide spills
sorbents compares well with conventional and neutralise the pH.
sorbents such as activated alumina and ferric Absorption and purification of acid waste gases
oxides. The removal of arsenate using seawater with bauxite residues
neutralized red mud is sensitive to several
parameters such as pH, ionic strength, adsorbent Red mud can be used to neutralize acid
dosage, initial arsenate concentration and the forming gases produced during coal combustion.
source water composition. Arsenate adsorption Studies have been carried out on absorption of
is favoured by slightly alkaline pH values with SO2 on red mud (Sumitomo scrubbing process)
maximum adsorption recorded at pH 8.5. [75]. Also studies on CO2 sequestration by red
Hofstede et al. [68] have made use of bauxite mud are being carried out to neutralize red mud
refining residue to reduce the mobility of heavy as explained earlier which would help in
metals in municipal waste compost. A US absorption of CO2 and purification of flue gases
Patent Application 20090234174 [69] shows from thermal power plant.
that a neutralized and activated red mud is 9.3. Red Mud as a Coagulant, Adsorbent and
suitable for heavy metals remediation in soil and Catalyst
water. Entrapped metals are not easily
exchangeable and removable. However, more Red mud can also be employed as catalysts
investigation would be needed to further for hydrogenation, hydrodechlorination and
understand the metal trapping mechanisms of hydrocarbon oxidation. It has also been studied
red mud. Seymer and Kirkpatrick [70] of Kaiser as a support in catalytic wet oxidation of
Aluminium & Chemical Corporation and organic substances present in industrial
Tulane University have successfully developed wastewaters [76].
and tested bauxite residue as liquid waste Use of red mud as a catalyst can be a good
absorbent. They have researched soil synthesis alternative to the existing commercial catalysts
as well as the use of red mud to reduce or [77]. Its properties such as iron content in form
eliminate sewage pathogens. They have shown of ferric oxide (Fe2O3), high surface area,
that 0.5 mg/l red mud was sufficient for near sintering resistance, resistance to poisoning and
complete removal of metals such as silver, low cost makes it an attractive potential catalyst
arsenic, barium, cadmium, mercury and lead but for many reactions. US patent 4017425 [78]
not selenium at an initial water pH of 8.0 and at describes a method developed for the red mud
contact/reaction times as low as one minute. to be used as adsorbent, catalyst, ion-
Cadmium and selenium were present at a exchanging substance and clarifying substance
particularly with respect to the catalytic
23
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

cracking, decolorization of hydrocarbon, extraction of iron, then silica and alumina.

clarification of waste gas and adsorption Pigment grade titania was also recovered from
processes. The method comprises digesting red the slag. Laboratory-scale research has been
mud with acid, before adjusting the pH of the focused by on the recovery of titanium from red
acid digested mixture comprising the sludge mud in which the leaching process is based on
product to above 4, removing the residue acid the extraction of this element with diluted
employed from the gelating product with sulfuric acid from red mud under atmospheric
washing and heat treating the product to provide conditions and without using any preliminary
an active red mud. Cakici et al. [79] studied the treatment [85]. Leaching followed by solvent
utilization of red mud as catalyst in conversion extraction was tried in Japan using sulphuric
of waste oil and waste plastics to fuel in acid and some solvents like diisopropyl ether,
comparison with a commercial hydrocracking DP-10R or PC-88A (Daihachi Chemical
catalyst (silica–alumina) and a commercial Industry Co., Ltd.) to recover iron and titania
hydrotreating catalyst (Ni–Mo/alumina). Garg et respectively. At the end, iron, titania and
al. [80] have made a comparison of the catalytic alumina were separated [86]. Red mud of Alcoa
activity of pyrite, red mud & flue dust and based Alumina, Kaiser Alumina and Reynolds Metals
on selective analysis showed that red mud was (all in USA) were reacted with different
the most desirable disposable catalyst in the reductants (sawdust, bagasse etc) at a
conversion of coal and oil production. Novel temperature of about 350°C to reduce different
applications of red mud as a coagulant and forms of iron to magnetite followed by magnetic
adsorbent for water and gas treatment as well as separation to produce high iron containing and
catalyst for some industrial processes have been soda free product/material for further usage [87].
reviewed by Shaobin et al. [81]. Studies were done on Jamaican red mud to
recover all possible metal values: at first
9.4. Recovery of Metals
alumina was recovered by soda-ash sintering
The analysis of red mud shows that iron is process followed by reduction (partial or
the major constituent of red mud and hence complete) of iron to magnetic/metal phase
much work has been carried out till now for its followed by magnetic separation to separate
recovery. Some red mud also contains titania in iron and titania from the non-magnetic portion
substantial amount which if successfully [88,89]. Different parametric conditions are also
recovered has the most potential value. Iron can highlighted in the paper. A patent [90] was also
be obtained as value-added product and alumina filed in the same field claiming all possible
and soda can be recycled in the process. metal values recovery by reacting red mud with
Red Mud generated from Guangxi Province acid followed by selective precipitation of salts
(China) was treated with Chinese coal and coal- at different pH. Iron mineral transformation
sort for direct reduction of iron. Bauxite of this during thermal treatment of red mud has been
province was treated by Bayer process on studied [91]. Liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) of
alumina first – iron second basis due to its iron and titanium by bis-(2-ethyl-hexyl)
composition (~27 wt % Al2O3 and ~43 wt% phosphoric acid (D2EHPA) has been studied
Fe2O3) and factors related to reduction [92]. Studies have been carried out to
performance were reported including investigate the optimum condition for sulfuric
quality/property of coal [82]. An extensive acid leaching of iron from red mud and a
study on the possibility of magnetic separation diffusion model has also been developed to
of red mud from Fria Deposit (Guinea) reported support the study [93]. Dissolution kinetics of
that ~ 85 % of the iron present in red mud was iron and aluminium from red mud in sulfuric acid
recovered at 0.06 Tesla magnetic intensity. Best solution for different parameters such as
result was obtained by treating -125 µm + 90 calcination temperature, acid concentration,
µm size fraction [83]. Red mud was mixed with agitation rate, particle size and time have been
dolomite and coke to make pellets and sintered studied by researchers [94]. Red mud of
(1100°C) followed by smelting (1500°C) to Shandong province of China has also been tried
produce pig iron [84]. The slag was further for reduction roasting in presence of proper
treated with sulphuric acid followed by solvent additives (reduction enhancer such as CaCO3,

24
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

MgCO3 etc.) and an encouraging metallization In addition to compounds of main elements,

ratio of 96.97% has been reported with scope red mud also comprises of small quantities of
for better usage for non-magnetic fraction in rare earth elements such as Yttrium (Y),
building material industry because of removal Scandium (Sc) and Lanthanides (Ln). SO2
of iron and increase in percentage of dissolved in water can be introduced in red mud
aluminosilicate compounds which helps to set slurry to selectively dissolve the rare earth
the building material more strongly in presence elements while leaving iron substantially
of lime [95]. Krause and Rohm [96] have undissolved in the red mud [103]. An innovative
patented a process wherein iron oxide in red method for the recovery of rare earth elements
mud has been reduced to magnetite by suitable from the red mud and separation of Sc was
hydrocarbon and was then recovered. A process developed on a laboratory and pilot scale by
Mud to Money [97] claims to recover virtually Aluminium of Greece (Pechiney group) in
all of the residual alumina from bauxite residue Greece. The annual production of red mud in
at attractive economics. The inventors claim the Greece was about 0.6 million tonne and the Sc
environmental benefits of this technology concentration was high and uniform, about 130
include a reduction in residue generation per ton gm of Sc/ton of dry red mud corresponding to
alumina by some 8% and a reduction of bauxite 0.02% Sc2O3 [104].
consumption per ton of alumina by some 4%. 9.5. Soil Remediation with Bauxite Residues
Work on microbiological leaching of aluminium
from red mud with selective fungi has been Soil amendment is a technique used to create
carried out [98]. United States Patent 3876749 fertile topsoil by increasing the soil‘s ability to
[99] claims a process wherein the red mud is retain moisture and nutrients, and filter some
mixed with a reducing agent, separating it into contaminants, such as heavy metals, before they
molten steel and molten slag, reacting the slag infiltrate the groundwater. Soil amendment
with CaO, leaching out the useful aluminates for involves adding an agent to the soil to improve
recirculation to the Bayer process, and utilizing its structure, porosity, water holding capacity
the remaining calcium silicates in cement and nutrient recycling capacity. Potential
manufacture. amendment agents in an urban environment
For soda recovery, a patent [100] relates to a include compost, organic rich soils, loam soils,
process for the treatment of red mud, and in natural clay, crushed limestone and gypsum.
particular relates to a process capable of both ‗Soil amendment agents‘ are generally
ameliorating the pH of red mud and allowing distinguished from ‗fertilisers‘ by having a
soda recovery from red mud by passing carbon lower nutrient content, and a greater ability to
dioxide through a stream of red mud. United retain and recycle both moisture and nutrients.
States Patent 4045537 [101] discloses a process The Department of Agriculture, Western
for recovering the caustic and alumina values Australia has been working with Alcoa World
from red mud utilizing the so-called lime-soda- Alumina Australia Ltd for more than ten years
sinter process wherein a carbonaceous material investigating the potential to use bauxite
such as coke is included in the sintering refining residues as soil amendments for the
operation and leaching is carried out without poor, acidic, sandy soils of the Swan Coastal
any intermediate iron separation step. Plain in south west Australia. Extensive
WO/1997/029992 [102] relates to a method for laboratory, field and catchment-scale trials have
recovering soda and/or alumina values from red shown the ability of soil amendment with fine
mud from DSP (desilicated product) formed in a bauxite refining residue (now trademarked in
Bayer process, the method comprising this context as Alkaloam™) to reduce the
mechanically activating the DSP to induce a leaching of nutrients to sensitive regional
mechano-chemical reaction. Any reagent which waterways by up to 75%, whilst increasing
is thermodynamically capable of reacting with pasture productivity by up to 25% (up to 200%
DSP to solubilise soda and/or alumina values in well-controlled experimental situations). The
may be used. Suitable reagents include oxides potential applications of bauxite residue in
and hydroxides such as CaO, NaOH and soil/sediment remediation and soil/sediment
Ca(OH)2. stabilization have been investigated [105].

25
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

Bauxite residue was mixed with a variety of soil Belgaum (Karnataka, India) show that a
types such as acid soils, saline soils, organic combination of 55% red mud, 25% FYM
rich material and silicate soil. Appropriate pH (farmyard manure), 15% gypsum, and 5%
conditions were achieved to promote vegetation vegetative dry dust, inoculated with both
growth. Preliminary studies have also been bacteria and mycorrhizae, resulted in good
carried out [106] at Louisiana State University, responses from three tree species—kikar
to investigate the use of red mud to enhance (Acacia nilotica), karanj (Pongamia pinnata ),
coastal wetlands. and vilayati babul (Prosopis juliflora)—while
other two species—drek (Melia azedarach) and
9.6. Other Uses
Israeli babul (Acacia tortilis)—did not survive
Along with successfully developing and in any of the treatment combinations. Among
testing bauxite residue as liquid waste absorbent, the grass species, para grass (Brachiaria mutica),
Seymer and Kirkpatrick, 1999 [70] of Kaiser signal grass (B. decumbens), and shrubby stylo
Aluminium & Chemical Corporation at their grass (Stylosanthes scabra) performed well in
Gramercy Louisiana Plant along with red mud the same treatment combination as the trees,
as liquid waste absorbent have also studied red along with sesban (Sesbania sesban), a legume
mud as landfill cover material and as levee species [111]. The effectiveness of various
construction material. A novel process for industrial wastes and low cost chemicals such as
making radiation- shielding materials utilizing gypsum, sewage sludge, ferrous sulfate,
red mud has been developed by adopting ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate and
ceramic- chemical processing route using calcium phosphate as ameliorants for red mud to
phosphate bonding [107]. Efforts were made to develop and maintain a low cost, self sustaining
utilize red mud for developing plasma spray vegetation cover has been studied by many
coatings (ceramic and cermet) on metal researchers [112]. It was found that the addition
substrates, stainless steel, mild steel, Cu & Al of 5% or more gypsum reduced the pH,
[108]. As red mud consists of metal oxides of electrical conductivity and sodium and
iron, titanium, silicon, aluminium it was felt that aluminum content of the soil, as well as
red mud can possibly be spray coated. Building providing a continuous supply of calcium ions,
Material and Technology Promotion Council of thus reducing the exchangeable sodium
India (BMPTC) has produced composite from percentage, and was effective in treating the soil
red mud, polymer and natural fibres, called Red to permit revegetation by Agropyron elongatum
Mud Jute Fibre Polymer composite (RFPC), to (tall wheat grass) and Cynodon dactylon
replace wood in the wood based panel products (Bermuda grass) [113]. The survival of the plant
in the building industry [109]. species C. dactylon (bermudagrass), Atriplex
9.8. Rehabilitation of Red Mud Pond nummalari (oldman saltbush), and Atriplex
canescens (fourwing saltbush) in red mud
Red mud ponds and abandoned bauxite mine indicated that it was more vigorous with
pits can be rehabilitated through vegetation. The gypsum amendments [114]. Recently
ecological rehabilitation of red mud residue researchers after reviewing neutralization and
deposits is complicated by many factors, utilization methods [115,116,117] have
including its hazardous nature, extremely high modified dried red mud with different amenders
pH and salinity, poor water-holding capacity, and utilized it for growth of ornamental plants
and extremely low microbial activity [110]. [118].
Hence, caustic properties of red mud are to be
modified using suitable modifiers for the growth 10. Discussion
of proper flora and fauna on it. Vegetation cover
As it is apparent red mud is a highly complex
will not only prevent deterioration of soil
material that differs due to the different bauxites
erosion but also act as method of suppressing
dust generation due to the dried red mud. In this used and the different process parameters.
process, bulk utilization of red mud would be Therefore red mud should be regarded as a
group of materials, having particular
possible.
Work carried out for rehabilitation of red characteristics, such as
mud pond for an alumina refinery situated at  produced during bauxite refining
26
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

 highly alkaline uneconomic as iron (hematite) in the red mud

 mainly composed of iron oxides having a has first to be converted into magnetite using
variety of elements and mineralogical phases reductants at relatively high temperature of 400-
 relatively high specific surface 1000°C before magnetic separation. The
 fine particle size distribution recovery of iron metal from the magnetic
One of the most important ways of reducing fraction needs a still higher temperature. Nearly
the negative environmental impacts of the for all of the above mentioned applications of
alumina industry is environmentally sustainable red mud in building materials, pollution control
discharge and storage of digestion residue. In and metal recovery, a fairly high temperature is
the recent years it has been seen that there has required and bulk utilization of red mud remains
been a consistent trend away from seawater a distant dream. However, application of red
disposal to land – based disposal and from wet mud in geopolymers requires minimum heat
to dry disposal methods. As the high pH is treatment. Nevertheless, bulk utilization of red
highly lethal to natural ecosystems, disposal of mud can be realized by refilling the abandoned
red mud can unquestionably be made safer by bauxite mining open pits and by rehabilitating
neutralizing it and the most significant hazard bauxite residue disposal area with red mud
associated with the residue can thus be removed. through development of a suitable vegetation
Neutralization with seawater operates cover on it.
differently than acid neutralization as Ca+ and
Mg+ remove alkaline anions from solution as 11. Conclusion
precipitates and are less soluble in place of A wide variety of potential uses of red mud
simple reactions of hydroxide and other alkaline have been reviewed, yet there is no
anions that occur with acid. Therefore Ca+ and economically viable and environmentally
Mg+ rich solutions may be used for the acceptable solution for the utilization of large
neutralization of red mud which would render volumes of red mud. Though methods have
pH of red mud to the optimal value. The use of been developed for maximum recovery of soda
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from and alumina from red mud, recovery of other
industrial emissions can be a potentially metals should be made economical by further
significant source of acid for neutralizing red investigations to reduce high reaction
mud. The initial cost of processing CO2 in the temperatures required. The developments in dry
red mud would be quite significant, the long disposal methods will certainly lead to better
term benefits of carbonation cannot be ignored management of residue but neutralization of red
including entrapment of CO2 from the mud will be an essential ingredient of any
environment to neutralize an alkaline waste. In permanent solution. Continuous research is
addition to the soil and water pollution caused required by studying residue neutralization
due to disposal of red mud, its neutralization technologies to reduce the alkalinity of red mud
with CO2 would also be able to lock up large which is the most important barrier for its reuse
amount of greenhouse gas that otherwise would and disposal management. Use of proper
be released into the atmosphere. Suitable amendments can be made to ameliorate red mud
amenders such as gypsum and other organic and red mud ponds can be rehabilated by
wastes can also be added to red mud to growing suitable flora and fauna on it.
ameliorate its caustic properties. Depending upon the mud characteristics, a
Until now several applications of red mud systematic strategy should be taken up by each
have been studied. In general all these alumina plant and a zero waste alumina refinery
applications concern the use of red mud in may be realized by developing a universal
relatively small amounts while the current need technique of disposal, management and full
is safe disposal of red mud and its bulk utilization of red mud.
utilization. The sustainable use of bauxite
residue for road construction as an embankment References
landfill is an attractive option with a high [1] U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral
potential for large volume reuse. Metal Commodity Summaries (2010), http:
extraction processes are found to be

27
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

//minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2010. [14] Hind AR, Bhargava SK, Grocott SC (1999).

pdf The surface chemistry of Bayer process
[2] Geologydata.info. Info portal of geology solids: a review. Colloids and surfaces A:
with special reference to Rajasthan, India. Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 146 (1): 359-374.
www.geologydata.info/bauxite_deposits.htm [15] Queensland Alumina Limited. Red mud.
[3] Indian Aluminium Industry ―Indian Primary http:
Aluminium Market‖ (2009). //www.qal.com.au/Press_Release/red%20mu
www.scribd.com/doc/.../19149792-Indian- d%20fact%20sheet.pdf
Aluminium-Industry [16] Emmett RC, Klepper RP (1991). High
[4] Annual report, Chapter V, Department of density red mud thickeners. Rooy EL (Ed).
Ministry of Mines, India 1999-2000, http: TMS, New Orleans Light Metals: 229-233.
//mines.nic.in/archp5.html http: [17] Solymar K, Ferenczi T, Papanastassiou D
//www.portal.gsi.gov.in/gsiDoc/pub/DID_Ba (2002). Digestion alternatives of the Greek
uxite_WM.pdf diasporic bauxite. Schneider W (Ed). TMS,
[5] Josnamayee P, Yasobanta D, Suren D, Seattle Light Metals: 75-81.
Rarindra ST (1998). Adsorption of phosphate [18] Banerjee SK (2003). Conversion of
from aqueous solution using activated red conventional wet disposal of red mud into
mud. Journal of Colloid Interface Science thickened tailing disposal (TTD) at NALCO
204 (1): 169-172. Alumina Refinery, Damanjodi. Crepeau PN
[6] Goldberg DC, Gray AG, Hamaker JC, (Ed). TMS, Vancouver Light Metals: 125-
Raudebaugh RJ, Ridge JD, Runk RJ (1970). 132.
Processes for extracting Alumina from [19] Bott R, Langeloh T, Hahn J (2002). 6th
nonbauxite ores. Alkaline Processes for low International Alumina Quality Workshop,
grade bauxites and clays, No. NMAB-278. Chandrashekar S (Ed). AQW Inc., Brisbane.
National Academy of Sciences-National Dry bauxite residue by hi-bar steam pressure
Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. filtration: 24-32.
[7] Deville process. http: [20] Hanahan C, McConchie D, Pohl J,
//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deville_process Creelman R, Clark M, Stocksiek C (2004).
[8] Reddy KL (2001). Principles of Engineering Chemistry of seawater neutralization of
Metallurgy. Extraction of non-ferrousmetals. bauxite refining residues (red mud).
KK Gupta (Ed) ISBN: 81-224-0952-0, New Environmental Engineering Science 21: 125-
Age International (P) Ltd., Daryaganj, New 138.
Delhi, India: Sarasgraphics, New Delhi, 3-35. [21] Glenister DJ, Thornber MR (1985).
[9] Bayer Process. http: Alkalinity of red mud and its applications for
//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayer_process management of acid wastes. Chemica 85:
[10] Paramguru RK, Rath PC, Misra VN (2005). 100-113.
Trends in red mud utilization-A Review. [22] Piga L, Pochetti F, Stoppa L (1993).
Mineral Processing & Extractive Metall. Rev. Recovering metals from red mud generated
26: 1-29. during Alumina Production. JOM: 54-59.
[11] Red mud Project. http: [23] Szirmai, E, Babusek S, Balogh G, Nedves
//www.redmud.org/Characteristics.html A, Horvath G, Lebenyi Z et al. (1991).
[12] Chaddha MJ, Rai SB, Goyal RN (2007). Method for the Multistage, Waste-free
ENVICON 2007, National seminar on Processing of Red Mud to Recover Basic
environmental concern and remedies in Materials of Chemical Industry. US Patent
Alumina Industry at NALCO, Damanjodi, 5,053,144.
India, 27-28th Jan., 2007. Characteristics of [24] Khaitan S, Dzomback DA, Gregory VL
red mud of Indian Alumina Plants and their (2009). Mechanisms of Neutralization of
possible utilization: 41-44. Bauxite Residue by Carbon Dioxide. Journal
[13] Kurdowski W, Sorrentino F (1997). Waste of Environmental Engineering 135 (6): 433-
materials used in concrete manufacturing. 438.
Satish C (Ed), William Andrew [25] Chunmei S, Jianhang X, Eric B, Robert
Publishing/Noyes, 290-308. Enick (2005). Carbondioxide sequestration

28
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

via pH reduction of red mud using liquid processing and Extractive Metallurgy
CO2. ACS Division of Fuel Chem. 45 (4): Review 30 (3): 211-239.
703-705. [36] Zhang G, He J, Gambrell RP (2010).
[26] Sahu RC, Patel R, Ray BC (2010). Synthesis, Characterization, and Mechanical
Neutralisation of red mud using CO2 Properties of Red Mud-Based Geopolymers.
sequestration cycle. Journal of Hazardous Transportation Research Record: Journal of
Materials 179: 28-34. the Transportation Research Board 2167: 1-9.
[27] Palmer Sara J, Nothling M, Bakon K, Frost [37] Giannopoulou I, Dimas D, Maragkos I,
R (2010). Thermally activated seawater Panias D (2009). Utilization of metallurgical
neutralised red mud used for the removal of solid by-products for the development of
arsenate, vanadate and molybdate from inorganic polymeric construction materials.
aqueous solutions. Journal of Colloid and Global NEST Journal 11 (2): 127-136.
Interface Science 342 (1): 147-154. [38] Hajela RB, Gupta RG, Goel RK (1989).
[28] Oceanplasma. Chemistry of Seawater. http: Disposal of solid wastes—red mud and fly-
//oceanplasma.org/documents/chemictry.html ash in the production of heavy clay products.
#concentrations International Journal of Environmental
[29] McConchie D, Clark M, Hanahan C (2000). Studies 33 (1,2): 125-132.
3rd Queensland Environmental Conference: [39] Ekrem K (2006). Utilization of red mud as
Sustainable Solutions for Industry and a stabilization material for the preparation of
Government, Brisbane, QLD; Australia. The clay liners. Engineering geology 87 (3-4):
use of seawater neutralized bauxite refinery 220-229.
residues in the management of acid sulphate [40] Agarwal R, Shashikanth M (2008).
soils, sulphidic mine tailings and acid mine Sintering Characteristics of Red Mud
drainage: 201-208. Compact. Thesis submitted in partial
[30] Virotec (2003). Dealing with red mud-By- fulfillment of requirements for the degree of
product of the Bayer process for refining Bachelor of Technology in Metallurgical and
aluminium. Materials World. 11 (6): 22-24. Materials Engineering, National Institute of
[31] Mussels G, Sparkling G, Summers J (1993). Technology, Rourkela, Orissa, India.
Bioremediation of bauxite residue in Western [41] Pontikes Y, Angelopouos GN, Kim UL
Australia-An initial feasibility study, No. 26. (2006). On the plasticity of clay mixtures
Alcoa of Australia ISSN 1320-4807. with Bauxite residue of the Bayer process
[32] Krishna P (2000). Bioremediation of red CIMTEC-2006, 11th International Ceramic
mud (bauxite residues) using microbes. Congress and 4th Forum on New Materials,
Dissertation In the Partial Fulfillment of Acireale, Sicily, Italy, June 2006.
Master of Science In Biotechnology. [42] Pontikes Y, Rathossi C, Nikolopoulos P,
Department of Biotechnology and Angelopoulos GN (2007). Effect of Firing
Environmental Sciences. Thapar Institute of Temperature and Atmosphere on Sintering of
Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, Ceramics Made From Bayer Process Bauxite
India-147004. Residue 10th European Ceramic Conference
[33] Cooling DJ (2007). Keynote address-Paste and Exhibition. University of Patras, Greece,
2007. Improving the sustainability of residue Berlin.
management practices-Alcoa World Alumina [43] Singh M, Upadhayay SN, Prasad PM
Australia. Fourie A and Jewell RJ (Eds). (1996). Preparation of special cements from
Australian Centre of Geomechanics, Perth, red mud. Waste Management 16 (8): 665-670.
Australia ISBN 0-9756756-7-2: 3-14. [44] Pera J, Boumaza R, Ambroise J (1997).
[34] Fotini K (2008). An innovative Development of a pozzolanic pigment from
geotechnical application of bauxite residue. red mud. Cement and Concrete Research 27
Electronic Journal of Geotechnical (10): 1513-1522.
Engineering 13/G: 1-9. [45] Tsakiridis PE, Agatzini S, Oustadakis LP
[35] Dimas DD, Ioanna P, Panias D (2009). (2004). Red mud addition in the raw meal for
Utilization of alumina red mud for synthesis the production of Portland cement clinker.
of inorganic polymeric materials. Mineral

29
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

Journal of Hazardous Materials B116: 103– Phosphate removal from wastewater using
110. red mud. Journal of hazardous materials 158
[46] Puskas F (1983). Process for the utilization (1): 35-42.
in the ceramics industry of red mud from [58] Gupta V K, Ali I, Saini VK (2004).
alumina plants. US Patent 4368273. Removal of chlorophenols from wastewater
[47] Nimje MT, Sharma RJ, Sengar GS (2007). using red mud: an aluminum industry waste.
Conversion of aluminium industrial wastes Environmental Science & Technology 38
(fly ash, red mud) into glass ceramic (14): 4012-4018.
products ENVICON 2007, National seminar [59] Tor A, Cengeloglu Y, Mehmet EA,
on environmental concern and remedies in Mustafa E (2006). Removal of phenol from
Alumina Industry, 27-28th Jan., 2007 at aqueous phase by using neutralized red mud.
NALCO, Damanjodi, India: 132-135. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 300
[48] Yanga J, Zhanga D, Houb J (2008). (2): 498-503.
Preparation of glass-ceramics from red mud [60] Tor A, Danaoglu N, Cengeloglu Y (2009).
in the aluminium industries. Ceramics Removal of fluoride from water by using
International 34 (1): 125-130. granular red mud: Batch and column studies.
[49] Fei P, Kai-Ming L, Hua S, An-Min H Journal of hazardous materials 164 (1): 271-
(2005). Nano-crystal glass-ceramics obtained 278.
by crystallization of vitrified red mud. [61] Cengeloglu Y, Tor A, Gulsin A, Mustafa E,
Chemosphere 59 (6): 899-903. Sait G (2007). Removal of boron from
[50] Garhard B (1975). Method for producing aqueous solution by using neutralized red
bricks from red mud. US Patent 3886244. mud. Journal of hazardous materials 142 (1-
[51] Dass A, Malhotra SK (1990). Lime- 2): 412-417.
stabilized red mud bricks. Materials and [62] Gupta VK, Gupta M, Sharma S (2001).
Structures 23: 252-255. Process development for the removal of lead
[52] Peter N (1997). IDRC Reports. Making and chromium from aqueous solutions using
Bricks with red mud in Jamaica, No. 21(2). red mud--an aluminium industry waste.
International Development Research Centre, Water Research 35 (5): 1125-1134.
Ottawa, Canada. [63] Gupta VK, Sharma S (2002). Removal of
[53] Liu W, Yang J, Xiao B (2009). Application cadmium and zinc from aqueous solutions
of Bayer red mud for iron recovery and using red mud. Environmental Science &
building material production from Technology 36 (16): 3612-3617.
alumosilicate residues. Journal of hazardous [64] Brunori C, Cremisini C, Massanisso P,
materials 61 (1): 474-478. Pinto V, Torricelli L (2005). Reuse of a
[54] Jiakuan Yang and Bo Xiao (2008). treated red mud bauxite waste: studies on
Development of unsintered construction environmental compatibility. Journal of
materials from red mud wastes produced in Hazardous Materials 117 (1): 55–63.
the sintering alumina process. Construction [65] Palmer SJ, Ray LF (2009). Characterisation
and Building Materials 22 (12): 2299-2307. of bauxite and seawater neutralized bauxite
[55] Cablik V (2007). Characterization and residue using XRD and vibrational
applications of red mud from bauxite spectroscopic techniques. Journal of Material
processing. Gospodarka Surowcami Science 44 (1): 55-63.
Mineralnymi (Mineral Resource [66] Shuwu Z, Changjun L, Zhaokun L, Xianjia
Management) 23 (4): 29-38. P, Haijing R, Jun W (2008). Arsenate
[56] Satapathy BK, Patnaik SC, Vidyasagar P removal from aqueous solutions using
(1991). Utilisation of red mud for making red modified red mud. Journal of hazardous
oxide paint. INCAL-91, International materials 152 (2): 486-492.
Conference and Exhibition on Aluminium at [67] Fuhrman GH, Jens CT, McConchie D
Bangalore, India 31st July-2nd Aug. 1991 (1): (2004). Adsorption of arsenic from water
159-161. using activated neutralized red mud.
[57] Huang W, Shaobin W, Zhonghua Z, Li L, Environmental Science & Technology 38 (8):
Xiangdong Y, Victor R et al. (2008). 2428-2434.

30
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

[68] Hofstede HT (1994). Use of bauxite [80] Garg D, Givens EN (1985). Coal
refining residue to reduce the mobility of Liquifaction catalysis by industrial metallic
heavy metals in municipal waste compost. wastes. Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev.
PhD thesis, School of Biological and 24 (1): 66-72.
Environmental Sciences. Murdoch [81] Shaobin W, Aug HM, Tade MO (2008).
University Digital Theses Program. Novel applications of red mud as coagulant,
[69] Westman AL, Rouse JV, Jonas JP, JR, adsorbent and catalyst for environmentally
Bardach NM (2009). Solid-phase activation benign processes. Chemosphere 72 (11):
of bauxite refinery residue for heavy metals 1621-1635.
remediation. US Patent 20090234174. [82] Guanzhou Q, Liu Y, Jiang T, Hu Y (1995).
[70] Seymer OB, Kirkpatrick DB (1999). Red Influence of coal sort on the direct reduction
mud product development. Light metals: 25- of high-iron-content red mud. Journal of
30. Central South University of Technology 2 (2):
[71] Doye I, Duchesne J (2005). Column 27-31.
Leaching Test to Evaluate the Use of [83] Fofana M, Kmet S, Jakabsk T (1995).
Alkaline Industrial Wastes to Neutralize Acid Treatment of red mud from alumina
Mine Tailings. J. Envir. Engrg 131 (8): 1221- production by high-intensity magnetic
1229 separation. Magnetic and Electrical
[72] Paradis M, Duchesne J, Lamontagne A, Separation 6: 243-251.
Isabel D (2006). Using red mud bauxite for [84] Erca E, Apak R (1999). Furnace smelting
the neutralization of acid mine tailings: a and extractive metallurgy of red mud:
column leaching test. Can. Geotech. J. 43 Recovery of TiO2, Al2O3 and pig iron.
(11): 1167–1179. Journal of Chemical Technology and
[73] Paradis M, Duchesne J, Lamontagne A, Biotechnology 70 (3): 241-246.
Isabel D (2007). Long-term neutralisation [85] Agatzini-Leonardou S, Oustadakis P,
potential of red mud bauxite with brine Tsakiridis PE, Markopoulos C (2008).
amendment for the neutralisation of acidic Titanium leaching from red mud by diluted
mine tailings. Applied Geochemistry 22 (11): sulfuric acid at atmospheric pressure. Journal
2326-2333. of hazardous materials 157 (2-3): 579-586.
[74] McConchie D (2000). Heavy metal Clean [86] Toshihiro K, Eguchi S (1999). The
up. http: Recovery of Titanium, Aluminum and Iron
//www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/sci from Sulfuric Acid Leach Solution of Red
enceshow/heavy-metal-cleanup/3465380. Mud Solid by Solvent Extraction. Bulletin of
[75] Fois E, Lallai A, Mura G (2007). Sulfur Nippon Bunri University 27 (1): 27-31.
dioxide absorption in a bubbling reactor with [87] Qinfang X, Xiaohong L, Schlesinger ME,
suspensions of Bayer red mud. Ind. Eng. Watson JL (2001). Low temperature
Chem. Res. 46 (21): 6770-6776. reduction of Ferric Iron in Red Mud. Light
[76] Hoang M (2000). Catalysis and processes Metals: 157-162.
for treatment of industrial process and waste [88] Mishra B, Staley A, Kirkpatrick D (2001).
streams. Patent no. WO 2000000285. Recovery and Utilization of Iron from Red
[77] Sushil S, Batra VS (2008). Catalytic Mud. Light Metals: 149-156.
applications of red mud, an aluminium [89] Mishra B, Staley A, Kirkpatrick D (2002).
industry waste: A review. Applied Catalysis Recovery of value-added products from red
B: Environmental 81 (1-2): 64-77. mud. Minerals & Metallurgical Processing
[78] Shing JS (1977). Method of activation of 19 (2): 87-94.
red mud. US Patent 4017425. [90] Barnett RJ, Mezner MB (2001). Process for
[79] Cakici AI, Yanik J, Ç ar SU, Karayildirim T, treating red mud to recover metal values. US
Anil H (2004). Utilization of red mud as Patent 6248302.
catalyst in conversion of waste oil and waste [91] Li LY (2001). A study of iron mineral
plastics to fuel. Journal of Materials Cycles transformation to reduce red mud tailings.
and Waste Management 6 (1): 20-26. Waste Management 21 (6): 525-534.

31
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

[92] Silva GC, Da C, Dweck J, Afonso JC technology, Rhodes inland, Greece, 1-3 Sept.,
(2008). Liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) of 2005: A1572-A1577.
iron and titanium by bis-(2-ethyl-hexyl) [106] Gambrell R, Mendelssohn I, Murray N
phosphoric acid (D2EHPA). Minerals (2002). A soil-like industrial by-product may
Engineering 21 (5): 416-419. be successful for enhancing or restoring
[93] Liu Z, Kai Z, Wei Z, Ying L (2009). Effect Louisiana coastal marshes. Environmental
of temperature on iron leaching from bauxite Protection: 1-3.
residue by sulfuric acid. Bull Environ [107] Amritphale SS, Anshul A, Chandra N,
Contam Toxicol 82 (1): 55-58. Ramakrishnan N (2005). Development of X-
[94] Deger U, Gulfen N (2007). Dissolution ray shielding materials utilizing red mud.
kinetics of iron and aluminium from red mud ICSOBA-2005, 16th International
in sulfuric acid solution. Indian Journal of Symposium on Status of Bauxite, Alumina
Chemical Engineering 13: 263-268. and Aluminium Industry and Future at
[95] Wanchao L, Jiakuan Y, Bo X (2009). Nagpur, India, 28-30 Nov.2005: 350-357.
Application of Bayer red mud for iron [108] Satapathy A, Mishra SC, Roy GK, Singh
recovery and building material production BK, Agrawal GS (2007). Red mud: A
from alumosilicate residues. Journal of potential coating material ENVICON 2007,
hazardous materials 161 (1): 474-478. National seminar on environmental concern
[96] Krause E, Rohm V (2009). Method for and remedies in Alumina Industry at
obtaining valuable products. US Patent NALCO, Damanjodi, India 27-28th Jan.,
20090255371. 2007: 139-142.
[97] Mud to Money (2007). Minimizing bauxite [109] Wood substitutes in construction sector
residue for increased alumina production. and Ecology. Accessed at http:
Light metal age 65 (4): 40-42. //www.bmtpc.org/pubs/papers/paper2.htm
[98] Ghorbani Y, Oliazadeh M, Shahverdi A [110] Krishna P, Reddy MS, Patnaik SK (2005).
(2009). Microbiological leaching of Al from Aspergillus tubingensis reduces the pH of the
the waste of bayer process by some selective bauxite residue (red mud) amended soils.
fungi. Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. 28 (1): 109- Water, Air & Soil Pollution 167: 201-209.
115. [111] Chauhan S, Silori CS (2010).
[99] Horwath et al. (1975). Method for the Rehabilitation of Red Mud Bauxite
reduction treatment of red mud. US Patent Wasteland in India (Belgaum, Karnataka).
3876749. Ecological Restoration 28 (1): 12-14.
[100] Cardile CM (1993). Process for the [112] Xenidis A, Harokopou AD, Mylona E,
treatment of red mud. WO/1993/016003. Brofas G (2005). Modifying Alumina Red
[101]. Hrishikesan KG (1977). Process for Mud to Support a Revegetation Cover, JOM
recovering soda and alumina values from red 57 (2): 42-46.
mud. US Patent 4045537. [113] Wong WC, Ho GE (1993). Use of Waste
[102] Picharo T (1997). Red mud processing. Gypsum in the Revegetation on Red Mud
WO/1997/029992. Deposits: A Greenhouse Study. Waste
[103] Fulford GD, Lever G, Sato T (1991), Management & Research 11 (3): 249-256.
Recovery of rare earth elements from bayer [114] Woodard HJ, Hossner L, Bush J (2008).
process red mud. US Patent US 5030424. Ameliorating caustic properties of aluminium
[104] Maria TOP, Konstantions SHB, Leonidas extraction residue to establish a vegetative
NM, Constantion ES (2002). Pilot-Plant cover. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard
Investigation of the Leaching Process from Subst Environ Eng. 43 (10): 1157-1166.
the Recovery of Scandium from Red Mud. [115] Rai SB, Wasewar KL, Chaddha MJ, Sen
Indy. Egg. Chem. Res., 41 (23): 5794-5801. B, Mukhopadhyay J (2009). Neutralisation of
[105] Varnavas SP, Boufounos D, Fafoutis D bauxite residue for its safe disposal.
(2005). An investigation of the potential ETWMT-2009, Indo-Italian Conference on
application of bauxite residue in Emerging Trends in Waste Management
th
soil/sediment remediation. 9 International Technologies at Pune, India, 3-4 Dec., 2009:
Conference on Environmental science and 473-475.

32
 ARCH. ENVIRON. SCI. (2012), 6, 13-33

[116] Rai SB, Chaddha MJ, Sen B, Wasewar

KL, Mukhopadhyay J (2009). Red Mud
Utilization-A Focused Review ETWMT-
2009, Indo-Italian Conference on Emerging
Trends in Waste Management Technologies
at Pune, India, 3-4 Dec., 2009: 270-272.
[117] Rai SB, Wasewar KL (2010). Utilization
of red mud and its neutralisation for safe
disposal. Journal of Future Engineering &
Technology 5 (3): 1-8.
[118] Rai SB, Wasewar KL, Chaddha MJ,
Mishra RS, Mukhopadhyay J (2011).
Modification and utilisation of dried Red
mud for construction of vegetation cover.
Research Journal of Engineering and
Technology 2 (3): 109-113.

33