Coordination and Special Materials Chemistry

Elective I or II or IV: WS 2007/8 (Lecture)

H.J. Deiseroth
Coordination and special materials Chemistry
Recommended Textbooks
 How did the study of coordination compounds start?

The coordination chemistry was pioneered by Nobel

Prize winner Alfred Werner (1866-1919). He received
the Nobel Prize in 1913 for his coordination theory of
transition metal-amine complexes.

Werner studied the metal-ammine complexes such as [Co(NH3)6Cl3] and

recognized the existence of several forms of „cobalt-ammonia chloride“. These
compounds have different colour and other characteristics. The chemical formula
has three chloride ions per mole, but the number of chloride ions that precipitate
with Ag+ ions per formula is not always three. He thought only ionised chloride
ions will form a precipitate with silver ions. In the following table, the number
below the ionised Cl- is the number of ionised chloride ions per formula. To
distinguish ionised chloride from the coordinated chloride, Werner formulated the
Complex formula and explained the structure of the cobalt complexes.
 How did the study of coordination compounds start?
Proposed Structures of Cobalt Ammine Complexes from the Number of
Ionized Chloride ions

CoCl3 6NH3:Yellow [Co(NH3)6]Cl3

CoCl3 5NH3 Purple[Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl2
CoCl3 4NH3 Green trans-[Co(NH3)4Cl2]Cl
CoCl3 4NH3 Violet cis-[Co(NH3)4Cl2]Cl

The structures of the complexes were proposed based on a coordination

sphere of 6. The 6 ligands can be ammonia molecules or chloride ions. Two
different structures were proposed for the last two compounds, the trans
compound has two chloride ions on opposite vertices of an octahedron,
whereas the two chloride ions are adjacent to each other in the cis
compound. The cis and trans compounds are known as geometric isomers.
Isomerism is a very common feature of coordination compounds and will be
discussed in more detail later.
 Coordination and special materials Chemistry

Coordination chemistry is the chemistry of compounds formed between metal

atoms/ions and other neutral or negatively charged molecules

complex compounds ⇔ coordination compounds.

ligand (donor
group) central atom

coordination
number (CN = 6)

Hexa-methyl-zirconate (IV)
(CH3)- (!)
Isomers: Compounds with the same chemical formula but different structures.

Different types of isomerism: linkage isomerism, hydrate isomerism, cis-trans

isomerism, coordination isomerism etc. (see seminar talk)
 Naming of coordination compounds

- The names of complexes start with the ligands (in alphabetical order), the
anionic ones first , followed by neutral ligands, the central atom and the
oxidation state (Roman numerals).
- If the complex is negative, the name ends with "ate".
- names of anionic ligands end with „o“ : chloro-, oxo-, fluoro-, cyano.
- neutral ones without specific ending: (exception: H2O: aqua, NH3: ammine)
C5H5N, pyridine, NH2CH2CH2NH2, ethylenediamine, C5H4N-C5H4N, dipyridyl,
P(C6H5)3: triphenylphosphine, CO: carbonyl, CS: thiocarbonyl,

[Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl2: Chloro-penta-ammine-cobalt(III)chloride
[Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl: Dichloro-tetra-aqua-chromium(III)chloride
K[PtCl3NH3]: Potassium-tri-chloro-ammine-platinate(II)
PtCl2(NH3)2: Di-chloro-diammine-platinum(II)
[Co(en)3]Cl3: Tris(ethylenediamine)-cobalt(III)chloride
Ni(PF3)4: Tetrakis(phosphorus(III)fluoride)-nickel(0)
or Tetrakis(phosphorus-tri-fluoride)-nickel(0)
simple ligands: di- tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa- ...
complex ligands: bis-, tris-, tetrakis- ...
Symmetry Elements, Symmetry Operations, Point Groups
 Coordination compounds with CN = 2 (linear)

CN = 2 is very common for complex ions and molecules of

Cu(I), Au(I), Ag(I) and Hg(II)

CN = 3 is very rare among normal coordination compounds of d-metals

Coordination compounds with CN = 4 (tetrahedral)
Coordination compounds with CN = 4 (square planar)

Preferred coordination of d8 central atoms !!

Coordination compounds with CN = 5 (Square pyramidal)
(e.g. active center of myoglobin and haemoglobin)

Imidazol
Coordination compounds with CN = 5 (trigonal bipyramidal)
Pseudorotation (CN = 5): square pyramidal ↔ trigonal pyramidal
Coordination compounds with CN = 6 (octahedralal)

Types of distortions of octahedra

Coordination compounds with CN = 6 (trigonal prismatic)
 Constitution and Coordination Number, higher CN‘s

The most important factors that determine the constitution and

coordination number of a complex are:

- size of the central atom - steric interactions between ligands

- electronic interactions

Higher coordination numbers (CN‘s) are favoured:

- in complexes with atoms (and ions) of the periods 5 and 6

- on the left of a row of the d-block where atoms are relatively large and have
a small number of d-electrons
- for central atoms with a high oxidation number and thus a mall number of
remaining d-electrons (e.g. [Mo(CN)8]4-
 Coordination compounds with CN = 7 („capped“)

- rare with 3d elements but more common with 4d and 5d metals

CN = 7: pentagonal bipyramid, (mono-) capped trigonal prism, capped octahedron

e.g. [ZrF7]3-, [ReOCl6]2-, [UO2(OH2)5]2+ ...
 Coordination compounds with CN = 8

CN = 8:
square antiprism („archimedian“ antiprism), trigonal dodecahedron, cube
 Coordination compounds with CN = 9 („capped trigonal prism“)

CN = 9: common with Re (e.g. [ReH9]2-) and f-block elements (e.g. [Nd(OH2)9]3+)

CN > 9: important only for complexes with heavy metal central atoms
(e.g. f-elements)
 Exercises

1 Preferably without using reference material, write out the 3d elements in their
arrangement in the periodic table. lndicate the metal ions that commonly form tetrahedral
complexes of formula [MX4]2- where X is a halide ion.

2 (a) On a chart of the d-block elements in their periodic table arrangement, identify the
elements and associated oxidation numbers that form square-planar complexes. (b) Give
formulas for three examples of square-planar complexes.

3 (a) Sketch the two structures that describe most six-coordinate complexes. (b) Which
one of these is rare? (c) Give formulas for three different d-metal complexes that have
the more common six-coordinate structure.

4 Name and draw structures of the following complexes: (a) [Ni(CO)4]; (b) [Ni(CN)4)2- (c)
[CoCl4]2- (d) [Ni(NH3)6]2+.

5 Draw the structures of representative complexes that contain the ligands (a) en, (b) ox2-
, (c) phen, and (d) edta4-

6 Draw the structure of (a) a typical square-planar four-coordinate complex; (b) a typical
trigonal prismatic six-coordinate complex; (c) a typical complex of coordination number 2.
Name each complex.

7 Give formulas for (a) pentaamminechlorocobalt(lll) chloride, (b) hexaaquairon(3+)

nitrate; (c) cis-dichlorobis(ethylenediamine)ruthenium(ll); (d) μ-
hydroxobis[pentaamminechromium(lll)] chloride.
Isomerism: cis-trans isomerism

mer: meridional
fac: facial
 Isomerism and Chirality (important terms)

- A chiral molecule is not superimposable on its own mirror image

- Optical isomerism: Rotation of the plane of polarized light shown by optical
isomers
- Enantiomeric pair (“racemate”): Two mirror-image isomers in one sample
- Diastereomers: Molecules with more than one center of chirality (e.g.
organic sugar molecules)
Criteria for absence of chirality: 1. mirror plane through central atom (S1), 2. inversion
centre (S2), 3. no improper rotation

S4
Isomerism and Chirality
 Exercises
8 Name the octahedral complex ions (a) cis-[CrCl2(NH3)4]+, (b) trans-[Cr(NCS)4(NH3)2]-, and (c)
[Co(C204)(en)2)+. Is the oxalato complex cis or trans?

9 Draw all possible isomers of (a) octahedral [RuCl2(NH3)4], (b) square-planar [lrH(CO)(PR3)2], (c)
tetrahedral [CoCl3(0H2)]-, (d) octahedral [lrCl3(PEt3)3], and (c) octahedral [CoCl2(en)(NH3)2]+.

10 The compound Na2lrCl5 reacts with triphenylphosphine in diethylene glycol under an atmosphere
of CO to give trans-[lrCl(CO)(PPh3)2], known as Vaska's compound. Excess CO produces a five-
coordinate species and treatment with NaBH4 in ethanol gives [lrH(CO)2(PPh3)2]. Draw and name
the three complexes.

11 Which of the following complexes are chiral? (a) [Cr(ox)3]3-, (b) cis-[PtCl2(en)], (c} cis-
(RhCl2(NH3)4] , (d) [Ru(bipy)3] , (e) [Co(edta)] , (f) fac-[Co(N02)3(dien)], (g) mer-[Co(N02)3(dien).
+ 2+ -

Draw the enantiomers of the complexes identified as chiral and identify the plane of symmetry in
the structures of the achiral complexes.

12 One pink solid has the formula CoCl3 5NH3 H2O. A solution of this salt is also pink and rapidly
gives 3 mol AgCI on titration with silver nitrate solution. When the pink solid is heated, it loses 1
mol H20 to give a purple solid with the same ratio at NH3:Cl:Co. The purple solid releases two of its
chlorides rapidly; then, on dissolution and after titration with AgNO3, releases one of its chlorides
slowly. Deduce the structures of the two octahedral complexes and draw and name them.

13 The hydrated chromium chloride that is available commercially has the overall composition CrCl3
6H2O. On boiling a solution, it becomes violet and has a molar electrical conductivity similar to that
of [Co(NH3)6]Cl3. In contrast, CrCl3.5H20 is green and has a lower molar conductivity in solution. If
a dilute acidified solution of the green complex is allowed to stand for several hours, it turns violet
Interpret these observations with structural diagrams.
Basic Crystal Field Theory: tetrahedral and octahedral field

All
atoms/molecules
are treated as
electrical point
charges

t2 eg

e t2g
 Basic Crystal Field Theory: splitting of energy levels
(spectrochemical series)

The influence of different ligands on the size of Δ = 10Dq

Increasing strength of the ligand field →

I- < S2- < Cl- < NO3- < F- < H2O < NH3 < en < NO2- < CN- < CO

The strength of the ligand field varies with:

a) the size and chemical properties of the ligand (no simple
relation !)
b) the oxidation number of the central atom (the higher the
oxidation number the stronger the ligand field)
 Basic Crystal Field Theory: optical spectrum and ligand field

≈ 500 nm (red) – absorption in the blue green region, complex has complementary color

20300 cm-1 → Δo = Δo

[Ti(H2O)6]3+
Ti3+: (Ar)d1, octahedral complex
 Basic Crystal Field Theory: Weak Field – Strong Field

Spin pairing energy versus ligand field splitting

octahedral complex
weak field strong field

d6 high spin d6 low spin

(paramagnetism) (diamagnetism)

high spin: maximum number of unpaired electrons

low spin: minimum number of unpaired electrons

→ tetrahedral: high spin (preferably) octahedral: low spin (preferably)

 Basic Crystal Field Theory: Ligand field stabilization energies
(LFSE)

LFSE: Energetic stabilization relative to

a field with spherical symmetry
Tetrahedral case:
Tetrahedral LFSE = (-0.6 × x(e) + 0.4 × y(t2)) × ΔT Octahedral

Octahedral case:
LFSE = (-0.4×x(t2g) + 0.6 × y(eg)) × ΔO
t2 eg
x, y: number of electrons in the respective
electronic states (eg or t2g)

e
t2g
Basic Crystal Field Theory: Ligand field stabilization energies
(LFSE)
Basic Crystal Field Theory: Ligand field stabilization energies
(LFSE) – Ionic radii

low spin high spin

Basic Crystal Field Theory: Ligand field stabilization energies
(LFSE) – Hydration enthalpy of M2+ ions
Yellow points: after subtraction of LFSE from experimental value

Hydration enthalpy of M2+

 Magnetism of coordination compounds: magnetic (dipole) moments
In general there are two components of the resulting magnetic moment of an atom (ion):

⇒ orbital angular momentum (μO) ⇒ spin momentum (μS)

- In most coordination compounds with 3d elements as central atoms the orbital angular
momentum can be neglected (technical term: “quenched”).
- typical for 3d complexes with one central atom: spin only magnetism (μS)

Definition of μS:

μO μS = μB × 2 × (S(S+1))1/2
μS
μB = 9,27× 10-24 Am2 (Bohr magneton,
smallest quantity of a magnetic moment)

S = ½ × n (Total spin quantum number

n: number of unpaired electrons)

μS
Magnetism of coordination compounds: Gouy-balance

paramagnetic
central atom with unpaired valence
sample electrons ⇒ paramagnetism

central atom with paired valence electrons

diamagnetic
sample only ⇒ diamagnetism
 Magnetism of coordination compounds: SQUID

SQUID: Superconducting Quantum Interference Device

Sophisticated physical background based on

the quantization of magnetic flux (one or
two weak links, „Josephson contacts“) in a
coil superconducting wire (loop) that allow the
tunneling of „Cooper pairs“.
Special aspects of the electronic structure of complexes with CN 4

1. Tetrahedral coordination

- inverse splitting (compared to

octahedral case)

- only the weak field case is of

importance ( ⇒ high spin magnetism)

2. Tetragonal and square planar coordination ⇒ (Jahn-Teller-effect)

Special aspects of the electronic structure of complexes with CN 4

Ni2+, Pd2+, Pt2+, Rh+ ...

d4 d9 d7 d8

square planar
dynamic Jahn-Teller effect
temperature driven
tetragonally elongated
intramolecular change of the
elongation direction
 Exercises
1. Determine the configuration (in the form t2gx egy or ex ty, as appropiate), the number of
unpaired electrons and the ligand field stabilization energy (LFSE) as a multiple of Δoct or Δtet
for each of the following complexes: [Co(NH3)6]3+, [Fe(H2O)6]2+, [Fe(CN)6]3-, [W(CO)6] and
[FeCl4]2-. Estimate the spin only contribution to the magnetic moment in each complex.
2. Solutions of the complexes [Co(NH3)6]2+, [Co(H2O)6]2+ (both Oh) and [CoCl4]2- (Td) are colored.
One is pink, another yellow and the third is blue. Considering the spectrochemical series and
the relative magnitudes of Δtet and Δoct assign each color to one of the complexes.
3. For each of the following pairs of complexes identify the one that has the larger LFSE:

[Cr(H2O)6]2+ - [Mn(H2O)6]2+
[Mn(H2O)6]2+ - [Fe(H2O)6]3+
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ - [Fe(CN)6]3-

4. Estimate the spin only contribution to the magnet moments for each of the complexes in 1.
 Ligand-field theory

Crystal field theory has problems to explain why the ligand field splitting for some
uncharged molecules (e.g. CO) is unusually large and is moderate for others (e.g. NH3).
CFT is unable to explain spectra of more complex coordination compounds.

⇒ solution: the interaction between ligands and central atom has to be discussed in
terms of atomic and molecular orbitals and not only in terms of point charges (as in
crystal field theory)

⇒ σ- and π-bonding contributions have to be analyzed separately

1. Analyze the symmetry properties of groups of atomic orbitals (separate for

ligands and central atoms) ⇒ symmetry adapted orbitals

2. Overlap atomic orbitals of similar symmetry to form molecular orbitals

(necessary: basic knowledge in group theory and basic MO-theory )

Central atom (3d-element) symmetry label Degeneracy

orbital
s a1g 1
px, py, pz t1u 3
dxy, dxz, dyz t2g 3
dx2-y2, dz2 eg 2
Ligand-field theory: symmetry-adapted groups of orbitals: σ-bonding only

ligands: only s-orbitals but no

p-orbitals are taken into
account

central atom: s-, p-

and d-Orbitals are
taken into account
Ligand-field theory: summary σ- and π- acceptor effects

e-
e-

σ-donor π-acceptor

participating orbitals: participating orbitals:

dz2 and dx2-y2 dxz, dxy, dyz
eg-symmetry orbitals t2g-symmetry orbitals
 Ligand-field theory: σ-donor ligands („Lewis basicity“)
E E
σ-acceptor ligand: less important

eg eg ΔO
ΔO ΔO ΔO eg

t2g t2g

eg

bad σ-donor: good σ-donor:

- low energy donor orbitals (eg), - high energy donor orbitals (eg),
bad orbital overlap good orbital overlap
- small inter-orbital exchange due to - strong inter-orbital-exchange
large size differences between M due to small size differences
and L between M and L
- no change of Δo, - increase of Δo,
 Ligand-field theory: π-donor/acceptor ligands
E E

t2g, π∗

eg ΔO eg
ΔO ΔO ΔO

t2g t2g
t2g, π π

good π-donor: good π-acceptor:

- decrease of Δo, - increase of Δo,
 Ligand-field theory: π-donor and –acceptor effect

π -donor ligand: completely filled π -acceptor ligand: incompletely filled

low-energy π-orbitals, t2g-π- low-energy π*-orbitals, t2g-π-overlap
overlap preferred: Δo reduced preferred: Δo increased
 Ligand-field theory: carbonyl complexes

Synergistic bonding in carbonyl complexes with transition metals:

the CO-molecule is a σ-donor and a π-acceptor at the same time

π-acceptor
σ-donor
 Ligand-field theory: phosphines, σ-donors and π-acceptors

The bonding of phosphines PR3 to transition metal atoms is basically similar to

that of CO; dependent on the respective substituents σ-donor and π-
acceptor-strength, however, are different

σ-donor-effect: lone pair at phosphorous atom

π-acceptor-effect: empty p- (and d-)orbitals at the P-atom

electron rich phosphines are good

σ-donors and bad π-acceptors
whereas for electron poor ones the
inverse statement holds.
order of „Lewis basicity“:
e.g.: PMe3 > P(OMe)3 > PF3

σ-/π-donor: Lewis base

σ-/π-acceptor: Lewis acid
Ligand-field theory: dihydrogen complexes

examples

σ-donor and π-
acceptor effect
 Electronic Spectra - Spectroscopy

Typical example: The spectrum of the d3 complex [Cr(NH3)6]3+

ligand-field
transitions (d-d)

electronically
„forbidden“ transition

Charge Transfer
transition (CT)
electronic transition from a
metal π-Orbital to a ligand
π*-Orbital or vice versa.
(high intensity, strongly
influenced by the type of
solvent)
 Charge-Transfer transitions

Charge-transfer-transitions (CT) show up in electronic spectra by strong transitions in

the visible region and are characterized by intense colour (high extinction)

- metal-to-ligand transitions: from a metal d-Orbital to a ligand π*-orbital: preferably

observed for ligands with low-lying π*-orbitals (e.g. aromatic ligands with donor N-
atoms like 2,2‘ bipyridine or 1,10 phenanthroline) and metal atoms with low oxidation
number thus relatively high valence states

tris(2,2‘-bipyridyl)ruthenium(II)

- ligand-to-metal transitions: from a ligand π-orbital (relatively high in energy: e.g.

lone pairs of S2-, O2-) to an empty and low lying d orbital of the central metal atom
(high oxidation number): e.g. MnO41-, CrO42-, VO43- etc.
 Coordination Chemistry: Spectroscopy - microstates

- Two sets of energetically

different excited microstates
for the excitation of one
electron in [Cr(H2O)6]3+ (d3)
- each threefold degenerate
- electron-electron repulsion is
responsible for different
excitation energies

Multiplicity (M) of a microstate: M = 2S +1 (S: total spin moment)

e.g. for above excitet states (and the ground state) holds:
S = 3 x ½ = 3/2
M = 2x(3/2)+1 = 4 (Quartett-term)
Importance of Multiplicity: M of ground and excited state is similar →
allowed (strong) excitations !
Coordination Chemistry: Spectroscopy - microstates

- Three sets of energetically different

2e- excited microstates for the excitation of
one or two electrons in [Ni(H2O)6]2+ (d8)
- each threefold degenerate
- Triplett terms, multiplicity unchanged with
respect to ground state
- analysis of spectra in this way would be
1e- very time consuming

- Selection rules distinguish between allowed

and forbidden electronic transitions. They
are based on the magnitude of the transition
dipole moment, which is a measure for the
coupling strength of the electronic system of
the complex molecule to the external field
1e- (special case: Laporte rules, transitions
between even parity states are forbidden).
 Coordination Chemistry: Tanabe-Sugano-diagram

Tanabe-Sugano-diagram for a d2
ground state A complete T.S. diagram contains all
possible electronic excitations
(including the forbidden ones)
y-axis: Excitation energy in units of B
(B. typical energy for an electron-
electron repulsion = Racah-parameter
~ 1000 cm-1)
two electron x-axis: crystal field splitting energy
excitation (Δo, ΔT) in units of B
A, (E), T are symmetry symbols (group
theory) that denote the degree of
degeneration (A: non degenerate, E:
twofold degenerate, T: threefold
one electron degenerate
excitation (3): multiplicity

ground state
(g): gerade symmetry information

weak field strong field

 Coordination Chemistry: Tanabe-Sugano-diagram

Tanabe-Sugano-diagram for a d2
ground state

two electron
excitation

one electron
excitation

ground state

weak field strong field

 Coordination Chemistry: Russel-Saunders and jj-coupling

A more detailed treatment of the physical background is based on a sophisticated

combined treatment of the total orbital momentum (L), total spin momentum (S), total
momentum (J) and the spin multiplicity (M).

- definitions:
- L = Σ l n; S = Σ sn; J = L + S, M = 2S + 1

(special: L = 0→S, L = 1→P L = 2→D L = 3→F)

- Symbol: ML (e.g. 3P2, 3F4)

J
- J = L + S refers to a Russel-Saunders-coupling (coupling of the total moments,
preferably 3d elements)
- the spectra of heavier elements must be treated on the basis of jj-coupling (coupling
of the individual moments: jn = ln + sn → J = Σjn)
 Coordination Chemistry: Basic aspects of reactivity in solutions

Inert Complexes: Kinetically stable (high activation energy); slow exchange of ligands.
- e.g. strong field d3 and d6 complexes of Cr3+ and Co3+

Labile Complexes: Kinetically unstable (low activation energy) rapid exchange of ligands.
- e.g. most aquo complexes with s-block elements ([Na(H2O)6]+ ..) except those
ones with Be2+ or Mg2+, complex molecules with low oxidation number d10 ions (Zn2+ ...)

slow fast ligand exchange

 Coordination Chemistry: Basic aspects of reactivity

- Reaction mechanism: model for a sequence of reaction steps with special emphasis on
the activated state (transition state) and the rate determining step
- Rate law: differential equation for the rate of the change of molar concentrations of
reactands (educts) and products
- Rate determining step: slowest step in the sequence of reactions; determines in a
first approximation the total reaction rate.

Different types of reaction mechanisms are distinguished by the activated state:

Dissociative: activated state has lower coordination number due to dissociation of the leaving group
Associative: activated state has a higher coordination number due to bonding of the incoming group

Dissociative Interchange Associative

W(CO)6 + PPh3 → W(CO)5 PPh3 + CO [Ni(CN)4]2- + (14CN)- → [Ni (14CN)(CN)3]2- + CN-

 Coordination Chemistry: Basic aspects of reactivity

Dissociative Interchange Associative

Rate determining step: dissociation Rate determining step: association

of X (outgoing group) is fast of Y (incoming group) is slow

X-M + Y ↔ X,M,Y → X + MY X-M + Y ↔ X- M-Y → X + MY

fast slow slow fast

long lifetime of the intermediate short lifetime of the intermediate

More detailed analyses require measurements of the „reaction order“(first,

second etc.) and considerations about possible molecular mechanisms of the
sequence of reactions.
 Coordination Chemistry: square planar complexes - the „trans“ effect

Mechanism for the substitution of a ligand X by a nucleophilic reactand Y in a square

planar complex

the transition state

(activated complex) is
approximately trigonal
bipyramidal

A strong σ-donor or π-acceptor ligand (T) greatly influences the substitution of a

ligand that lies in the trans-position by favouring its dissociation

Tentative sequence of the trans-effect for different ions (molecules):

CN- > CO > PR3 > H- > SCN- > I- > Br- > Cl- > NH3 > OH- > H2O

different synthetic
routes to cis- or trans-
PtCl2(NH3)2 utilizing the
trans-effect
 Coordination Chemistry: Substitution in octahedral complexes
Interchange

Co(NH3)5(H2O),Br-
„encounter complex“
CN 7

- several models for possible mechanisms: e.g. Eigen-Wilkins mechanism assuming the
formation of an „encounter complex“ (MX6);Y in a pre-equilibrium step with products
formed by subsequent rate determining steps

- reaction mechanism of type interchange

- incoming or leaving group determines whether interchange with an associative or

dissociative rate determining step

- in general: analysis of thermodynamic data (e.g. activation-energy/entropy/volume)

offers insight into possible reaction mechanisms
 Substitution in octahedral complexes: retention and isomerization
(no encounter complex assumed)

Retention (no pseudorotation)

Isomerization (pseudorotation)

- reaction via a square-pyramidal complex results in retention of the original geometry

(top)
- reaction via a trigonal bipyramidal complex can lead to isomerization (bottom)
 Isomerization via trigonal bipyramidal activated complex
(things can be more complicated !)

Isomerization in the activated complex (change of axial and equatorial ligands)

can occur by a „twist“ through a square pyramidal conformation
(pseudorotation)
Inner and Outer sphere mechanism: redox reactions → electron
transfer
 Redox reactions - inner sphere mechanism

Inner sphere mechanism: Upon an electron transfer reaction occurring between two
complex molecules an activated complex is formed in which the two participating
molecules share a common ligand which serves as a bridge for the electron transfer.

r(Cr2+) = 73 pm, r(Co3+) = 61 pm, r(Cr3+) = 61 pm, r(Co2+) = 75 pm

- [Cr(H2O)6]2+ : labile against substitution

- Inner sphere mechanism,
[Cr(H2O)6]2+ + [Co(NH3)5Cl]2+ → [Cr(H2O)5Cl]2+ + [Co(NH3)5(H2O)]2+

- Henry Taube: Nobel prize 1983

labile: „rapid“ exchange of ligands

inert: „very slow“ exchange of ligands
(although the molecule may be
thermodynamically instable)
 Redox reactions - outer sphere mechanism

Outer sphere mechanism: The electron transfer is achieved via a cascade of

subsequent reactions without sharing a common ligand; a strong change of interatomic
distances between ligands and central atom is characteristic
r(Fe2+) = 78 pm,
r(Fe3+) = 65 pm
[Fe*(H2O)6] + [Fe(H2O)6] → [Fe*(H2O)6] + [Fe(H2O)6]
2+ 3+ 3+ 2+

both Fe-O-bonds of equal length

ΔGactivat. shorten

lengthen
educt

product
 Redox reactions – Marcus equation
Special case: similar central atoms According to Marcus‘ ideas at least two factors
determine the rate of electron transfer in an outer
sphere mechanism:

a) the shape of the potential curves of the reactands

b) the magnitude of the standard reaction Gibbs free

energy for the total reaction (the more negative it is
the lower the activation energy of the reaction)

Marcus Equation for the rate constant k of the

overall reaction:
k2 ∼ k1k2K
General case: different central atoms
k1 and k2 are the two rate constants for the exchange
reactions and K is the equilibrium constant for the
overall reaction

e.g. LnFe2+ + LmIr4+ ⇔ LnFe3+ + LmIr3+ (k, K)

LnFe2+ + LnFe*3+ ⇔ LnFe3+ + LnFe*2+ (k1)

LmIr4+ + LmIr*3+ ⇔ LmIr3+ + LmIr*4+ (k2)
„Marcus-Cross-Relation“ R.A. Marcus: NP 1992
 Oxidative addition and reductive elimination

- An example of oxidative addition is the reaction of Vaska's complex, trans-

IrCl(CO)[P(C6H5)3]2, with hydrogen.

- In this transformation, the metal oxidation state changes from Ir(I) to

Ir(III) because the product is described as Ir3+ bound to three anions: Cl-,
and two hydride, H-, ligands.

- The metal complex initially has 16 valence electrons and a coordination

number of four. After the addition of hydrogen, the complex has 18
electrons and a coordination number of six.
 Oxidative addition and reductive elimination

Oxidative addition and reductive elimination are two important classes of reactions in
organometallic chemistry. Their relationship is shown below where y represents the
number of ligands on the metal and n is the oxidation state of the metal.

- In oxidative addition, a metal complex with vacant coordination sites and a relatively low
oxidation state is oxidized by the insertion of the metal into a covalent bond (X-Y).

- Both the formal oxidation state of the metal, n, and the electron count of the
complex increase by two.

- Oxidative additions are most commonly seen with H-H and carbon(sp3)-halogen bonds.
 Oxidative addition and reductive elimination

- The reverse of oxidative addition is reductive elimination. In this case

hydrogen gas is lost and the metal complex is reduced.

- Reductive elimination is favored when the newly formed X-Y (H-H) bond of
the outgoing group is strong.

- For reductive elimination to occur the two groups (X and Y) should be

adjacent to each other in the metal's coordination sphere.
Catalysis and Catalysts: General aspects

A catalyst increases the rate

of a chemical process by
offering new pathways with
lower Gibbs energies of
activation

Homogeneous catalysis: The

catalyst is present in the same
phase as the reactants

Heterogeneous catalysis:
Catalyst and reactants belong
to different phases.
Catalysis and Catalysts: General aspects

History of Catalysis
Process Discovery
Alcoholic fermentation

Acetic Acid production

Starch → Glucose

Ethanol → Ethene

Decomposition of NH3

Production of Sulfuric Acid

Oxidation of Methane
Catalysis and Catalysts: General aspects
 Catalytic cycle based on a cobalt-carbonyl-complex

Homogeneous catalysis: the oxidation of

allylalcohol to propionaldehyde:
CH2=CH-CH2OH → CH3-CH2-CHO

catalyst assisted migration of two H-atoms

H-migration

- Insertion
 Hydrogenation of alkenes: with Wilkinson‘s catalyt
H2C=CHR + H2 → H3C-CH2R
ΔG ~ -100 kJ mol-1 Wilkinson‘s catalyst, L = PPh3
(very slow without catalyst) 16 e-

Oxidative
addition
reductive
elimination

18 e- Dihydrydo complex

dissociative,
coordatively
unsaturated
CN = 5 ! coordinatively
unsaturated
CN = 5 !

H-migration
insertion

side-on coordination
 Hydrocarbonylation (-formylation)

alkene → aldehyde with one additional C:

CH3-CH-CH=CH2 + CO + H2→ CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CHO

elimination of CO 17 e-: coordinatively

unsaturated complex

insertion - migration

insertion of

insertion of CO

coordinatively
unsaturated complex
 Coordination Chemistry: Monsanto process

Just as a metal oxidatively inserts itself into a H-H bond, it can also
oxidatively add to C-H bonds. This process is called C-H bond activation
and is an active research area because of its potential value in converting
petroleum-derived hydrocarbons into more complex products.
Oxidative addition and reductive elimination are seen in many catalytic
cycles such as the monsanto process and alkene hydrogenation using
Wilkinson's catalyst.

„Monsanto“-process: formation of acetic acid from

methanol using a Rh-iodide complex
 Monsanto process

CH3OH + CO → CH3COOH 18e-

Rh2+

Oxidative addition CH3 migration

Pre-reaction: solvent molecule

CH3OH + HI → CH3I + H2O

CH3COI + H2O → CH3COOH + HI

reductive elimination CO addition

(replacing sol.)
 Alkene polymerisation (Ziegler-Natta-process)

n CH2=CH2 → -(CH2-CH2)n-
empty site

Prereaction: catalyst formation:

TiCl4 + AlEt3 → fine powder (?)

from AlEt3

attached to
particle surface

migration-insertion

chain termination: β-elimination

Alkene polymerisation (Ziegler-Natta-process)
(technical realization)
Alkene polymerisation: current and future catalysts replacing
Ziegler-Natta
 Special aspects of coordination compounds

16 e and 18 e complexes tend to be more stable than others.

But: how to count electrons in coordination compounds ?

a) Assume a reasonable charge for the central atom and for the
ligands (Lewis formula !) → external charge of the complex molecule.
b) Consider how many electrons each ligand will donate and add this
number to the number of electrons at the (charged?) central atom
→ number of valence electrons at the central atom.

e.g.
1.) [Fe(CN)6]4-: Fe2+ (6e), CN- (2e-donor), 6e + 6x2e = 18e
2.) [Fe(CN)6]3-: Fe3+ (5e), CN- 2e-donor, 5e + 6x2e = 17e
3.) [IrBr2(CH3)(CO)(PPh3)2]: Ir3+ (6e), Br-, CH3-, CO, PPh3 (all 2e-donors), 6e + 6x2 = 18e
4.) [Cr(η5C5H5)(η6C6H6)]: Cp1-(6e-donor), C6H6 (6e-donor), Cr1+ (5e): 5e + 2x6e = 17e
5.) [Mn(CO)5]-: Mn(7e), CO: neutral 2e-donor, 7e + 5x2e + 1e = 18e
Some additional nomenclature
Typical ligands and their electron counts

- ?
 Important ligands and their bonding types

-CO, Phosphines and H2 have already been discussed

- alkyl groups show in most cases σ-interactions (donor or acceptor); in

case of an H-atom at the β-C a β-elimination can occur

β-elimination:

-alkenyl, alkynyl and aryl groups may bond to M atoms in a

similar fashion (η1: monohapto)
 Important ligands and their bonding types
(direct bonding of M to a multiple CC-bond)

- best described as σ-bond from the CC-bond to the M-atom and

a π-backbonding from the metal d-orbitals to the π* orbitals of
the CC-bond

η2: dihapto max. 2e- donation from double bond (alkene)

degree of donation and backdonation depends strongly on the type of ligands

 Important ligands and their bonding types
(Nitrogen N2 as ligand)

- bonding basically similar to isoelectronic CO, but N2 is a weaker

σ-donor and a weaker π-acceptor ligand
- dinitrogen complexes are important as precursors for N2 fixation
from air to replace the Haber-Bosch process in the future
 Important ligands and their bonding types
(benzene)

- assuming three CC-double bonds for a benzene molecule each

one can act as a ligand and the molecule can be regarded as a
tridentate η6 ligand
dibenzene-chromium

δ-backbonding δ

σ
 Important ligands and their bonding types
(the cyclopentadienyl ligand: sandwich or metallocene compounds)

- the bonding of the Cp ligand to the metal atom can interpreted

as a mixture of σ- and π-donation combined with δ-backbonding
components

1σ
 Important ligands and their bonding types
( the variety of metallocene: bent and multi decker )

„triple decker“

bent sandwich
 Important ligands and their bonding types
( the variety of metallocene: clusters and carbonyls )
 Important ligands and their bonding types
( isolobal analogies as helpful tool for the interpretation of chemical bonding)

isolobal analogies allow correlations between seemingly unrelated fragments