Cooley’s Classification Of Social Group: C.H.

Cooley classified groups on the basis of kind

of contact into primary and secondary groups. In primary group, there is face-to-face, close and
intimate relationship among the members such as in the family. But in a secondary group the
relationship among the members are indirect, impersonal and superficial such as a political
party, a city and trade union etc. Though Cooley has never used the term ‘secondary group’, but
while discussing the groups other than those of primary, some sociologists like K. Davis,
Ogburn and MacIver have popularized other groups such as secondary groups. Hence, the
classification of primary and secondary groups is made on the basis of the nature of social
contact, the degree of intimacy, size and the degree of organization etc.

Primary Group: The concept of primary group was introduced by Charles Horton Cooley, in
his book “Social Organization” published in 1909. The Primary group is the most simple and
universal form of association. It is nucleus of all social organization. It is a small group in which
a small number of people come into direct contact with one another.

In the words of C.H. Cooley “By primary groups I mean those characterized by intimate
face to face association and cooperation. They are primary, in several senses, but chiefly in
that they are fundamental in framing the social nature and ideal, of the individual”. Such
groups in Cooley’s phrase are “the nursery of human nature” where the essential sentiments of
group loyalty and concern for others could be learned. C.H. Cooley regards certain face-to-face
associations or groups like the family, tribe, clan, play groups, the gossip groups, kinship
groups, the community groups, etc, as primary groups. These groups are primary because they
are always “first” from the point of view of time and importance.

Characteristics of a Primary Group: Primary Groups possess certain essential traits. The
following are the characteristics of Primary group.

1. Closeness or Physical Proximity: Physical proximity or presence provides an opportunity

for the development of intimate and close relations.

2. Smallness: Primary groups are smaller in size. The smaller the size of the group, the greater
will be the intimacy among its members. Relationship among the members could be more
personal and more direct only in a small group. Better understanding and fellow felling
among the members can be possible only when the group is small in size.

3. Durability: Primary group is relatively, a permanent group. Intimacy between the members
becomes deeper because they meet frequently and are closely associated with one another.

4. Relationship is Personal: The primary relationship is a matter of persons. It exists because

of them and it in sustained by them. It should be noted that this relationship comes to an end
 as soon as one of the partners disappears from the primary group. The personal relationship
is non transferable and irreplaceable.

5. Relationship is Inclusive: In the primary group, we face our fellows as total human beings.
A person comes to know his fellow in all the details of his life, as a whole being.

It thus becomes clear that primary relationships are non-contractual, non-economic, non-
political and non-specialized; they are personal, spontaneous, sentimental and inclusive.

Importance of Primacy Group: The primary group is considered to be equally important both
for the individual and society.

Individual point of view: The primary group plays a commanding role in the development of
human personality. It is fundamental in forming the social nature and ideal of the individual. It
is regarded as a nursery of human nature.

For example in a family individual identifies himself with others and takes over their attitudes.
In the family the child acquires all his fundamental habits of bodily care, of speech, of
obedience or disobedience, of right or wrong, of sympathy, of love and affection. That is what
family is said to be known as fundamental agency of socialization. The primary groups not only
satisfy the human needs but also provide a stimulus to each of its members in the pursuit of
interest.

Societal point of view: Primary groups are important not only from the individual’s point of
view, they are equally important from societal point of view. Primary group acts an agency of
social control. It not only provides security to the members but also controls their behaviour and
regulates their relation with each other.

The primary groups, such as the family transmit culture and in this respect they are
irreplaceable. They help the individuals to acquire basic attitudes towards people, social
institutions and the world around him.

The members are taught by the primary groups to work in the society according to their roles
with efficiency. In this way, primary groups run the society smoothly and maintain its
solidarity.

Secondary Group:

Secondary groups may be defined as those associations which are characterized by impersonal
or secondary relations and specialization of functions. They are also called “special interest
groups” or “self-interest groups”. The examples of secondary groups include a city, a nation, a
political party, corporation, labour union, an army, a large crowd etc. In these groups members
are too many and too scattered. Here human contacts are superficial, undefined and mechanical.
Different sociologists have defined secondary group in different ways.

According to C.H. Cooley, “Secondary groups are wholly lacking in intimacy of association
and usually in most of the other primary and quasi-primary characteristics”.

As Ogburn and Nimkoff say, “The groups which provide experience lacking in intimacy
are called secondary groups”.

Robert Bierstedt says, “Secondary groups are all those that they are not primary”.

Characteristics: The characteristics of secondary group are as follows:

1. Large in size: Secondary groups are relatively large in size. These groups comprise a very
large number of persons. For example, a political party, a trade union, international
associations, such as Rotary Club, Lions Club, the Red cross Society which consists of
thousands of members scattered all over the world.

2. Formality: The relations of members in a secondary group are of a formal type. It does not
exercise primary influence over its members. Secondary groups exert influence on the
members indirectly. They are controlled by formal rules and regulations. Informal means of
social control are less effective in regulating the relation among members.

3. Impersonality: Secondary relations are impersonal in nature, because members are not very
much interested in other members as ‘persons’. They are more concerned with their self-
centered goals than with other persons.

4. Indirect Cooperation: Indirect cooperation is another characteristic of secondary groups. In

it, members do different things interdependently. All contribute to the same result, but not in
the same process.

5. Voluntary Membership: The membership of most of the secondary groups is not

compulsory but voluntary. Individuals have liberty to join the groups. It is not essential to
become the member of Rotary International or Red Cross Society.

6. Status depends upon Role: In secondary groups the status or position of every member
depends on his role. The determination of his status is not influenced by ascription or by his
birth or personal qualities but by the achievement or the role he plays.

Importance of Secondary Group: The secondary groups occupy a dominant place in modern
civilized and industrial societies. Where life is relatively simple or where the number of people
is small, the face to face group may be sufficient for most purposes. But as the society expands
demanding more and more division of labour and specialization of functions, the large-scale
secondary groups become necessary. The small communities have now given way to large
communities.

In place of cottage industry we have now grant corporations employing thousands of people.
Population has moved from the village to the city. The changing trends of modern society have
swept away primary groups. Man now depends more on secondary groups for his needs. The
child was formerly born in the warm atmosphere of the family, now he is born in the cold
atmosphere of the hospital. The followings are the advantages of secondary groups:

1. Efficiency: The secondary group helps its member to improve their efficiency in their
specific field of activity and in consequences, they become experts. The emphasis is on
getting the job done. The secondary relationships are instrumental in accomplishing certain
specific tasks. In this sense, they may be regarded as functional in character.

2. Wider Outlook: The secondary group broadens the outlook of its members. It
accommodates a large number of individuals and localities which widens the outlook of its
members. It is more universal in its judgment than the primary group.

3. Wider Opportunities: The secondary groups have opened channel, of opportunities. A large
number of professions and occupations are opening the way for specialized careers.

The functions of secondary groups are essential for our society if we wish to enjoy our current
life styles. The people are becoming more and more dependent on these groups. The
tremendous advances in material comfort and in life expectancy in modern world would be
impossible without the rise or goal-directed secondary groups.

Difference between Primary Group and Secondary Group: It is important to mention here
that dichotomy between primary and secondary’ groups were perceived by Cooley but it was
not elaborated by him. However, the following are the chief points of difference between the
primary group and secondary group.

1. Size: A primary group is small in size as well as area. The membership is limited to a small
area. It is not spread over the whole world. At the other end in a secondary group the
membership is widespread. It may contain thousands of members scattered in different parts
of the world as is the case with a corporation.

2. Physical Proximity: Primary groups are based on close contacts. People in these groups do
not merely know one another and interact frequently. But they know one another well and
have strong emotional ties. Secondary groups do not give its members feeling of close
proximity that primary groups give. In primary group, one is concerned with the other person
as a person, but as a functionary who is fitting a role.
3. Duration: Primary groups exist for a longer period. Relationships in primary group are
permanent in nature. Secondary groups, on the other hand are based on temporary
relationship. For example, members of a club infrequently and only for a few hours at a time.

4. Kinds of Cooperation: In a secondary group, the cooperation with the fellow members is
direct. The members cooperate only to achieve the objective of the group. In a primary group,
on the other hand, the members directly cooperate with each other participating in the same
process. They sit together, discuss together play together.

5. Types of Structures: Every secondary group is regulated by a set of formal rules. A formal
authority is set up with designated powers and a clear cut division of labour in which the
function of each is specified in relation to the function of all the rest fellows. The primary
group is based on an informal structure. No formal and detail rules are drafted.

6. Position: In primary groups, the position or status of a person is fixed according to his birth,
age and sex. But in secondary groups, the position of a person is determined by his roles.

7. Difference in Development of Personality: Primary group is concerned with the total

aspects personality of a person and it develops his whole personality. Secondary group, on the
other hand, is concerned with a particular aspect of personality and it develops only that
aspect. In this way, the qualities live love, sympathy, obligation, mutual help, and tolerance
etc. flourish in primary groups, while secondary groups promote self-interest and
individuality.

9. Relationship: The relationship of members with each other in primary group is direct,
intimate and personal. They meet face to face and develop direct contacts. A secondary group
is based on impersonal relationships. It does not exercise a primary influence over its
members because they do not live in presence and thought of one another.

10. Social Control: The mode of recruitment to the primary group is formal. Therefore, formal
means of social control are more effective. As members have closeness and greater intimacy,
there is great control over a member.

To conclude, terms ‘Primary’ and ‘secondary’ thus describe a type of relationship and do not
imply that one is more important than the other.

Status and Role

Status: Status is a socially defined position in a group or society characterized by certain

expectations, rights, and duties.
Definitions:
1. According to MacIver and Page: “Status is the social position that determines for its
possessor, apart from personal attributes or social service, a degree of respect, prestige and
influence”.
2. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff “Status is the rank-order position assigned by a group to a
role or to a set of roles”.
3. According to A.W. Green, status is a position in a social group or grouping, in relation to
other positions held by other individuals in the group or grouping”.
4. According to H.T. Mazumdar, “status means the location of the individual within the group
his place in the social network of reciprocal obligations and privileges rights and duties”.
Thus, the above definitions make it clear that status is a social position which involves some
sort of evaluations. These evaluations help in ranking of different statuses in a hierarchical
order. Secondly, status is culturally determined, despite the fact they may be based on biological
factors such as age, sex, race etc.
Characteristics: Status has the following characteristics:
1. Status is the structural unit of a society.
2. Status is a position or social standing of a person.
3. Status evolved spontaneously.
4. Status is closely related to roles.
5. Status involves some sort of evaluations.
6. Status is comparative in nature.
7. Status may be achieved or ascribed.
8. Status is variable.
Types: There are mainly two types of status:
 Achieved status
 Ascribed status
 Achieved Status: Statuses which are not fixed by inheritance, biological characteristic
or other factors, over which the individual has no control are known as achieved status.
This type of status is generally found in an open system of stratification. It came into
existence as a result of some degree of purposive action and choice. Lecturer, doctor,
engineer are example of achieved status. When a society allows its members to change
 their status according to their talents and efforts it came under this achieved status
category.
 Ascribed Status: Statuses which are relatively fixed it is known as ascribed status. This
status cannot be changed during the life span of an individual. Society has its own rules
to ascribe status to different people. Generally three factors are important in being
ascribed status in society i.e. age, sex and kinship.

Roles
Role is a basic concept of sociology. It is a structural and universal feature of society. In society
every person is assigned different tasks to perform which makes up his role. Individuals
perform different functions in society. Some are laborers other are scientists, some are
professors others are engineers while others are doctor, leaders, lawyers etc. The society is
based on division of labour in which every person is assigned a specific task to perform which
makes up his role. Role is the behaviour expected of one who holds a particular status or
position. Role is closely associated with status. Roles provide means for accomplishing certain
tasks.

Role consists of behaviour expected of an individual in community. Role is a relational term.

One plays a role in relation to another. There cannot be a teacher without a student. Hence role
represents reciprocal relations among individuals and involves a series of rights and duties. For
example, status of teacher is accompanied by the role of teacher. Playing or performing roles
involves social relationships in the sense that an individual plays a role in relation to other roles.
Role is a dynamic aspect of status.

Definitions
1. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Role is a set of socially expected and approved
behaviour patterns; consisting of both duties and privileges, associated with a particular
position in a group”.
3. According to G.A.Lundberg, “A social role is a pattern of behaviour expected of an
individual in a certain group or situation”.
4. According to Linton, “Role is a dynamic aspect of status”.
 Thus, role is a set of expectations which is expected from an individual in society. Smooth
running of society depends on efficient and consistent performance of roles. Successful role
performance requires possession of attitudes to such role. Role represents reciprocal relations
among individuals.
Characteristics: Role have following characteristics:
1. Role is the structural unit of society.
2. Role is always associated with status or position.
3. Role is relational in nature.
4. Roles regulate and organize human behaviour.
5. Roles provide guidelines and directives to an ordered society.
6. Role implies a set of expectations.
7. Roles involves a series of rights and duties.
8. Role is dynamic.
9. Role is functional.

Social Stratification

Every society is segmented into different hierarchies. In all societies, some people are regarded
as more important than others (more worthy of respect than others), either within the society as a
whole or in a certain situations. Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the
system of social standing. Social stratification refers to a society’s categorization of its people
into rankings of socio-economic tiers based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and
power.

Social stratification is the segmentation of society into different hierarchical arrangement or

strata. It refers to the differences and inequalities in the socio-economic life of people in a given
society. It represents the ranking of individuals or social positions and statuses in the social
structure.

You may remember the word “stratification” from geology. The distinct vertical layers found in
rock are a good way to visualize social structure. When applied to the world of people, it refers
to hierarchical arrangement of people into different classes or strata which is the division of a
population into two or more layers, each of which is relatively homogenous, between which
there are differences in privileges, restrictions, rewards and obligations.
Society’s layers are made of people, and society’s resources are distributed unevenly throughout
the layers. The people who have more resources represent the top layer of the social structure of
stratification. Other groups of people, with fewer resources, represent the lower layers of society.

The Indian Caste system provides an example of stratification system. The society in which
divisions of social classes exist is known as a stratified society. Modern stratification
fundamentally differs from stratification of primitive societies. Social stratification involves two
phenomena:

(i) differentiation of individuals or groups on the basis of possession of certain

characteristics whereby some individuals or groups come to rank higher than others,
(ii) the ranking of individuals according to some basis of evaluation.

Definitions:

1. Ogburn and Nimkoff: ‘The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in more or
less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification”

2. Lundberg: “A stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences among people that
are evaluated by them as being “lower” and “higher”.

3. Gisbert: “Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups of categories
linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordinations”.

Characteristics of Social Stratification: On the basis of the analysis of the different definitions
given by eminent scholars, social stratification may have the following characteristics.

(a) Social stratification is universal: There is no society on this world which is free from
stratification. Modern stratification differs from stratification of primitive societies. It is a
worldwide phenomenon. According to Sorokin “all permanently organized groups are stratified.”

(b) Stratification is social: It is true that biological qualities do not determine one’s superiority
and inferiority. Factors like age, sex, intelligence as well as strength often contribute as the basis
on which statues are distinguished. But one’s education, property, power, experience, character,
personality etc. are found to be more important than biological qualities. Hence, stratification is
social by nature.

(c) It is ancient: Stratification system is very old. It was present even in the small wondering
bonds. In almost all the ancient civilizations, the differences between the rich and poor, humble
andpowerful existed. During the period of Plato and Kautilya even emphasis was given to
political, social and economic inequalities.

(d) It is in diverse forms: The forms of stratification are not uniform in all the societies. In the
modern world class, caste and estate are the general forms of stratification. In India a special type
of stratification in the form of caste is found. The ancient society was divided into four varnas:
the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The ancient Greeks were divided into freemen
and slaves and the ancient Romans were divided into the particians and the plebeians. So every
society, past or present, big or small is characterized by diverse forms of social stratification.

(e) Social stratification is Consequential: Social stratification has two important consequences
one is “life chances” and the other one is “life style”. A class system not only affects the “life-
chances” of the individuals but also their “life style”.

The members of a class have similar social chances but the social chances vary in every society.
It includes chances of survival and of good physical and mental health, opportunities for
education, chances of obtaining justice, marital conflict, separation and divorce etc.

Life style denotes a style of life which is distinctive of a particular social status. Life-styles
include such matters like the residential areas in every community which have gradations of
prestige-ranking, mode of housing, means of recreation, the kinds of dress, the kind of books;
TV shows to which one is exposed and so on. Life-style may be viewed as a sub-culture in which
one stratum differs from another within the frame work of a commonly shared over-all culture.

Types of Social Stratification

There are many ways in which social stratification can manifest itself, based on different factors
and elements. Mentioned below are the most common types of social stratification being
followed in the society:-

1. The Caste system

The caste system is a system of social stratification in India, which divides Hindus into four main
groups. These four varnas are Brahmins, Kshyatryas, Vaishyas and Sudra caste. The powers,
duties and financial status of each varna differ from each other.

The Brahmins at the top (i.e. the priests and the teachers),

The Kshyatryas on the next level down (these are rulers and warriors),

The Vaishyas (farmers, merchants and traders),

The Shudras (i.e. the labourers) on the bottom rung of the social ladder.

When an individual is born into a particular caste, he or she remains to be a member of it forever.
Every caste is identified by name, and marriage in such a social stratification system is also
determined by the caste of the likely couples. Since the caste system is hierarchical, a society that
practices it is often faced with the challenge of class resentment. (Also read: Caste System:
Meaning, Features, Causes, Effects, and Solutions)
2. The Class system

Some countries, especially the western societies, have a class system, where people in society are
divided into three classes: upper, middle and lower class. Stratification is majorly based on the
wealth of an individual. Just as the name of each class suggests,

The upper classes tend to be aristocrats (or landed gentry) who have been born into lives of
greater wealth and privilege. The high-class consists of eminent people in society. These people
at the ‘top’ of a class based social hierarchy tend to be richer and are generally regarded as a
successful people in the society.

The middle class comprises of people who can afford to live decently but are not wealthy enough
to enjoy the type of fine living experienced by the upper class. They manage to earn average
income and enjoy decent social status in society. The middle classes can be further subdivided
into upper middle and lower middle class people. The lower class is the category with people
having lowest social status in terms of their position and economic status. They do not earn
much.

A class system can easily become entrenched, and it can be hard to move between the classes.
Moving between classes – e.g. from the working class to the middle class – can be done through
education, marriage or acquiring wealth. This is known as social mobility. Social mobility can be
upward (moving into a ‘higher’ class) or downward (moving ‘down’ through the strata of
society).

3. Estate system

This system comes from the medieval Europe origin. Estate based social stratification gives
much importance on the original birth status. It also considers wealth and other possessions that
belong to the individual. This means if a person was born in a particular class, he/she remains in
the same until death, without any change. This kind of social stratification works on the principle
that each estate has a state and remains with it, right from the beginning until the end.

4. Gender Stratification

There are societies in the world that categorize their members in terms of gender. Gender
stratification means that people who belong to a certain sex will have certain rights and
privileges that the other sex may not enjoy. Even in the modern world, some societies are
greatly defined by this type of social stratification. Gender stratification has led to many societal
challenges such as gender-based violence and the marginalization of women. The fight for
gender equality can be viewed to be an attempt to dismantle this type of social stratification. It is
a fact that women around the world constitute a larger portion of poor population leading to
feminization of poverty.
 Legitimacy: Meaning, Sources and Types

Legitimacy:

The concept of legitimacy also has acquired a significant place in modern social theory.
Although the germs of this concept can be seen in the writings of Plato who professed the idea of
justice in his book ‘The Republic’.

Meaning of Legitimacy:

The word ‘legitimacy’ has been derived from the Latin world ‘legitimas’. During the middle
ages it was called ‘legitimitas’ which in English language was interpreted as ‘lawful’. Cicero
used the word ‘legitimum’ to denote the power constituted by law. Later on the word
‘legitimacy’ was used for traditional procedures, constitutional principles and adoption to
traditions. At still later a stage the element of ‘consent’ was added to its meaning. Consent was
considered the essence of legitimate rule.

In the modern age it was Max Weber to first enunciate the concept of ‘legitimacy’ as a universal
concept. According to him, legitimacy is based in ‘belief’ and gets obedience from the people.
Power is effective only if it is legitimate. Undoubtedly, power has the right to use coercion but
that is not its chief element. Power should be based on legitimacy otherwise it would invite
trouble and may prove ineffective.

The meaning of legitimacy has changed from age to age. During the middle ages it was used to
express the feeling against usurpation (Usurpation means taking someone's power or property by
force. Locking the teacher outside of the classroom and taking charge of class is a form of
usurpation). But all revolutions cannot be called illegitimate. The revolution of Bangladesh
against Pakistan to secure freedom cannot be termed illegitimate. Thus new principles of
legitimacy replace the old principles. Legitimacy is not synonymous with moral beliefs or good
conduct. It is only the basis for justifying the actions of those in power.

A. Robert writes, “Leaders in a political system try to ensure that whenever governmental means
are used to deal with conflict, the decisions arrived at are widely accepted not solely from fear of
violence, punishment, or coercion but also from a belief that it is morally right and proper to do
so. According to one usage of the term, a government is said to be ‘legitimate’ if the people to
whom its orders are directed believe that the structure, procedures, acts, decisions, policies,
officials, or leaders or government possess the quality of Tightness, propriety or moral
goodness—the right, in short, to make binding rules.”

Thus defined, Robert A. makes it clear that legitimacy is the quality of Tightness, propriety or
moral goodness. All the governments try to prove their acts as legitimate and, therefore, binding
on the people. In democracy the importance of legitimacy is no less because democracy is based
on consent.
It cannot be forced on people against their will. The government loses popular confidence and is
overthrown. In the absence of legitimacy power is sheer force. According to Sternberger,
legitimacy is the foundation of governmental power which on the one hand makes the
government conscious of its right to rule and on the other makes the governed aware of such a
right.”

According to S.M. Upset, “Legitimacy involves the capacity of the system to engender and
maintain the belief that existing political institutions are most appropriate for the society.”

In the words of Jean Beandel. “Legitimacy can be defined as the extent to which the population
accepts naturally, without questioning, the organization to which it belongs.”

J.C. Pleno and R.E. Riggs define legitimacy as “the quality of being justified or willingly
accepted by subordinates that convert the exercise of political power into rightful authority.”

We may thus conclude that legitimacy means the capacity to produce and maintain a belief that
the existing political system is most suitable to the society. The masses must obey it
unreluctantly and accept its sanctity and consider it worthy of respect and reverence.

Sources of Legitimacy: According to Max Weber, there are three sources of legitimacy:

(i) Tradition:Legitimacy may rest on an established belief in the sanction of immemorial

traditions and on the need to obey leaders who exercise the authority according to the traditions.

(ii) Exceptional Personal Qualities:Legitimacy may secondly be based on “devotion to the

specific and exceptional sanctity, or exemplary character of an individual person.”

(iii) Legality:Legitimacy may rest on the belief that power is wielded in a way that is legal.
What is done legally is regarded as legitimate.

Grace A. Jones has described the following sources of legitimacy in the context of British
system:

(i) Continuity with the political and social institutions.

(ii) Tradition of non-violence.

(iii) Religious beliefs.

(iv) Belief in values.

(v) Electoral process, liberty and unanimity.

(vi) Coordinated and integrated society and continuity of its traditions.

(vii) Adaptive political culture.

According to Friedrich, the sources of legitimacy are:

(i) Religious,

(ii) Philosophical and juristic,

(iii) Traditional,

(iv) Procedural, and

(v) Empirical.

From the above analysis it is evident that legitimacy is not a mere abstract or moral feeling. It is
something related with the entire political system. It is a belief which leads the people to accept
that it is morally right and proper for the officials or leaders of government to make binding
rules. Legitimacy enables a ruler to govern with a minimum of political resources. It is the soul
of democracy.

Types of Legitimacy:

David Easton describes three types of legitimacy as under:

(a) Ideological legitimacy:

When the source of legitimacy is the ideology prevailing in the society, it is termed as
ideological legitimacy. A political system is in fact an articulated set of ideals, ends and purposes
which help the members to interpret the past explain the present and provide a vision for the
future.

The ideology portrays the aims and states the objectives of the political system. These aims and
objectives have the potential as they constitute a set of ethically infused ideals to capture the
imagination of the people. They inspire men to action as they are related to their success.

(b) Structural legitimacy:

The principles which lead the members in a particular system to accept as legitimate, contribute
to the validation of structures and norms of the regime. Every system has set goals according to
which authority is exercised and political power is wielded. This basis of validation is termed as
structural legitimacy.

(c) Personal legitimacy:

If the behaviour and personality of those at the help of affairs is of dominating importance and if
the members consider these authorities as trust-worthy this is known as personal legitimacy.
David Easton is of the view that a large class of leaders, regardless of any inner conviction of
being called, or outer recognition as such by followers, manage to build up a belief in their
legitimacy.

A political system can face a crisis if its legitimate position is in peril. The crisis of this nature
brings change in the existing social system as well. A crisis of legitimacy is thus a crisis of
change. In the words of Lipset “…………In general even when the political system is reasonably
effective if at any time the status of major conservative groups is threatened or if access to
politics is divided to emerging groups at crucial periods the system of legitimacy will remain in
question. On the other hand a breakdown of effectiveness repeatedly or for a long period will
endanger even a legitimate system’s stability.”

Formal and informal means of social control: Different sociologists have given different
opinions regarding the means of social control. F.E. Lumley classified the means of social
control into major categories; based upon force and based upon symbols. According to him,
though physical force in indispensable in social control, yet, it is not merely the force that can
manage the individuals. Human societies have to rely upon symbolic devices, which are more
effective than force. According to him, the means of social control are rewards, praise, flattery,
education, persuasion, gossip, satire, criticism, propaganda and so on.

E.A. Ross has described a number of means of social control that have been employed by social
groups through out the human history to keep individuals under control. The important among
them are public opinion, law, custom, religion, morality, folkways and modes.

E.C.Hayes distinguished between control by sanctions and control by suggestion in imitation. By

control, by sanctions he meant a system of rewards and punishments. According to him,
education is the most effective means of social control.

Karl Mannheim distinguished between direct and indirect means of social control. Kimhall
Young classified the means of social control into positive and negative means. According to him,
reward is a positive means while punishment is a negative means. L.L. Bernard distinguished
between conscious and unconscious means of social control. The most important unconscious
means are custom, tradition and convention. The conscious means of social control are those,
which have been consciously developed and employed by leaders of all types. These are law,
education, public opinion and coercion.

Bernard also distinguished between destructive and constructive means of social control.
Exploitive means are such as punishment, reprisals, intimidation and repression. Among the
constructive means are included revolution, custom, law, education, social reform and non-
violent coercion. But most of the sociologists have classified the means of social control into
types such as infomal means and formal means. These are traced out below:

1. Informal Means: The informal means of social control grow themselves in society. No special
agency is required to create them. The Brahmins do not take meat. They take meals only after
bath. The Jains do not take curd. They take their dinner before sunset. The Hindu women do not
smoke. One can marry only in one's caste. The children should respect their parents. All this is
due to informal social control. It is exercised through customs, traditions, folkways, modes,
religion, ridicule etc. Informal control prevails over all the aspects of man's life.

However, it is said that people are not afraid of informal social control. Yet informal means of
social control are very powerful particularly in primary groups. No man wants to suffer loss of
prestige. He does not want to become the target of ridicule. He does not want to be laughed at by
the people. He does not want to be socially boycotted. On the other hand, he wants praise,
appreciation, honor and recognition by the society. Thus, informal means, like praise, ridicule,
boycott etc. effectively control his behavior. Moreover, the child through the process of
socialization learns to conform to the norms of group. A person with socialized attitudes would
not do any work, which is socially harmful. Thus, socialization also exercises an influence over
him.

Now we may describe briefly the important means of informal control.

(I) Belief- Belief is a conviction that a particular thing is true. It is primarily of five kinds.

(a) The belief in the existence of an unseen power;

(b) The belief in the theory of Ye-incarnation,

(c) The belief in Nemesis, the Goddess of Vengeance,

(d) The belief in the existence of hell and heaven and,

(e) The belief in the immortality and soul.

All these different beliefs influence man's behavior in society. The first belief in the existence of
an unseen power leads a man to right actions because he believes that his actions are being
watched by an unseen power. The second belief in the theory of reincarnation keeps the man
away from wrongful acts because he believes that in order to have a good birth in next he must
do good, acts in this life. The third belief in the Goddess of Vengeance also regulates man's
behavior because he believes that he will be punished by the goddess of Vengeance for his sins.
A sinner is punished here and now. The Fourth belief in the existence of hell and heaven
influences a man to virtuous acts and avoid sins in order to go to heaven or avoid going to hell
after death. Heaven is place full of luxuries, fairies and romance. Hell is a place of terror,
miseries and tortures. The fifth belief in the immortality of soullend man to avoid such actions as
will cause pain to the soul of the deceased ancestors.

In this way, beliefs are powerful influences on human actions. They are vital for human relations.
They define the purposes and interests for the individual and control his choice of means so that
the purposes of the groups may be advanced of at least not hundred. No aspect of social
relationship escapes them. Beliefs may be false. They may be founded on factual or faculty
evidence. But the question of their validity does not necessarily determine their effectiveness of
social controls, we act with as much determination from false beliefs as from factually second
ones.

Social Suggestions: Social suggestions are also powerful means of social control. Suggestion is
the indirect communication may be made through various methods. The first method is putting
the life examples of great men. We celebrate the anniversaries of Mahatma Gandhi and Lal
Bahadur Sastri, We build monument in the memory of great men. We place their ideals before
the people and exhort them to follow these ideas. The second method of making suggestion is
through literature Books, Journals, newspapers etc. may inspire people to heroic deeds and
develop in them national feeling. The literature may also make people narrow minded
conservative and superstitious. These types of literature will indirectly influence his mind and
consequently his behavior. The third method is through education. The educational curriculum
may communicate certain ideas to the students and make them discipline citizens. The fourth
method is through advertisement. Many magazines carry beautiful advertisements depicting the
advantages of visiting certain places and suggesting the prestige attached to traveling to these
places. The advertisements from Radio. Ceylon may attract the people to Binaca toothpaste.
Many of our business enterprises employ advertising to influence-attitudes and therefore, action.
Suggestions may be conscious or unconscious. It may also be intentional or unintentional.

Ideologies: Ideology is a theory of social life, which interprets social realities from the point of
view of deals to prove the correctness of the analysis and to justify these ideals. It is the
projection of a certain ideal. Leninism, Gandhism and Fascism are ideologies, which have
analyzed social realities and laid down an ideal before the people. Ideologies influence social life
to a very deep extent. Leninism-had influenced the social life of Russians. Hitler's theory of
socialism influenced the German to the extent that they began to regard themselves as the
supreme race of the world. Gandhism has influenced social life in India. In the world we today,
find a conflict of ideologies. The conflict between U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. is a conflict of capitalism
and communism. The history of man has been one of struggle among conflicting ideologies.
Ideologies are powerful dynamic forces of contemporary social life. They satisfy the need of all
men to believe in a system of though that is rigorous. They express the vital interests of social
groups and satisfy their desire for a scheme of social betterment. They stimulate action. They
provide a set of values. They are motivators of social action. They make life meaningful. The
success of any ideology, as an effective means of social control depends on many factors. Some
of these factors are its completeness and coherence, its vision of the future is its ability to hold
men's imaginations, its consistency and its ability to meet criticism.

Folkways: Folkways are the recognized modes of behavior, which arise automatically with a
group. They are the behavior patterns of every day life, which arise spontaneously and
unconsciously in a group. They are in general the habits of the individual and are common to a
group. They are socially approved. They have some degree of traditional sanction. It is not easy
for the members of a group to violate the folkways. They are the foundation of group culture. If
an individual does not follow them he may be socially boycotted by his group. A particular dress
must be worn at a particular function. The Brahmins shall not take meat. The Jains should not
take curd. The Hindu women should not smoke. Since folkways become a matter of habit,
therefore, these are followed unconsciously and exercise powerful influence over man's
behaviour in society.

Mores: Mores are those folkways, which are considered by the group to be of great significance,
rattier indispensable to its welfare. The modes related to the fundamental needs of society more
directly than do the folkways. They express the group sense of what is right and conducive to
social welfare. They imply a value judgment about the folkways. Modes arc always molding
human behavior. They restrain an individual from doing acts considered as wrong by his group.
They are the instruments of control. In society, there are innumerable modes like to monogamy,
prohibition, endogamy, antislavery etc. Conformity to modes is regarded necessary. It is essential
for the members of the group to conform to them. Behavior contrary to them is not permitted by
society. Certain modes may even be harmful for the physical well-being of an individual, yet
these must be obeyed. Thus, mode control man's behavior in society to a very great extent.

Customs: Customs are the long established habits and usages of the people. They are those
folkways and modes, which have persisted for a very long time and have passed down from one
generation to another. They arise spontaneously and gradually. There is no constituted authority
to declare them to apply them or to safeguard them. They are accepted by society. They are
followed because they have been followed in the past. The importance of custom as a means of
social control cannot be minimized. They are so powerful that no one can escape their range.
They regulate social life to a great extent. They bind men together. They control the purely
selfish impulses. They compel the individual to conform to the accepted standards. They are held
so sacred that any violation of them is regarded not only a crime but also a sacrilege. In primitive
customs are main agencies of social control but in modern times their force has loosened.

Religion: Religion also exercises a powerful influence upon man's behavior in society. The term
religion has numerous definitions. Religion is an attitude towards super human powers. It is a
belief in powers superior to man. It expresses itself in several forms like superstition, animism,
totemism, magic ritualism and fetishism. Religion pervades practically in all the societies,
though there may be different forms of religious beliefs and practices. The Hindu religion gives
great importance to ceremonies. At the time of birth, marriage arid death a number of ceremonies
is performed. Mantras are recited even if one does not understand their meaning. Religion is a
powerful agency in society. It influences man's behavior. Children should obey their parents,
should not tell a lie or cheat, women should be faithful to man, people should be honest and
virtuous and should limit one's desires, man should renounce unsocial activities are some of the
teaching of religion which influence man's behavior. Men should do good acts is a common
teaching of all the religion. Religion makes people benevolent, charitable, forbearing and
truthful. It may also be noted that religion may easily be destroyed into superstition and
dogmatism instead of being an incentive to ethical idealism. Religion may be, used to make
people be used their lot obedience to their rules and defenders of status quo. It may deny freedom
of thought. It may favor poverty exploitation and idleness and encourage practices like
cannibalism, slavery, untouchability, communalism and even incest.

Art and Literature: Art in its narrow sense includes painting, sculpture, architecture, music and
dance. Literature -includes poetry, dream and fiction. Both art and literature influence the
imagination and exert control on human behavior. The marital music of the military band arouses
feeling of determination and strength. A classical dance creates in us an appreciation of our
culture. The statute of Mahatma Gandhi teaches us the virtue of simple living and high thinking.
A painting may arouse in us a feeling of sympathy, affection and hatred. There is always a close
relationship between the national lives. The civilization of any specified time can be judged by
an examination of its arts. Artists have been called an agent of civilization.

Literature also influences human behavior in society. We have 'good' literature and 'bad'
literature. A good literature possesses an indefinable quality which makes it live through the
ages, Ramayana, Bhagvadgita and Mahabharat are classical work of great social value. On the
other hand, detective literature may have its effect on crime. Romantic literature may make the
reader passionate while religious literature may make them virtuous or superistituous. Rousseau1
in France has tended the French Revolution. Dickens changed the entire school system in Britain
by writing David Copperfield and other of his books. In this way, both art and literature exert
control through their influence on the imagination.

Humor and Satire: Humor is also a means of social control. It assumes various forms depending
upon the situation and purpose. It often serves to relieve a tense situation. Sometimes it is used
with a bad intention to deflate others without a reason. It also used to gain a favorable response.
Humor controls by supporting the sanctioned values of the society. Through cartoons, comics
and reports it can support the values of the society in a form that is light in spirit but effective in
control.

Satire employs wit and scorn as indirect criticism of actions felt to be vicious and socially
harmful. It exposes by ridicule the falsity and danger of behavior. There by it causes the people
to give up their vicious and harmful actions.

Public Opinion: The influence of public opinion as a means of social control is greater in simple
societies. In a village, the people are known to one another personally. It is difficult for a villager
to act contrary to the public opinion of the village. Public opinion greatly influences our actions.
For fear of public ridicule and criticism, we do not indulge in immoral antisocial activities. Every
individual wants to win public praise and avoid public ridicule or criticism. The desire for
recognition is a natural desire. We want count for something in the eyes of our fellowmen.
Human praise is the sweetest music. The greatest efforts of the human race are directly traceable
to the love of praise. Persons behave according to social norms to win public recognition or at
least to avoid public ridicule. Thus, public opinion is one of the strongest forces influencing the
behavior of people.

2. Formal Means: Among the formal means of social control, the importance ones are law,
education and coercion. A brief explanation of these means follow,

Law: Law is the most important formal means of social control. Early societies depended upon
informal means of social control but when societies grew in size or in complexity, they were
compelled to formulate rules and regulations, which define the types of behavior and specify the
penalties to be imposed upon those who violate them. Law is a body of rules enacted by legally
authorized bodies and enforced by punishments for their violation. The modem societies are
large in size. Informal means of social control are longer, sufficient to maintain social order and
harmony. Therefore, modern societies had to resort to formal means of social control.

Education: Along with law, the importance of education as a means of social control is being
growingly realized. Education is a process of socialization. It prepares the child, for a social
living. It reforms the attitudes wrongly formed by the children already. Thus, a family may make
the child superstitious, education will1 correct his beliefs and remove his prejudices. It teaches
him value of discipline, social co-operation, tolerance and sacrifice. It instills in him the qualities
of honesty, fair play and a sense of right and wrong. The importance, of education for creating
right social attitudes among the youth cannot be minimized. It is to note that education in India
has miserably failed to create right social attitudes among the youth of the country and act as an
effective means, of social control.

Coercion: Coercion is the use of force to achieve a desired end. It may be physical or non-
violent. It is the ultimate means of social control when all other means failed. Physical coercion
may take the form of bodily injury, imprisonment and death penalty. Physical coercion is without
doubt the lowest form of the social control. Societies would least desire to use it. It may have
immediate effects upon the offender but it does not have enduring effects. If a society has to
depend on external force, it shows its weakness rather than .strength in social control. Society's
best protection lies in the development of its citizens.

The Meaning of Social Disorganisation:

Social disorganisation is the process opposed to social organisation. The When the parts of social
structure do not perform their functions efficiently or effectively, there occurs an imbalance in
society. Emile Durkheim defined social disorganisation as “a state of disequilibrium and a lack
of social solidarity or consensus among the members of a society.”

W.I. Thomas discussed social disorganisation as “a decrease of the influence of existing rules of
behaviour upon members of the groups.”
According to Mowever, social disorganization is “the process by which the relationships
between members of a group are shaken.”

Stuart A. Queen and others described social disorganisation in their book ‘Social Organisation
and Disorganisation’ as the counterpart of social organisation. According to them, just as social
organisation provides the means by which a society maintains its unity through effective control
of its members, and, hence, functions smoothly; social disorganisation causes a weakening of
group solidarity, loss of control over its members, and, therefore, conflict and disintegration.

According to R.E.L. Faris, “Social disorganization is a disturbance in the patterns and

mechanisms of human relations.

According to Elliott and Merrill, “Social disorganisation is the process by which the relationship
between members of the group are broken or dissolved.”

Thus on the basis of these definitions it may be said that social disorganisation refers to serious
maladjustments in society so that they fail to satisfy the needs of the individuals. Society, as we
know, is the web of social relationships. In an organised society social relations have some
patterns and mechanisms. When the relations become disordered or disintegrated there is social
disorganisation.

In a well organised society the various institutions are in a harmonious adjustment or, in other
words, there exists functional balance between the various elements of the social structure. When
there is a lack of adjustment and balance and institutions (customs, values, beliefs, family, and
marriage) do not function in a manner that satisfies all the individuals, there is social
disorganisation.

Characteristics of Social Disorganisation: The main characteristics of social disorganisation are

the following:

(i) Conflict of Mores and of Institutions: Every society has its mores and institutions which
regulate the life of its members. With the passage of time, these mores and institution become
obsolete. New ideas arise and new institutions are formed. The existing mores come into conflict
with new mores.

Some people want to replace them by new ones. This destroys consensus in society. With the
destruction of consensus, social organisation breaks up and social disorganization arises.

If, on the one hand, there are critics of caste system, on the other hand there are its supporters.
There is a strong difference of opinion on a number of other issues like divorce, family planning,
untouchability, love-marriage, joint family system, women education, widow remarriage,
education etc. there are various views on these issues.
(ii) Transfer of Functions from one Group to Another: In an organised society the functions of
different groups are defined and predetermined. But as society is dynamic, the functions of one
group are transferred to another. For example, most of the functions once performed by the
family are transferred today to nurseries, schools and clubs. This has caused family
disorganisation.

(iii) Individualism: People today thinks in terms of self. The functions of different groups are
determined in purely individualistic terms. Under the impact of individualism every person
thinks upon all the important matters of life from his individual viewpoint.

(iv) Change in the Role and Status of the Individuals: In an organised society the roles and status
of people are defined and fixed. Their functions are well defined and they carry on the tasks
assigned to them. They enjoy the status in accordance with their role in society. A primitive
society suffers less from disorganisation because it is stable and its members follow the
professions allocated to them. But in course of time our norms change which also brings a
change in the roles and statuses of the people. They no longer are treated as fixed and the people
begin to choose from amongst the different role which causes disequilibrium. Faris writes,
“Social disorganization is the disruption of the natural relation of persons to a degree that
interferes with the performance of the accepted tasks of the group.”

Symptoms of Social Disorganisation: Elliot and Merrill have pointed out that social
disorganisation may be of three types i.e., disorganisation of the individual, the family, and
community. Among the symptoms of personal disorganisation they included juvenile
delinquency, various types of crime, insanity, alcoholism, suicide and prostitution. Among the
symptoms of family disorganisation they included divorce, illegitimate births, and extra marital
relationship. Among the symptoms of community disorganisation they included poverty,
unemployment, crime and political corruption.

Calvin F Schmid listed the symptoms of disorganised communities: high rate of population
mobility, high rates of divorce, desertion, illegitimacy, dependency, delinquency and criminality,
a disproportionately high rate of males, a low rate of home ownership, high rates of suicides,
commercialized vice and death from disease and alcoholism.

Faris has enumerated the following symptoms of social disorganisation:

(1) Formalism;

(2) The decline of sacred elements;

(3) Individuality of interests and tastes;

(4) Emphasis on personal freedom and individual rights;

(5) Hedonistic behaviour;

(6) Population heterogeneity;

(7) Mutual distrust;

(8) Unrest phenomena.

III. Causes of Social Disorganisation

Social disorganization has been and is always present in every society. As indicated above man
since the dawn of civilization has been confronted with social problems of diverse nature. A
society in which each structural element is functionally equilibrated with all the others is purely a
hypothesis. If social disorganization is a widely prevalent phenomenon, then the question arises
as to what leads to it.

(i) Division of Labour: According to Emile Durkheim, extreme division of labour is the cause of
social disorganization. Division of labour is generally productive of social solidarity; but when it
becomes excessive and complex then solidarity diminishes or disappears and social equilibrium
is disturbed. Extreme division of labour gives rise to economic crises of all kinds, class struggles,
and industrial strife, and leads to the demoralization of individuals, the family, and the
community. “In short” as Koenig puts, “it produces an abnormal, anomalous situation in which
the different parts do not integrate but are at cross purposes with each other and a state of
normlessness.”

(ii) Violation of Social Rules: According to W.I. Thomas and Znaniecki, when the rules and
regulations of society fail to keep individuals under control, social disorganisation sets in. In
society there are always individuals who violate social rules. This has a disorganizing effect
upon social institutions, and unless the violations are checked; they may eventually lead to the
death of institutions. According to Elliot and Merrill, “Without social values neither social
organisation nor social disorganisation would exist.”

The changes in social values come into conflict with old values. The new values take time to
adjust themselves in society. In the meantime social disorganisation spreads. The Traditional
social values in Indian society have undergone a major change. As a result a major conflict
between the old and new values has been created. Consequently, one sees the process of social
disorganisation working rapidly.

(iii) Industrialization: Industrialization creates conditions leading to social disorganisation. The

effects of industrialization on family structure and relationships. Industrialization as seen in
system had led to capitalism, exploitation and class conflicts. It has also contributed to
unemployment, crime, immorality, family disorganisation, urbanisation and its evils.

(iv) Cultural Lag: Ogburn maintained in Social Change that disorganisation is caused primarily
by the unequal rates of change in the different parts of culture, resulting in a conflict between
them. The disproportionate rates of change in various elements of the functionally
interdependent component system of a changing social structure produce a condition of
disequilibrium. This uneven change is due to the fact that inventions and discoveries are made
more frequently in certain parts of culture, usually the material parts, than in others.

Science and technology, while bringing a more efficient material culture, more knowledge, and a
higher standard of living, produce social disorganisation as well. Thus Ogburn says, “When
10,000 musicians are thrown out of jobs as a result of ‘canned’ music through the sound film
introduced in cinemas, the result is the disorganisation of orchestras, and musicians who cannot
find employment.”

Modern technology is changing at a rapid rate and creating important social changes with which
our institutions have not yet caught up. Ogburn by analysing various social problems such as
unemployment, poverty, crime, race conflict, family disorganisation and labour problems has
shown that social disorganisation issues from the irregular changes of our culture.

(v) Natural Catastrophes: According to Ogburn, technological inventions, however, must not be
considered the only cause of social disorganization, Ecological disturbances, i.e., disturbances in
the relationship of man to his environment, including such natural phenomena as disease,
earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions and various other catastrophic phenomena of nature, may
also have a disorganizing effect on society.

When the Black Death visited England in 1348, it is said, it destroyed between a third and a half
of the entire population in a little over a year. The effect of natural catastrophes on social
organisation was great in the past; at present such catastrophes are more easily controlled.

We now have more knowledge with which to control or check epidemic, to build earthquake
proof houses and to dam rivers against floods. However, recent experiences with floods in India
suggest that the influence of geographic factors on social organisation should not be under-
estimated.

Besides natural catastrophes there may be other types of crisis too which can cause social
disorganisation. Thus the sudden death of a leader may create a crisis and throw the society out
of gear. The murder of Mahatma Gandhi created such a crisis for India. A crisis may become
cumulative as a result of a series of events taking place from time to time, the partition of India
was a cumulative crisis.

The differences between the Congress and Muslim League went on increasing, hatred between
Hindus and Muslims went on aggravating and communal clashes took place from time to time.
The fire of communalism gradually spread. In the end the country had to be partitioned. Both the
Indian and Pakistani societies were faced with serious problems which could not be solved even
to this day.
(vi) War: While war is the result of social disorganisation, it is also its cause. War disturbs the
economy of a country and introduces confusion and disorder in society. War leads to scarcity.
There is economic crisis during the war period. It inflates the prices and the people resort to
hoarding and black-marketing.

Further, war consumes the young men of the country. As a result young women are widowed.
They are left with none to support them. That tends to weaken the sexual ties. War also affects
the male-female ratio. Social values are also injured.