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The document discusses different types of structural concrete including plain, reinforced, and prestressed concrete. It also discusses common reinforcement materials such as steel, fiber-reinforced polymers, and fibers. Proper storage and handling of reinforcement materials is important.
E2-1
ACI Education Bulletin E2-00.Copyright © 2000, American Concrete Institute.All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by anymeans, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or mechan-ical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or foruse in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing isobtained from the copyright proprietors. Printed in the United States of America.
The Institute is not responsible for the statements oropinions expressed in its publications. Institute publicationsare not able to nor intended to supplant individual training,responsibility, or judgment of the user, or the supplier of theinformation presented.
CONTENTSPreface, p. E2-2Chapter 1—Introduction, p. E2-2
1.1—Definitions
Chapter 2—Structural concrete: Plain, reinforced, and prestressed, p. E2-3
2.1—Plain concrete2.2—Reinforced concrete2.2.1—Bending and bending stresses in reinforced concretemembers2.2.2—Other reinforcement applications2.3—Prestressed concrete2.3.1—Bending and bending stresses in prestressed concretemembers2.3.2—Advantages of prestressed concrete2.3.3—Pretensioned and post-tensioned concrete2.4—Other prestressing applications
Chapter 3—Reinforcing materials, p. E2-6
3.1—Steel reinforcement3.1.1—Deformed steel bars3.1.2—Threaded steel bars3.1.3—Welded wire fabric3.2—Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars3.2.1—FRP materials3.3—Fiber reinforcement3.3.1—Applications3.3.2—Steel fibers3.3.3—Synthetic fibers3.4—Materials for repair and strengthening of structuralconcrete members3.4.1—External steel reinforcement3.4.2—FRP plates, sheets, and jackets
Chapter 4—Prestressing materials, p. E2-12
4.1—Steel4.1.1—Seven-wire strand4.1.2—Wire4.1.3—Bars4.2—FRP4.2.1—Strength4.2.2—Applied loads
Chapter 5—Corrosion-resistant reinforcement,p. E2-14
5.1—Epoxy coating5.2—Galvanizing5.3—Stainless steel5.4—Chemical and mineral corrosion protection systems
REINFORCEMENT FOR CONCRETE—MATERIALS AND APPLICATIONS
ACI Education Bulletin E2-00
(Reapproved 2006)Developed by Committee E-701,Materials for Concrete Construction
Charles K. Nmai, Chairman David M. Suchorski, SecretaryLeonard W. BellTarek S. KhanKenneth B. RearRichard P. Bohan Paul D. KraussRaymundo Rivera-VillarrealDavid A. BurgColin L. LoboJere H. RoseDarrell F. ElliotStella Lucie MarusinPaul J. TikalskyJames ErnzenPatrick L. McDowellMark E. VincentJames A. FarnyGerald R. MurphyChristopher H. WrightJose Pablo GarciaAnthony C. Powers*Kari L. YuersMorris HuffmanRobert C. Zellers
*
Subcommittee Chairman.
E2-2ACI EDUCATION BULLETIN
Chapter 6—Storage and handling, p. E2-14
6.1—Uncoated steel reinforcement6.2—Epoxy-coated steel reinforcement6.3—FRP6.4—Fiber reinforcement
Chapter 7—References, p. E2-15PREFACE
This document is an introductory document on the topic of commonly used materials for reinforcement of concrete. Thisprimer describes the basic properties and uses of these materials.It is targeted at those in the concrete industry not involved indesigning with or specifying these materials. Students,craftsman, inspectors, and contractors may find this a valuableintroduction to a complex topic. The document is not intendedto be a state-of-the-art report, user's guide, or a technicaldiscussion of past and present research findings on the subject.More detailed information is available in ACI CommitteeReports listed in Chapter 7, References.
CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION
Nearly everyone involved in construction knows that rein-forcement is often used in concrete. However, why it is usedand how it is used are not always well understood.This bulletin provides some of the information important tounderstanding why reinforcement is placed in concrete. Mostconcrete used for construction is a combination of concreteand reinforcement that is called reinforced concrete. Steel isthe most common material used as reinforcement, but othermaterials such as fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) are alsoused. The reinforcement must be of the right kind, of the rightamount, and in the right place in order for the concrete struc-ture to meet its requirements for strength and serviceability.In this document, frequent references are made to standardsof the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).These include test methods, definitions, classifications, andspecifications that have been formally adopted by ASTM.New editions of the
ASTM Book of Standards
are issuedannually and all references to these standards in this bulletinrefer to the most recent edition. Other agencies have similar oradditional standards that may be applicable.
1.1—Definitions
Certain terms will be used throughout this bulletin withwhich familiarity is important. A few of the more commonand most frequently used are listed in this section. Precisetechnical definitions may be found in ACI 116R, “Cement andConcrete Terminology.”
bar size number
—
a number used to designate the bar size.Reinforcing bars are manufactured in both InternationalSystem (SI—commonly known as metric—measured in milli-meters), and U.S. customary (in.-lb) sizes. The bar number formetric bar sizes denotes the approximate diameter of the barin millimeters. For example, a No. 13 bar is about 13 mm indiameter (actually 12.7 mm). U.S. customary bar sizes No. 3through No. 8 have similar designations, the bar numberdenoting the approximate diameter in eighths of an inch (forexample, a No. 5 bar is about 5/8 in. in diameter).
bent bar
—a reinforcing bar bent to a prescribed shape,such as a straight bar with a hooked end.
compression
—
a state in which an object is subject to loadsthat tend to crush or shorten it.
compression bar
—a reinforcing bar used to resistcompression forces.
compressive strength
—a measure of the ability of theconcrete to withstand crushing loads.
elastic limit
—the limit to which a material can be stressed(stretched or shortened axially) and still return to its originallength when unloaded. Loads below the elastic limit result inthe material being deformed in proportion to the load. Materialstretched beyond the elastic limit will continue to deformunder a constant, or even declining, load.
fibrillated fibers
—synthetic fibers used to reinforceconcrete that are bundled in a mesh resembling a miniaturefish net.
FRP reinforcement
—
reinforcing bars, wires or strandmade from fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP). (Originally, the“p” in FRP stood for “plastic,” but “polymer” is now thepreferred term to avoid confusion.)
monofilament fibers
—discrete individual fibers used toreinforce concrete.
post-tensioning
—a method of prestressing in which thetendons are tensioned after the concrete is hardened.
prestressed concrete
—Structural concrete in whichinternal stresses (usually compressive stresses) have beenintroduced to reduce potential tensile stresses in the concreteresulting from loads. This introduction of internal stresses isreferred to as
prestressing
and is usually accomplishedthrough the use of tendons that are tensioned or pulled tightprior to being anchored to the concrete.
pretensioning
—a method of prestressing in which thetendons are tensioned before concrete is hardened.
rebar
—an abbreviated term for reinforcing bar.
reinforced concrete
—structural concrete with at least acode-prescribed minimum amount of prestressed or nonpre-stressed reinforcement. Fiber-reinforced concrete is notconsidered
reinforced concrete
according to this definition.
secondary reinforcement
—nonstructural reinforcementsuch as welded wire fabric, fibers, or bars to minimize crack widths that are caused by thermal expansion and contraction,or shrinkage. Secondary reinforcement is reinforcement usedto hold the concrete together after it cracks. Structuralconcrete with only secondary reinforcement is not consideredreinforced concrete.
steel fibers
—
carbon or stainless steel fibers used in fiber-reinforced concrete meeting the requirements of ASTM A 820.
structural concrete
—
all concrete used for structuralpurposes including plain and reinforced concrete.
tendon
—a wire, cable, bar, rod, or strand, or a bundle of such elements, used to impart prestress to concrete. Tendonsare usually made from high-strength steel, but can also bemade from such materials as FRP.
tensile strength
—a measure of the ability of a material (forexample, concrete or reinforcement) to withstand tension.
REINFORCEMENT FOR CONCRETEE2-3
Tension in both the concrete and reinforcement results whenreinforced concrete bends under loading.
tension
—
a state in which a material is subject to loads thattend to stretch or lengthen it.
yield strength
—The stress required to stretch a material toits elastic limit.
CHAPTER 2—STRUCTURAL CONCRETE: PLAIN, REINFORCED, AND PRESTRESSED
The design and construction of structural concrete, bothplain and reinforced (including nonprestressed andprestressed concrete) is covered by ACI 318, Building CodeRequirements for Structural Concrete, and ACI 301, Stan-dards Specification for Structural Concrete.
2.1—Plain concrete
Plain concrete is structural concrete without reinforcementor with less than the minimum amount required by ACI 318for reinforced concrete. It is sometimes used in slabs-on-grade, pavement, basement walls, small foundations, andcurb-and-gutter.
2.2—Reinforced concrete
Plain concrete (Fig. 2.2) has compressive strength—theability to resist crushing loads; however, its tensile strength isonly about 10% of its compressive strength. Its tensile strengthis so low that it is nearly disregarded in design of most concretestructures. Reinforced concrete is a combination of adequatereinforcement (usually steel bars with raised lugs called defor-mations) and concrete designed to work together to resistapplied loads (Fig. 2.2). Properly placed reinforcement inconcrete improves its compressive and tensile strength.
2.2.1
Bending and bending stresses in reinforced concretemembers—
Many structural members are required to carryloads that cause bending stresses. An example is a simply-supported beam, in which the top of the member is subjectedto compression lengthwise while the bottom is subjected totension lengthwise (Fig. 2.2.1(a)). This is referred to as beamaction and can be illustrated by supporting a board at each endand breaking it by applying a heavy load to the center. If theboard is loaded at each end and supported in the middle, as ina cantilevered beam, the top of the board over the support is intension and the bottom is in compression (Fig. 2.2.1(b)).Unreinforced concrete structural members have littlecapacity for beam action because concrete’s low tensilestrength provides little resistance to the tensile stress in thetension side of the member. This is one of the most importantfunctions of reinforcement in concrete members—to resistthe tension in these members due to beam action (Fig. 2.2.1(c)).Steel is remarkably well- suited for concrete reinforcementbecause it has high tensile strength, and therefore relativelysmall amounts are required. Also, concrete bonds to steel,and both expand and contract to about the same degree withtemperature changes. The good bond between concrete andsteel allows an effective transfer of stress or load betweenthe steel and concrete so both materials act together inresisting beam action. For these reasons, steel is the most
Fig. 2.2—Examples of plain and reinforced concrete: plaincurb and gutter (left) and reinforced concrete T-beam(right).Fig. 2.2.1(a)—A simple beam loaded in the middle and supported at the ends will tend to deflect or bend down inthe middle, causing tensile stress in the bottom of the beamand tending to pull it apart. That is, the bottom of the beamis in tension. Reinforcing steel near the bottom of the beamwill resist this tension and hold it together.Fig. 2.2.1(b)—If the beam is supported in the middle and theends are loaded (as in a cantilever beam, such as abalcony), the top of the beam over the support is in tensionand will pull apart or crack if there is no reinforcing steelnear the top of the beam.Fig. 2.2.1(c)—Properly placed reinforcement in this canti-lever beam will resist tension and control cracking.Fig. 2.2.1(d)—Incorrectly placed or missing reinforcement is not effective in resisting tension and will allow uncon-trolled cracking in the beam.
E2-4ACI EDUCATION BULLETIN
common material used to reinforce concrete. However, othermaterials such as FRP are also used for reinforcement.Many structural members must perform like a beam tofulfill their function in the structure. Among such concretestructural members are beams, girders, joists, structural slabsof all kinds, some columns, walls that must resist lateral loads,and more complex members such as folded plates, arches,barrels, and domes. In addition to unintentional omission of part or all of the reinforcement, improper placement of thereinforcement designed to resist tension is one of the mostcommon causes of structural concrete failures (Fig. 2.2.1(d)).If the tensile steel is not properly placed in the tension zone of a structural member, it will not be effective in resistingtension, and failure may occur.
2.2.2
Other reinforcement
applications
—In addition to itsuse to resist tension in structural members, reinforcement isused in concrete construction for other reasons, such as:•To resist a portion of the compression force in a member.The compressive strength of steel reinforcement is about20 times greater than that of normal-strength concrete. Ina column, steel is sometimes used to reduce the size of the column or to increase the column’s carrying capacity(Fig. 2.2.2(a)). Compression steel is sometimes used inbeams for the same reasons.•To resist diagonal tension or shear in beams, walls, andcolumns. Reinforcement used to resist shear in beams iscommonly in the form of
stirrups
(Fig 2.2.2(b)), but mayalso consist of longitudinal reinforcement bent up at anangle near the ends of the beam, or welded wire fabric.In columns, shear reinforcement is typically in the formof ties, hoops, or spirals.
Fig. 2.2.2(a)—Reinforcement in a concrete column (courtesyof HDR Engineering, Inc.).Fig. 2.2.2(b)—Stirrups to resist shear in a concrete box girder bridge (courtesy HDR Engineering, Inc.).