Social Science Eng

Social Science
Standard VIII
Part 1
JT 283-1/Soc. Sci. 8(E)
Government of Kerala
Department of Education
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT, Kerala)

2015
THE NATIONAL ANTHEM
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PLEDGE
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its rich and varied heritage. I shall always strive to
be worthy of it.
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spect, and treat everyone with courtesy.
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tion. In their well-being and prosperity alone lies
my happiness.
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© Department of Education, Government of Kerala
y,
Dear Stude
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govern m
t h is t ex t w ill lead y o u
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hus, to gr
society… T it ie s a nd guide you
n act iv
constructio
regards,
With warm
S Raveendran Nairr
Dr. Directo
SCER T
Textbook Development Team
Participants
Abdul Azees V P Pradeepan T
HSST History, VPKMM HSS, Puthoorpallikkal HSST History, GHSS, Kallachi, Kozhikode
Ajayakumar N Shanlal A B
HSST Economics, GHSS Bekoor, Kasaragod HSST, Govt. Model Boys HSS, Harippad
Hariprabha Shoujamon S
HSA, Sabari HSS Pallikkuruppu, Palakkad HSA, PNMGHSS, Koonthallur, Chirayinkeezhu, Thiruvananthapuram
Jamal K Varghese Pothen
HSST History, RACHSS, Kadameri, Kozhikode HSST Economics, St. Johns HSS Mattam, Mavelikkara, Alappuzha
V T Jayaram Wilfread John S
Lecturer, DIET, Thrissur HSST Geography, MGHSS Kaniyapuram, Thiruvananthapuram
P N Muraleedharan Nair Yusaf Kumar S M
HSST Political Science, NSS HSS Anikkadu, Kottayam HSST History, Govt. Model Boys HSS, Attingal
Pradeep Kumar T V
HSA, Durga HSS, Kanhangad, Kasaragod
English Version
Alpha Manjooran Nisanth Mohan M
Associate Professor of English (Rtd.), University College, HSST, Govt. Tamil HSS Chalai,
Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram
I P Joseph Dr. Priyesh M
Assistant Professor (Rtd.), SCERT, Assistant Professor, Department of Economics,
Thiruvananthapuram University College, Thiruvananthapuram
Meera Baby R Dr. Saidalavi C
Assistant Professor of English, Govt. College, Asst. Professor, Department of Linguistics,
Kanjiramkulam, Thiruvananthapuram Thunchath Ezhuthachan Malayalam University, Thirur
P N Muraleedharan Nair Vijay Kumar C R
HSST Political Science, NSS HSS Anikkadu, Kottayam HSST, Govt. Boys HSS, Mithirmala, Thiruvananthapuram
Chithra Madhavan
Research Officer, SCERT
Experts
Dr. Abdul Razak P P Associate Professor, Department of History, PSMO College, Thirurangadi
Dr. Ashok Alex Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Women's College, Thiruvananthapuram
Chithra Madhavan Research Officer, SCERT
I P Joseph Assistant Professor (Rtd.), SCERT
P S Manoj Kumar Assistant Professor, Department of History, KKTM College, Kodungalloor, Thrissur
Dr. Priyesh M Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, University College, Thiruvananthapuram
Sudheeshkumar J Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, VTM NSS College Dhanuvachapuram,
Thiruvananthapuram
Academic Co-ordinator
Manoj K V, Research Officer, SCERT
01. EARLY HUMAN LIFE
7
02. THE RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS
23
03. IN SEARCH OF EARTH'S SECRETS
41
04. OUR GOVERNMENT
57
05. ANCIENT TAMILAKAM
75
06. READING MAPS
87
07. ECONOMIC THOUGHT
107
Certain icons are used in this
textbook for convenience
For further reading (Need not be
subjected to evaluation)
Questions for assessing the progress
Learning activities
Summary
Significant learning outcomes
Let us assess
Extended activities
Self assessment
EARLY HUMAN LIFE
Two boys from Lascaux in north west France set out
with their dog for hunting rabbits. The dog disappeared
while they were searching for rabbits in bushes and
burrows. Trying to track down the dog, the panic-stricken
boys chanced upon a big cave, which had gone unnoticed
for centuries. The scenes in the
cave astonished them. The walls
of the cave were covered with
multicoloured paintings of
horse, bison, ox, deer, etc.
They were the pictures drawn by the

Palaeolithic man. Several such
cave paintings can be seen in
different parts of the world. These
pictures provide valuable
information on the early human
life.
Ox (Lascaux-France)
Social Science
Palaeolithic Age
Observe the pictures. These
are the cave paintings drawn by
the Palaeolithic man around
ten thousand years back. Why
were they drawn inside the
caves? What are the features of
these cave paintings? Discuss.
Group dance (Bhimbetka-India) Hunting (Bhimbetka-India) Most of them are pictures
of animals.
Boar (Altamira-Spain) Bison (Chauvet -France )
What information about the life of the early man can be obtained
from these pictures?
Hunted animals
Collectively engaged in recreational activities
Different colours were used in the cave paintings. The colours

were made from mixtures of plant extracts and powdered laterite.
In addition to the figures of bison and boar that you see in the
given pictures, the figures of horse, deer, lion, leopard, bear,
hyena, etc. can also be seen in different caves. Animal fat was
used as fuel for lighting in the caves where sunlight was
insufficient. The pictures of hunting are the evidence for their
planning of the hunting ground and the prey. Pictures were drawn
on the ceilings of the caves as well. This stands in evidence for
the dexterity of early humans.
'Cave paintings are a source of information about the

early human life'. Substantiate.
8 EARLY HUMAN LIFE

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Standard VIII
Residue of cooked food, ashes, bones and skulls of animals,

leftovers of fruits, vegetables, and freshwater fishes, etc. were
also discovered from the caves. What else can we comprehend
from them about the early human life?
They cooked food
The Palaeolithic humans hunted collectively. The stronger among

them led the group. There was no gender difference in hunting.
They ate the flesh of hunted animals and carcasses. For hunting,
they mainly used weapons made of stones. They also used bones
of animals, ivory, pieces of wood,
etc. as weapons. Hide and bark were
used as clothes. The bones of
animals were used as needles for
sewing.
Palaeolithic tools
What information about the Palaeolithic human life is

obtained from the caves? Conduct a discussion based on
the following hints.
¾ Tools ¾ Shelter
¾ Social life ¾ Artistic skills
¾ Food ¾ Means of livelihood
¾ Planning ¾ Use of fire
Can the Palaeolithic Age be termed as 'the age of hunters'?

Why?
EARLY HUMAN LIFE 9

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Social Science
There are several pieces of evidence for the technological

advancement of early humans. The making of tools and their
improvement helped them to attain such progress. A few of them
are given below.
Musical instrument made of bone
The fields in which the Palaeolithic man attained progress

are listed below. Find out examples for each from the unit.
Fields Examples
Sculpture
Painting
Handicraft
10 EARLY HUMAN LIFE

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Standard VIII
Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is

a remarkable Palaeolithic site.
Rock shelter was the salient
feature of this site. Besides
Bhimbetka, there are several such
sites in India that provide evidence
for the Palaeolithic human life.
Rock shelters-Bhimbetka
Marked in the map are a few sites in
India from where the evidence for Palaeolithic site State
Palaeolithic human inhabitation
were found. With the help of the Internet • Bhimbetka • Madhya Pradesh
and other sources of information, identify the
present states where these sites are situated
and complete the table.
Bhimbetka
Narmada valley
Nagarjunakonda
Hunsgi Kurnool caves
Palaeolithic sites in India
EARLY HUMAN LIFE 11

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Social Science
Mesolithic Age
Observe the tools in the picture.
How are they different from the tools of the
Palaeolithic Age?
They are small stone tools with sharp points.
These types of tools were used in the period
subsequent to the Palaeolithic Age. This age is
known as the Mesolithic Age .
Why is the Mesolithic Age called Microlithic

Age?
Tools of the Mesolithic Age
What could have been the uses of these tools?

To hunt animals by fastening to a pole
Hunting became extensive in the Mesolithic Age. As a result

many animals became extinct. Mammoth is an example for such
a species. Man discovered new sources of food in this period.
They ate edible grass, dolphin, otter, whale, fishes, and so on.
Mammoths return
Mammoths, who belong to the elephant family,
lived around ten thousand years back. Now
scientists are trying to resurrect the mammoth
through cloning. This scientific venture is
attempted on the well preserved carcass of a
mammoth discovered deep under ice from Siberia
in 2013. It has been confirmed that the liquid
got from the carcass is blood. The scientists look
forward to resurrecting the mammoth with
thick fur covered body and long tusks. Tori Herridge, a palaeontologist leads this experiment.
12 EARLY HUMAN LIFE

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Standard VIII
From the given figure, identify the

progress in human life during the
Mesolithic Age.
Evidence for human life in the
Mesolithic Age have been
discovered from various countries
in Europe and west Asia. In India,
such evidence have been found
from Bagor (in Rajastan) and
Adamgarh (in Madhya Pradesh).
Compare the human life in the

Mesolithic Age with that of the
Palaeolithic Age.
Neolithic Age
We have discussed the changes in human life during the
Mesolithc Age. In the period subsequent to the Mesolithic
Age, man began to use polished stone tools. This period
Gordon Childe
V Gordon Childe, the
is called the Neolithic Age. The beginning of cultivation
archaeologist and historian,
was the major progress in this period that dates around
was born in Australia. His
eight thousand years back. The change from food
researches have provided a
gathering to food production is a landmark in the history
great many information
of human life. Environmental changes, scarcity of food,
about the pre-historic
population growth, etc. are pointed out as the major
period. 'Man Makes
reasons that led to cultivation. Man began to cultivate and
Himself', and 'What
settle down in the river valleys. Happened in History' are his
Haven't you understood the changes in human life brought famous works.
about by cultivation in the Neolithic Age? Gordon Childe,
the historian, termed these changes as 'Neolithic
Revolution'.
EARLY HUMAN LIFE 13

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Social Science
In the Neolithic Age, human beings began to rear animals for

food. They began a settled life for the purpose of cultivation and
domestication of animals. Wheat, barley, jute, different kinds
of tubers, paddy, plantain, etc. were the major crops of that age.
Prepare a flow chart that depicts the progress of human
beings from food gatherers to food producers.
Cave paintings - Edakkal Cave
Have you heard of the Edakkal caves? Where is it located?

Edakkal is a major Neolithic site in Kerala. Observe the given
pictures. What all can you identify?
A wheeled cart
In those days, wheels were used to carry goods from one place
to another. The development of cultivation and permanent
settlement led to a collective life.
14 EARLY HUMAN LIFE

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Standard VIII
Why is the beginning of cultivation regarded as a landmark

in the history of human progress?
From the picture given below, identify the technological

progress attained in the Neolithic Age and find out the
fields in which the people were proficient. Conduct a
discussion.
Nn{Xw 1.13
EARLY HUMAN LIFE 15

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Social Science
The lake villages in Switzerland are

another example for the
technological progress attained by
the Neolithic man. These dwellings
in the lake were constructed using
logs, animal skin, and mud. Walls and
houses built of stone in the Neolithic
Age were discovered from Jericho in
Palestine.
Lake Village - Switzerland (an illustration)
The transformation that began in the Mesolithic age

developed further in the Neolithic Age. Identify them from
this unit and prepare a note on it.
Jarmo
Jarmo in northern Iraq is an important site

that provides evidence for life in the
Neolithic Age. The ruins of several mud
huts have been discovered here. These huts
had stone foundations, sun-dried brick
walls, and sun-dried mud roofs. The
people of Jarmo engaged in agriculture.
They stored food grains and exchanged the
same.
The Jarmo village
During the Neolithic Age human life spread far and wide.
Population growth and the consequent necessity for cultivable
and habitable land were the major causes for this. Water
transportation facilitated the migration to different parts of the
world.
16 EARLY HUMAN LIFE

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Standard VIII
Burzahom
Saraikhola
Find out the major Neolithic Gufkral
Kile Ghul Mohammad
sites from the given map and
note them down. Mehrgarh
$ Edakkal
$ Koldihwa Chirand
$
$
$
Utnur
Takkalakota Maski Nagarjunakonda

Hallur Brahmagiri
Paiyampalli
Edakkal
Neolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent
Find out the changes that occurred

during the Neolithic Age from the
Decorated pot and stone tools. Burzahom Palaeolithic Age and complete the table
(Kashmir)
below.
Palaeolithic Age Neolithic Age

Tools Rough stones Polished stones
Occupation
Food gathering
Settled life
Animal husbandry
Pottery
Technology
EARLY HUMAN LIFE 17

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Social Science
Chalcolithic Age
The Chalcolithic Age was a transition period from the Stone
Age to the Metal Age. In addition to the stone tools, the people
of this period made copper tools as well. Let us see the major
sites of the Chalcolithic Age.
Catalhoyuk in Turkey is a major site from where evidence for
human life in the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic Ages have been
discovered. Ancient forms of urban settlement existed in this
site. The major remnants discovered here are the ruins of
dwellings. The huts were built using mud-bricks. The residues
of wheat and barley have been discovered here. Pictures were
drawn on the walls of huts. Excavations are still in
progress in this extensive and ancient site.
Excavation in Catalhoyuk
What evidence of the Chalcolithic Age have been
discovered from Catalhoyuk? Discuss.
There are several places in the

Indian subcontinent from
Mehrgarh where the features of the
Chalcolithic Age have been excavated.
Read the given map and list them.
Gilund
_Balathal Eran
Chirand
$ Mehrgarh
Ahar Kayatha
Navdatoli
$
Daimabad $
Jorwe
Chandoli $
Chalcolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent
18 EARLY HUMAN LIFE

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Standard VIII
Mehrgarh in Baluchistan is a major Chalcolithic site in the

Indian subcontinent. Wheat and barley were cultivated there.
Houses with ovens were built of mud-bricks. The evidence
for the use of the potter's wheel has also been discovered
from here.
Clay pot - Mehrgarh
Which are the fields the Chalcolithic human

life attained progress in?
Early man used tools made of stones. As needs increased, they

improved the tools. The improved tools helped the progress in
social life. This led to the invention of metal tools.
The age in which man used stone tools and weapons is

known as the Stone Age.
Stone Age can be divided into Palaeolithic Age,
Mesolithic Age, and Neolithic Age based on the
improvement in the stone tools.
Human life varied in different ages.
The information on the Stone Age is obtained from the
remnants of the objects used by the humans of that age .
By the end of the Stone Age metal tools began to be used.
This period is called the Chalcolithic Age
EARLY HUMAN LIFE 19

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Social Science
Stone Age
Palaeolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age Chalcolithic Age
Crude stone tools Micro stone tools Polished stone tools Stone and copper
tools
Bhimbetka
Altamira Bagor Edakkal Mehrgarh
Chauvet Adamgarh Jericho Catelhoyuk
Lascaux
The learner:
analyses the cave paintings of the Palaeolithic Age.
explains the significance of the cave paintings as a source
of history.
analyses the features of human life in different stages of
the Stone Age.
compares the different stages of the Stone Age.
lists the Stone Age sites.
evaluate the transition from the Stone Age to the Metal
Age.
20 EARLY HUMAN LIFE

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Standard VIII
Can the caves be regarded as centres of human

inhabitation? Why?
The Mesolithic period is termed as the age of transition
from the Palaeolithic to the Neolithic age. Why?
How does the Neolithic Age differ from the Palaeolithic
Age?
'The Stone Age was an important period in the human
history.' Substantiate.
Match the sites in column A to the ages in column B
A B
Altamira Neolithic Age
Catelhoyuk Palaeolithic Age
Edakkal Mesolithic Age
Bagor Chalcolithic Age
Collect the objects from your locality that can be sources

of information on the past and prepare a note on their
features and the information gathered. Keep these objects
in the school museum. Prepare an album with the pictures
of such antiques.
EARLY HUMAN LIFE 21

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Social Science
Completely Partially Need

Improvement
Can differentiate between different Stone
Ages based on the tools and varied
features of human life
Can find out the features of cave paintings
Can analyse the features of different Stone
Ages
Can compare the different Stone Ages
Can list the Stone Age sites
Can recognise the changes from the Stone
Age to the Metal Age
Can evaluate the human progress that came
about in different ages
Have understood that human history is a
continuous process and that different ages
have had a significant role in it.
22 EARLY HUMAN LIFE

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THE RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS
It was the year 1856.

The British decided to lay a railway line from Multan to
Lahore. The Brunten Brothers were assigned the charge
of its construction. The line was to be laid through the
Indus valley. Though the brothers, who were engineers,
toiled hard with the labourers, they could not fix the
railway track in the loose soil. The construction came to a
standstill. Then the engineers noticed some burnt bricks
nearby. They were hard and suitable for laying the track.
Without wasting any time, they paved those bricks and
laid the line.
Neither the labourers nor the engineers realised that those
burnt bricks were the remains of a great civilization that
existed centuries back. Later, when Sir John Marshall was
the director of the Archaeological Survey of India, an
excavation was undertaken in 1921. It revealed that the
bricks were the ruins of a great civilization.
Social Science
The excavations revealed that a civilization had existed

Archaeological in the valleys of the river Indus and its tributaries.
Survey of India Hence, this civilization came to be known as the Indus
valley civilization.
The Archaeological Survey of
India leads the researches on The first excavation was conducted in Harappa in the
archaeology in India. This present Pakistan. It was led by Daya Ram Sahni. Since
institution was established the first evidence for the Indus valley civilization was
during the reign of the British. obtained from Harappa, this civilization is also known
as the Harappan civilization. It was R D Banerji, who
led the excavations in Mohenjodaro in the present
Pakistan. Further researches on this civilization are going on.
Complete the chart that indicates the excavations of the Indus
The Director, Archaeological

Survey of India
Sir John Marshall
.....................................
Indus valley civilization
Daya Ram Sahni

R D Banerji .....................................
..................................... Conducted excavations

in Harappa
The Harappan civilization stretched across the region ranging

from the western part of Pakistan to Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh,
R D Banerji and from Kashmir in the north to the Narmada valley in the south.
The period of this civilization is generally placed between
BCE 2700 and BCE 1700.
24 THE RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS

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Observe the map and list the major sites of the Indus valley
civilization in the table given. Identify the present countries in
which they are situated.
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
$Shortughai China
Afghanistan
Harappa
Pakistan
Banvali
Kalibangan Alamgirpur
Mohenjodaro
Sutkajendor India
Dholavira
Lothal
Rangpur
Sites of Indus Sites of Indus

Country Country
valley civilization valley civilization

JT 283-2/Soc. Sci. 8(E)

THE RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS

Social Science
Features of cities
We have seen that it was the hardness
of the bricks they came across that
amazed the laborers. The key feature
of the Harappan cities was the use of
hard burnt bricks. All buildings were
built of burnt bricks. The cities
Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Lothal all
had two parts.
The part of the city used by the administrators
Parts of the Harappan Cities
The part of the city to the west was higher. The part of the city to the east was lower and
It was used by the administrators. The ruins was inhabited by the common people. The ruins
of a big building, probably an assembly hall, of many buildings that might have been houses
were discovered here. were unearthed here.
Houses were built along both sides of planned

streets. They were of varying structures. Some
houses had only one room, whereas others had more
rooms, a courtyard and a well. Every house had a
toilet.
Street
The drainage system was another feature of these
cities. The waste water from the houses was let out
into the drains. These drains were connected to the
main drain of the street. The drains were built of
burnt bricks and covered with stone slabs. Effective
drainage systems existed even in small towns and
villages.
Drainage system

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Standard VIII
In Mohenjodaro a great tank, called the

Great Bath, was discovered. It is an
evidence for the architectural skill of the
people of that period. It was built entirely
with burnt bricks.
The Great Bath
What hints about the social and administrative system

can be obtained from the ruins of the Harappan cities?
Discuss and prepare a note on the importance of personal

and social hygiene maintained by the people of the Indus
Granary and agriculture

Granaries are significant among the ruins discovered from
Harappa. They were big buildings with the facility to dry and
store grains. The remains of wheat, barley, millet, sesame, pulses,
etc. have been found here. Evidence of rice cultivation have
been uncovered from Rangpur and Lothal
in Gujarat. Cotton was also cultivated. The
urban folk depended on the villages for
food and work. The villages were the major
market for the urban products.
The ruins of the granary
Examine the role played by the villages in the existence

of the Harappan civilisation.
THE RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS 27

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Social Science
The agricultural fields in the villages were fertile.

It is the alluvial soil deposited by the river Indus
that made them fertile. In Kalibangan in Rajasthan
Clay plough farming was done by ploughing the land. The figures
of ploughs made of clay were discovered from
here. Canals were constructed for
irrigation.
In addition to agriculture, animal husbandry
also existed. Plenty of animal bones have
been unearthed from here. The figures of
rhinoceros and elephants made of clay
have also been found. They reared ox, goat,
pig, and sheep.
The surplus agricultural products were
stored in the granary. The grains collected
Clay figures of animals in the form of revenue were also kept
there. The grains thus stored were made
available to the public. Such granaries are the evidence for the
existence of an efficient administrative system.
The Harappan granaries speak many things about the

administrative system of that period. What are they?
Trade
The agricultural progress led to surplus production and
storage of grains. Accurate weights and measures were used
for exchanging the stored products. Weighing and
measuring tools have been unearthed from here.
Weights and measures

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1
Standard VIII
Haven't you discussed the Mesopotamian civilization in a

previous class?
The inscriptions discovered from Mesopotamia mention their
trade relation with Meluha. Historians opine that Meluha is
probably Harappa. The Mesopotamian seals found from Harappa
Seals
also provide evidence for this trade link.
Lothal was one of the centres of maritime
trade. The clay models of sailing ships
obtained also prove their maritime trade
link.
The seals widely found from the Indus
valley sites were probably used for the
purpose of trade. However, no evidence for
the use of coins has been found yet. They
collected copper from the mines of Khetri
Lothal
in the present Rajastan and tin from the
present Afghanistan and central Asia.
Copper was mixed with tin to produce bronze. They made tools
and weapons using bronze. Since bronze was widely used in the
Harappan civilization, it came to be known as Bronze Age
civilization.
What are the evidences that signify the trade relations of

the Harappan people?
Handicrafts and occupational groups

The seals, clay figures, utensils, ornaments, etc. dug out from
Harappa bear witness to their craftsmanship. The ruins of kilns
where pottery was produced have been widely dug out.
Ornamental works were done on clay pots. Animal figures were Ornaments
moulded from clay. Figures of men, women, and carts have also
been uncovered from here. Copper, bronze, and gold were used
Clay cart

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Social Science
to make ornaments. Evidence of centres where beads were made

have been unearthed in Lothal. Bangles were made from clay,
bronze, and tortoise shells. Though skilled at making handicrafts,
the Harappans did not give importance to forging weapons. The
artistic skill of the Harappans is reflected in the seals they made.
Clay pot The seals were made from clay and stones. The statuette of the
dancing girl found from Mohenjodaro is also an example for
their artistic skill. The diverse handicrafts hint at the existence
of occupational groups.
Sign board in Dholavira
Bronze statuette of
dancing girl
Seals and scripts
Given above are the pictures of a few seals found from the Indus
valley sites. Can you see the scripts in them? We can discern
that the Harappans had their own script. The attempts to decipher
them have not yet been successful.
Belief systems
The seals found from Harappa provide information about the
then belief systems. Clay figures of women have widely been
discovered. They prove the existence of worshipping the mother
goddess. Such worship existed in connection with fertility of
the soil.

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1
Standard VIII
Historians opine that the figures of men found from here are
the early form of Siva (Proto Siva). They also worshipped
animals and trees. The Great Bath unearthed in Mohenjodaro
might have been used for religious ceremonies.
The fall of the Harappan civilization Seals found from Harappa
The Harappan civilization began to decline by BCE 1700. Several

views prevail on the causes of its decline. A few of them are
given below.
Flood
External invasions
Deforestation
Decline of agricultural sector
Epidemics
Why river
valleys?
Prepare a seminar paper on the salient features of
Early man had not mastered
the Indus valley civilization.
the technology for acquiring
farm lands by clearing the
Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and forest. So he began farming
in grass lands that could
Chinese civilizations easily be made arable. The
We have discussed the Indus valley civilization. There river valleys of the Nile, the
were a few other civilizations in different parts of the world Euphrates, and the Indus
in the same period. were vast areas of grass
They were Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Chinese lands. Fertile soil, plenty of
civilizations. Wide use of bronze tools was the common
water, gazing fields, etc.
were the favourable factors
feature of all these civilizations. Hence, these civilizations
for the concentration of
are commonly known as Bronze Age civilizations.
human settlement in the
river valleys. These river
valleys were the cradles of
civilization.

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Social Science
Observe the map below and identify the regions where these
civilizations flourished.
Egyptian
civilization
Mesopotamian
civilization
Chinese
civilization
Indus valley
civilization
Centres of Bronze Age civilizations
Egyptian Civilization
I reached Egypt in November 1922. It was a journey
in search of the mummy of Tutan Khaman, the
emperor who lived in the 14th century. It was a new
stage of the journey in search of mummies and
pyramids. A prolonged search across the northern
valley of Egypt… But to no avail. Expectations gave
way to disappointment. At last, I decided to start
excavations near a huge pyramid. Curiosity gave way
to wonder. Steps leading to a large door underground.
One after the other… When the third door was
opened, I stood dazed. The emperor whom I have
been pursuing, lay adorned in eternal sleep.

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Standard VIII
Haven't you read the diary of Howard Carter, the archaeologist?

Have you heard of Tutan Khaman, mentioned in the diary? He
was a king of ancient Egypt. Back then, the kings of Egypt were
known as 'Pharaoh'. The practice of preserving the body of the
dead prevailed in Egypt. A corpse preserved thus is called a
'mummy'. Pyramids were tombs where the mummies were
preserved. They remain as evidence for the excessive use of
labour and wealth.
Pyramids in Egypt
Hieroglyphics
What were the other features of the Egyptian
civilization that existed in the Bronze Age?
This civilization flourished in the valley of the river
Nile. Agriculture was the backbone of this
civilization. The Egyptians also engaged in weaving
and production of glassware.
They formed an art of writing. It is known as
'Hieroglyphics', which means 'sacred writing'. They The hieroglyphic sript was first
used the leaves of the plant called papyrus for deciphered by Champollian, a
writing. French scholar. He had
accompanied the French ruler
Napoleon when the latter conquered
Egypt in 1798. The script was
engraved on a stone (Rosetta) near
the mouth of the river Nile. The
script could only be deciphered after
much patient labour.

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Social Science
The Egyptians also attained amazing advancement in the field of

science. They formulated a solar calendar. As per this calendar a
year had 365 days. A year was divided into 12 months, of 30
days each. The remaining five days were set aside for
celebrations. Their advancement in the field of Mathematics is
also significant. They could calculate the area of triangles and
rectangles. To determine time they made sundial, a clock that
tells time by the shadow cast by the sun and water clock that
works on water current.
The Egyptians were also skilful in sculpture. It is evident from
the sphinx, a statue with lion's body and human head.
Sphinx
Mesopotamian civilization
The Mesopotamian civilization flourished in the region where
the modern Iraq is situated. Mesopotamia is the land between
the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. These rivers originate from the
Armenian mountains and merge with the Persian sea. The word
Mesopotamia means the land between the rivers. Four different
civilizations emerged and declined in Mesopotamia. They were

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Standard VIII
the Sumerian, the Babylonian, the Assyrian, and the Chaldean.

The fertile soil of Mesopotamia helped agricultural progress. It
led to trade and the consequent growth of cities. Ur, Uruk, and
Lagash were the major cities in ancient Mesopotamia. Cities
were also trading centres. We have discussed the trade link
between the people of Mesopotamia and the Indus valley. As
trade developed, it became essential to record the accounts of
the exchanged goods. It eventually led to the development of
the art of writing. The Mesopotamian system of writing is called
Cuneiform. The script was wedge-shaped. They were written on
the smooth surface of wet clay tablets. A
sharp stylus was used for writing. The
tablets were then baked in the sun. A huge
collection of these tablets has been found
here. Most of them were related to trade.
They achieved remarkable progress in the
field of mathematics and astronomy. They
formulated a calendar based on the
movements of the moon. They divided a
year into 12 months, a month into four
weeks, and a day into 24 hours. They knew
division, multiplication, and square root.
Cuneiform script
Prepare a note on the achievements of the Mesopotamians

in the field of science.

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Social Science
The construction of temples namely 'ziggurat' is the evidence of

the amazing architectural skills of the ancient Mesopotamians.
They were constructed in cities. They were built on artificial
hillocks using bricks.
Ziggurat
Chinese civilization
The Chinese civilization flourished in the
valley of the river Hwang-Ho. Agriculture was
the base of this civilization. They were also
skilful in weaving, making pottery, and silk
production.
The art of writing existed in ancient China as
well. The script was pictographic, not
alphabetic. Later it developed into an
ideographic script. Like ancient
Mesopotamians and Egyptians, ancient
Chinese script

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Standard VIII
Chinese too formulated a calendar in which a year consisted of

365 ½ days.
In this unit, we have discussed a few civilizations that flourished
in river valleys. The use of bronze, agricultural progress,
development of trade and craftsmanship, the art of writing,
progress in the field of science, etc. were the remarkable common
features of these civilizations.
Prepare a note on the achievements of the Mesopotamian,

Egyptian, and Chinese civilizations in arts, science, and
the art of writing.
The Harappan civilization flourished in the valleys of the

river Indus and its tributaries in the period between BCE
2700 and 1700.
The use of burnt bricks, bronze tools, drainage, streets,
granaries, and the Great Bath were the major features of
the Harappan civilization.
The Harappan people cultivated various crops.
Agricultural progress led to the development of trade.
They excelled in craftsmanship.
The Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Chinese civilizations
were contemporary to the Indus valley civilization.
These civilizations achieved remarkable progress in the
fields of science, mathematics, and architecture.

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Social Science
River Valley Civilizations
Indus valley Egyptian Mesopotamian Chinese

civilization civilization civilization civilization
Valleys of the Euphrates

Town planning Nile valley and the Tigris Hwang-Ho valley
Agriculture Hieroglyphics Cuneiform Art of writing
Crafts, script Pyramids, sphinx Ziggurats Silk industry
Calendar, achievements in
Causes of fall Calendar, sundial, water clock mathematics Calender
The learner :
identifies the places where the Bronze Age civilizations
existed
analyses the major features of the Indus valley civilization
explains the progress attained by Harappan people in
agriculture and craftsmanship
identifies the factors that led to the fall of the Indus valley
civilization
analyses the major features and achievements of the
Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Chinese civilizations

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Standard VIII
Prepare a note on the early excavations in the Indus valley

regions.
Explain the features of life in the Indus valley cities.
What were the features of the Great Bath in Mohenjodaro?
What are the major handicrafts that prevailed in the Indus
valley civilization?
The Indus valley civilization is an example of a Bronze Age
civilization. Substantiate.
The artistic skill of the Harappan people is evident in the
seals they made. Explain with examples.
Prepare a note on the art of writing in Mesopotamia.
Analyse the progress achieved by the Bronze Age
civilizations in the fields of science and mathematics.
Match column A with B

A B
John Marshall Mesopotamia

Daya Ram Sahni Mohenjodaro
R D Banerji Harappa
Hieroglyphics Director of the
Archaeological
Survey of India
Cuneiform script Egypt

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Social Science
Find out the present agricultural crops in the regions where

the Harappan civilization existed.
List the common features of the Bronze Age civilizations.
Collect the pictures relating to the Bronze Age civilizations
and prepare an album.

improvement
Can analyse the major features of the Indus
Can evaluate the trade relations that existed

between different regions and civilizations.
Can identify the occupational groups that

existed in Harappa.
Can identify that the art of writing and the

seals were the features of the Bronze Age
civilizations.
Can explain the features of the various

Bronze Age civilizations that existed in
different parts of the world.
Am convinced that the Bronze Age

Civilizations had great influence on various
fields of human life.
Am convinced that India has a great

heritage of thousands of years.

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IN SEARCH OF EARTH'S SECRETS
Westonaria is a small town situated officer gave me the oxybox, a life

to the south-west of Johannesburg in saving instrument to protect me from
South Africa. The Penang gold mine the poisonous gases from the Earth's
is near to it. I have been in this town interior, a helmet with torch, and a
for the past three days, patiently protective coat to prevent the heat.
awaiting the permission to visit the He explained how to wear them.
mine. At last, when I was about to fly The downward journey was in an
back giving up the idea of preparing elevator car, a vehicle that can hold
a feature on the mine, I received a about a hundred people. As we
phone call from the manager of the descended, the temperature increased
mines. He said, "Get a taxi and reach and ears clogged due to pressure
the mine immediately." I rushed to the variation. The only source of light was
wonder world at once. Imagine ten the one on the ceiling of the elevator.
Empire State Buildings, each hundred With a thousand curious thoughts, I
and three stories-high kept one over descended into the wonder world of
the other. That is the depth of the mines.
Penang gold mine. The security
What you read is from the diary of a journalist on his experience

in a mine. You have seen the changes that occur while journeying
from the surface to the interior of the Earth. The Earth's interior
Social Science
is full of wonders. But there are many limitations in

collecting information about the mysteries of the
Although manmade ve- Earth's interior directly. What are they?
hicles could reach as far
The temperature and pressure inside the Earth increases
as the Mars which is
with depth. The variations in pressure is due to the weight
about 225 million
kilometres away, man has exerted by the overlying layers.
not yet been able to go The temperature at the centre of the Earth is about
beyond 12 kilometres deep 5000O C. Remember that even iron melts at 1538O C.
inside the Earth on which
Let us see the different sources from which we get
he lives.
information on the Earth's interior.
From the materials reaching the Earth's

surface through volcanic eruptions.
Data collected from mines.
Analysis of the propagation of waves
generated during earthquakes.
Crust
Mantle
Based on the analysis of the waves generated
Outer core
during earthquakes, the Earth has been divided
into different layers.
Inner core
Observe the given figure (Fig 3.1) and identify
these layers.
Fig 3.1
Let us see the features of each of the layers from

the following figure (Fig 3.2).
42 IN SEARCH OF EARTH'S SECRETS

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Standard VIII
As silica and alumina are the chief con-
As silica and magnesium are the chief con-

tents, the continental crust is also known
tents, the oceanic crust is also known as
The upper mantle, made up of silicon com-
The lower mantle, located beneath the
the centre, the inner core is in a solid
erals nickel (Ni) and iron (Fe), it is also

The materials in the outer core are in a
state. As it is mainly made up of the min-

Due to the high pressure prevailing at
upper mantle, is in a semi-liquid state.
Upper mantle and Lower mantle
Outer core and inner core

Continental crust and
oceanic crust
pounds, is in a solid state.
known as NIFE.
Upper mantle
Lower mantle
molten state.
as SIAL.
SIMA.
• Extends upto 2900 km from the
• Two parts- upper mantle, lower

• The comparatively thin outer shell
• Two parts- continental crust,
• Two parts- outer core, inner core.

• Approximately 40 km thick.
• From 2900 km to 6371 km

• Located beneath the crust.
• Central part of the Earth.

Mantle
Crust
Core
oceanic crust.
of the Earth.
mantle.
crust.
Fig 3.2

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Social Science
Lithosphere and asthenosphere

Fossils
The crust and the upper part of the mantle together are known
The remains of ancient as lithosphere.
plants and animals found in The part beneath the lithosphere, where the materials exist
sedimentary rocks are
called fossils. We make use
in a partially molten state is known as asthenosphere. This
of these fossils to under- is the source of the molten rock material (lava) that comes
stand the Earth's prehistory out during volcanic eruptions.
and to estimate the age of
rocks.
Coal, petroleum, natural
gas, etc. have been Observe an animation on the Earth's interior and
evolved from the remains prepare a note on it.
of ancient organisms.
Hence these are also
called fossil fuels. Collect Rocks
more information on fos-
sils. The lithosphere acquires its name from the material with
which it is made ('lithos' means rock). If you look around
you can see rocks of different colours and hardness. This
diversity is due to its constituents. The constituents of rocks
are called minerals. More than two thousand minerals such
as silica, mica, hematite, bauxite, etc have been identified
on earth.
Based on the mode of formation, rocks can be classified
into three-igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Rocks
Igneous rocks Sedimentary rocks Metamorphic rocks

Igneous rocks are formed by the Rocks undergo weathering in When rocks undergo physical
molten rock material rising course of time. The debris so and chemical changes due to
through the fissures in the crust formed will be deposited in the high temperature and pressure
low regions as layers. These
and solidifying either on the materials gradually get lithified metamorphic rocks are
surface of the Earth or within the and transformed into formed.
crust itself. sedimentary rocks. Eg:- marble, slate.
Eg:- granite, basalt. Eg:- sandstone, limestone.
As all other rock types are formed As the sedimentary rocks are Metamorphic rocks are prominent
from the igneous rocks, they are formed in layers, they are also in Kerala.
called primary rocks. known as stratified rocks.

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Standard VIII
The rocks may not remain in their original form forever. They
are subjected to several changes over time. Observe the diagram
(Fig.3.3) and fill in the blanks.
Rocks from one form to other - Rock cycle
lithi
fies
s in
ate lay
e gr er
int s
dis
disi
Igneous Rock
nteg
dis rate
int s Sedimentary Rock
egr
ate
s(
we
ath
hig
eri
hp
m e lt s
high pressure/
temp eratu re
res
ng
sur
)
e/t
em lts
pe me
solidi fies
rat
ur
e
Metamorphic Rock
melts and forms lava/magma
Fig 3.3
Process
Melts
Igneous Rock ................................................

Sedimentary Rock
................................................
................................................
Metamorphic Rock Igneous Rock
................................................
................................................
Sedimentary Rock Metamorphic Rock

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Social Science
Collect pictures of igneous, sedimentary and metamor-

phic rocks from the Internet and prepare a digital al-
bum on different types of rocks.
Weathering
You have learned about the different types of rocks. They undergo
various changes with time. Such disintegration or decomposition
of rocks is known as weathering. As a result, the physical and
chemical composition of rocks change. Familiarize the different
types of weathering from the flow chart below.
Weathering
Physical/Mechanical Chemical Biological

Weathering Weathering Weathering
The expansion and contraction of Oxygen, carbon dioxide, wa- The plant roots penetrating
minerals due to the variations in ter, etc. react with the min- into the fissures in rocks, bur-
temperature results in weather- erals and result in the chemi- rowing of animals, and the
ing. Disintegration also occurs cal decomposition of rocks. decomposition of plant and
due to the freezing of water in animal remains lead to
the fissures of rocks. weathering. Apart from
these, human activities such
as mining and quarrying also
lead to weathering.

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Standard VIII
Weathering and humans

Look at the following pictures (Fig.3.4). What are the human
activities that lead to the weathering of rocks?
Fig 3.4
Quarrying
Visit various places in your locality and identify the hu-

man activities that result in weathering.
Weathering helps humans in many ways.

Minerals in rocks get extracted
Helps in mining
Causes soil formation
IN SEARCH OF EARTH'S SECRETS 47

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Social Science
Soil evolves
Soil is a natural resource that you are very familiar with.
How is soil formed? The soil we see today is formed by
Pedology is the branch of sci-
prolonged processes like weathering of rocks and
ence that deals with soil. The
decomposition of organic matter. It is estimated that more
scientists associated with this
than a thousand years is required for the formation of an
branch are called pedologists.
inch-thick layer of soil.
Identify the factors influencing soil formation from the
following diagram (Fig.3.5).
Fig 3.5
Complete the following table (Table 3.1) with the help of the
Table 3.1
data given in the above diagram.
Plants and
Climate Topography Animals Parent Rock Time
• Soil formation will • Soil will be thin • The acid formed as • The minerals in the • The thickness and
be slow in cold along steep slopes. a result of the soil and the structure of soil
environments. decaying of plants structure of the soil depends on the time
and animals cause depend on the rock taken for its
weathering of rocks from which it is formation.
formed.
• • • • •

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Standard VIII
Different types of soils are formed due to variations in factors

such as topography and climate. You have learned about the
different types of soil in India and in Kerala from the previous
classes. Complete the following table (Table 3.2) based on that.
Table 3.2
Soil types
India Kerala
• •
Soil for sustenance

Without soil there won't be any plants or animals.
The case of man is not different. Soil is one of the
important factors that makes life on the earth
possible. You know that the green plants absorb
nutrients from the soil and prepare food with the
help of sunlight. Humans and other animals consume
Fig 3.6
these plants. When plants and animals die, they return
to the soil. Observe the function of a food chain and
the importance of soil in it with the help of your
teacher. Have a look around. What are the uses of
soil? Do you see many agricultural activities? Is
that the only use of soil? List out the uses of soil.
For construction purposes Fig 3.7
Fig 3.8

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Social Science
Perishing soil
Soil gets depleted due to various human

activities such as deforestation, destruction of
hills and unscientific agricultural activities.
You know that the roots of trees hold the soil
like a net. Man is killing the soil by felling these
trees and tilling the land for cultivating
intensively without considering the
Fig 3.9
environment. Observe your surroundings and
prepare a note on 'soil and humans',
incorporating the following:
Non-degradable materials like plastic
cause soil pollution.
Overuse of chemical fertilizers that alter

the structure of soil.
Fig 3.10 Unscientific construction and quarrying.
Use of agricultural land for non-

agricultural purposes.
Draining wastewater into soil on a large

scale.
Overgrazing.
Fig 3.11
Discuss in the class the alternatives that help

in environmental conservation.
Fig 3.12

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Standard VIII
Let us conserve soil

Once the top soil is lost what is
left behind is barren land or
rocky surface. It will take
thousands of years for the top
soil to regenerate. Top soil is
essential for the continued
sprouting of life. For this
conservation is the only
solution. By what all means can
we conserve the soil? Discuss
and find out.
Fig 3.13
Check deforestation
Terrace farming
Crop rotation
Terrace farming along hill

slopes
Construction of check dams
Fig 3.14
Check dams
Go on a field visit and prepare a project report on soil and human

intervention. Points for data collection are,
1. Major landuse
2. Is there any degradation of soil? How?
3. Have any measures been adopted for the conservation of soil?
4. Changes that took place in the agricultural sector over time.
The land will be sterile if the soil is lost. Let us get involved in activities to protect
the Earth from such a pathetic situation.

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Social Science
A day to celebrate soil
The United Nations Organization observes the 15th of December as the World Soil
Day for creating awareness among the people about the importance of soil.
Discuss a plan for the observance of the

December 15
World Soil Day in your school?
Earth's interior has a layered structure.

Each of the Earth's layer has unique features.
On the basis of the mode of formation, rocks can be
classified into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

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Standard VIII
The process of physical disintegration and chemical

decomposition of rocks on the crust is called weathering.
Weathering of rocks is the root cause of soil formation.
The soil which is inevitable for the existence of life is
being depleted in many ways.
Conservation of soil is essential for the sustenance of
life.
Earth
Crust Mantle Core
SIAL SIMA Upper mantle Lower mantle Inner core Outer core
Lithosphere
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

rock rock rock
Weathering
Physical Chemical Biological
Soil Soil Soil

formation depletion conservation

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Social Science
The learner :
identifies and illustrates the layered structure of the Earth.
lists out the features of the different layers of the Earth.
classifies rocks based on their mode of formation.
analyses the rock cycle.
analyses the different types of weathering and establishes

the importance of the process.
understands the importance of soil and explains the

various factors influencing soil formation.
analyses the importance of soil conservation and takes

part in soil conservation activities.
Crust is the most important layer on the earth for man.

Substantiate the statement with examples.
Read the indicators and identify the rock type. Give an

example for each.
(i) Formed by the lithification of rock debris deposited

in the lower regions.
(ii) Formed by the solidification of molten rock

materials.

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Standard VIII
The carbon dioxide dissolved in rain water causes

weathering of rocks on the Earth's surface. Identify the
type of weathering.
The rock debris formed by weathering is transformed

into soil by a lengthy process. Explain the process.
'Humans slowly kill the soil'. Analyze the statement and

record your inferences.
Make a model of the Earth's interior.

Let us try to understand the Earth's internal structure with
the help of two balls-one big and the other, small. Cut
the big ball and fill one half with sand. Place the small
ball in its centre in such a way that only half of it is visible.
Label the outer ball as the crust, the sandy part as the
mantle and the inner ball as the core. Give suitable
colours to the layers and exhibit it in your Social Science
lab.
Invite an agricultural officer to your class. Ask him about
the importance of soil, its depletion, conservation
measures, etc.

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Social Science
Need
Completely Partially
improvement
Can present that the Earth's interior is
divided into three layers.
Can explain the features of the crust.
Can explain the features of the core.
Can explain the features of the mantle.
Can analyse the weathering process.
Can present the process of soil formation.
Can explain soil depletion and the
necessity of soil conservation.
Realised the necessity of soil conservation

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OUR GOVERNMENT
Fig 1 Fig 2
Fig 3
JT 283-3/Soc. Sci. 8(E)
Can you identity the above pictures? The first one is the
Parliament building which represents the Legislature. It is here
that the Parliament sessions are held. The second represents the
Executive and is the official residence of the President of India.
Social Science
The third is the Supreme Court complex, which represents the

Indian Judiciary. These three institutions are related to three
organs of the government namely Legislature, Executive, and
Judiciary.
Makes Law
Legislature
Government
Ex
ecu
ry
cia
tiv
di
e
Int
Ju
w erp
La ret
e nts sL
lem aw
I mp
Write a short note on the organs of the government based

on the given picture
Haven't you understood what the organs of the government are?

Analyze the three organs of the government of India, based on
the chart given.
58 OUR GOVERNMENT
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Standard VIII
Government of India
Legislature Executive Judiciary
President President Supreme Court

Lok Sabha Vice President High Courts
Rajya Sabha Prime Minister District Courts
Council of Ministers Sub Courts
Bureaucracy Munsif Courts
Magistrate Courts
Collect news and pictures relating to the government of

India and identify the organ to which they are related.
Legislature in India
The Legislature in India is known as the Parliament. It consists
of the President and the two houses namely Rajya Sabha and
Lok Sabha. The Rajya Sabha is known as the upper house and the
Lok Sabha is known as the lower house. Since it has two houses
it is known as Bicameral Legislature.
Find out more countries having bicameral legislature.
OUR GOVERNMENT 59
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Social Science
Rajya Sabha Hall
Lok Sabha Hall
With the help of the chart given above compare the features
of the Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha.
The President of India is not a Member of Parliament. But he is

considered as an integral part of the Parliament. This is mainly
because of the fact that the President of India performs legislative
functions like summoning the sessions of the Parliament,
addressing the joint sittings, and approving the bills passed by
the Parliament.
60 OUR GOVERNMENT
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1
Standard VIII
Functions of Parliament
Legislation is the primary function of the Parliament. To make a
law, the approval of both the houses of the Parliament is required.
The Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha assembles separately for
legislation.
A law in draft form is known as a bill. An ordinary bill can be
introduced in either house of the Parliament. The house which
considers the bill first is called the first house and the house
which considers it next is called the second house. In both the
houses the bill passes through different stages.
First House
Bill m First
Reading
m Second
Reading
m Third
Reading
Second House
Approval of
the President m Third
Reading
m Second
Reading
m First
Reading
Let us examine the various stages of passing a bill.

• First Reading
The bill is introduced
• Second Reading
Each and every article included in the bill is either passed,
changed or rejected after discussion.
• Third Reading
The bill as a whole is passed or rejected.
OUR GOVERNMENT 61
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Social Science
After passing the bill in the first house, it

Sessions of Parliament is sent to the second house along with the
As per the Constitution there should certificate of the presiding officer. The
not be an interval of more than six bill passes once again through the above
months between two sessions of the mentioned three stages in the second
Parliament. Normally the Parliament house.
of India assembles three times a year. After the bill is passed by both the houses,
They are known as monsoon session,
it is sent to the President for approval. On
winter session and summer session. If
getting the approval of the President, the
needed the Rajya Sabha assembles four
bill becomes a law.
times a year
Conduct a discussion in the class
on the various stages of passing a
bill.
Question Hour
Daily sessions of the Parliament begin with If there is a difference of opinion between
question hour. Every day the Parliament the two houses, a joint sitting of both
meets at 11 in the morning and the intial houses of the Parliament is summoned
hour is question hour. The members can and a decision is taken. It is the President
ask questions relating to any administrative who summons the joint sitting of the
subject. The ministers in charge will give Parliament, which is presided over by the
answers to them. The timetable of the state Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
legislatures are different from that of the
Parliament.
Money Bill
The procedure of passing a money bill is
different from that of an ordinary bill.
Zero Hour What is a money bill? Any bill relating to
At 12 noon, the question hour ends. The the collection of revenue or expenditure
small interval after the question hour, from the consolidated fund can be termed
before commencing deliberations on the as money bill. The Constitution states that
items on agenda is known as zero hour. a money bill can be introduced only in the
It is known as zero hour because it is Lok Sabha. After the bill is passed by the
12 o' clock. The house considers Lok Sabha, it is sent to the Rajya Sabha
adjournment motion, calling attention with the certificate of the speaker that the
motion, etc. during this time. The zero bill is a money bill. The Rajya Sabha must
hour lasts for 5-15minutes return the money bill, along with its
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1
Standard VIII
recommendations, to the Lok Sabha within a period of fourteen

days. The Lok Sabha can accept or reject the recommendations
of the Rajya Sabha.
Is legislation the only function of the Parliament? Along with
law making, the Parliament performs a number of other
functions.
Other Functions of Parliament
Control over Electoral Constitutional

Executive Function Amendment
• Asking questions • Participating in the election • Timely amendment of the con-
of the President and Vice stitutional provisions
• Deliberating various bills and President
resolutions
• Passing or rejecting the no con-
fidence motion
State Legislature
In India there are state legislatures in all
the states. They make laws on subjects that
come under the state government. In
majority of the states, the state legislature
has only one house. Such legislatures are
called Unicameral Legislatures. A few
states, on other hand, have Bicameral Kerala Legislative Assembly
Legislature. Find them out.
States having
Bicameral Legislatures
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Jammu and Kashmir, Andra
Pradesh, and Telangana have Bicameral
Find out the difference between Legislatures. The lower house is known as
Unicameral and Bicameral the Legislative Assembly and the upper house
Legislatures. is the Legislative Council.
OUR GOVERNMENT 63
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Social Science
Excecutive
nment made Central approval for

Central gover compulsory
Aadhar Card bsidy. expatriates vote
for LPG su
delayed
n of Food Security Bill gets
Implementatio
'Aadarsh Gram' project to set off this year
Haven't you read the above given news headings? All of them are
related to the day to day administration of the country. Who takes
such decisions and implements them? The organ of the
government which implements law and administers the country
is called the Executive.
Executive in India
In India there are two levels of Executive. They are Central
Executive and State Executive. The Central Executive consists
of the President, central ministers, and bureaucracy.
The President and ministers are elected and they are the political
Executive. Bureaucrats, on the other hand, are appointed on the
basis of certain qualifications and they continue in office till
retirement. They are known as the permanent executive.
President
The picture of India's first President is given here. Who is the
current President of India? The President is the head of the Indian
Republic. He is elected by an electoral college for a term of
five years.
Dr. Rajendraprasad
First President
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1
Standard VIII
The electoral collage consists of :

Elected members of Lok sabha Qualifications
Elected members of Rajya sabha of President
$ Must be a citizen of India
Elected members of state legislative
$ Should have completed 35 years
assemblies
of age
$ Should have all other qualifica-
All the executive powers of the central government tions required for a member of
are vested with the President of India. But he Lokh Sabha.
performs all these functions with the support and advice given
by the council of ministers.
Functions of the President

Appoint Prime Minister and other ministers.
Appoint Chief Justice and judges of the Supreme Court.
Nominate 12 members of Rajya Sabha and 2 members
of Lok Sabha.
Act as the Supreme Commander of armed forces.
Give assent to bills passed by the parliament.
Declare emergency in the country if needed.
Take decision on mercy petitions
Make a note on the election and functions of the President

of India.
Vice President
Besides the President, India has a Vice President as well. The
Vice President is also elected by an electoral college. The
members of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha are members of this
electoral college. He is elected for a term of five years.
Dr. S Radhakrishnan
First Vice President
OUR GOVERNMENT 65
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Social Science
Functions of Vice President

Performs the functions of the President in his absence
Presides over the sessions of Rajya Sabha
Find out the difference between the electoral colleges that

elect the President and Vice President.
Union Council of Ministers

The Union Council of Ministers work under the leadership of
the Prime Minister. All the functions vested with the President
are really exercised by the Council of Ministers, which consists
of cabinet ministers, ministers of state, and deputy ministers.
Prime
Minister ers
Mi
inist
nis
cabi Assist
Cabinet Ministers
ter
net m
ters
so
minis
t
Assis
De
s
inistrie
pu
sta
Exercis
e the charge of m
other
ty
te
mi
nis
ter
s
Find out the names and portfolios of the central cabinet

ministers.
66 OUR GOVERNMENT
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1
Standard VIII
Functions of Prime Minister

The leader of the majority party or coalition in the Lok Sabha is
appointed as the Prime Minister. He has extensive powers and
functions. He can influence all the important decisions of the
central government. Some important functions of the Prime
Minister are given below.
Acts as the leader of the Lok Sabha
Presides over the meetings of the Cabinet
Co-ordinates the functions of the Council of Ministers.
Informs the President of the decisions taken by the
Cabinet. Jawaharlal Nehru
First Prime Minister
Analyze the position and functions of the Prime Minister

and the President and make a note.
State Executive
The head of the state level executive is the Governor. The Chief
Minister and his Cabinet act as the real Executive in the states.
Judiciary
There may arise disputes between individuals, individuals and
government, between central and state
governments, and among states on various
Supreme Court-The apex court in
issues. It is the Judiciary which resolves these jurisdiction all over India
disputes. By punishing the guilty and
protecting the innocents, the courts
High Courts-Hear cases
implement justice. It is the Judiciary which that arise in states
interprets the laws passed by the Legislature.
Find out the structure of the Judiciary in India
from the given diagram. District Courts-Hear cases
in the district
Sub Courts, Munsif Courts, and

Magistrate Courts-Hear taluk level cases
OUR GOVERNMENT 67
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Social Science
Judiciary in India
Supreme Court
The Supreme Court is the apex court in India. It consists of a
Chief Justice and judges appointed by the President. At present
H.J. Kania
the Supreme Court has a Chief Justice and 30 judges.
First Chief Justice Cases Considered by Supreme Court
Cases relating to violation of Fundamental Rights
Cases that arise between state government and central
governments.
Disputes between state government.
Cases that require interpretation of constitutional
provisions.
Appeal cases from High Courts.
Collect news on Supreme Court verdicts and classify them

based on the cases stated above.
High Court
Kerala High Court
68 OUR GOVERNMENT
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1
Standard VIII
High Court is the highest court in a state. The High Court consists
of the Chief Justice and such other judges appointed by the
President. It supervises the working of district courts and other
subordinate courts.
Jurisdiction of High Court
Give verdicts on cases relating to violation
of Fundamental Rights. Lok Adalath
Hears civil and criminal appeal cases from Government has taken certain
lower courts. steps to ensure justice affrodable
Interprets laws passed by the state
to the poor and ordinary man.
Legislature. The most important among
them is Lok Adalath. Lok
Adalath means people's court.
It is a judicial system which is
voluntary in nature. Clients,
Find out the states having no High desirous of disposing their cases
Courts can approach the Lok Adalth,
which will persuade them to
dispose the cases through nego-
Subordinate Courts tiations and mutual agree-
ments. The aim of the Lok
Subordinate courts consist of District Courts, Sub Adalath is to settle the cases
Courts, Munsief Courts, and Magistrate Courts. without any delay.
They give verdicts on civil and criminal cases.
You have now learnt about the three organs of the
government. Government becomes effective only when these
three organs work together with mutual respect and in accordance
with the Constitutional Provisions.
Prepare a seminar report on the organs of government in

India.
OUR GOVERNMENT 69
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Social Science
The government has three organs. They are the

Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary.
The Legislature makes laws, Executive implements laws,

and Judiciary interprets laws.
The central Legislature in India is known as the Parliament
The Parliament consists of the President, Lok Sabha and

Rajya Sabha.
Legislation is the prominent function of the Parliament
Along with legislation, the Parliament performs a number

of other functions.
The central Executive consists of the President, Vice

President, Prime Minister, and Council of Ministers
The Governor, Chief Minister, and Council of Ministers

are part of the state level Executive.
The Judiciary in India consists of the Supreme Court,

High Courts, and subordinate courts.
70 OUR GOVERNMENT
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Standard VIII
Government
Legislature Executive Judiciary
Central State Central State Supreme Court

Legislature Legislature Executive Executive High Courts
Subordinate
Courts
President Governor
President Governor VicePresident Chief Minister
Loksabha LegislativeAssembly Prime Minister Council of Ministers
Rajyasabha Legislative Council Council of ministers Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy
The learner :
explains that the government consists of Legislature,
Executive, and Judiciary.
compares the features of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
OUR GOVERNMENT 71
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Social Science
describes the legislative procedure in India.

identifies the structure of the central and state level
executives.
evaluates the functions of the President, Vice President,
and Prime Minister.
describes the functions of the Supreme Court, High
Courts, and Subordinate Courts.
The government consists of three organs. Which are they?

Find out the correct statement from those given below.
(a) Indian parliament consists of Lok Sabha and
Rajya Sabha
(b) Indian Parliament consists of Lok Sabha, Rajya
Sabha, Prime Minister, and Vice President.
(c) Indian Parliament consists of the President,
Rajya Sabha, and Lok Sabha.
Compare the structure of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
and make a note on it.
A bill passes through different stages before it becomes
a law. Explain the legislative procedures in India.
Given below are some statements related to the election
of the President. Write down the most appropriate one.
(a) The President of India is directly elected by the
people.
(b) The President of India is elected by members of Lok
sabha and Rajya Sabha
(c) The President of India is elected by the electroal
college consisting of the elected members of Lok
sabha, Rajya Sabha, and state legislative assemblies.
72 OUR GOVERNMENT
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Standard VIII
In which house is money bill first introduced

(a) In Rajya Sabha
(b) In Lok Sabha
(c) Joint sitting
The Prime Minister has a prominent position in the
council of ministers. Based on the statement, clarify the
position and functions of the Prime Minister.
The Supreme Court is the apex court in India. Explain
the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of India.
Collect the pictures of the Presidents, Vice Presidents

and Prime Ministers of India and make an album.
Conduct a model Parliament in school to explain the
legislative procedure.
Conduct a quiz competition in the class by preparing
questions relating to the organs of the government.
Collect newspaper cuttings relating to the legislative
decisions of the Executives, and verdicts of the Supreme
Court, and High Courts. Prepare a collage using this.
OUR GOVERNMENT 73
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Social Science
Completely Parially Need

Improvement
Can explain the organs of the
government
Can list the functions of each organ of
the government
Can clarify the structure of the Indian
Parliament
Can define Bicameral Legislature with
examples
Can define Unicameral Legislature with
examples
Can explain the legislative procedure in
India
Can analyse the state legislature
Can explain the structure of the central
and state level Executive in India
Can list the functions of the President
Can explain the position and functions of
the Vice President
Can explain the position and functions of
the Prime Minister
Can describe the structure of the Indian
Judiciary
Can explain the position of the Supreme
Court and list its functions
Can explain the jurisdiction of the High
Court
Can classify the subordinate courts
74 OUR GOVERNMENT
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ANCIENT TAMILAKAM
Iew sNbvtImsh
Iew sNbvtImsh
A®p-ssS®m Im´mcw s]mcp-¥nb
Nn‰p-sh¨]-√n-t]m-e-Ø-s∂mSp
Npcw ]e-h¥hsa-°p-a-cpfn
hnb≥a-e-c-I≥ s]mgn-en-a-Ømgn
AI-enXm Ih-ss\tam
\\-¥sse apcq¿I-e-s©-bvtImsh
(]pd-\m-\q-dv)
O potter
Like a tiny white lizard hugging the spoke of a turning cart wheel is
carried to places afar, I have been a part of all his joys and sorrows. He
has passed away now.
Make sure the urn for his burial is wide enough for me too.
Given above is an ancient Tamil song. The widow asks the potter to make
an urn for the burial of her dead husband. The poem depicts the
significance of big urns in the burial practices that prevailed during that
period.
Social Science
The practice of burying the remains of the

deceased by placing them it in a big urn prevailed
in ancient Tamilakam. Such urns were known as
urn burials (nannangadi). In some areas big
stones were placed above such urn burials. Locally
available stones were used for this. Stone circle,
dolmen, cist, rock chamber, thoppikkallu (tomb
Rock chamber stone), kudakkallu (umbrella stone),
sarcophagus, menhir, etc. were remarkable among
them. They are known as the megalithic
monuments and the period when they were
constructed is known as the megalithic period.
The megalithic monuments, ancient Tamil songs,
coins, travelogues, and a few Tamil inscriptions
are the major sources of information on the
history of ancient Tamilakam.
Kudakkallu
Sarcophagus
Menhir
Observe the pictures and discuss the

features of the different megalithic
Dolmens monuments.
76 ANCIENT TAMILAKAM
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Standard VIII
Different types of iron tools have been discovered from

these megalithic monuments. They include sword,
spear, knife, hook, lamp, nail and so on. Hence, this
period is known as Iron Age in the South Indian history.
Besides iron tools, clay pots, beads, etc. were also
found from these monuments. Roman coins were also
discovered from a few monuments. Black and red wares
were used in that period.
Many megalithic monuments have been found from
different parts of South India. Kodumanal, Alagarai,
Thirukambaliyoor, Pazhani, Adichanellur,
Cheramanangad, Marayoor, and Umichipoyil are the
major places among them.
The iron tools discovered from megalithic

monuments
Black and red wares
Cists discovered from Kodumanal
What information on the life in ancient Excavation site of Adichanellur

Tamilakam can be gathered from the
remains of the megalithic monuments?
ANCIENT TAMILAKAM 77
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Social Science
Sangam literature
The megalithic monuments and the ancient Tamil songs belong
to the same period. The region ranging from Tirupati in Andhra
Pradesh to Kanyakumari. This included Kerala as well was called
Tamilakam in ancient period. The ancient Tamil songs provide
more information about the human life in the ancient Tamilakam.
The collection of these ancient Tamil songs is known as Sangam
literature. Sangam literature is the most ancient among the
available Tamil literature. It is believed that these were compiled
in the period between BCE 300 and CE300.
\mSm- sIm≥tdm ImSm -sIm≥tdm

Ah-em- sIm≥tdm anssNbm sIm≥tdm
FΔ-gn, \√-h-cm-S-h¿
AΔgn \ss√ hmgn-b-\n-et\
O earth!
Whether you are plain or jungle
Hill or valley
You are good only if the virtuous folks reside there
You have no virtue of your own
The lines given above was written by Auvvaiyar, a famous poet

during Sangam period. Like Auvvaiyar, there were several women
poets during that period. Kapilar, Paranar, Mathurainakkeeran,
Palaigauthamanar, etc. were the major poets of the period. The
works of these poets have been compiled in different texts. They
are classified in accordance with the period of composition and
theme. This can be understood from the given table.
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Standard VIII
Sangam works
Category Major works

Thirukkural
Pathupattu Thirumurukattupadai
Mathuraikanchi I¿I IN-Sd I¿]ssh I‰-]n≥
Ettuthokai Akananuru \n¿I AX¿°p ØI
Purananuru
Learn carefully and thor-
Patittupathu
oughly. Practise what has been
Pathinenkeezhkanakku Thirukkural learned. Imbibe it and live
Muthumozhikanchi accordingly.
Grammar text Tholkappiyam
Mahakavya Chilappathikaram
Manimekhalai
The ancient Tamil songs are classified into Akampattukal and

Purampattukal. The theme of Akampattukal is mainly personal
and family affairs. The Purampattukal treat external affairs like
war and trade. The Sangam literature illustrates the physiography,
plentiful resources, food habits, dressing patterns, ornaments,
recreational activities, customs, major occupations, and beliefs
of the period.
Discuss the importance of the Sangam works as a source

of history
Social life
In the previous class you have learnt about the Tinais mentioned
in the ancient Tamil songs. The Tinais had an important role in
moulding the social life of ancient Tamilakam.
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Social Science
Hunting and collecting of forest resources were

KARIPPADAPPAI the means of livelihood of the people in the hilly
Foreign travellers including Plini Kurinchi. Some songs indicate that they engaged
have stated that pepper is a wild plant. in shifting cultivation as well. Pepper and other
However, in ancient Tamil songs spices were cultivated here.
there are references about the culti- Rearing of cattle was the major occupation of the
vation of kari (pepper) and padappai people of Mullai, the grassland. In order to
(pepper groves) in Kurinchi increase the 'cattle wealth', the practice of seizing
cattle prevailed. This practice was known as
vetchi. Those who chiefly engaged the stealing
cattle were the people from Palai, the dry lands.
Punam Cultivation
(shifting cultivation) Rice and sugarcane were cultivated in the wetland
Marutam. There are evidences for the use of iron
There is mention about shift- ploughshare affixed to plough in that period.
ing cultivation in Purananuru Fishing and salt production were the major
by clearing and burning jungles occupation of the people in the coastal region
of Kollimala. This method still Neytal. Salt was made by evaporating the sea water
prevails among some tribal held in the salt pans.
communities in Attappadi.
Salt pan
Explain the role of physiography in moulding the

social life of the Tinais.
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Standard VIII
Exchange system
tX≥ s\sømSp Ing¶p amdn-tbm¿

ao≥s\s√mSp Xd-hp-a-dp-Ihpw
(s]mcp-\m-cm-‰p-∏-ssS)
People procure fish and rice by exchanging
honey, ghee and tubers.
Nectarous jackfruits
Sangam literature mentions the practice of Jackfruits are among the ma-
exchange of goods known as noduthal. jor agricultural produce men-
Allalavanam (evening market) and nalangadi tioned in the ancient Tamil
(morning market) were the markets of ancient songs. They were found in
Tamilakam. The commodities for daily use in abundance in Kurinchi. The
different Tinais were obtained from these ancient Tamil songs abound
markets. in references to the sweet jack-
fruits along the village paths.
D∏-f-ß-fn¬ hnf™ D∏p-]-c-ep-I-ƒ

D®-Øn¬ hne- ]-d™p sIm≠p-t]mIpw I®-h-S-°m¿
h≠n-°m-f-Isf \pI-a-gn®p tabm≥hn´v
I√-Sp-∏p-Iq´n ]mIw sNøp-am-lmcw
The hawkers shouting out the price of salt crystals produced in the salt
pans, set the bullocks free and cook food in the make-shift stone ovens.
Given above is an adaptation from Akananuru . What information
can we gather from it? In those days salt was an important
commodity of exchange. This exchange was done by the
merchant group called Umanar.
Umanar also exchanged spices, the major export commodity in
ancient Tamilakam. They collected dried fish and salt from the
coastal area and exchanged it for spices like pepper and forest
products of other Tinais. These exchanges were largely done
during summer. Why was summer suitable for this exchange?
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Social Science
Summer is the harvest season.

Excavation at Salt and dried fish were made in summer.
Pattanam
The spices collected by the Umanar were sold at trade
The excavations in centres in coastal towns, from where they were exported to
Pattanam near Paravur in foreign countries. We have already mentioned about the
Ernakulam district provide coins discovered from the megalithic monuments. To which
many an evidence about the country do they belong? The major commodities that the
trade relations Kerala had Romans took from ancient Tamilakam were the spices;
with Rome and west Asian especially pepper.
countries. Remains of Ro-
man amphorae (containers)
and glasses have been widely
found here.
Roman gold coins
What was the role of the Umanar in the trade of ancient

Tamilakam?
Moovendans
You have seen that there was inland and maritime trade in ancient
Tamilakam. Some power centres were essential to frame the
rules for such trading and its control. Trade was controlled by
three power centres namely the Cheras, the Pandyas, and the
Cholas. They were together called Moovendans. The capitals of
the Cheras, the Pandyas, and the Cholas were Muchiri, Madurai,
and Uraiyur respectively. Muchiri, Thondi, Vakai, Mantai,
Kaveripattanam, etc. were the major port cities of the period.
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1
Standard VIII
Locate the trade centres of ancient Tamilakam and the

capitals of the Moovendans from the given map and list
them.
Kaveripattanam
Muchiri Uraiyur
Madurai
Ancient Tamilakam
Prepare a seminar paper on the socio-economic life of an-

cient Tamilakam based on the information gathered from
the ancient Tamil songs and the megalithic monuments.
The major source of information on ancient Tamilakam

is the ancient Tamil songs and the megalithic monuments.
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Social Science
The period when the megalithic monuments were

constructed is known as the Megalithic period
The Sangam literature is a compilation of the ancient Tamil
songs
The Tinais had an important role in moulding the social
life of ancient Tamilakam
Local and foreign trade existed in ancient Tamilakam.
The Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas were together
known as the Moovendans
Ancient Tamilakam
Sangam Social life Exchange Moovendans

Megalithic literature system
monuments
Urn burials
Stone circles Noduthal
Dolmen Allalavanam Cholas
Pathupattu
Rock chambers Tinais Nalangadi Cheras
Ettuthokai
Thoppikkallu Umanar
Pathinenkeezhkanakku Pandyas
Kudakkallu Foreign trade
Kurinchi
Mullai Uraiyur
Palai Muchiri
Marutam Madurai
Neytal
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1
Standard VIII
The learner :
identifies the features of the ancient Tamilakam.
elucidates the importance of the Sangam literature.
explains the megalithic monuments.
analyses the interrelationship between each Tinai and its
life.
evaluates the exchange system that existed in ancient
Tamilakam.
explains that the major rulers of ancient Tamilakam were
the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas.
What are the features of the megalithic monuments of

ancient Tamilakam ? Analyse.
Explain the social life depicted in the ancient Tamil songs
Why is the Iron Age in South India called the Megalithic
period?
Analyse the social life that existed in the Tinais.
What were the features of the trade relations in ancient
Tamilakam? Elucidate.
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Social Science
Collect the pictures of the megalithic monuments and

prepare an album.
Visit the megalithic monuments and prepare a note.

improvement
Can identify the major features of human life
in ancient Tamilakam
Can explain the features of the megalithic
period
Can explain the importance of the megalithic
monuments as a source of history
Can analyse the information about ancient
Tamilakam depicted in the ancient Tamil songs
Can analyse the social life in Tinais
Can evaluate the exchange system that existed

in ancient Tamilakam.
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READING MAPS
You have read about a mistaken bombing and its cause. Now you
might have understood the importance of maps and the accuracy
of the information therein.
Are the maps used for military purposes the same as the ones
we use for study purposes? Different types of maps are used for
different purposes.
Social Science
A few of them are given below.
................................
................................
Political map Military map
................................
................................
Historical map Astronomical map
................................
................................
Weather map
Landuse map
Fig 6.1
Write down the use of each on the sign boards against them (Fig
6.1). Make use of the indicators given below.
Indicators:
For understanding the landuse.
For the study of celestial bodies.
88 READING MAPS
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For meteorological studies.

For military purposes.
For understanding the political boundaries.
For the study of history.
Prepare a list of maps familiar to you.
World political map.
Compare the given maps of Kerala. Are the information included

in both the maps the same?
Kerala Kerala
Soils Physiography
Map A Map B
Map A depicts the soils of Kerala and Map B the physiography.

What might happen if both soil types and physiography are
incorporated in the same map?
Including different information in the same map will create
confusion in reading it. That is why different information are
plotted in different maps. Maps depicting specific themes are
JT 283-4/Soc. Sci. 8(E)
known as thematic maps.
READING MAPS
Social Science
Let us classify maps

Recorded details of natural as well as man-made features on
earth are subjected to different types of observation and analysis.
Maps are the most relevant tool for recording information for
the same.
Classification of maps based on function

Based on function, maps can be classified into two.They are
Physical maps
Cultural maps
Maps representing natural features such as physiography,
climate, etc. are called physical maps. Maps representing
man-made features such as agriculture, industry, and political
boundaries are called cultural maps.
Complete the flow chart by classifying the below mentioned
maps based on function.
• Political map • Agricultural map
• Soil map • Industrial map
• Climatic map • Natural vegetation map
• Astronomical map • Military map
• Weather map • Landuse map
• Physiography map • Historical map
Maps
Physical maps Cultural maps
Astronomical Military
map map
90 READING MAPS
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1
Standard VIII
Prepare a table showing the uses of the physical and

cultural maps you have added in the flow chart.
Classification of maps based on scale

See how maps are classified based on the scales they
correspond to.
Maps
Small scale maps Large scale maps
Example: Atlas maps, Example: Cadastral maps,

Wall maps Topographical maps
If larger areas such as the world, continents, countries, and states

are to be depicted in a small sheet of paper, only a little
information can be incorporated into it. Maps showing only the
important information of larger areas are called small scale maps.
If the area to be depicted is a comparatively small region like a
ward or village, more information can be incorporated in it. Maps
representing detailed information of a small area are called large
scale maps.
READING MAPS 91
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Social Science
Observe an Atlas and identify whether the

Cadastral maps maps in it are small scale or large scale.
The word cadastral is derived from

the French word 'cadastre' which
means 'register of territorial property'.
Cadastral maps are prepared to record Conduct a discussion in
the boundaries and ownership details the class on different
of land properties such as fields, types of maps. The
buildings, etc. These maps are used following points can be
to assess the land tax and to indicate included in the discussion.
the ownership. Village map is an $ Uses of maps
example. $ Need for different types of maps
$ Small scale and large scale maps.
Topographical maps Map reading

Topographical maps are prepared based on Map reading requires a good
comprehensive land surveys. These maps show both knowledge of its scale,
natural and man-made features in detail. Detailed direction, and the signs and
information on relief, topography, rivers, forests, symbols used in them.
agricultural lands, towns, means of transport and
communication, settlements, etc. are included in
topographical maps.
Map scale
You have learnt in the previous class that maps are prepared on
specific scales and that there are three different methods to show
the scale - statement of scale, representative fraction, and linear
scale.
92 READING MAPS
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1
Standard VIII
Observe the given map (fig. 6.2)
Mutholapuram 1 centimetre to 5 kilometre

Mukkadavu 1 : 500000
km km
5 0 5 10
Kallupalam Mariyapuram
Valiyapara
Udhyagiri
Fig. 6.2
Note the scales shown in this map. What might be the purpose
of these three methods of scale?
Statement of scale
Which among the scales given in the map is easy for us to
understand? Isn't it the one shown as 1 cm to 5 km? This method
of representing the scale is the statement of scale. From this we
can easily understand that one centimetre on the map represents
5 km on earth. The merit of this method is that even a layman
can easily understand this.
READING MAPS 93
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Social Science
Then why should we use the other two methods to represent

scale? Let us examine.
Inch, mile, furlong, etc. Representative fraction

are the units followed by
the British. This system of You might have heard the elder members of your family
units is known as the refering to distances between places many-a-times. They
British system. This commonly use units such as miles, furlongs, etc. Which
system was followed in are the units familiar to you?
India till independence. The units used for measuring distance are different in
The educated generation different countries. In India we follow centimetre, metre,
of that period also learnt
kilometre, etc. whereas units like inch, mile, and furlong
this system. After the
British left India, the are followed in the European countries. Can the people of
metric system of units other countries intepret the maps prepared on Indian units
came into practice. As per with ease? Representative fraction is used to avoid this
this, centimetre, metre, problem. Representative fraction is the ratio between the
kilometre, etc. became our map distance and corresponding ground distance expressed
units.
in fractional form. For example, the statement of scale 1
cm to 5 kilometres, can be represented as 1:500000 in
representative fraction. This proportionate distance can be read
in accordance with the units followed in each country. While
the Indians read this as 1 centimetre to 500000 centimetres, the
Europeans can read this as 1 inch to 500000 inches. Now you
might have understood the use of representative fraction.
Linear scale
Suppose Mutholapuram town shown in the map (Fig 6.2) is
undergoing some urban development programmes. The map
shown below (Fig 6.3) is the enlarged version of the previous
map projecting the area including Mutholapuram. Does the scale
remain unchanged? Check whether the scales represented by the
first two methods (statement of scale and representative
94 READING MAPS
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1
Standard VIII
Mukkadavu
1 centimetre to 5 kilometre
1 : 500000
km km
5 0 5 10
Fig 6.3
fraction) changed in accordance with the change in the map. Now

look at the scale shown in the linear method. You can see that
the linear scale has changed in proportion with the change in the
map. When a map is subjected to enlargment or reduction, the
linear scale will also change accordingly. This is the merit of
this method.
Let us measure distance

Observe the map (Fig 6.2). This is the area where Gopu's village
is located. You may notice that scale is represented in the map
in all the three methods.
READING MAPS 95
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Social Science
Try to answer the following questions based on this map.
The pioneers who surveyed India Which is the shortest route for Gopu, who
resides at Kallupalam, to reach his uncle's
Earlier map home in Udayagiri?
making speaks of How long should he travel from Udayagiri
the herculean to Mutholapuram market via Valiyapara?
efforts and How much distance should he cover from
sacrifice of many. Mutholapuram back to his home at
Kallupalam via Mukkadavu?
The survey for
the preperation Is it difficult to find the actual distances from
William Lambton
of a map started maps? Let us see how this can be done.
by William Lambton from the How to measure distances on maps?
southern tip of India in 1800 AD To measure straight distance, a ruler can be
could only be completed after 50 used. If it is a curved distance such as a river or
a curved path, first measure the distance using
years by his successor George
a thread and then measure the length of the
Everest. This survey accurately thread. Now you have the map distance. What
covering 1600 miles with heavy should be done to find the actual distances?
instruments like Theodolite, For this, the map distance should be multiplied
weighing more than 500 Kg, helped with the proportionate ground distance shown
in assessing the height of Mt. in the map scale.
Everest. The survey team toiled for For example,
many years under harsh Scale of the map is 1cm to 5km
conditions.Many of them died of Suppose the distance from A to B in the map
malaria and in natural calamities is 4 cm.
like floods. Then the actual distance from
This map A to B = 4 x 5km =20km
making task is
still considered
as the greatest
attempt of this
kind in the
world. George Everest
96 READING MAPS
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1
Standard VIII
You might have understood how to find the actual distances by

measuring the map distances. Now can you find the distance The Survey of India
travelled by Gopu? The Survey of India is the
agency responsible for
Make use of the political map of India from the Social making, scrutinising, and
Science laboratoy and find out the actual road distances publishing maps in our
from the capital of Kerala to Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, country.
and Kolkata.
Like the scales, the directions in the map are also important in
map reading. Let us see how the directions are determined.
Directions in maps
You have learnt that direction is one of the essential
factors in maps. See the map below.
The following symbols

are used for easy
identification of
directions in maps
• Srinagar
• Jaipur
• Lucknow
• Kolkata
• Panaji
• Visakhapatnam
• Thiruvananthapuram
Fig 6.4
A few cities in India are marked on the map (Fig 6.4).

Try to identify the location of these cities based on direction.
READING MAPS 97
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Social Science
Write your findings in the table (Table 6.1) given below.
Table 6.1
Direction City
North •
South •
East •
West •
Northeast •
Southeast •
Northwest •
Southwest •
If you face any difficulty in finding the direction, you can use
the indicator of direction as shown in the following map
(Fig 6.5) to complete the task.
• Srinagar
• Jaipur
• Lucknow
• Kolkata
• Panaji
• Visakhapatnam
• Thiruvananthapuram
Fig 6.5
Signs and symbols used in maps

Read the following descriptions about an area:
Length and breadth of the area are 1500 m and 1000 m
respectively.
98 READING MAPS
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1
Standard VIII
A river flows from between the north and northwest

towards the south-southeast.
A road runs across the river from west to east and there
is a railway line just north of the road running parallel to
it.
The northeastern part consists of paddy fields which
extend to about 500 m towards the west and 400 m
towards the south from the northeast corner. Between
the paddy field and the river, there is a temple near the
former about 200 m to the south and a pond immediately
south of it.
The southwestern part is a forest extending 450 m to the
east and 400 m to the north from the southwest corner.
There is a fort located close to the forest at a distance of
150 m from the south to the north.
Between the south and southeast there are settlements
close to the river and a post office and a police station
close to the road.
The given sketches were prepared by three students based on
the above description (Fig 6.6).
Fig A Fig B
Fig C
Fig 6.6
READING MAPS 99
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Social Science
There is no uniformity in the signs and symbols used by the three

students in preparing the sketch. Map reading will be confusing
if different countries use different signs and symbols for map
making. That is why internationally accepted signs and symbols
are used for making maps.
Get familiarised with a few conventional signs and

symbols used in maps from the table (Table 6.2) below.
Table - 6.2
Signs and symbols Features
Green Natural vegetation
Yellow Farmland
Red Settlements, roads
Black Railway line, latitudes and longitudes,
telephone lines
Blue Water bodies
Brown Rock outcrops, sand dunes, hills
Metalled road
Railway line
Stream
River
Church
Temple
Mosque
Settlement
PO Post Office
Well
PS Police Station
Fort
Bridge
Pond
Tube well
Graveyard
100 READING MAPS

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1
Standard VIII
Prepare a sketch based on the earlier descriptions. Make

use of the conventional signs and symbols.
Look at the map (Fig 6.7). It has been prepared based on the
earlier description using conventional signs and symbols.
Compare it with the ones prepared by the students (Fig A, B, and
C). What all differences do you notice?
Using scale, directions and conventional signs and symbols, try

to prepare a map of your school
compound. Use a metre tape to measure
the length and breadth of the compound
and the position of different physical and
cultural features in it. Directions can be
determined using a magnetic compass.
Display the map in your classroom.
Observe the map (Fig 6.8) and answer
the questiions. Consolidate your
answers as a map interpretation report.
Scale: 1cm to 2 km Fig 6.7
What is the scale of this map?
In which directions are the places of worship situated?
(Mosque, temple, church)
How far is the temple from Arya's home?
How far is the graveyard from the church?
To which direction from the
temple is the pond?
How long is the canal from the
northern end to the bridge?
Arya's
House
Scale: 1cm to 2 km Fig 6.8
READING MAPS 101

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Social Science
In which direction are the forest and agricultural field

located?
What is the length of the stream flowing west of the
agricultual field?
Now you can read and understand various maps.
Different types of maps are used for different purposes.

Based on function, maps can be classified into physical
maps and cultural maps.
Based on scale, maps can be classified as small scale
maps and large scale maps.
Scales are represented in maps in three different
methods: statement of scale, representative fraction and
linear scale.
Actual distances between places can be calculated based
on scale.
Actual directions can be determined based on the
indicators.
Conventional signs and symbols are used in maps to
represent different features.
Maps can be read effectively using scale, direction, and
conventional signs and symbols.
102 READING MAPS

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1
Standard VIII
Maps
Classification Map reading -

essentials
Based on Based on Conventional

Scale Direction signs and
scale function symbols
Statement of Representative Linear

scale fraction scale
The learner :
classifies and explains maps based on function.
calculates the actual ground distance using map scale.
determines the directions using indicators.
pepares maps using conventional signs and symbols.
prepares reports by interpreting maps based on scale,
directions, and conventional signs and symbols.
Collect different types of maps from the Internet, classify

them based on their use and scale, and prepare a flow
chart. Display it in the classroom.
READING MAPS 103

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Social Science
Answer the questions based on the given map.
Babu's
house
School
Deepu's house
Raju's house
Scale: 1cm to 2 km
• Towards which direction from Raju's house is the post

office?
• Which direction should be taken to reach Babu's
house from Deepu's?
• How far is the post office from the police station?
• In which direction from the school is the police
station?
Complete the table by classifying the maps appropriately.

• Weather map • Historical map
• Topographical map • Agricultural map
• Cadastral map • Wall map
• Soil map • Atlas map
104 READING MAPS

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1
Standard VIII
Physical Cultural Large scale Small scale

maps maps maps maps
The distance between two places shown on a map is 2.5

cm. If the scale of the map is 1 cm to 50 km, how much
is the actual distance between these two places?
Identify the geographical features represented by the
given conventional symbols and fill in the table.
Symbols Features
READING MAPS 105

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Social Science
Need
Completely Partially
improvement
Can classify the maps based on function.
Can calculate the actual ground distance
using the map scale.
Can distinguish between large scale and
small scale maps.
Can determine the directions in maps
using indicators.
Can prepare maps using conventional
signs and symbols.
Can effectively read maps by making use
of scale, direction, and conventional
signs and symbols.
Have realised that map reading is
essential for understanding geographical
information and to interact with nature
accordingly.
106 READING MAPS

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1
km
ECONOMIC THOUGHT
Have you ever noticed the nature of human wants? As soon as one
gets satisfied, another crops up. We have seen in the earlier classes
that production is a process of creating goods and services for
satisfying these wants.
Look at the pictures. What activities are the people engaged in?
Agriculture Regulating traffic
........................................ ...............................
Agriculture and factory work come under production of goods,

Social Science
whereas the traffic police and the doctor provide services.

We have discussed the factors of production like land, labour,
capital, and entrepreneurship and their rewards in the lower
classes.The reward for the factors of production are distributed
according to their respective share. Thus distribution is
significant in an economy. Fair distribution speeds up economic
development.
Man satisfies his wants through the consumption of goods and
services. The reward received by participating in the production
process is spent on consumption. Therefore, there is a
correlation between production, distribution and consumption
of goods and services.
Economics is the branch of science that studies economic
activities relating to production, distribution, and consumption.
Economic decisions are taken by analysing the basic problems
in an economy. Let us see what these problems are.
The fundamental problems faced by

an economy
A meeting was held in Varun's school to decide how to utilize
the one acre land available in the campus. Many suggestions
emerged but the idea of utilizing the land for farming received
the maximum support. Though rice and plantain cultivation were
discussed, finally it was decided to grow vegetables.
Varun and his friends were overjoyed by the idea of growing
vegetables as it gave them an opportunity to give pesticide free
and cheap vegetables to the villagers.
108 ECONOMIC THOUGHT

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1
Standard VIII
Varun was entrusted with the

responsibility of making a
detailed plan about the area of
land that should be brought
under cultivation, the types of
vegetables to be cultivated, the
method of cultivation and care
to be given, the beneficiaries,
etc.
Don't such discussions take place at your home or

school?
In the above example we have discussed the basic problems in
and economy. There are three essential questions associated
with every economic activity.
What to produce and how much to produce?
How to produce?
For whom to produce?
Answers to these questions decide the relevance of economic
activities.
What to produce and how much to produce?

Since resources are limited, it is very important to use the
available ones and to decide what to produce for the welfare of
the society. Though various suggestions came up during the above
discussion, everyone was convinced that growing vegetables must
be given top priority. The identification of the crop for
cultivation and expected quantity of output is equally significant.
Similarly, when we have to decide about industrial products, the
type of industry, the number of units required, etc. need
consideration while planning.
ECONOMIC THOUGHT 109

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Social Science
Food, shelter, clothing, hospitals, schools etc. should be made

available according to the wants of the society. There should
exist of balance between the wants of the society and the quantity
of a product.
How to produce?
Following the decision regarding what to produce and how much
to produce the question of how to produce arises. This denotes
the method of production. How to produce is decided on the
basis of the availability of resources and technology.
For example, the services of labourers or machines can be

utilized for agricultural activities like preparing land for
cultivation, sowing, weeding, manuering, harvesting, and
threshing. The selection of a particular method is decided on
the basis of available resources in an area.
The method of production varies with the availability of
resources.
Examine whether the activities undertaken in the service or

industrial sectors in your locality make use of locally avail-
able resources.

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1
Standard VIII
For whom to produce?

Production is undertaken to satisfy the wants of the society.
Human wants are unlimited. As soon as one gets satisfied, another
crops up. However, we may not have the necessary resource to
satisfy all our wants. Therefore, it is important to prioritize our
wants.
We must plan production activities in such a way that it benefits
the maximum number of individuals in the society.
It is also important how the income generated is distributed.
The total income generated is distributed as interest on capital,
profit of the entrepreneur, wages of the labour, and rent of the
land.
Discuss and prepare a note on how the basic economic

problems are related to the economic activities like pro-
duction, distribution and consumption.
Economics is not merely a study of wealth, it is also a study of

man and society. The contributions of economic thinkers
belonging to different periods have benefited the growth of
Economics.
The ideas propounded by prominent western thinkers like Adam
Smith (1723-1790), the father of Economics, have contributed
to the growth of the subject. Let us see the ideas of a few.

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Social Science
Economic thinking
Adam Smith in his "An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of
the Wealth of Nations" has laid a strong foundation for
Economics. He described Economics as the study of wealth.
He wanted limited government intervention in the economic
activities and argued for more freedom to individuals. This is
known as the theory of 'Laissez Faire'.
Adam Smith
(1723-1790)
Discuss and record your views on the issue of government

intervention in the economic activities of individuals.
The Industrial revolution led to the establishment of new

industries and labour union. There occurred marked changes in
technology and production process. The ideas put forward by
Karl Marx are rooted in these changes.
Marx gave importance to the role of labourers in the production
process. He maintained that the basis of production is the
manpower of labourers and that the price of a product is the
reward for it. However, the laboures get only a portion while the
lion's share goes to the capitalist as profit. Marx calls this surplus
value. He dreamed about a society where there is no difference
Karl Marx
(1818-1883) between the ''haves'' and the ''have-nots''. The ideas of Marx are
contained in his magnum opus 'Das Capital'.

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Standard VIII
Alfred Marshall presented several new principles in the field of

Economics. He believed that wealth should ultimately result in
the welfare of the society. Economic activities must be welfare
oriented. These principles are contained in his work 'Principles
of Economics'.
Alfred Marshall
The world population reached 160 crore at the beginning of the (1842-1924)
20th century and kept increasing.
• Are we able to produce resources for such a multitude
of population?
• How can we judiciously utilize the limited resources?
These questions prompted the British economist Lionel Robbins
to concentrate on the ever increasing wants and limited resouces.
He suggested that we should prioritize our wants for the
Lionel Robbins
judicious utilization of limited resources. (1898-1984)
Paul A Samuelson, the American economist, presented his ideas
in the beginning of the 20th century. He maintained that a nation's
financial stability depends on efficient economic planning and
proper utilization of resources.
We have seen the prominent thinkers of the west. Now try to
complete the table.
Paul A Samuelson
(1915-2009)
Thinkers Basic ideas

Adam Smith Study of wealth of nations
Importance of labourers
Alfred Marshall
Unlimited wants and limited
resources
Paul A Samuelson

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Social Science
Examine the changes in economic thinking during various

periods.
Indian thinkers have also contributed much to Economics.

India's economic thoughts date back to the Maurya dynasty.
Chanakya, the chief advisor of Chandragupta Maurya, wrote the
famous 'Arthasasthra'. It is a major work of the Indian economic
thoughts. Lack of effective economic activities can bring a
nation to ruin. He emphasized the importance of following the
Chanakya
right policies for a nation's progress. This would help the nation
(BCE 370 - 283) to prevent loss of revenue. Chanakya played a key role in making
Magadha a powerful nation.
Dadabhai Naoroji, was a well known economist in British India.
He pointed out that the Britishers were draining our resources
and that this led to economic crisis and poverty. This is known
as the Drain Theory. The main reasons for the drain of resources
were the following.
• The British officers in India were paid high salaries.
• Goods made from Indian raw materials and resources
bought at extremely low price were sold at a high price
in the Indian market.
Dadabhai Naoroji
(1825-1917) • Indian wealth was robbed for expanding the British
Empire.
• Indian labourers were treated as slaves and farm and
industrial products were exported to England.
The studies of Ramesh Chandra Dutt on British exploitation of
India also strengthened the Indian economic thought. His studies
revealed how the western civilization and British exploitation
ruined India.

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Standard VIII
Gandhian Economics
Our objective is to distribute capital among the 7.5

lakh villages in our continent which is 1900 mile long
and 1500 mile broad and not to concentrate it among a
few individuals.
Mahatma Gandhi
Have you noted Gandhiji's words?

What is your response to this?
You may record it in your notebook.
It was Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of
our nation, who contributed original Trusteeship
ideas in Economics since Dadabhai The main ideas of Gandhiji's 'trusteeship' are as fol-
Naoroji. His ideas can be found in his lows:
$ The capitalist has to denounce sole ownership
first book 'Hind Swaraj', published in and declare that he holds wealth as a trustee of
1909. Gandhiji's ideas gave the public.
importance to moral values and rural $ A trustee has no other heir but the public.
$ The nature of production is decided by the soci-
economy. His idea of 'trusteeship' led
ety and not by the individual's choice or greed.
to fresh thoughts in the area. Through $ Just as we decide about minimum wages needed
trusteeship, Gandhiji aimed at an for a modest living, there must be a limit to maxi-
economy which is founded on truth mum wage as well
and non-violence.

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Social Science
We can compile his main ideas as follows:

• Priority to rural-agricultural system.
• Emphasis on small and cottage industries.
• Formation of an economy built on equality.
• A self sufficient and self-reliant local economy.
Many Indian economists were impressed by the economic ideas

of Gandhiji. Economists like J C Kumarappa, Sriman Narayan,
and Dharampal wanted independent India's development to give
priority to agriculture and small scale industry.
How significant are the economic ideas put forward by

Gandhiji in the modern world?
Amartya Sen is an Indian economist, who received the Nobel

Prize for Economics in 1998. His major works covered vast
areas like welfare economics, economic inequality, and
development.
He pointed out the flaws in determining the poverty line and
concentrated his studies on povery, inequality, and famine.
We have discussed the contributions made by some leading
Indian economists during the various stages of development of
Amartys Sen Economics. Such thoughts influence the economic policy
(1933-)
formulation of the country.
You have come across certain famous personalities who

have made significant impact on Indian economic think-
ing. Use the Internet to collect information on the indi-
viduals who have made significant contributions to the
field of Economics and prepare a magazine.

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Standard VIII
Complete the following chart
Prevention of income loss Welfare Economics

and effective economic
performance.
Chanakya .........................
Indian Economic
Thinkers
Dadabhai Naoroji .........................
.................................... Trusteeship
Economics is a constantly growing area of study. Its study

enables us to find solutions to socio-economic problems and to
understand the emerging world economic conditions.
The basic economic problems are what, how, and for

whom to produce.
The study of Economics is very significant as it studies
not only the production, distribution, and consumption
of wealth, but also the human resources.

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Social Science
Economics is defined differently during different

periods.
India's contribution to Economics is significant.
Thoughts in Economics
Production, Economists
Distribution,
Consumption
Basic European Indian

Problems Economic Economic
Thinkers Thinkers
For Adam Smith, Chanakya,

What? How? Whom? Karl Marx, Dadabhai Naoroji,
Alfred Marshall, Ramesh Chandra Dutt ,
Lionel Robbins, Gandhiji,
Paul A Samuelson Amartya Sen.
The learner :
explains the basic economic problems
explains the scope and significance of the study of
Economics.

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Standard VIII
analyses the approach and thoughts of European

economists.
analyses the difference in the definitions of Economics
during different periods.
realizes the significance of Gandhian economic thought in
the present world.
List any five activities related to production.

Which are the four major factors of production?
Evaluate the significance of the principle of Laissez Faire
in the modern world.
The various definitions of Economics reflect the socio-
economic conditions prevalent at that time. Evaluate the
statement.
'India of my dreams is a self sufficient village economy'.
Evaluate the significance of Gandhian thought in the present
day India based on this statement.
Which are the basic economic problems?
Explain the importance of the study of Economics.
Prepare an album on European and Indian economic

thinkers.

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Social Science

Improvement
Can explain the basic economic problems
Can distinguish between the various European
thinkers and their ideas.
Can clarify the changes in the definitions of
Economics over the years.
Can identify and present the contributions of
India to Economics.
Can analyse the significance of Gandhian
Economics in the current context.
Can analyse the scope and significance of
Economics.

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Social Science

State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT, Kerala)

State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)

Questions for assessing the progress

Significant learning outcomes

They were the pictures drawn by the

Boar (Altamira-Spain) Bison (Chauvet -France )

Different colours were used in the cave paintings. The colours

'Cave paintings are a source of information about the

8 EARLY HUMAN LIFE

Residue of cooked food, ashes, bones and skulls of animals,

The Palaeolithic humans hunted collectively. The stronger among

What information about the Palaeolithic human life is

Can the Palaeolithic Age be termed as 'the age of hunters'?

EARLY HUMAN LIFE 9

There are several pieces of evidence for the technological

Musical instrument made of bone

The fields in which the Palaeolithic man attained progress

10 EARLY HUMAN LIFE

Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is

Palaeolithic sites in India

EARLY HUMAN LIFE 11

Why is the Mesolithic Age called Microlithic

What could have been the uses of these tools?

Hunting became extensive in the Mesolithic Age. As a result

12 EARLY HUMAN LIFE

From the given figure, identify the

Compare the human life in the

EARLY HUMAN LIFE 13

In the Neolithic Age, human beings began to rear animals for

Cave paintings - Edakkal Cave

Have you heard of the Edakkal caves? Where is it located?

14 EARLY HUMAN LIFE

Why is the beginning of cultivation regarded as a landmark

From the picture given below, identify the technological

EARLY HUMAN LIFE 15

The lake villages in Switzerland are

The transformation that began in the Mesolithic age

Jarmo in northern Iraq is an important site

16 EARLY HUMAN LIFE

Takkalakota Maski Nagarjunakonda

Neolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent

Find out the changes that occurred

Palaeolithic Age Neolithic Age

EARLY HUMAN LIFE 17

There are several places in the

Chalcolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent

18 EARLY HUMAN LIFE

Mehrgarh in Baluchistan is a major Chalcolithic site in the

Which are the fields the Chalcolithic human

Early man used tools made of stones. As needs increased, they

The age in which man used stone tools and weapons is

EARLY HUMAN LIFE 19

Palaeolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age Chalcolithic Age

20 EARLY HUMAN LIFE

Can the caves be regarded as centres of human

Collect the objects from your locality that can be sources

EARLY HUMAN LIFE 21

Completely Partially Need

22 EARLY HUMAN LIFE