Elements of Mechanism - Peter Schwamb - 1904
Elements of Mechanism - Peter Schwamb - 1904
Elements of Mechanism - Peter Schwamb - 1904
Book. Jz&.
Gowright^°_
COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT.
^s
ELEMENTS OF MECHANISM.
BY
AND
FIRST EDITION.
FIRST THOUSAND.
NEW YORK:
JOHN WILEY & SONS.
London : CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited.
1904.
LIBRARY of CONGRESS
Two Copies Received
NOV 4 I9U4
^opyriant tntry
Copyright, 1904,
BY
PETER SCHWAMB
AND
ALLYNE L. MERRILL.
0^-31(0°)
ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK,
PEEFACE.
Among the works consulted and to which we are indebted for sug-
gestions and illustrations are the following: " Kinematics of Machin-
ery" and u Der Konstrukteur," by F. Reuleaux, the former for the
discussion of linkages, and the latter for various illustrations of mechan-
isms; " Principles of Mechanism," by S. W. Robinson, for the discussion
of non-circular wheels; " Kinematics/' by C. W. MacCord, for the dis-
cussion of annular wheels and screw-gearing; " Machinery and Mill-
work/' by Rankine; " Elements of Mechanism/' by T. M. Goodeve;
and "Elements of Machine Design/' by W. C. Unwin.
Peter Schwamb.
Allyne L. Merrill.
October 20, 1904.
ffi
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
Introduction 1
CHAPTER II.
CHAPTER III.
CHAPTER IV.
23
CHAPTER V.
CHAPTER VI.
Levers. — Cams 59
CHAPTER VII.
LlNKWORK 73
CHAPTER VIII.
CHAPTER IX.
TAGE
Intermittent Linkwork. — Intermittent Motion 128
CHAPTER X.
CHAPTER XL
Aggregate Combinations 169
CHAPTER XII.
Index 255
ELEMENTS OF MECHANISM.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
2. A
Machine is a combination of resistant bodies so. arranged that
by their means the mechanical forces of nature can be compelled to
produce some effect or work accompanied with certain determinate
motions.* In general, it may be properly said that a machine is an
assemblage of moving parts interposed between the source of power
and the work, for the purpose of adapting the one to the other.
No machine can move itself, nor can it create motive power; this
must be derived from external sources, such as the force of gravitation,
the uncoiling of a spring, or the expansion of steam. As an example of
a machine commonly met with, an engine might be mentioned. It is
able to do certain definite work, provided some external force shall
act upon it, setting the working parts in motion. We shall find that
it consists of a fixed frame, supporting the moving parts, some of which
cause the rotation of the engine shaft, others move the valves distrib-
uting the steam to the cylinder, and still others operate the governor
which controls the engine. These moving parts will be so arranged
that they make certain definite motions relative to each other when an
external force, as steam, is applied to the piston.
3. The operation of any machine depends upon two things first, the
:
of the machine. But the nature of the movements does not depend upon
the strength or absolute dimensions of the moving parts, as can be shown
by models whose dimensions may vary much from those requisite for
strength, and yet the motions be the same as those of
of the parts will
the machine. Therefore, the force and the motion may be considered
separately, thus dividing the science of Mechanism into two parts, viz.:
1°Pure Mechanism, which treats of the motions and forms of the
parts of a machine, and the manner of supporting and guiding them,
independent of their strength.
2° Constructive Mechanism, which involves the calculation of the
forces acting on different parts of the machine; the selection of mate-
rials as to strength and durability in order to withstand these forces,
taking into account the convenience for repairs, and facilities for manu-
facture.
In what follows, we shall, in general, confine ourselves to the first part,
pure mechanism, or what is sometimes called "the geometry of machin-
ery"; but shall in some cases consider the forces in action.
Then our definition of a machine might be modified to accord with
the above, as follows:
A Machine is an assemblage of moving parts so connected that when
the first, or recipient, has a certain motion, the parts where the work is
done, or effect produced, will have certain other definite motions.
—
Continuous Motion. When a point goes on moving indefinitely
6.
in a given path in the same direction, its motion is said to be continuous.
In this case the path must return on itself, as a circle or other closed curve.
A wheel turning on its bearings affords an example of this motion.
7. —
Reciprocating Motion. When a point traverses the same path
and reverses its motion at the ends of such path the motion is said to be
reciprocating.
Vibration and Oscillation are terms applied to reciprocating circular
motion, as that of a pendulum.
perpendicular to, that axis. When all the points of a body thus move
the body is said to revolve about the axis. If the axis passes through
the body, as in the case of a wheel, the word rotationis used synonymously
12. Frame. —
The frame of a machine is a structure that supports
the moving parts and regulates the path, or kind of motion, of many of
them directly. In discussing the motions of the moving parts, it is con-
venient to refer them to the frame, even though it may have, as in the
locomotive, a motion of its own.
13. Velocity.
— Velocity is the rate of motion of a point in space.
When the motion is referred to a point in the path of the body its velocity
is expressed in linear measure. When the point is rotating continuously,
or for the instant, about some axis, its motion may be referred to the
axis when its velocity is expressed in angular measure.
In the first
case it has linear velocity and
second case angular velocity.
in the
Velocity is uniform when equal spaces are passed over in equal times,
however small the intervals into which the time is divided. The veloc-
ity in this case is the space passed over in a unit of time, and if s repre-
sent the space passed over in the time t, the velocity v will be
-I m
Velocity is variable when unequal spaces are passed over in equal
intervals of time, increasing spaces giving accelerated motion and decreas-
ing spaces giving retarded motion. The velocity when variable is the
limit of the space passed over in a small interval of time, divided by the
time, when these intervals of time become infinitely small. If As repre-
sent the space passed over in the time At, then
As
v = limit of -7- as At diminishes indefinitely,
or
•-* &
The uniform linear velocity of a point is measured by the number of
units of linear distance passed over in a unit of time, as feet per minute,
inches per second, etc. When the velocity is variable it is measured by
the distance which would be passed over in a unit of time, if the point
retained throughout that time the velocity which it had at the instant
considered.
a.v. = - l.v. 7 ^
radius
r
from which
l.v. = a.v. X radius (4)
driver and follower depend upon the connections with the frame of the
machine, the change of motion in kind is fixed, and it only remains for
us to determine the relations of direction and velocity throughout the
motion. Now the laws governing the changes in direction and velocity
can be determined by comparing the movements of the two pieces at
each instant of their action, and the mode of action will fix the laws.
Therefore, whatever the nature of the combination, if we can determine
throughout the motion of the driver and follower, the velocity ratio, and
directional relation, the analysis will be complete.
Either the velocity ratio or the directional relation may vary, or
remain the same throughout the action of the two pieces.
CHAPTER II.
18. —
Graphic Representation of Motion. We can represent the
motion of a point in any given piece of mechanism, graphically, by a
right line whose length in units indicates the velocity, and whose direc-
tion indicates the direction of motion of the point at the instant con-
sidered; an arrow-head is used to indicate the direction in which the
point is moving. If the path of the moving point be a curve of any
kind, the direction of the curve at any point is that of its tangent at that
point, which indicates the direction of motion as well.
direction by
bb v The components of aax perpendicular to and along
ab are and ad respectively.
ac
The component ad will represent
the entire tendency of translation
of the line ab in the direction ab
due to the l.v. aax at the point a.
Since the points a and b are
rigidly connected, the l.v. of
any point in the line ab must
be such that when resolved into
components perpendicular to and Fig. 5.
tangent to the path of b in the given position. The l.v. of e will be eev
where ee± is tangent to the path of e in the given position, and where
eex \bb 1 = de\db, since in any rotating body the l.v's of any points are
proportional to their respective distances from the axis.
To find the l.v. of / we have the l.v. of the point e in ef represented
by ee x therefore the component of translation along ef will be eo. The
,
component fp must be equal to eo, which gives jf1 as the resulting l.v. of /.
rotation about one axis, and the a.v. of all points about that axis must
be the same. The only point satisfying this condition is o, at the inter-
section of ao and bo, and the piece ab has a motion at that instant »such
as it would have if it were rotating about an axis through o. The axis
through o, perpendicular to the plane of the motions, is called the instan-
taneous axis, it being the axis about which the body is rotating for the
instant in question.
The a.v. about the instantaneous axis being the same for the instant,
for the points a and b, the l.v's of a and b will be proportional to their
distances from the instantaneous axis;
If the motions of the points a and b are not in the same plane, the
instantaneous axis would be found as follows: Pass a plane through
the point a perpendicular to aa t the motion aa x might then be the result
;
&
the perpendiculars through a and b coincide
and the above method fails. Let aa x and
~~^Z 1
b\ be the l.v's of the points a and b respect-
jf'^ ively. To find the instantaneous axis draw
a right line through the points a ± and b x in
each case and note the point o where it inter-
&! sects ab or ab produced. This must be the
instantaneous axis, for from the similar tri-
angles aa x o and b\o we have
::l
a ?• aa.:bb.=oa:ob,
Fig. 8. ,
*
of c into rectangular components, one of which, ck, shall be along be, and
Fig. 9.
for the instant. The linear velocities of a and b are proportional to their
distances from o, the instantaneous axis.
aa t and bb 1 become equal to each other, then ob will be infinite and the
consecutive positions of ab will be parallel to each other. This is also
true if the motions are at any angle with ab, so long as they are equal
and parallel, as in Fig. 11.
The motion of a line, or of a body containing that line, at any instant
when it is thus revolving about an axis
/ /^
by revolving it about an axis through
l
\ \
// 'Z
perpendicular to the plane of the paper, 6y^
the paths of a and b being arcs of circles /]
drawn from as a centre, and with radii j
_
equal to oa and ob respectively.
When the two positions of ab are taken infinitely near each other,
becomes the instantaneous centre.
27. Centroid. —The curve passing through the successive positions
of the instantaneous centre of a body having a combined motion of
rotation and translation is called a centroid. The surface formed by the
successive positions of the instantaneous axis is called an axoid.
we have in each of the positions which it may occupy, distances from a and
b to itsinstantaneous centre for that position, which distances are, there-
fore, distances from a and b to a point in the trace of the surface of the
body containing ab. Thus am and bm
1 1
are equal respectively to a l o l and
b^; similarly am2 and bm2 are equal respectively to a2 o 2 and b 2 o 2 . A
smooth curve through these points om{m2 etc., would give the trace of the
,
surface of the body containing ab. It will also be found that this curve
om x m2 is the centroid of cd relative to ab, when ab is assumed fixed.
CHAPTER III.
29. —
Primary and Secondary Pieces. In order to distinguish between
pieces of a machine which are connected directly to the frame and those
carried by other moving pieces, the former are called primary, and the
latter secondary pieces.
Thus, if the connection of the primary pieces to the frame be by
closed pairs of elements, the following determinate motions can be
given to them:
1° Straight translation or sliding;
2° Rotation, motion in a circle, as a wheel on its axis;
3° A helical motion, which might be considered as a combination of
1° and 2°, as a screw.
30. Bearings are the surfaces of contact between the frame and the
primary pieces, the name being applied to the surface of each piece; but
these surfaces sometimes have distinctive names of their own.
The bearings of primary pieces may be arranged, according to the
motions they will allow, in three classes
For straight translation the bearings must have plane or cylin-
1°
understood in its most general sense.
drical surfaces, cylindrical being
The surfaces of the moving pieces are called slides; those of the fixed
piecei, slides or guides.
2° For rotation, or turning, they must have surfaces of revolution, as
circular cylinders, cones, conoids, or flat disks. The surface of the solid
or full piece is called a journal, neck, spindle, or pivot;
that of the
hollow or open piece, a journal, gudgeon, pedestal, plumber- or pillow-
block, bush, or step.
For translation and rotation combined, or helical motion, they
3°
must have a helical or screw shape. Here the full piece is called a screw,
and the open piece a nut.
It will be interesting to note the relation that the slide and journal
bear to the screw, from which they might be considered as derived.
If we suppose the pitch of a screw /v
to be diminished until it becomes
zero, or if we suppose the pitch
angle to become zero, then the form
A (Fig. 15) would be changed to that
of B, which, with a modification of
the thread outline, would become, like C, a common form for a journal.
Thus, by making the pitch zero, the motion along the axis of the screw
has been suppressed, and only rotation is possible for the nut. If we
suppose the pitch angle to increase instead of diminish, the screw will
become steeper and steeper. If the angle =90°, the screw-threads
become parallel to the axis, the screw becomes a prism, and the nut a
corresponding hollow prism, as Fig. 15, D. Here rotation is suppressed,
;
and only sliding along the axis is possible, giving us the slide. If the
It very often the case that pulleys or wheels are to turn freely on
is
their cylindrical shafts and at the same time have no motion along them
for this purpose, rings or collars (Fig. 16, A) are used, the collars D and
E, held by set screws, prevent the motion of the pulley along the shaft
but allow its free rotation. Sometimes pulleys or couplings must be free
A M
e^
c
m
Fig. 16.
to "slide along their shafts, but at the same time must turn with them;
they must then be changed to a sliding pair. This is often done by
fitting to the shaft and pulley or sliding piece a key C (Fig. 16, B),
parallel to the axis of the shaft. The key may be made fast to either
piece, the otherhaving a groove in which it can freely slide. The above
arrangement is very common, and is called a feather and groove or spline,
or a key and keyway.
Fig. 17.
thread liable to injury, and less easy to construct, the modified forms
B and C are much used.
Form B, known as the Sellers or United States standard, has the
angle of the thread 60°, and one-eighth of the depth of the V cut off
at the topand at the bottom; this makes a better screw, as more material
between the bottoms of the threads, the very thin parts removed
is left
time, taking care in the winding that the threads are kept the same dis-
tance apart, we shall have a multiple-threaded screw. If two threads are
used, a double-, and if three threads, a triple-threaded, screw will result,
and so on. By the above principle, the pitch can be greatly increased
without necessarily increasing the size of the thread. Here the pitch is
measured by the axial distance between two similar points on successive
coils of the same thread, one point being found from the other by follow-
ing the thread for one complete turn.
P
2° The screw may simply rotate, and the nut may have a motion of
translation in a straight line without turning. While the screw makes
-
w one turn, the nut will move through a distance equal
2nR
R; the veloc-
P
'
E5U
The latter form for the velocity ratio is, on ac-
count of its simplicity, used as an approximation to
the first.
Either of the above combinations may be re-
versed, that is, the nut may be made to turn and
the screw remain stationary in 1°, or have a straight
Fig. 19. translation in 2°. This does not change the veloc-
ity ratio.
For example, in the case of a simple jack-screw as in Fig. 19, if
P is the pitch of the screw, and R the length of the lever- arm, we
have
2 2
l.v. of F = V(2tiR +P ) ^27:R
nearly. (5)
l.v. of W P P
35. Compound or Differential Screws.— If A (Fig. 20) is a fixed
nut carrying the screw S, and B is a movable nut, also on the screw
COMPOUND OR DIFFERENTIAL SCREWS. 19
S, and free to slide along the guides GG, the pitches of the screw in A
and B being P x
and P 2
respectively,
P 2 being smaller than P x
and both
threads being right-handed;
have for each turn of the screw in the
we shall
0Jig
direction of the arrow an advance of
Fig. 20.
the screw S to the right equal to the
pitch Pv Meanwhile the nut B has
moved relatively to the screw a dis-
tance P 2 to the left. The absolute ifiiisii
motion of B is then to the right and
equal to (P 1 — P 2 ), the resultant of Fig. 21.
its motion relatively to S, and the
motion of S. The same result would be obtained by supposing the
nuts A and B to act in succession. Thus, suppose B fast to the screw
and free to turn, then one turn of the screw in A would advance B a
distance +P t (motion to the right being positive); now suppose the
screw fast in A, and turn the nut B back one turn to the position it would
have had provided it had not rotated; B will then move a distance
— P2 Adding the two motions, we have for the motion of B, (P 1 — P2 )
.
moving on the guides GG. The action is the same as in the previous
case.
In all the previous cases the force has been applied to rotate the
screw or nut, and thus cause a straight translation a force causing trans- ;
lation might be applied to the screw or nut, which would cause the nut
or screw to rotate. This is not possible with ordinary pitches, as the
frictional resistance is so great; it is well known, however, that nuts and
screws subjected to constant jarring, such as those on railway trucks,
are very liable to work loose; and double nuts, one serving as a check
for the other, are often used. When the pitch is made very long, the
20 BEARINGS AND SCREWS.— WORM AND WHEEL.
screw can be easily turned by moving the nut along it; in this case the
screw is formed by a steep spiral groove running along a cylindrical
piece. The nut fits this cylindrical piece, and has a projecting feather
which fits the groove. This principle is used in a small automatic drill,
where the spindle which carries the drill has a multiple- threaded screw
of rapid pitch, cut about two-thirds of its length. This screw fits into
a tubular handle closed at one end and furnished with a nut which
fits the screw: by pushing upon the handle, the screw with the drill
is made to rotate; a coiled spring placed between the end of the screw
and the closed end of the tube returns the screw to its normal position.
36. Screws are correctly cut in a lathe where the cylindrical blank
is made to rotate uniformly on its axis, while a tool, having the same
contour as the space between the threads, is made to move uniformly on
guides in a path parallel to the axis of the screw, an amount equal to
the pitch for each rotation of the blank. The screw is completed by
successive cuts, the tool being advanced nearer the axis for each cut
until the proper size is obtained. A nut can be cut in the same way by
using a tool of the proper shape and moving it away from the axis for
successive cuts.
Screws are also cut with solid dies either by hand or power, and with
proper dies and care good work will result. Nuts are generally threaded
by means of "taps" which are made of cylindrical pieces of steel having
a screw-thread cut upon them of the requisite pitch; grooves or flutes are
then made parallel to the axis to furnish cutting edges, the tap is then
tapered off at the end to allow it to enter the nut, and the threads are
"backed off" to supply the necessary clearance.
Screws cut by open dies that are gradually closed in as the screw is
being cut are not accurate, as the screw is begun on the outside of the
cylinder by the part of the die which must eventually cut the bottom of
the thread on a considerably smaller cylinder. Thus, as the angle of tne
helix is greater the smaller the cylinder, the pitch remaining the same,
the die at first traces a groove having a pitch due to the greater angle
of the helix at the bottom of the thread. As the die-plates are made to
approach each other, they tend to bring back this helical groove to the
standard pitch; this strains the material of the threads, and finally pro-
duces a screw of a different pitch than that of the die-plates.
37. Worm and Wheel.— A worm and wheel (Fig. 22) is a combina-
tion of a screw and a wheel furnished with teeth so shaped as to be
capable of engaging with the screw placed tangential to the wheel. The
continuous rotation of the screw or worm will then impart continuous
rotation to the wheel, and it will advance through one, two, or three
teeth upon each turn of the screw, according as the thread
on the screw is single, double, or triple. On account of the great
" :
POWER OF A SCREW. 21
Fig. 22.
the worm the point where the force F is
applied will move a distance 2tzR and the surface of the drum where
W is exerted will move PX- 2
d;
l. v. of F motion of F 2nR
l.v. of W motion of W (6)
IX
2° Let the worm be
double-threaded and let N be the number of
teeth on the worm-wheel, then we shall have
l.v. of F 2tzR
l.v. of W 2
(7)
N 2
worm. If the worm were triple-threaded, the motion of W for one turn
3
of the worm would be ^tzD2 .
by the velocity of that point equal to the force at the point of delivery
multiplied by its velocity, or the forces are to each other inversely as
the velocities of the points at which they act. For example, in the
previous paragraph we have
l.v.F _W
UW~Y (S)
Combining this fact with the previous statement in regard to the ratio
of the linear velocities of the points where the forces act, we can find
22 BEARINGS AND SCREWS.— WORM AND WHEEL.
the forces which may be transmitted in such cases, when losses due to
friction are neglected. Thus in case 1° in the preceding paragraph
we should have
W l.v.F 2tzR
F ~l.v. W~ D Ty 2
(9 >
the fixed element for the movable one, there is no alteration in the
resulting absolute motion; the exchange of the fixedness of an element
with its partner is called the inversion of the pair. This has already
been noticed in connection with the discussion of the screw, where it
made no difference in the resulting motion whether the screw or the nut
was considered as fixed. In the ordinary bolt we turn the nut, while in
the " tap-bolt" the nut is stationary and the bolt is turned. In the
common wagon- wheel the axle is fixed to the body of the wagon, while
the wheel turns on it in the railway truck the bearing is attached to the
;
truck frame, and the axle turns in it with the wheel, which is made fast
to the axle.
cut away where it is not needed to resist the forces. When a pair of
elements is thus incomplete, and the closure is effected by means of a
force or forces, we have what is called a force-closed pair of elements.
The bearings for railway axles, the steps for water-wheel shafts, the
ways of an iron planer, railway wheels kept in contact with the rails by
the force of gravity, are all examples of force-closed pairs.
R
CHAPTER IV.
•••
£-! •••••••• aw
23
24 ROLLING CYLINDERS AND CONES, ETC.
That is, when two circles roll together, their uniform angular velocities
are inversely as the radii of the circles.
Now if, as ismore commonly the case, we take the number of revo-
lutions per minute, Nt and N2 as given, the l.v's per minute of the
,
2nR 1
N = 2<n:R N
l 2 2,
or RJN^Rfl^
N x
R 2
(11)
N 2 Ri
That is, when two circles roll together, their revolutions in a given time
are inversely proportional to the radii of the circles.
44. Given the velocity ratio and the distance between centres of a
pair of rolling cylinders, to find their radii.
External Contact (Fig. 23). — If D is the distance between the axes, and
A makes N x revolutions and B makes N2 revolutions per minute, we have
from equation (11)
R,^ 1
Fig. 24.
NJ)
and R«
NDt
Ri-
(Fig. 25). Through o± draw the line o x n, and lay off upon it, to some
convenient scale, the distances ox m and
mn equal to the number of units in N 2
and N 1
respectively. Draw no 2 through
the centre o 2 ,
and then draw mc parallel
to no 2 . c will be the point of contact
and R t
and R 2
the radii.
Internal Contact (Fig. 26). —Draw the line
and lay off o xra equal to the Fig. 25.
0{n as before,
units in iV2 ;
then lay off mn toward ot from m equal to the units in N x ;
RACK AND FINION. 25
46. Rolling Cones. —Let A and B (Fig. 27) be a pair of rolling cones ;
also follows that two or more cones in pure rolling contact must have a
common apex.
—
Angular Velocity Ratio. Let R t and R 2 be the radii of the base
47.
N x and N2 be their revolutions per minute, and V 1 and V 2 their
circles,
angular velocities. Since the l.v's of the two base circles in contact at
c are the same, we have, as for rolling circles,
R 2 V, AY
and for any other point, as c', we must also have
R^JJ^J^
R 2
'
V t Nj
as R x
and R being in one piece, must revolve with the same a.v. about
t
',
Ri = Rl
R 2 R 2
'
Thus the angular velocity ratio of any two circles in contact on the
common element is the same as that of the base circles and that of the
two axes.
In practice customary to use thin frusta of the rolling cones for
it is
rolling conical wheels, and we shall find in this case also that teeth can
be developed from the cones and give the same result as pure rolling
contact of the original cones. Such toothed wheels are called bevel gears.
Given the a.v. ratio, the position of the base of one of the cones,
and the angle between the axes: to find the position of the base of the
other cone, and the radii of both bases.
Algebraical Solution. —
Let o x e and o2 e (Fig. 28) be the axes of a pair
of rolling cones, 6 the angle between the axes, R^ and R 2 the radii of
bases, 1
and 2 the revolutions per N N
minute, and a x and a 2 the semi-
vertical angles of the respective cones.
R = ec sin
x
a^ ;
R2 = ec sin
\j
9 a2 ;
sin a x
(12)
sin a2 R 2 AY
substituting for a 2 the value (6— a x )
and solving, we have
N 2 _ sin a x _ sin a t
N t
sin(# — oY sin# cosa^ — cos sin c^
sm a: j
cos a, tan a t
sin «! sin 6 — cos 6 tan a '
sin 6 — cos x
cos a 1
^
.*. tan a t =
N sin 2
sin#
(13)
N +N cos
x 2
N lt a
^+cos#
Now the two angles a t and a 2 being known, and the distance o x e of one
base circle from the intersection of the axes being given, the distance
o 2 e of the other base circle from the intersection of the axes may be
readily found and also the radii R x and R2 of the base circles.
The angle between the axes is often 90°, in which case we should
have
tan «i = ^-; tana 2 =-^;
N
R = o e tan a = o^e^- R = o e.
x x x ; 2 x
Graphical Solution. —Given the angle between the axes of two roll-
ing cones and their a. v. ratio: to find the element of contact of the
two cones. Let N t and iV"2 be the revolutions per minute of the axes
o x e and o 2 c respectively (Fig. 29). Then, since the revolutions are
.--1
V^^ ^ a o9
*xT"\X
x \— b
X /V
\ c
Fig. 29.
axes will give one point on the element of contact, which may then
be drawn through the point thus found, and through e.
Fig. 30 shows a case in which the data are such that the cones are
found to be in internal contact.
Fig. 31.
=
shifted nearer the axis of A, and conversely. If the roller is carried
machine c
in feed mechanisms for tools,
Speed Controller Co. Here two equal rollers, C and D, faced with a yield-
ing material, are arranged to run
between two equal hollow discs
A and B. The rollers with their
supporting yokes (only one of which
is shown in the elevation) are ar-
50. Rolling of —
Non-cylindrical Surfaces. If the angular velocity
ratio of two rolling bodies is not a constant, the pitch lines will not be
circular. Whatever forms of curves the pitch lines take, the conditions
of pure rolling contact should be fulfilled, namely, the point of
:
ae c
.
stant angle between the tangent to the curve and the radiant to the
point of tangency; and where e is the base of the Naperian logarithms.
In Fig. 40 let oc = a, and ocd = <f).
Taking successive values of 0,
starting from oc, we may calculate the values of r and thus plot the
curve. If, however, it is desired to pass
a spiral through two points on radiants
a given angle apart, it is to be noticed
from the equation of the curve that if
the successive values of d are taken with
a uniform increase, the lengths of the
corresponding radiants will be in geo-
metrical progression. To draw a spiral Fig. 40.
through the points and e, Fig. 40, bi-
b
sect the angle boe, and make of a mean proportional between ob and oe;
f will be a point on the spiral. Then by the same method bisect foe,
and find oh; also bisect bof and find ok, and so on; a smooth curve
through the points thus found will be the desired spiral.
53. Since these curves are not closed, one pair cannot be used for
continuous motion; but a pair of such curves may be well adapted to
sectional wheels requiring a varying angular
velocity. For example,
in Fig. 41, given the
axes o 1 and o 2 the angle co x e through which A
,
slide coincides with the tangent to the spiral, the line of centres
being from o through c to infinity and perpendicular to the direc-
tion of motion of the slide. In this combination the l.v. of the
slide will equal the a. v. of A multiplied by the length of the radiant
in contact, oc.
a.v. B oxd
a.v. A o 2 e'
Fig. 47.
and where each of the sectors of the bilobe is of the same length
as one of those of the unilobe, and from a spiral of the same
obliquity, but where each subtends an angle of 90°. In a similar
manner a trilobed wheel may be found which could be driven by the
same unilobed wheel as above, hence also by the bilobed wheel
found from that unilobe. These wheels would therefore be inter-
changeable. Fig. 47 shows a set of such wheels which would be
;
* 58. The —
Rolling of Equal Ellipses. If two equal ellipses, each turn-
ing about one of its foci, are placed in contact in such a way that the
distance between the axes o x o 2 , Fig. 48, equal to the major axis of
is
we should have
. oxe +co 2 = 0^ =
and therefore cd = co 2
o x c-\-cd, .
the foci d and o 2 respectively, are equal, it also follows that the arc cf is
equal to the arc eg which completes the requirements for perfect rolling
contact. It will also be noticed that the line dee will be straight and
that a link could connect d and e, as will be seen when discussing link-
work.
If A (Fig. 48) is the driver, the a.v. ratio will vary from a minimum
o h
when h and k are in contact, and then equal to —-, to a maximum when
o 2k
/ and g are in contact, when it will equal — . The a.v. ratio will be
unitywhen the major axes are parallel, the point of contact being then
midway between o and o 2 x
.
Such rolling ellipses supplied with teeth, thus forming elliptic gears,
are sometimes used to secure a quick-return motion in a slotting-
machine.
at infinity
e at infinity
Fig. 50.
rolling contact, one turning about its focus o 2 as an axis, and the other
having a motion of translation perpendicular to o t d.
To prove the rolling action perfect, assume the parabolas with their
vertexes in contact at ra. Let / be the point on the turning parabola
which will move to c, so that o 2 f=o2 c. Draw fg parallel to o 2 c, and since
the parabolas are equal we shall have lg=o2 f, therefore lg=o 2 c; but
since o 2k is the directrix of the parabola whose focus is now at I, lg=gk;
therefore gk = o 2c, and as this parabola slides perpendicular to o x d, the
point g would also move to c. The rolling arcs mf and mg are equal.
Thus the parabola turning about o 2 would cause the other parabola to
have translation perpendicular to o^d, the two moving in perfect rolling
contact.
Fig. 51.
the foci o 1 and o 2 are then taken as axes of rotation, the hyperbolas will
turn in perfect rolling contact. To prove this take the point I on the
hyperbola whose foci are at o x and d so that o 1 l=dc and o 1 c=dl. Then
since a tangent at any point on a hyperbola makes equal angles with
the radii from the two foci, the tangent at I will bisect the angle o t ld
and the tangent at c will bisect the equal angle o t cd. If now the branch
0J1I is placed tangent to the branch dkc with the points I and c in
con-
tact, the radius lo t must fall on oxc and dl on dc. Since the difference
THE ROLLING OF EQUAL HYPERBOLAS. 39
between the radii from the two foci to any point on a hyperbola is a
constant and equal to the distance between the vertexes, o^ — dc^hk;
but o t l was taken equal to dc, hence o x c — o x l^hk. Then, since o x o 2 was
originally assumed equal to hk, we shall have 0^ — 0^ = 0^, and there-
fore the line o x o 2 c will be a straight line, and the point of contact c will
lie on the line of centres. The arc Ih which is equal to ck will also be
equal to cf. Therefore the hyperbolas will be in perfect rolling contact.
The same reasoning will apply for any position of the point of contact.
It is interesting to note that since o 1 o 2 =de = a constant, and o x d=o2 e = a
constant, the linkage o 1 o 2 ed with the axes o ± and o 2 fixed would cause the
same a.v. ratio about o x and o 2 as the rolling hyperbolas would give.
If the hyperbola turning about the axis o 2 is the driver, the a.v. ratio
will be a minimum when the vertexes / and k are in contact and will
line. Belts are commonly used to transmit a nearly constant and con-
tinuous velocity ratio, and in this case the acting surfaces are cylindrical.
The Effective Radius of a pulley is the radius of its pitch surface.
The Pitch Line of a pulley is the line on its pitch surface in which
40
VELOCITY RATIO. 41
the centre line of that part of the band which touches the pulley lies.
|^ ;
. ......... a«,
Belts and cords are not suited to transmit a precise velocity ratio r
because they are liable to stretch or to slip on the pulleys. This freedom
to stretch and slip is an advantage in powerful and quick-running
machinery, as it prevents shocks which are liable to occur when a machine
is thrown suddenly into gear, or when there is a sudden fluctuation in
A Fig. 52.
cones placed base to base, the belt will tend to climb both, and would
thus run with its centre line on the ridge formed by the union of the
42 CONNECTION BY BANDS OR WRAPPING CONNECTORS.
two cones. In practice pulley rims are made crowning, except in cases
where the belt must occupy different parts of the same pulley. In
Fig. 52 two common forms of rim sections are shown at C and D; that
shown at C is most commonly met with, as it is the easier to construct.
When pulleys are improperly located, the belt will generally work
toward the position where it is tightest, or will run toward the high side
of the pulley; this is due to the lateral stiffness of the belt, and could
be explained in the same way as the climbing on a conical pulley.
66. Tight and Loose Pulleys are used for throwing machinery into
and out of gear. They consist of two pulleys placed side by side upon
the driven shaft CD (Fig. 53); A, the tight pulley, is
G
keyed to the shaft; while B, the loose pulley, turns
r= =3/
loose upon the shaft, and is kept in place by the hub of
the tight pulley and a collar. The driving-shaft carries
a pulley G, whose width is the same as that of A and B
put together, or twice that of A. The belt, when in
motion, can be moved by means of a shipper that guides
i ° °"
its advancing side, either on to the tight or the loose
= ^ + 0^+2Ccos0, . . . (17)
at
= —j-=
an+bo D+d I
where sintf
ao
Fig. 55.
an — bo D-d A
-here sin d =
C 2C 2C
A2
and cos 4- 4C 2
'
A2 I A2 )
\ i^+^j 1-4^2
4C' [> nearly.
If we expand the quantity under the radical sign, and neglect all
terms having a higher power of C than the square in the denominator,
as C is always large compared with A, we have
2
A . A2
L=%Z+2C UC 2+1
,
8C 2 ...J,
7T J2
or L = -J+2C+^, very nearly. (19)
44 CONNECTION BY BANDS OR WRAPPING CONNECTORS
(20)
fj+*+£-
Hence, an open belt is to run on a pair of pulleys, the sum and dif-
if
ference of whose diameters are I a and J a and the same belt is also to
,
run on another pair of pulleys, the sum and difference of whose diame-
ters are 2 X and J x we have, since the length of the belt must be the
,
£J +2C+ AC 2
2Vf2C+ 4C
from which
D.
From this equation and the equation —^=—?, where N represents the
r.p.m. of the driving shaft and n x the r.p.m. of driven shaft when the
belt is on the diameters Dx , d x the diameters
, Dx and d x could be
SPEED-CONES. 45
D x = nx
d x N'
D x x _n x —N
—d
n x —N
and A x (for a crossed belt) = AJ
Ia (22)
ftxi -iV
Ja
2 j
^-^VNy V
2*- 1 '*
\n x +N2a \
(23)
ZzC
diameter of any pair of steps, and calculate the other diameter by equa-
tion (16), thus finding values for l a and A a From these the diameters .
of any other pair of pulleys can be found. In the case of a crossed belt,
the other diameters are found by using the two equations
Da -\- d a = D x -\- d x = a constant
and
D x _ftx
d~N'
In the case of an open belt find values for A 1} A 2 A 3 etc., assuming , ,
Fig. 60.
the belt on Dn , dn would give ,- =
but
dn N'
since D = dn
1
and Dn = d x
we have
N or N=V n.rir (24)
N'
Knowing the value of N the large diameters D n = d are readily found. 1
and 7^ = 60 r.p.m., i\T willbe found to be 189.7 r.p.m. and the largest
diameters, Dn = d 1 , will be 12". 65.
If the belt were crossed, the cones shown in Fig. 60 would answer.
2™ = ^!+ 2izC
Using the same data as taken above with the crossed belt, and letting
the distance between the axes C = 20", we find
74 82
16.65+^^ = 17 ,,
.25,
125.66
and
D 7 8
,r
.65.
Having thus determined the middle diameter, the curve of the conoid
may be an arc of a circle passing through the extremities of the three
EFFECTIVE PULL. 47
70. Effective Pull. —By the effective pull on a belt we mean the pull
that is doing the work, that is, the difference in the tension of the two
sides of the belt. If in Fig. 55 we assume A the driver .and B the fol-
lower, 2\ the tension in the tight side and T 2 the tension in the loose
side of the belt, the effective pull will be (T 1 — T 2 )=P. Suppose A
to be 30" in diameter, to make 200 revolutions per minute, and to
carry a belt transmitting 4 horse-power or 4X33,000 ft.-lbs. per minute;
what is the effective pull on the belt?
Here the work done by the belt, that is, the effective pull on the belt,
in lbs., multiplied by its speed in feet per minute, must equal the horse-
power transmitted multiplied by 33,000, or
30
^2X200X3,1416XP = 4X33,000.
.*. P = 84.03 + lbs.
From the above example it can readily be seen that the quicker a belt
travels the smaller the pull for a given horse-power transmitted.
point of delivery of a pulley is the point in the pitch line at which the
belt leaves the pulley.
48 CONNECTION BY BANDS OR WRAPPING CONNECTORS
but when approaching a pulley, its centre line must lie in the plane
of the pulley.
Guide-pulleys are used to change the directions of belts, and are
placed according to the above rule. It is possible, by the use of two
guide-pulleys, to connect any pair of pulleys by an endless belt, and
the guide-pulleys may be so placed that the belt will travel in either
direction, which is sometimes a great advantage.
direction, and in such a case the belt must always be delivered in the
plane of the pulley toward which it is running.
Fig. 62 shows a quarter-turn belt connecting two pulleys A and B
whose axes are in parallel planes and at right angles with each other.
SS is the trace of the intersecting planes of A and B, and if we suppose
QUARTER-TURN BELT. 49
i
m
T 3, feES
Fig. 63.
driven pulley, which is designed for two positions of the belt. For
the rotation in the direction of the full arrow the belt is drawn in full
lines; for the opposite rotation the belt is drawn dotted. This arrange-
ment was made use of on a small moulding-machine where the spindle
attached to B could be made to turn in opposite directions, its cutters
being made to worb when rotating in either direction.
50 CONNECTION BY BANDS OR WRAPPING CONNECTORS.
should be true for all cases where one guide-pulley is used, as the extra
friction, due to the working pull, is saved on the guide-pulley bearings.
Figs. 65 and 66 show another method of connecting two shafts at
right angles, two guide-pulleys being used in each case. The belt can
travel in either direction, and the same side of the belt comes in contact
with each pulley, except in the case of D (Fig. 66), where it is not pos-
sible on account of the crossed belt. It will be noticed that the directional
relation between A and B is the same in Figs. 65 and 66.
When a crossed belt is used to connect two pulleys, as in Fig. 54,
QUARTER-TURN BELT. 51
the same. This arrangement is often used to connect axes in the same
horizontal plane, or in two horizontal planes one a little above the
other; the guide-pulleys are then placed on a common vertical shaft on
which they turn loosely, being held in position by collars properly placed.
The name mule-pulleys is often applied to guide-pulleys arranged, as
indicated above, upon a vertical shaft.
Fig. 69 shows, in elevation, two shafts at right angles to each other
connected by means of a belt and mule-pulleys.
In order that a belt may run properly on pul-
^ leys having other than horizontal axes, they
behind the lip permits the belt to lie flat on the pulley. A straight
flange is liable to cause the belt to climb and strain its edge.
Fig.70 shows a method of connecting two hori-
zontal axes making an angle with each other. The
perpendicular distance between the axes must be a
little greater than the sum of the radii of the pulleys
75. Binder-pulleys. —
Guide-pulleys are often used,
as in Fig. 64, to increase the arc of contact of the belt,
and also, as there, to tighten the belt; when so used,
they are called binder- or tightening -pulleys, and are
always applied to the loose side of the belt.
Pulleys for belts could be combined in many other
ways, but the same principles govern the arrange-
ment in each case. When convenient it is best to
arrange the belt to travel in either direction, as engines
are sometimes moved backward a part of a turn, thus
Fig. 70. rendering any belt not admitting of motion in either
direction liable to be thrown off.
each pair of pulleys carrying several ropes. The grooves are made
V-shaped, and the ropes are drawn into them, thereby increasing the
hold upon the pulleys. Rope pulleys are usually made of cast iron,
and the grooves are turned. Fig. 71 A shows a section of the rim of
a pulley for carrying a number of ropes.
Large amounts of power are now successfully transmitted over
long distances by rapidly moving wire ropes carried by large, grooved
wheels. Wire ropes will not support without injury the lateral crushing
due V-shaped grooves; hence it is necessary to construct the
to the
pulleys with grooves so wide that the rope rests on the rounded bottom
of the groove, as shown in Fig. 71 B, which shows a section of the rim
of a wire-rope pulley. The friction is greatly increased, and the wear
DRUM, OR BARREL. 53
of the rope diminished, by lining the bottom of the groove with some
elastic material, as gutta-percha, wood, or leather jammed in tight.
Fig. 71.
Cords and ropes, especially wire ropes, are in general only used to
connect parallel axes, but when otherwise used the same rules as were
given for flat bands govern the arrangement. As ropes have no lateral
stiffness, they are not used to connect vertical axes without supplying
guide-pulleys to insure the proper guiding of the ropes into the grooves.
77. Drum, or Barrel. —When a cord does not merely pass over a
pulley, but is made fast to it at one end, and wound upon it, the pulley
usually becomes what is called a drum, or barrel. A drum for a round
rope is cylindrical, and the rope is wound upon it in helical coils. Each
layer of coils increases the effective radius of the drum by an amount
equal to the diameter of the rope. A drum for a flat rope has a breadth
oqual to that of the rope, which is wound upon itself in single coils,
each of which increases the effective radius by an amount equal to the
thickness of the rope.
78. Small cords are often used to connect non-parallel axes, and
very often the directional relation of these axes must vary. The most
common example is found in spinning frames and mules, where the
spindles are driven by
cords from a long, cylin-
drical drum, whose axis
is at right angles to the
axes of the spindles. In
such cases, the common
perpendicular to the two
axes must contain the
planes of the connected
pulleys both
; pulleys
may be grooved, or one
may be cylindrical, as in
the example given above.
Fig. 72 shows two
grooved pulleys, whose axes are at right angles to each other, connected
by a cord which can run in either direction, provided the groove is deep
54 CONNECTION BY BANDS OR WRAPPING CONNECTORS.
Gearing-chains.
79. In cases where a considerable amount of power has to be trans-
mitted between two shafts running at a slow speed, metal chains, called
gearing-chains or pitch-chains, are used with toothed wheels or sprocket-
ivheels. When a chain is to drive or be driven by a sprocket-wheel, the
acting surface of the wheel must be adapted to the figure of the chain,
so as to insure sufficient hold between them. Guide-sheaves for chains
are made circular, and grooved to suit the form of the chain. Chain
drums or barrels have one end of the chain made fast to them, and the
chain is guided by a suitably formed helical groove. Such drums are
used in cranes.
Gearing-chains are usually made of flat links, riveted or pinned
together at their ends, so as to allow a free turning of the links at the
joints. The most simple form consists of double and single links arranged
alternately, the single link being made thick enough to have the same
strength as the double links.
A wheel for such a chain (Fig. 74) has a polygonal prism abc for its
pitch surface, and when the links are of the same length, the pitch line
is a regular polygon; each side
of the polygon is equal to the
in position sidewise. The acting parts of the teeth outside of the pitch
line are made up whose centres are the adjacent angles
of arcs of circles,
of the pitch polygon; thus the arc deis drawn with b as a centre, and
Chain-wheels for oval chains, which are the most common, are
often made with a groove to receive the links standing edgewise,
and a series of pockets into which the links lying flatwise fit. This
form of wheel is often used to exert a pull on a chain passing partially
around it, as shown in Fig. 78. Here the pull is a downward one
on the chain X, which passes under the pocketed chain-wheel A, and
over a guide-sheave E, from which it passes downward, and is deposited
in a box. A chain-guide, C, is placed under the wheel A, to insure the
Fig. 78.
proper pocketing of the chain and guidance to the sheave E; this guide
is provided with a groove in which the links standing edgewise move,
and it is placed far enough away from the chain-wheel to allow the links
to move freely when properly pocketed. A chain-stripper, D, passing
into the groove of the wheel A, removes the chain from the wheel at
the proper place: its action can be clearly seen from the figure. A pro-
longation of the stripper D covers
the guide-sheave E, and insures the
proper passing downward of the
chain.
The chain could be arranged to
pass over a chain-wheel: it would
then exert an upward pull. In such
cases, the guide-sheave is dispensed
with, and a guide is placed at the
point where the chain comes in con-
tact with the wheel to insure the
proper pocketing of the links. This
Fig. 79.
arrangement is often used in small
hoisting-machines, the weight being directly lifted by the chain which
passes over the chain-wheel.
HIGH-SPEED CHAINS. 57
Fig. 80.
whose angles vary with the diameter of the wheel. The chain may be
made any convenient width, the pins binding the whole together. One
sprocket of each pair is supplied with flanges to retain the chain in place.
58 CONNECTION BY BANDS OR WRAPPING CONNECTORS
The upper figure shows a new chain in position on its sprocket, the bear-
ing points of the links a,b,c being on the straight edges of the links only,
not on the tops or roots of the teeth. The chain thus adjusts itself to
the sprocket at a diameter corresponding with its pitch, and as any tooth
comes into or out of gear there is neither slipping nor noise. The lower
figure shows the position taken by a worn chain of increased pitch on
the same wheel, a x and b t being the new bearing surfaces on the wheel
t
W .
—
Morse Rocker-joint Chain. This chain is an improved form of the
silent-running type and is now extensively used in place of belting and
gearing at speeds up to 2000 ft. per minute. In it the links are rounded
at one end and made to fit the sprocket-wheel at the other, as shown
in Fig. 81. The teeth of the sprocket-wheel are unsymmetrical, their
Fig. 81.
working faces d being more nearly radial, thus reducing any tendency
to slipping in the chain. The ordinary pin bearings are here replaced
by rocker-joints consisting oftwo pieces of hardened tool-steel, a and b,
so shaped and arranged that in passing on and off the sprocket one
piece rocks upon the other. Each link A has fast in one end the seat-
piece a and at the other a rocker-piece like b, and is so shaped as to be free
to move through the required angle on parts similarly held in the adjoin-
ing links, such as b in link B. Each outside link is bent laterally so'
that the large end comes under the small end of the adjoining link to
permit of the proper engagement with both seat and rocker piece. The
shouldered ends of the seat-pieces a are softened to allow their being
riveted either to the outside links or to washers.
To prevent undue vibration under high speeds and consequent wear,
the rocker-pieces are so shaped that the contact surfaces are greatly
increased when the chain is drawn straight, as shown at c, thus giving
a broad bearing surface which, while stiffening the chain, also reduces
the pressure on the parts designed for rolling except when the chain
is passing over its sprockets. This chain, having so very little friction,
has an exceedingly high efficiency.
To keep the chain in place on its sprockets special guiding links are
supplied which project below the chain into grooves turned in the
sprockets.
: (
CHAPTER VI.
LEVERS.—CAMS.
81. Levers. —We often have occasion to transfer some small motion
from one line to another; we will consider three cases depending on the
relative positions of the lines of motion
1° Parallel lines.
2° Intersecting lines.
3° Lines neither parallel nor intersecting.
In 1° we have the common lever (Fig. 82) where, when the lever
,
has a small angular motion, the points a and b receive motions propor-
tional to their distances from the centre c, and — eg---
I©-
approximately in the parallel lines aa x and bb v Z=S
If we suppose the lever to move, we have
l.v. a _ac
l.v. b «i &i
If P and W
denote the forces applied at a
Fig. 82.
motions along those lines, and drawing through their extremities lines
parallel to ad and bd respectively; the intersection of these lines at e
determines the line de. Choose any point c in de, and drop the perpen-
diculars ca and cb on ad. and bd respectively; then acb is the bell-crank
lever required.
Here, as in the previous case, if we suppose the lever to move, we
have
l.v. a, ac sin cda
l.v. b be sin cdb'
1 l
.
the first line of motion and parallel to the second line, the transferred
CAMS AND WIPERS. 61
second line of motion in this plane being a projection of the second line of
motion or the lever aJJ) has been arranged to transfer the motion from
;
be to a d
x
then the motion along a x d has been transferred to the second
x ; x
Fig. 86.
such as is given in Fig. 86, where the line Oabc represents the motion
given by the cam. The perpendicular distance of any point in the line
62 LEVERS.— CAMS.
from the axis OY represents the angular motion of the driver, while the
perpendicular distance of the point from OX represents the correspond-
ing movement of the follower, from some point considered as a starting-
point. Thus the motion Oabc indicates that from the position
line of
had no motion; from the position 4 to
to 4 of the driver, the follower
12 of the driver, the follower had a uniform upward motion 612; and
from position 12 to 16 of the driver, the follower had a uniform down-
ward motion 612, thus bringing it again to its starting-point.
84. Where the cam acts upon the point for which the motion is
given, as d in Fig. 86, and where the motion of the point is in a straight
line, passing through the axis of the cam, it is only necessary in con-
structing the pitch line of the cam to make the radii of such length
as to bring the follower to the desired positions after the required inter-
vals of rotation of the cam. Thus in Fig. 86 the point d, the axis of the
roller, is tobe still for one quarter of a turn; then it is to move up the
distance de uniformly in one half a turn; and then down the same dis-
tance uniformly in one quarter of a turn. Let the cam turn right-
handed. Draw radial lines from the axis of the cam, at intervals cor-
responding with those taken on OX in the diagram, in this case six-
teen lines, at equal intervals. The pitch line from to 4 is an arc of
a circle subtending 90° with a radius equal to od. In the next 180°
there are eight equal intervals and the radii 06, 08, etc., are made equal
to the distances 06, 08, etc., on the motion ode.
line of The remaining
90° is divided into four equal intervals, and the radii ol3, ol4, etc., are
made equal to the distances ol3, ol4, etc., on ode. The curve through
the points 4, 6, 8, etc., will give the pitch line of the cam, which line
would cause the axis of the roller to move with the desired motion.
If a roller is used, the cam outline lies inside the dotted line, as shown
in Fig. 86, a distance equal to the radius of the roller, and may be found
by from the pitch line with a radius equal to that of the
striking arcs
shown, and drawing a smooth curve tangent to these arcs.
roller, as
The heavy curve shows the cam outline, which, acting upon the roller,
motion.
will give its axis the desired
be noticed that at the point 12, using the roller, the axis is not
It will
moved quite so far as e. The use of a roller will often be found to pre-
vent the exact equivalent of the motion as given by the pitch line, the
two normal curves overlapping at their juncture, thus cutting off a part
of each.
be noticed (Fig. 86) that the cam can only drive the roller
It will
in one direction, viz., away from the centre 0; in order to provide
for the return, a spring or the weight would have to be relied upon,
tending to force d toward 0. Now if we suppose the cam-plate to be
extended beyond the roller, and cut a groove in it which would be the
DIAGRAMS FOR CAMS GIVING RAPID MOVEMENTS. 63
as light as possible.
If we draw the straight
line Oa, we have the case of a
uniform motion (as in Fig. 86),
the body being raised from e
to / in an interval proportional
^2rff b
to ob here the motion changes
;
1 1 i J 4 I s i 1 X
suddenly at and a accom- F IG. 87.
panied with a perceptible
shock. The Ocda would be an improvement, the follower not
line
requiring so great an impulse at the start or near the end of the motion,
each being much more gradual than before.
The body may be made to move with a simple harmonic motion,
the diagram for which would be drawn as follows (Fig. 88).
Draw the semicircle ehj on ef as a diameter; divide the time line
Oh into a convenient number of equal parts (in this case ten), and then
divide the semicircle into the same number of equal parts; through the
divisions of the semicircle draw horizontal lines intersecting the vertical
lines drawn through the corresponding points of division of the time
line Oh, thus obtaining points, as a, b, c, etc. A smooth curve drawn
through these points gives the full curve Oabcd . . .n. Here the body
or follower receives a velocity increasing from zero at the start to a
maximum at the middle of its path, when it is again gradually diminished
to zero at /, the end of its path.
64 LEVERS.— CAMS.
A body dropped from the hand has no initial velocity at the start, but
has a uniformly increasing velocity, under the action of gravity, until it
n fv
1«' 2 3 4 5 C 7 9 10 1^(3 X
Fig. 88.
reaches the ground; similarly, if the body is thrown upward with the
velocity ithad on striking the ground, it will come to rest at a height
equal to that from which it was dropped, and its upward motion is the
reverse of thedownward one, that is, a uniformly retarded motion.
In designing a cam for rapid movement the motion of the follower
should obey the same law of gravity, and have a uniformly accelerated
motion until the middle of its path is reached, then a uniformly retarded
motion to the end of its path.
A body free to fall descends through spaces, during successive units
of time, proportional to the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, etc., and the
total space passed over equals the sum of these spaces.
To develop a line of action according to this law upon the same time
line Oh, and with the same motion
ef, as before, proceed as follows
Divide the time line Oh into
any even number of equal parts, as
ten; then divide the line of motion
ef into successive spaces propor-
\ tional to the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 9,
\ 7, 5, 3, 1, and draw horizontal lines
1 through the ends of these spaces,
;
obtaining the intersections a', b' ,
'
c'',
l
etc.,with the vertical lines through
/ the corresponding time divisions 1,
2,3, etc. a smooth curve, shown
;
Fig. 89.
Heart Cam. If the desired 86. —
is to be on a line passing
motion
through the axis of the cam, uniformly up in one half a turn of
HEART CAM. 65
r = mQ.
87. If motion of the follower-point does not pass
the line of
through the axis of the cam, the construction shown in Fig. 90 is used.
Here ab is the line of motion of the follower, and the point a is to
be uniformly raised through
the distance ab while the
cam turns uniformly left-
equal parts, and divide the distance ab into the same number of equal parts.
From the divisions on the arc dd6 draw lines d x c x d2 c 2 etc., tangent to , ,
the circle cc x c Q These lines, on rotating the cam, will coincide success-
.
ively with the line of motion ab. To find a point on the cam outline
.as e v draw an arc through a with as a centre, and note e x where it
x
66 LEVERS.— CAMS.
curve of the cam would then be the involute of the small circle, thus
giving an involute cam.
If the distance through which the point is to be raised and the cor-
responding angular motion 6 of the cam are known, we have for the
unknown radius r of the involute circle the equation
= .~. ^——
= Distance
n ,
89. General Case. —Suppose we have given (Fig. 91) the position of
the axis cam; that the cam turns uniformly right-handed
of a plate
and gives motion to the slide D, in a straight line ef by means of the
lever deb centred at c, and the rod ab, the cam to act on the point d T
on which as an axis a roller could be placed; that the slide D shall
remain stationary for the first quarter of a turn, move uniformly up
on ef an amount aa Q in the next half-turn, and then move with simple
harmonic motion down an amount a 6 a in the remaining quarter of a
turn, to find the pitch line of the cam.
First, draw the motion diagram, where Oh is taken to represent
360° of motion of the cam. For the first quarter of a turn there is no
motion of D, thus giving the line &0 = l Oh, coincident with OX;
for the next half -turn, from to 6 equal to %Oh, there is a uniform
upward motion g6 = aa Q this would be indicated by the straight line Qg
; r
ing as in Fig. 88. Transfer the ordinates thus found, at the points of
division of Oh, to the line ofmotion aa 6 as indicated.
From the positions a, 1, 2, 3, etc., of the point a we can, knowing
the length of the rod ab, and that the points b and d move in arcs of
circles about c, determine the corresponding positions of the
point d
the cam turning on the axis 0. To find the pitch line of the cam, note
that the relative motion of the cam and the point d moving about the
GENERAL CASE. 67
Fig. 91.
to revolve around the axis of the cam L.H., the point d at the same
time having its proper rotation about c, as determined by the positions
There are other means than the use of a groove for insuring the
positive motion of the follower not open to the objection of binding the
follower roller in its groove. Two rollers might be used, working on
opposite sides of the same cam, and always situated diametrically oppo-
site each other; in such a case, the original cam outline, that is, the out-
line passing through the centre of the rollers, must 'have a constant
diameter equal to the distance between the centres of the rollers.
Such a cam is shown in Fig. 92, where the rollers A and B bear on
opposite sides of the cam, and are
carried by the frame CC. During
the first \ turn of the cam in the
direction of the arrow, the roller
A moves to A x with a uniform
motion; it rolls on the cam sur-
face from s to s 1} while B rolJs
from s 2 to s 3 during the second
;
sen the friction during the punching after the punching, the lever is ;
lowered by the action of the arc cb. The part of the cam dab is made
circular about the axis 0, and for nearly one half a turn of the cam
the lever remains at rest with the punch raised from the metal, thus
allowing the workman time to adjust the plate for the next punching.
The cam is often arranged to slide, by means of a key and key way, on
its shaft, and is brought under the lever, when required, by means of a
treadle moved by the foot of the person operating the machine.
92. All cams thus far discussed have completed their action in one
turn; by suitably shaping the follower, this action can be extended
so as to require more than one turn, but the cams then become com-
plicated, and are not much used on that account.
Fig. 95 shows a cam where two turns are necessary to complete
its action. The follower has the elongated form shown at F in order
that it may properly pass the inter-
section of the cam groove, which is
of the motion; the motion from one limit to the other is uniform, and
•consumes one and one-half uniform turns of the cam.
The cylinder (Fig. 97) may be increased in length, and the groove
may be made of any desirable pitch; the period of rest can be reduced
to zero, or increased to nearly one turn of the cam. A cylindrical cam,
having a right- and a left-handed groove, is often used to produce a
uniform reciprocating motion, the right- and left-handed threads or
grooves passing into each other at the ends of the motion, so that there
is no period of rest.
72 LEVERS.—CAMS.
45°. For the uniform motion to the right the line of motion parallel
to the axis of the cylinder and
equal to pp x
is divided into ten
equal parts, since there are ten
45° intervals in 1^ turns. A
smooth curve drawn through the
points a v b v c v etc., the intersec-
tions of perpendiculars from the
points a, b, c, etc., on the line of
'ig. 99. motion with the corresponding
elements on the surface of the
cylinder, will give the pitch line of
the cam. For the motion to the
left the line of motion
is divided into
LINKWORK.
98. —
Angular Velocity Ratio. Before proceeding to the discussion
of the different mechanisms that can be derived from the simple linkage
shown in Fig. 101 , we
determine the angular velocity ratios of the
will
connected oscillating This may be found in two ways:
links.
1° By reference to the instantaneous axis of the connecting link.
Let ABCD (Fig. 102) represent the linkage, D being the fixed link,
A and C about the
oscillating
points a and
d respectively.
Then is the instantaneous axis
noticing that the triangles oct and dcr are similar, as are also obt and abs,
l.v. c oc
a.v. C cd cd __oc ab _ot as _as
a.v. A l.v. b ob cd ob dr ot dr
ab ab
and, by the similar triangles ase and dre,
a.v. C _as_ae
(25)
a.v. A dr de'
'':'
Lv76~&V
and since a.v. equals l.v. divided by radius, and the triangles ccx g and
dcr are similar, as are also bbj and abs, we may write
a.v. C _ cc, bb t eg as
a.v. A cd '
ab dr bf
but the components eg and bf along be are equal
a.v. C _as
= _ae
= (26)
a.v. A Jr
dr de
Thus the angular velocities of the connected oscillating links are to
L. V. RATIO OR A. V. RATIO IN LINKAGES. 75
each other inversely as the segments into which the centre line of the
connecting link divides the line of centres. Or, if the intersection of
the line of centres and the connecting link is at an inconvenient distance,
as will often happen, the rule may be stated by using the first ratio in
equation (26) the a.v's of the connected oscillating links are to each
:
/
/ \ a to be in each of its positions. The
1
\ \
ratio of the two perpendiculars in
each position will give the a.v.
1
30° 6 0- C
ratio: thus, starting with A as
! 0° 1 K)°li 0°1
V 2 0°2 2
C
3 K>°3 "1
given in the figure, we have =0;
^tC
a.v. A.
ORDINATES =
a ;t-, a
ABSCISSAE = P( )SlTIONS OP A in the position ab x c x d we have
a.v. C = as x
7~ T~>* e^c - .Plotting these
a.v. JA clr x
Fig. 104.
values as ordinates and the 30°
positions of A as abscissae will give
the curve shown in Fig. 104.
76 LINKWORK.
ioo. Crank and Rocker. —Let the link D (Fig. 105) be fixed, and sup-
pose the crank A to revolve while the lever C oscillates about its axis d.
In order that this may occur, we
must always have the conditions:
r,A+B+C>D.
2°, A + D+OB.
3°,A + B-C<D.
4°,B-A + C>D.
1° and 2° must hold in order
Fig. 105.
that any motion shall be possible;
3° can be seen from the triangle ac 2 d, in the extreme right position ab c d,
2 2
which must not become a straight line; and 4° can be seen from the
triangle ac x d, in the left extreme position ab x c x d.
There are two points c ± and c 2 in the path of c at which the motion of
the lever is reversed, and it will be noticed that if the lever C is the
driver, it cannot, unaided, drive the crank A, as a pull or a thrust on
the rod B would only cause pressure on a, when c is at either c y or c 2 .
cos adc 7
2CD
and from the triangle ae x d
cos adc,
C 2
+D -(B-A)
2
2CD
and c l dc 2 = adc 2 — adc x
.
Thus the two angles adc 2 and adc x can be calculated, and their differ-
ence will give the angle required.
If the link B is made stationary, the mechanism is similar, the
only difference being in the relative lengths of the connecting-rod and
stationary piece or frame.
; ,
DRAG-LINK. 77
of the two crank circles is divided by the smaller circle. This may be
expressed as follows: -..;•,
a.v. B =—
br
77 > unity
J
Fig. 108. a.v. C as '
links when the comb about to deposit the tuft of wool on g. The
e x is
turned about the axis of the ring. The links are lettered the same as
PARALLEL-CRANKS. 79
in Fig. 107, A being the fixed link, B and C the cranks, and D the con-
necting-rod.
If we suppose the paddle-wheel to have no slip, the proper angle for
the floats to enter the water without disturbance can be found as follows:
Take one of the floats, as shown just after entering the water, and, as
its motion is made up of two com-
ponents, one being due to the
motion of the vessel while the other
is due to the rotation of the wheel,
right-handed until it comes over D, thus bringing the four links in line
with each other, it will be noticed that in this position (one of the dead-
points) a further motion of A might cause C to turn either right-handed
or left-handed. That is, for any given position of A, except the dead-
points, there are two possible positions of C, which can be found by-
drawing an arc of radius B about the extremity of A as a centre, and
noting where it cuts the path of the extremity of C. Thus a uniform
right-handed rotation of A might cause a uniform right-handed rota-
tion of C, or a variable left-handed rotation, as shown in Fig. 116. To
prevent this change of motion, and to insure the passage of the cranks
by their dead-points, two sets of equal cranks may be combined, as
shown in Fig. 113; the angle between the two sets of cranks being com-
monly taken 90°, so that when one set of cranks is at a dead-point the
other is in its best working position. Then a uniform rotation of the cranks
A, A t will cause a uniform rotation of C, C v thus giving a uniform and con-
tinuous velocity ratio between the axes of the two sets of cranks. Loco^
motives with coupled drivers are familiar examples of this arrangement.
Fig. 114 shows another method of passing the dead-points where a
third equal crank, C v is placed in the
plane of the other two, and con-
nected to them by links equal in
length to the distance between its axis
and the axes of the other cranks
respectively.
Two cranks at right angles to each
other, and located in one plane,
could be connected with two others
alsoangles, and located in
at right
another plane parallel to by
the means
first, of two parallel con-
necting-rods sufficiently offset to enable them to clear each other in
their motion, the distance between the two crank planes being made
sufficient to admit of such an arrangement. arrangement is
This
practically of little value, especially when much
is to be trans-
force
mitted, as offset-rods, unless made very heavy, are likely to bend and
cause binding on the crank-pins.
be seen, on reference to Figs. 113 and 114, that the connecting-
It will
rods B, B ly move in such a way that they are parallel to the line con-
necting the axes of the equal cranks which carry them, in all their posi-
tions, and also that all points in these rods move in circular paths of a
radius equal to the length of the crank, i.e., the rods may be said to
have circular translation (§ 25).
Parallel-rod. —
The term parallel-rod or coupling-rod is used to
designate the rods, such as B and B t
(Fig. 113), employed to connect the
driving axles of locomotives.
ANTI-PARALLEL CRANKS. 81
j
complicated figures; here they are
/ made very simple by the equality of
/ the opposite links. (The linkage taken
in § 27 to illustrate a centroid was
Fig. 116. this linkage.) Remembering that the
cranks are always to revolve in opposite
directions, the centroids will be found to have the forms shown in Fig. 116.
82 LINKWORK.
For the links ab and cd, the shorter pair, they are ellipses, having
their foci at the ends, a, b and
c, d, of the cranks, and their major axes
equal in length to the links be and da. The instantaneous centre moves
backwards and forwards along the links be and da, being always found at
their intersection, as e. For be and da the centroids are hyperbolas, their
transverse axes fg and hk lying on the links themselves and being equal
to ab = cd; their foci are the points b, c and a, d. The instantaneous
centre traverses each branch of the curve to infinity, turning from
— oo along the other branches. Thus the two ellipses or the two hyper-
bolas could replace the linkage. In § 58 it was found that two equal
rolling ellipses were equivalent to this linkage, and also in § 61 the same
was found to be true of two equal rolling hyperbolas.
If it be required to pair the two opposite links at their change points,
a pair of elements must be employed
in each case; such pairs need not,
however, go further than correspond
to the elements of the rolling conies
in contact at the change positions.
If the links chosen be the two shorter
ones, ab and cd, these are the ele-
ments of the ellipses at the ex-
major axes.
tremities of theirBy
putting a pin and a gab (or open
Fig. 117. eye) at these points, as shown in
Fig. 117 at I and m, l and m lf the t
a.v. cd _am
a.v. ab drn
a.v. c 2 d _ af 2 <
a.v. ab 2 _ dg 2
that is, the a.v's are inversely as the radii of contact of the rolling sur-
faces.
To obtain a clear idea of the l.v. of the slide E as ab turns uniformly,
84 LINKWORK.
a curve should be drawn having for ordinates the l.v. of the slide F,
and for abscissas the corresponding angular positions of ab.
107. Slow Motion by Linkwork. —
The simple linkage shown in Fig.
105 can, if properly proportioned,
be made to produce a slow motion
of one of the cranks. Such a com-
bination is shown in Fig. 120, where
two cranks A and C are arranged to
-p
turn on fixed centres and are con-
120
nected by the link B. If the crank
A is turned right-handed, the crank C will also turn right-handed, but
with decreasing velocity, which will
become zero when the crank A
LfA
reaches position A lf in line with the
link B 1 :any further motion of A
will cause the link C to return
toward its first position, its motion
being slow at first and then gradually
increasing. This type of motion is
in the same direction. (The arrows in these figures represent the direc-
tions in which the forces may be considered to act, but do not repre-
sent the magnitudes of the forces unless otherwise stated.) Since the
TOGGLE-JOINT. 85
two forces F and F t acting around the axis b are balanced, their moments
about b must be equal; therefore we have
FXab
FXab = F Xbg t
and F=
x
tg
F\Xeh_ „ ab eh
W FXj-X-j.
bg ef
cated, its moment arm about a be as, and the moment arm about a
will
of the thrust F x
along the connecting link be will be ar; therefore
F t
cos a — W.
.'. W = FX--Xcosa.
ar
As the links ab and be come more and more into line, the distance
ar becomes smaller, the component of the thrust along ac approaches
86 LTNKWORK.
nearer and nearer to the thrust on be, and when the links are in line the
thrust along be is theoretically infinite, ar being then equal to zero.
Fig. 125 shows a metal-shearing machine, in which a slow motion
and consequently an advantage in
power is obtained by means of link-
work. Here the long lever A is
formed by a continuation of the
crank ab; the crank or lever C turn-
ing on d connected to ab by the
is
Fig. 125.
which forms the fourth link of the
chain. The metal to be sheared is
placed at S, and the power is applied at the end of the lever A. The
operation of the machine can be easily understood from the figure.
The links ab and be, c moving nearly in a straight line, form a toggle-joint.
let the angle made by the crank with the line an be represented by 6,
ss LINKWORK.
en = an — ac = an — K
ag-\- gc) .
gc = Vbc-bq\
Hence
cn=an—ab cos/9 v be 2
-ab
2
sin 6
2
=A+B-A cosd-VB A 2 2
sin 0. . . ... . (27)
cn=A(l+Z-cos#-V7 2 -sin 2
#) (29)
bg~gc gc gc
A sin d\A cos d+ VB 2
-A 2
sin
2
d\
as =
\/B 2
~A 2
sin 2
A-
'
s=A+B-A cos at-\/B -A 2 sin 2 2
at. (32)
ds aA sin at 2
cos at
.'. l.v. c = ^r- = aA . .
sin at-\- .
dt VB -A 2 2
sin at
2
l.v. b 2 2
sin at
2
l.v. of c
= 1 = sm
i .
n ,
+-
A sin cos 6
l.v. of 6
V£ -A 2 2
sin 2 0'
V£ -A 2 2
sin 2 =
l-sin0
sm
4A 2
£±V8A +£ 2 2
|.
Therefore, if we lay off on the line ab, which shows the crank posi-
tion, the distance at = as, and repeat this construction for a sufficient
number of crank positions, we shall obtain the full curve ata, where the
intercept at on the crank line shows the velocity of c, ab being the con-
stant velocity of b. A similar curve would be found for the crank posi-
tions below the line ma. Similarly we might obtain the full curve ntjn
by laying off on the successive perpendiculars drawn through the point c
Fig. 132,
Comparing this with equation (31), the l.v. ratio when B is finite varies
A Bi
i
— —
L!
C]
C
A i
1 1
—— i
1
Fig. 138.
C; 2° the ratio of the l.v. of the piston relative to the cylinder and
the l.v. of b; and 3° the a. v. ratio of the cylinder, about the axis c of
the trunnions which support it, to the crank A.
1° To find the distance dn (Fig. 138) which the piston has moved
from the beginning of its stroke, for a given angle bac = d. Let e be
the point on the piston-rod D which is coincident with c when A and D
are in the same line; then ce will be equal to the motion of the piston dn..
From the figure we have
dn = ec=bc—be=bc — (B—A).
But
6c=V A + B -2AB
2 2
cos 0;
2° To find the l.v. of the piston in the cylinder. In Fig. 139 let
W represent the l.v. of b around a; then the component bb" along the
piston-rod would be the
desired l.v. of the piston
relative to the cylinder.
The ratio of the l.v. of
piston in the cylinder to
the l.v. of the crank-pin
b may be found by
reference to the instan-
taneous axis of the link
bd. In the link bd the
direction of the motion
of b will be along the line
W, and the direction of
the point on the link
which coincides at the
instant with the axis c
FlG 139 -
-
of the trunnions which support the cylinder will be along the line bd;
therefore the instantaneous axis of bd will be found at o, the intersection
of the lines bo and co perpendicular respectively to W and be.
a.v. cylinder ae af
a.v. ab be cf
114. Quick- returnMotion using the Swinging-block Linkage.—
If in Fig. 136 or 137 the piece C is made long, and the link D is reduced
to a sliding block, we have a linkage which may be drawn as shown
94 LINKWORK.
time of advance of E a
time of return of E T
If we have given the desired time-ratio of advance to return; the
line of centres, ac; the centre, a; and the length of the crank, ab; to
locate the centre
c draw the crank-
pin circle bb t and
make the angle b t ac
equal to |/3, where
a _ advance
The
return
tangent b xc to the
crank-pin circle at
b x will give the de-
sired centre c.
To determine the
l.v. of the slide E at
any moment, given
the l.v. of b around a,
let bb' represent the
l.v. of around a,
b
then bb" be the
will
f
l.v. b around c; dd
Fig. 140. will be the l.v. of d
around c, and ee' will represent the l.v. of the slide E.
a.v. of C
To find the ratio we have, as in Fig. 139, the sliding pair
a.v. of A
replacing two infinite links, the centre lines of which must be perpen-
dicular to the centre line of the sliding pair. Therefore the centre
line of the infinite connecting link would be the line bk through the
crank-pin b perpendicular to the centre line cd of the sliding pair. This
would give
a.v. C _af _ag
a.v. A be eg'
When the crank is in the positions ab 1 and ab 2 it will be seen that the
centre line of the infinite connecting link would pass through a, giving
evident from its position. From the position 6 X the a.v. of C increases
THE TURNING-BLOCK LINKAGE. 95
a.v. C _ab3
a.v. A cb 3
and in the latter position
a.v. C _ab i
*
a.v. A c6 4
115. The Turning-block Linkage -If the link A, Fig. 128, is con-
sidered as fixed, we shall have the linkage shown
where B is a crank turning uniformly
in Fig. 141,
about which on so turning will cause D to
6,
Fig. 141.
extreme position at the right to the end of its
stroke at the left; and while be turns from c 2 to c x
the slide e returns:
time of advance of e a
time of return of e
J
To locate the centre a, given the time-ratio of advance to return;
the line of centres, the axis jb
and draw cm
p return
through cx perpendicular to the
line of centres;
the point a
is the axis of the link ad. If
the stroke of the slide e is not
on a line passing through a,
96 LINKWORK.
ac 4
For the development of this linkage as practically used see § 118,
Fig. 151.
116. By fixing the block C (Fig. 128) we obtain the fourth form
of the linkage having one sliding pair, as shown in Fig. 143. The link
fc.v^ B now swings about a fixed axis in C,
and the slide D moves rectilinearly to
and fro in the block C, which is now the
frame; the link A, now a connecting-
rod, has a complex motion made up
of a combined oscillation and rotation.
If the link A is so expanded that it can
be caused to make complete rotations relative to the axis a, the link D
would have a reciprocation relative to the block C, the stroke of D being
twice ab. Such a development is shown in Fig. 152, § 118.
which will be in contact at e 1 and e 2 these pairs will cause the point c ,
Since the point c in the sliding block is always under the point o,
i—=
l.V. C
l.v. 6
*:
CO
*r
6o
= i
|oo
CO _
=2 sm .
A
v-
tionary. The second case is when the link ab is fixed; or the same
mechanism would result by fixing the link be.
If we fix the link ab, the link be, rotating about b, would cause the
link ac to turn about a, and if the centroids are used the small circle
v
coe, containing be, turning uniformly around 6, would cause the large
circle c 1 oe 1 , containing ac x , to make complete rotations about a, the
a.v. ratio being
a.v. D _bo _1
a.v. B ao 2
the radius of the smaller circle being one half that of the larger.
The a.v. ratio can also be shown from the linkage. In the given
position the centre line of the infinite connecting link will be co; there-
fore
a.v. ac 1 _bf _oo_l
a.v. be ac ao 2
of another, D, of four teeth: in such a case, the blocks c are usually made
cylindrical, and roll in the grooves so as to reduce the friction. Three
grooves might be made in the disc intersecting at a, and making angles
of 60° with each other; the circle ce would then need to be supplied with
three rollers spaced equidistant on its circumference the relative motion ;
98 LINKWORK.
links will not alter the relative motions, so long as the centre lines of
the elementary links remain unchanged, and yet such change may
make the action of the linkage possible. Since these enlargements of
the elements of the cylindric pairs sometimes conceal the real nature
of the mechanism and cause much indistinctness, it will be well to con-
sider a few cases here.
We will consider first the sliding-block linkage, shown in Fig. 128.
Fig. 145.
closed.
This arrangement is used in practice, in some slotting and shearing
machines to work a short-stroke pump from the end of an engine shaft
;
and in other cases where a short crank forms one piece with its own
shaft.
If we expand the crank-pin until it includes the shaft, as shown in
Fig. 146, we obtain the common eccentric and rod, which can be seen to
differ only in form from the common crank and connecting-rod. This
mechanism is much
used to operate the
valve motions in
steam engines ,
where it is neces-
sary to obtain a
_ reciprocating mo-
tion, often less than
the diameter of the
i-r
A-H LJLI -A
Fig. 147.
,— C
,
m sr
Fig. 148.
LofC.
100 LINKWORK.
Fig. 149.
merely oscillatory, we need only use a sector of it, and enough of the
annular groove to admit of sufficient motion of the sector in its swing. Fig.
149 represents the arrangement altered in this way, the different parts
being lettered the same as in Figs. 148 and 128; B is still the connecting-
rod, and its motion as a link in the chain remains the same as before, and
is completely restrained; the shape of the sector always fixes the length
return occurring while the gear moves through the smaller angle cjbc
v
A development of the fourth form of the linkage with one slide,
mentioned in § 116, Fig. 143, is shown in Fig. 152. The connecting
link ab is expanded into a
worm-wheel A, which may be
made to rotate about the axis
a by a worm keyed to the
shaft D. The worm and wheel
are kept in contact by a piece
which supports the bearing of
A, hangs from the shaft D,
Fig. 152.
and confines the worm between
its bearings. A rotation of the shaft D will turn A, causing a reciproca-
102 LINKWORK.
If in Fig. 155 we assume the block D fixed, and give a uniform rota-
tion toA we shall have a reciprocation of the cross C through D while
,
the block B slides up and down on the cross, giving to it a simple har-
monic motion. If the bloc B were fixed instead of D, the cross C would
Iiave exactly thesame form of motion as when D was fixed, only it
would be up and down through the slide B.
To determine the motion of C for any angular motion of A, let the
crank A turn through the angle 0, Fig. 155; the distance cd through
which the cross has moved will be
cd=ac — ad=ab{\ — cos 6), (37)
which was found in § 112, equation (34), as the equation for simple
harmonic motion.
For the l.v. ratio, from Fig. 155,
l.v. of cross C _bf
sin 6 (38)
l.v of crank-pin b be
Since the bar C remains always parallel to the axis of the shaft, the
path of the point 0, projected upon an imaginary plane through the
lowest position of and perpendicular to the shaft S, will be a circle,
and the actual path of on the plate A will be an ellipse.
In Fig. 158 let eba represent the angular inclination of the plate to
the axis of the shaft, ab the axis of the shaft, eof the actual path of the
point o on the plate, and the dotted circle erd the
projection of this path upon a plane through e
(the lowest position of o) perpendicular to the
axis ab.
Draw om perpendicular to ef, or perpendicular
to the plane erd, and rn perpendicular to ed, the
diameter of the circle erd. Join ran, and suppose Fig. 158.
the plate to rotate through an angle ear = 6, and
thus to carry the point o through a vertical distance equal to or.
Then
en ( mn
or = mn = abX— ( as — = en\
—j- I
ea \ ab eaj
= ab
H?)
= a6(l — cos d),
or the same formula as was derived in the case of harmonic motion. In
this case ab represents the length of the equivalent crank, and is equal
in length to one-half of the stroke of the rod C.
121. If instead of fixing the block D or the block B, Fig. 155, we as-
sume the link A to be fixed, we obtain the second form of the mechanism.
This is shown in Fig. 159,
where the axes a and b are
fixed and the blocks B and D
are free to turn, while the
cross C will
through them, slide
being forced at the same time
to revolve. If D turns uni-
formly, B will also turn uni-
formly; for if D turns through
any angle 6 as shown, the cen-
tre lines of the slots in the
cross C must occupy the posi-
tion shown by the light lines,
and the angle
fe
abc has dimin-
Fig. 159. . .
Fig. 160.
The bearings for the two shafts a and b are in the piece A, which
takes the place of the crank A (Fig. 159) ; the pieces B, C, and D (Fig. 160)
take the places of those similarly lettered in Fig. 159, and are drawn
separated at the right of the figure to make their construction clearer.
The piece C has two diametrical and d placed on its opposite sides
slides c
and at right angles to each other. The groovesc t and d v in the pieces
B and D respectively, fit the corresponding slides similarly lettered on C.
Fig. 160 is an expansion of the elementary links in Fig. 159.
122. If in the linkage with two slides, Fig. 155, we fix the cross C, we
Fig. 161.
103 LINKWORK.
x^ y^
an ellipse referred to the centre as the origin is -2+p" = l«
In Fig. 161 we have
x np . y nr
— = -f and -?=—
a nf b ne
nf nf nf nf
or
x
i + i= l
<
< 39 >
the tool acting at the point n, Fig. 162, corresponding with the tracing-
point n in Fig. 161. The sliding blocks BB and DD, as well as the
points /, e, and n, correspond with the parts similarly lettered in Fig.
161, but in this case ef is fixed instead of C.
'
H
!•
m
it IJ--
t
— A
Fig. 162.
such that the centre lines of the two grooves always pass through the
points e and /. The distance ef, equal to the difference between the
semi-axes of the ellipse, can be adjusted at will, and various ellipses may
'
108 LINKWORK.
be turned. For example, if the axes of the ellipse are 6" and 4", the
distance ef is 1".
123. In the linkages with one slide, the centre line of the sliding pair
may not pass through the point a, as in Fig. 128. This will give rise
to another series of
mechanisms, some-
what similar to those
described.
In the sliding-
block linkage, Fig.
163, the motion of the
block C from one end
of its stroke to the
other will require a
motion of less than
180° of the crank ab
in one direction, and
FlG -
163 '
more than 180° in the
other. Slight differences would also occur in the l.v. ratio, but the same
laws apply, the instantaneous centre being at and
l.v. c co _as
l.v. b bo ab'
In the swinging-block linkage the mechanism could be arranged as
in Fig. 164. In the position shown in the figure
a.v. cd _ae
a.v. ab cf
'
be cf ab ae
a.v. cd bk ae ae
a.v. ab cf bk
THE CONIC FOUR-BAR LINKAGE. 109
Similarly in the linkages with two slides the arms of the cross C
may not be at right angles, in which case a new series of mechanisms
will result, one example being shown by Fig. 165.
In Fig. 165 let be represent the l.v. of b around a, then bf will be the
l.v. of the cross C. If the crank coincides with the centre line of the
slot in C, the l.v. of C, bj x at ab lf will be greater than the l.v. of the crank-
pin, b x e v If ab turns uniformly, the motion of C will be found to be
harmonic, but the length of stroke is greater than twice ab.
Z^-T'
Fig. 165.
Other forms of the linkage with two slides occur, as in Fig. 166,
where a slight period of rest is desired for the piece C at the end of each
downward stroke. To find the l.v. of C at any point, as when the crank
is at ab, it is necessary to resolve the l.v. of b, represented by be, into
two components, one, bf, in the direction of motion of the piece C, and
the other, bg, tangent to the centre line of the slot in C.
124. The Conic Four-bar Linkage. — If the axes of the four cylindric
pairs (Fig. 101) of the four-bar linkage are not parallel, but have a common
point of intersection at a finite dis- /
Fig. 167.
pass through the common point of
intersection of the pin axes. .
'
the links being necessarily located at different distances from the centre
of the sphere in order that they may pass each other in their motions.
The ratio, however, between the length of
a link and its radius remains constant for
allvalues of the radius, and these ratios are
merely the values of the circular measures
of the angles subtended by the links. In
place of the link lengths, we can consider
the relative magnitudes of these angles,
which can be also designated by the letters
A, B, C, and D.
The alterations in the lengths of the
links will now be represented by correspond-
ing angular changes. The infinitely long
link corresponds to an angle of 90°, as this
gives motion on a great circle which corre-
sponds to straight-line motion in the cylin-
dric linkages.
Fig. 168 shows plan and elevation
of a conic four-bar linkage abed, the link
ab about a, and, for a complete
turning
turn, causing an oscillation of the link cd
Fig. 168.
about d through the angle 6, shown in the
elevation. In the figure each of the links
be and cd subtends 90°, while the link ab subtends about 30°. Varying
the angles which the links subtend will, of course, vary the relative
motions of ab and cd.
125. Hooke's Joint. — If in Fig. 168 each of the links ab, be, and
cd made to subtend an angle of 90°, we
is.. shall find that ab and cd
will each make complete rotations. This
mechanism, known as a Hooke's joint, is
represented by Fig. 169; a and d are the
two intersecting shafts, and the links ab
and cd, fast to the shafts a and d respect-
ively, subtend 90°, while the connecting
link be also subtends 90°.
In order to make the apparatus stronger
and stiffer, two sets of links are used, and
the link cb continued around as shown,
is
cac t may be paired with grooves cut in a sphere in planes passing through
the centre of the sphere and at right angles to each other. Such forms
of Hooke's joint are now on the market and much used.
Relative Motion of the two Connected Shafts. Given the angular motion —
of ab, to find the angle through which cd turns. Fig. 170 shows a plan
and elevation of a Hooke's joint, so drawn
that the axis a is perpendicular to the plane
of elevation. If the link ab is turned through
an angle d, it will be projected in the posi-
tion ab v The path of the point c will be on
a great circle in a plane perpendicular to the
axis d, which will appear in the elevation as
the ellipse bee. The point c will then move
to cv found by making the angle b 1 ac 1 equal
to 90°, for the link be subtends 90°, and
since the radius from b to the centre of the
sphere always parallel to the plane of
is
112 LINKWORK.
Fig. 171.
C
tan <h = -i-Z= -±t; tan 6 = ^.
ag ag af
2l X
ag
—
cj
af
ag ac' ae
ac ac
= cos a
.-. tan (f> = tan 6 cos a (40)
obtain the velocity ratio, we must differentiate equation (40),
To
remembering that cos a is a constant; then
d<j>_sec 2 6 1 +tan 2 d
~ sec cos a cos a. . . . . . (41)
dd 2
(j> 1 +tan 2 <}>
HOOKE'S JOINT. 113
cos
tions of the following arm being cd and c2d. Maximum values occur
when sin# = l and then ~~ =
^ = 0;
cos <i> which will happen when ,
do cos a
and <f> are 90° and 270°, the corresponding positions of the driving
a^m being ab 3 and ab 4 .
Hence in one rotation of the driving shaft the velocity ratio varies
twice between the limits and cos a ; and between these points there
cos a:
line; others, which occur more frequently, are approximate, and are
usually designed so that the middle and two extreme positions of the
guided point shall be in one straight line, while at the same time care is
taken that the intermediate positions deviate as little as possible from
that line.
and close; the points a and e will describe circular arcs about d, and
b about c. Finally, the point p will describe a straight line ss perpen-
dicular to the line of centres cd.
To prove this, move the linkage into some other position, as p^^cd,
(It is to be noticed that since the links A and C, B and D, and E and F T
always form isosceles triangles with a common base, a straight line from
p to d will always pass through b.) If the line traced by the point p is
a straight line, the angle p x pd will be 90°. The angle bb x d is 90°, since
bc = cd = b 1 c; therefore the triangles p t pd and bb x d would be similar
right triangles, and we should have
pd _b t d
pxd bd
2
B*=tf +Ff;_
.: E 2 -B 2 = 2(bf)(bd) +bd 2 = bd(bd+2bf).
But, since the links A and B are equal, the triangle pab is isosceles and
the base pb = 2bf.
... E -B2 2
=(bd)(pd) (44)
By the same process, when the linkage is in any other position, as p x a}) x cd y
we should have
E -B x
2 2
={\d){V,d) (45)
(bd)(pd) = (bMv.d), .
or
pd b xd
p xd bd
which proves that the path of the point p is on the straight line ss.
If the relation between the links cd and be be taken different from
that shown (Fig. 173), the points b and p, sometimes called the poles
of the cell, will be found to describe circular arcs whose centres are on
the line passing through c and d in the case shown, one of these circu-
;
at a, is joined to the middle point b of the link pc, and ah, be, and pb
are taken equal to each other
and the point c is constrained
to move in the straight line
ac by means of the sliding
block. In this case the mo-
tion of the sliding block c is
perpendicular to ac through
a semicircle may be drawn
a,
Fig. 174.
through p and c with b as a
centre it will also pass through a so that pac will be a right angle there-
; ;
cp
cc t —ap ,
three points pass a circular arc, ee x e 2 the centre of which / will be found
,
on the line ac. Join e and / by a link ef, and the two links ab and ef
will so guide pe that the mean and extreme positions of p will be found
on the line pp 2 provided suitable pairs are supplied to cause passage by
,
ag = af-fg = af-be
= ab cos d—pb cos
= ab(l 2 sin
2
,-p*(i---
2 sin 2 4>
2
But if the links are taken long enough, so that for a given stroke the
angles 6 and <j> are small, then sin 0, nearly, and sin </> = <£, nearly,
and
a, = a 6 (l-J)- P 5(l-|)
ab 2=P b f>
or
a&_02
(48)
pb~W'
But in the triangle abc
ab sin 6
= d>
7T> nearly;
be sin 6
ab ab'
or (ab)(pb)=bc (49)
Pb~bc
Hence the links must be so proportioned that be is a mean propor-
tional between ab and which also holds true when the path of
pb,
p
falls to the left of a instead of between a and c.
118 PARALLEL MOTION S. -STRAIGHT-LINE MOTIONS.
As an example of the case where the path of the guided point falls
we have the straight-line motion of the Thompson steam-
to the left of a
engine indicator, Fig. 181.
128. Watt's Parallel Motion. —
This motion is an application of the
modified form of the double rocking lever (Fig. 109).
Fig. 176 shows such a motion; here the two links ad and be con-
nected by the link ab oscillate on the fixed centres d and c, and any
point, as p, in the connecting link
ab will describe a complex curve.
If the point p be properly chosen,
a double-looped curve will be
obtained, two parts of which
are nearly straight lines. In de-
signing such a motion it is cus-
tomary to use only a portion ef of
one of the approximate straight
lines, and to so proportion the
different links extreme
that the
Fig. 176.
and middle points e, f, and p shall
be on a line perpendicular to the centre lines of the levers ad and be
in their middle posi-
tions, when they
should be taken par-
allel to each other.
The linkage is
shown in its mid-po-
sition by dabc, Fig.
177, and in the upper
extreme position by
dafiiC,where pp is t
ss, one quarter of the stroke, giving the points k and I; connect these
points with the axes d and c respectively; draw the lines aka x and blb x
perpendicular to dk and cl respectively, making aa x = 2ak and bb = 2bl; x
then if the link centred at d were ad, it could swing to a x d, and similarly
be could swing to b x c. By construction kg = ^ stroke, and aa 1 = 2ak;
therefore a x e = \ stroke. Similarly bj = % stroke, which would make
the figure ea x bj a parallelogram, and a x b x would equal ef. But ef is
equal to ab, since bh = hf and ag = ge. Therefore if the linkage is dabc,
it can occupy the position da b x c; and since ap = ep = a x p x
x
and ppt = ,
S2 s2
•'• a 9 = TaT~ an d ad=dg+
y
lQdg '
lQdg'
S2
—-
Similarly bc = ch+ -
ab = [gV+{ag+%hy]h
.\ y bp=
ap 7r-r = ch dg,
Wdg ^16ch
F TTT-r
: : :
^/,
from which
ap ab = ch
: : ch-\- dg,
or bp : ab = dg : ch+dg,
from which the position of the guided point p can be calculated. If, as
is very often the case, ad = bc, then
or bp = ^ab,
and the point p is thus at the middle of the link ab.
may be arranged as shown in Fig. 178, where
This parallel motion
the centres and d are on the same side of the line of motion. The
c
graphical solution is the same as in Fig. 177, with the result that p is
found where ab extended crosses the line of stroke ss, and, as before, it
can be shown that if p is moved up one half the given stroke, it will
be found on the line of stroke ss.
120 PARALLEL MOTIONS —STRAIGHT-LINE MOTIONS.
In Fig. 177, letting the angle ada 1 =d and bcb 1 = <j), we have, from
equation (50),
ap ag ae
bp bh bf
ad 2 sin
ad( 1— cos #) 2
bc(l — cos «
be 2 sin
2
which may be written
ad sur
ap
bp
be
ad
X — 2
be* sin
2 i'
2
But ad sin 6 = bc sin <£ ; and since the
angles or (f>
would rarely exceed 20°,
n t
ap 6c
, nearly. (51)
op ad'
fd _de _fe
he ce he'
h x cx cx e h x e'
ffi_
= f± = de
hh x he ce
To connect two
points, as a and b, Fig. 180, by a pantograph, so that
their motions shall be parallel d
and similar and in a given ratio,
we have, first, that the fixed
point c must be on the straight
line ab continued, and so located
that ac is to be as the desired
ratio of the motion of a to b.
After locating c, an infinite num- „
ber of pantographs might be
drawn. Care must be taken that the links are so proportioned as to
allow the desired magnitude and direction of motion.
It is interesting to note that if b were the fixed point, a and c would
move in opposite directions. It can be shown as before that their
motions would be parallel and as ab is to be.
The pantograph is often used to reduce or enlarge drawings, for it
is evident that similar curves may be traced as well as straight lines.
indicator diagram. When the points, as /and h (Fig. 179), are required
to move in parallel straight lines it is not always necessary to employ
a complete parallelogram, provided the mechanism is such that the
122 PARALLEL MOTIONS.—STRAIGHT-LINE MOTIONS.
Fig. 181.
rod is guided in an exact straight line by the cylinder. If now the link
eh is added so that its centre line is parallel to cd, we should have, assum-
ing / to move on an exact straight line, the motion of / parallel to the
motion of e and in a constant ratio as cf ch or as df de. This can be seen
: :
a line, as cd, and locate a point d upon it which when connected to / with
a link df will move nearly an equal
distance to the right and left of the
line ef and above and below the line
mm forthe known motion of /.
Draw ch through h and parallel to
df. The linkage echdf will accom-
plish the result required. The dotted
link ah may be added to complete
the pantograph, and the slide h may
then be removed or not as desired.
The figure also shows how a point g
may be made to move in the oppo-
site direction to / in thesame ratio
as h buton the line n^, the equivalent pantograph being drawn dotted.
The link cd h shown in its extreme position to the left by heavy lines
and to the right by light lines.
lelograms astb and ap 2rb, placing the links st and p2r so that they pass
through the points p 1 and p 2 respectively, found by drawing the straight
line cpand noting points p t and p 2 where it intersects lines P 1 and P 2 ,
we obtain the complete linkage. The links are arranged in two sets,
and the rods are carried between them; the links da are also placed
outside of the links p 2 a. When the point p falls within the beam a
:
cb : bp = cr : rp 2 = cr : ab.
abXcb
.'. cr =— .
op
The relative stroke £ of the point p 2 and s of the point p are expressed
by the equation
S:s = cp 2 :cp = cr: cb.
S:s = M:N
and
Se = s
M vN
s^S^ /AN
(A)
¥ ;
The problem will generally be, given the centres of the main beam
c and bridle d, the stroke S of the point p 2 and the paths of the guided ,
points 2VPi> and p 2 to find the remaining parts. The strokes of the
,
guided points can be found from equation (A) and then the method
of § 128, Fig. 177, can be applied.
length of each side of the triangle, as ap = da, should not be less than
1.186 dp, since in this case the points ca 2 a and da 2 b 2 lie in straight lines. x
TCHEBICHEFF'S APPROXIMATE STRAIGHT-LINE MOTION. 125
It may be made
as much greater as the space will permit, and the greater
it is more accurate will the motion be. The intermediate positions
the
between dp and cp vary somewhat from the line dc.
132. Tchebicheff's Approximate Straight-line Motion. —Fig. 185
shows another close approximation to a straight-
line motion invented by Prof. Tchebicheff of St.
Petersburg. It is an application of the double
rocking lever (Fig. 109) with the levers crossed,
cd being the fixed link.
The links are made in the following proportion:
If cd = then ac = bd = 5 and ab = 2. The guided
4:,
Fig. 186. The clamp C is made fast to the upper left-hand edge of
the drawing-board and supports the first linkage abdc. The ring cedf
carries the second linkage efhg, guiding the head P. The two combined
scales and straight-edges A and B, fixed at right angles to each other,
are arranged to swivel on P, and by means of a graduated circle and
clamp-nut may be set at any desired angle, the device thus serving as a
protractor. The fine lines show how the linkages appear when the head
is moved to P 1} and it is easily seen that the straight-edges will always
^A s T BJ~
@H R ...
E0 1
(°<-F
" GV»i
j
W C (?
Figs. 188 and 189 show two other arrangements which will accom-
plish the same purpose. In Fig. 188, sometimes applied to guide
straight-edges on drawing-boards, the cords or wires cross on the back
side of the board where the four guide-wheels are located and the straight-
edge R is guided by special fastenings E and F, passing around the edges
of and under the board. By making one of these fastenings movable
the straight-edge may be adjusted. 189 shows a similar device
Fig.
that might be applied on a drawing-board. Here the wires are on the
front of the board and are arranged to pass under the straight-edge
in a suitable groove. The turnbuckle T serves to keep the wires taut,
and the slotted link S allows adjustment.
The device shown in Fig. 187 is often known as a squaring-band and
is applied in spinning-mules and in some forms of travelling cranes.
CHAPTER IX.
wheel A in either direction ; such pawls are often used to retain pieces
in definite adjusted positions.
If the diameter of the wheel A (Fig. 190) be increased indefinitely,
it will become a rack which would then receive an intermittent trans-
lation on the vibration of the arm C a retaining-pawl might be required
:
197. In order that a click or pawl may retain its hold on the tooth of a
ratchet-wheel, the common normal to the acting surfaces of the click and
tooth, or pawl and tooth, must pass inside of the axis of a pushing click
or pawl, as shown on the lowest click, Fig. 192, and outside the axis of
the pulling click or pawl; the normal might pass through the axis, but
the pawl would be more securely held if the normal is located accord-
ing to the above rule, which also secures the easy falling of the pawl
over the points of the teeth. sometimes necessary, or more con-
It is
the pawl in any case. Since when the lever vibrates on the axis of the
wheel, the common normal always makes the same angle with it in all
positions, thus securing a good bearing of the pawl on the tooth, it is
best to use this' construction when practicable.
The effective stroke of is the space through which the
a click or pawl
ratchet-wheel driven for each forward stroke of the arm. The total
is
lar piece (shown dotted) this piece turning with B has a flat-ended
;
position by the side of the triangle parallel to the face of the click; thus
this simple contrivance serves to hold the click so as to drive in either
direction, and also to retain it in position when thrown out o£
gear.
REVERSIBLE CLICK OR PAWL. 131
feed, it occurring in the same position as before, the click must be reversed
and the nut moved to the other side of the centre of swing of the lever.
Figs. 194 and 195 show other methods of adjusting the motion of the
ratchet-wheel. In Fig. 194, which shows a form of feed mechanism
used by Sir J. Whitworth in his planing-machines, C is an arm carrying
the click B, and swinging loosely on the shaft a fixed to the ratchet-
wheel A. The wheel E, also turning loosely on the shaft a, and placed
just behind the arm C, has a definite angular motion sufficient to produce
the coarsest feed desired; its concentric slot m is provided with two
adjustable pins ee, held in place by nuts at their back ends, and enclosing
the lever C, but not of sufficient length to reach the click B. When the
pins are placed at the ends of the slot, no motion will occur in the arm C*,
but when and e are placed as near as possible to each other, confining
e
the arm C between them, all of the motion of E will be given to the arm
C, thus producing the greatest feed any other positions of the pins will
;
give motions between the above limits, and the adjustment may be made
to suit each case.
Fig. 195 shows another method of adjusting the motion of the ratchet-
wheel A. The stationary shaft a, made fast to the frame of the machine
at m, carries the vibrating arm C, ratchet-wheel A, and adjustable shield
S; the two former turn loosely on the shaft, while the latter is made fast
to it by means of a nut n, the hole in S be ng made smaller than that in
132 INTERMITTENT LINKWORK.—INTERMITTENT MOTION.
click will be carried by the shield S until it reaches the position B, where
it will leave the shield and come in contact with the tooth b, which it will
turning the shield to the left one, two, or three teeth, a feed of four, five,
or six teeth might be obtained while, by turning it to the right, the feed
;
Fig. 196.
the arms being shown in their mid-stroke position in the figure. Now
when the click be is beginning its forward stroke, the click b'c' has just
completed its forward stroke and is begining its backward stroke during ;
a tooth, will fall into position ready to drive its tooth in the remaining
single stroke of the click-arms, which are made equal in length. By
the same reasoning it may be seen that the wheel can be moved ahead
some whole number of teeth for each double stroke of the click-arms.
In Fig. 196 let the axis a and dimensions of the ratchet-wheel be
given, also its pitch circle BB, which is located half-way between the
tips and roots of the teeth. Draw any convenient radius ab, and from it
lay off the angle bae equal to the mean obliquity of action of the clicks,
that is, the angle that the lines of action of the clicks at mid-stroke are
to make with the tangent to the pitch circle through the points of action.
On ae let fall and with the radius ae describe the
the perpendicular be,
toward the springs which slightly press them against the ring and
hold them in readiness to again grip when c moves right-handed. Thus
an might cause continuous rotation of the
oscillation of the piece c
wheel A, provided a fly-wheel were applied to A to keep it going while
c was being moved back. The annular ring A is fast to a disc carried
by the shaft a; the piece c turning loosely on a has a collar to keep it
in position lengthwise of the shaft.
The nipping-lever shown 202 is another application of the
in Fig.
friction-catch. A surrounds the wheel A a friction-catch
loose ring C ;
and is held in place by a collar on the shaft. The hub on the piece B,
and the piece C, are shown in section. The friction-catch D, working in
the groove, is fitted over the hub of B, the hole in D being elongated in
the direction ab so that D can move slightly upon the hub and between
the two pins e fast in the piece B. A cylindrical roller c is placed in
the wedge-shaped space between the outer side of the groove and the
piece D, a spring always actuating this roller in a direction opposite to
that of the arrow, or towards the narrower part of the space.
Now when the piece B is turned in the direction of the arrow by a
downward stroke of the treadle-rod, it will move the piece D with itby
means of the pins e; at the same time the roller c will move into the
to the large part of its space by the action of the piece C revolving with
the shaft combined with that of the backward movement of D, thus re-
leasing the pressure at b and allowing C to move freely onward. The
other catch would be made just the reverse of this one, and would act
on an upward movement of the treadle-rod.
Another form of friction catch, sometimes used in gang saws to
secure the advance of the timber for each stroke of the saw, and called
the silent feed, is shown in Fig. 204.
The saddle-block B, which rests upon
the outer rim of the annular wheel A,
carries the lever C turning upon the pin
c. The block D, which fits the inner
rim of the wheel, is carried by the lever
C, and is securely held to its lower end
by the pin d on which D can freely turn.
When the pieces occupy the positions
shown in the figure, a small space exists
between the piece D and the inside of the
rim A.
The upper end of the lever C has a reciprocating motion imparted to
it by means of the rod E. The oscillation of the lever about the pin c is
limited by the stops e and G carried by the saddle-block B. When the
rod E is moved in the direction indicated by the arrow, the lever turning
on c will cause the block D
approach B, and thus nip the rim at a and
to
b; and any further motion of C will be given to the wheel A. On mov-
ing E in the opposite direction the grip will first be loosened, and the
lever striking against the stop e will cause the combination to slide freely
back on the rim A. The amount of movement given to the wheel can be
regulated by changing the stroke of the rod E by an arrangement similar
to that described in connection with the reversible click, § 136. The
stop G can be adjusted by means of the screw F so as to prevent the
oscillation of the lever upon its centre c, thus throwing the grip out of
action. The saddle-block B then merely slides back and forth on the
rim, the action being the same as that obtained by throwing the ordinary
click out of gear.
the axis a; the second wheel A has its teeth arranged in pairs, every
alternate tooth being cut deeper, and it turns loosely on the axis a.
138 INTERMITTENT LINKWORK.— INTERMITTENT MOTION.
The click B is so made that one of its acting surfaces, i, bears against
click will be allowed to drop so as to bring the surface i into action with
f
the pin e .
In the figure the click B has just pushed the tooth e' into its present
r
position, the projection g having rested in the deep tooth b of the wheel
A on moving back, g has
; slipped into the shallow tooth b, and thus the
next stroke of the lever and click will remain inoperative on the wheel
D, which advances but one tooth for every two complete oscillations of
the lever C.
Both wheels should be provided with retaining-pawls, one of which,
7), is shown. This form of pawl, consisting of a roller p turning about
an axis carried by the spring s, attached to the frame carrying the mech-
anism, is often used in connection with pin-wheels, as by rolling between
the teeth it always retains them in the same position relative to the axis
of the roller; a triangular-pointed pawl which also passes between the
pins sometimes used in place of the roller.
is
side upon the small shaft a, and are provided with a series of ten teeth cut
into one side of their faces, while upon the other side a single notch is
€ut opposite the zero tooth on the first side, it having the same depth
and contour. This single notch can be omitted on the last wheel A 2 The .
keep them in positionon the pin. The arms are made to vibrate through
an angle sufficient toadvance the wheels one tooth, i.e., one-tenth of a
turn; their position after advancing a tooth is shown by dotted lines
in the side view. A common method of obtaining this vibration is
to attach a rod at one end of the pin c, this rod to be so attached at
r,
its other end to the machine as to cause the required backward and
w heel A, advancing it one tooth for every double stroke of the arm c. The
r
proper position.
Having placed the wheels in the position shown
in the figure, the reading being 000, the action is as
Fig. 206.
follows The click b moves the wheel
: along one A
tooth for each double stroke of the arm
and b 2 remain-C, the clicks 6 X
ing inoperative on A t
and A on the
reaching the slot, or
2 ; figure 9
the position now occupied by 0, the notch n will allow the click 6
X
to fall into the tooth 1 of the wheel A x and the next forward stroke of
,
140 INTERMITTENT LINKWORK,—INTERMITTENT MOTION.
the arm will advance both the wheels A and A v giving the reading
10; the notch n having now moved along, the click b t will remain
inoperative until the reading is 19, when 6 t will again come into action
and advance A
one tooth, giving the reading 20; and so on up to 90,
x
when the notch m comes under the click b 2 To prevent the click b 2
.
from acting on the next forward stroke of the arm, which would make the
reading 101 instead of 91, as it should be, a small strip i is fastened firmly
to the end of the click b 2 its free end resting upon the click b v
, This
strip prevents the click b 2 from acting until the click b x falls, which occurs
when the reading is 99; on the next forward stroke the clicks b L and b 2
act, thus giving the reading 100. As the strip merely rests upon b v it
cannot prevent its action at any time. If another wheel were added,
its click would require a strip resting on the end of b 2 A substitute .
for these strips might be obtained by making the wheel A fast to the
shaft a, and allowing the remaining wheels to turn loose upon it, thin
discs, having the same contour as the notched edge of the wheel A being ,
placed between the wheels A ± A 2 A 2 A 3 etc., and made fast to the shaft,
, ,
the notches all being placed opposite n; thus the edges of the discs
would keep the clicks b 2 b 3 etc., out of action, except when the figure
, ,
9 of the wheel A is opposite the slot, and the notches m, etc., are in proper
position. A simpler form of counter will be described in § 141.
Intermittent Motion.
action of t ceases, i.e., when the wheel has been advanced one tooth.
This accomplished by attaching the piece n to the pawl, its contour
is
in the raised position of the pawl being an arc of a circle about the centre
of the shaft d; its length is arranged to suit the above requirements.
When the tooth comes in contact w ith the wheel, the arm e, striking the
t
T
piece n, raises the pawl (which is held in position by the spring s), and
retains it in the raised position until the tooth t is ready to leave the
wheel, when e, passing off from the end of n, allows the pawl to
drop.
In Fig. 208 the wheel A makes one- third of a revolution for every
turn of the wheel be, its period of rest being about one-
half the period of revolution of be. If we suppose A the
follower, and to turn right-handed while the driver be
turns left-handed, one of the round pins b is just about
to push ahead the long tooth of A, the circular retaining
sector c being in such a position as to follow a right-handed
motion of A. The first pin slides down the long tooth,
and the other pins pass into and gear with the teeth b' Fig. 208. ',
the last pin passing off on the long tooth e, when the
sector c will come in contact with the arc c', and retain the wheel A
until the wheel be again reaches its present position.
Geneva Stop. —In Fig. 209 the wheel A makes one-sixth of a revo-
lution for one turn of the driver ac, the pin b working
in the slots b' causing the motion of A ; while the circular
portion c of the driver, coming in contact with the cor-
responding circular hollows e
f
, retains A in position when
the tooth b out of action. The wheel a is cut away
is
Fig. 210.
the slot the tooth G starts the pinion, which is then free to make one-
third of a turn and again become locked by the periphery H. Thus any
wheel to the left receives one-tenth of a turn for every passage of the
digit 9 on the wheel to its right. In the figure the reading 329 will
change to 330 on the passing of the digit 9. This counter can be made
to record oscillations by supplying its actuating shaft with a ten-tooth
INTERMITTENT MOTION. 143
ratchet, arranged with a click to move one tooth for each double oscilla-
tion.
Figs. 211a and 211b show two methods of advancing the wheels A
through a space corresponding to one tooth during a small part of a
revolution of the shafts c;
the upper side of the slot, ca sliding over the lower side, the motion here
being also that of a connecting-rod with an infinite link, but decreasing
instead of increasing as from
2 to 3. When b moves from
4 to 5 there is no motion in B ;
in the cam. In this case draw the arcs de and cb from the axis of the
shaft as a centre, making ce equal to the width of the slot in B; from c
as a centre with a radius ce draw the arc eb, and note the point b where
it cuts the arc cb; with the same radius and b as a centre draw the arc
dc, which will complete the cam. In this case the angle cab will not be
equal to 60°, and the motions in their durations and extent will vary a
little from those described above.
on the shipper bar. In the present position of the pieces, the pin b is
LOCKING DEVICES. 145
in the upper part of the slot, and the weight w, tending to fall under
the action of gravity, holds it there, the shipper being thus effectually
locked in its present position. If now the
Fig. 218 shows another device for locking the wheel A, the teeth of
which are round pins; but in this case it is necessary to turn B once to
pass a tooth of A. If we suppose the wheel A under the influence of a
spring which tends to turn it right-handed, and then turn B uniformly
either right- or left-handed, the wheel A will advance one tooth for each
complete turn of B, a pin first slipping into the groove on the left and
leaving it when the groove opens toward the right, the next pin then
coming against the circular part of B opposite the groove. It will be
146 INTERMITTENT LINKWORK.— INTERMITTENT MOTION.
noticed that while there are only six pins on the wheel A, yet there are
twelve positions in which A can be locked, as a tooth may be in the
bottom of the groove or two teeth may be bearing against the circular
outside of B. Devices similar in principle to those shown in Figs. 217
and 218 are often used to adjust stops in connection with feed
mechanisms.
Clicks and pawls as used in practice may have many different forms
and arrangements; their shape depends very much upon their strength
and the space in which they are to be placed, and the arrangement
depends on the requirements in each case.
Escapements.
143. An escapement is a combination in which a toothed wheel acts
upon two distinct pieces or pallets attached to a reciprocating frame, it
being so arranged that when one tooth escapes or ceases to drive its
pallet,another tooth shall begin its action on the other pallet.
A simple form of escapement is shown in Fig. 219. The frame cc
r
ESCAPEMENTS. 147
at right angles to the vertical wheel axis. The verge carries two
pallets, b and b v located in planes passing through
its axis, the distance between them being arranged
144. —
The Anchor Escapement. The anchor escapement as applied
in clocks is shown in the upper portion of Fig. 221. The escape- wheel
A t turns in the direction of the arrow and is supplied with long pointed
teeth. The pallets are connected to the vibrating axis or verge C by x
means of the arms d1 C1 and efi1} the axis of the verge and wheel being
parallel to each other. The verge is supplied at its back end with an
arm Cip v carrying a pin p x at its lower end. This pin works in a slot
in the pendulum-rod, not shown. The resemblance of the two pallet
arms combined with the upright arm to an anchor gave rise to the name
"anchor escapement." The left-hand pallet, d1} is so shaped that all
the normals to its surface pass above the verge axis C v while all the
normals to the right-hand pallet, e v pass below the axis C v Thus an
upward movement of either pallet will allow the wheel to turn in the
direction of the arrow, or, the wheel turning in the direction of the
arrow, will, when the tooth b x is in contact with the pallet dlf cause a
left-handed swing of the anchor; and when b t has passed off from dx
and o t reaches the right-hand pallet, as shown, a right-handed swing
will be given to the anchor. As the pendulum cannot be suddenly
stopped after a tooth has escaped from a pallet, the tooth that strikes
the other pallet is subject to a slight recoil before it can move in the
proper direction, which motion begins when the pendulum commences
its return swing. The action of the escape-wheel on the pendulum is as
follows
Suppose the points l ± and k t to show extreme positions of the point p v
and suppose the pendulum and point pA to be moving to the left the ;
tooth b x has just escaped from the pallet d v and o t has impinged on
ev as shown, the point p± having reached the position m v The recoil
now begins, the pallet e x moving back the tooth o v while pi goes from
mx to lv The pendulum then swings to the right and the pallet et is
148 INTERMITTENT LINKWORK.—INTERMITTENT MOTION.
urged upward by the tooth o lf thus urging the pendulum to the right
while p x passes from l x to n lf when o x escapes. Recoil then occurs on
the pallet d x from n x to k lt and from k x to m x an impulse is given to the
pendulum to the left, when the above-described cycle will be repeated.
As the space through which the pendulum is urged on exceeds that
through which it is held back, the action of the escape-wheel keeps
the pendulum vibrating. This alternate action with and against the
pendulum prevents it from being, as it should be, the sole regulator of
the speed of revolution of the es cape- wheel for its own time of vibra-
;
tion, instead of depending only upon its length, will also depend upon
the forceurging the escape-
wheel round. Therefore any
change in the maintaining
force will disturb the rate of
the clock.
145. Dead-beat Escape-
ment. —The objectionable fea-
ture of the anchor escapement
is removed in Graham's dead-
beatescapement, shown in the
lower portion of Fig. 221. The
improvement consists in mak-
ing the outline of the lower
surface, db, of the left-hand
pallet, and the upper sur-
face of the right-hand pallet,
arcs of a circle about C, the
verge axis; the oblique sur-
faces b and / complete the
pallets. The construction in-
dicated by dotted lines in the
figure insures that the oblique
surfaces of the pallets shall
make equal angles, in their
normal position, with the tan-
gents bC and fC to the wheel
circle not shown. If we sup-
pose the limits of the swing
of the point p to be I and k,
the action of the escape-wheel
on the pendulum is as follows:
The pendulum being in its
right extreme position, the tooth b bearing against the circular portion
is
of the pallet d; as the pendulum swings to the left under the action of
ESCAPEMENTS. 149
gravity, the tooth b will begin to move along the inclined face of the
pallet when the centre line has reached w, will urge the pendulum
and
onward to ra, where the tooth leaves the pallet, and another tooth o
comes in contact with the circular part of the pallet e, which, with the
exception of a slight friction between it and the point of the tooth, will
leave the pendulum free to move onward, the wheel being locked in
position. On the return swing of the pendulum, the inclined part of
the pallet e urges the pendulum from ra to w. Hence there is no recoil,
and the only action against the pendulum is the very minute friction
between the teeth and the pallets. The impulse is here given through
an arc raw, very nearly bisected by the middle point of the swing of
the pendulum, which is also an advantage. The term " dead-beat" has
been applied because the second hand, which is fitted to the escape-
wheel, stops so completely when the tooth falls upon the circular por-
tion of a pallet, there being no recoil or subsequent trembling such as
occurs in other escapements.
In watches the pendulum is replaced by a balance-wheel swinging
backward and forward on an arbor under the action of a very light
coiled spring, often called a " hair-spring"; the pivots of the arbor are
very nicely made, so that they turn with very slight friction.
—
146. The Graham Cylinder Escapement. This form of escapement
is used in the Geneva watches. Here the balance verge (Fig. 222)
has attached to it a very thin cylindrical shell rs centred
at 0, the axis of the verge, and the point of the tooth b can
rest either on the outside or inside of the cylinder during
a part of the swing of the balance. As the cylinder
turns in the direction of the arrow (Fig. 222, A), the
wheel also being urged in the direction of its arrow, the
inclined surface of the tooth be comes under the edge s
of the cylinder, and thus urges the balance onward; this
gives one impulse, as shown in Fig. 222, B. The tooth jr IG 222.
then passes s, flies into the cylinder, and is stopped by
the concave surface near r. In the opposite swing of the balance the
tooth escapes from the cylinder, the inclined surface pushing r upward,
which gives the other impulse in the opposite direction to the first;
the action then repeated by the next tooth of the wheel.
is
resting upon the pallet d, but encounters a tooth when the wheel is in
any other position.
The detent d has a compound
construction and consists of four
parts
1° The locking-stone d, a
piece of ruby on which the tooth
of the escape-wheel rests.
2° The discharging-spring I,
WHEELS IN TRAINS.
turns of A n t
If we let n 2 and n 3 represent the turns of the second and third axes re-
spectively, the value of the train could be written
turns of F jn2y n^ n _n^ A -
turns of A n n yn n
x 2 3 t
That is, the value of the train may be found by multiplying together
the separate ratios of the synchrorial rotations of the successive pairs of
axes.
In § 148 it was stated that two wheels that will work together must
have the same pitch. There-
fore the numbers of teeth
on any two wheels which
will work together are pro-
portional to the diameters
of the respective pitch cir-
cles. It has already been
shown that the diameters of
two rolling cylinders are
Fig. 225. inversely proportional to the
rotations. From this it follows that the rotations of a pair of wheels
:
When the first and last axes of a train turn in the same direction the
value of the train is considered positive, and when in opposite directions
negative. The value of the train in Fig. 225 should then be written
turns of F_
¥ "
turns of A
[When discussing the more complex epicyclic trains in Chapter XI it
becomes necessary to use the plus or minus signs in the solutions, as
the algebraic sum of two or more component motions will be required.]
Similarly, the value of the belt train shown in Fig. 226, where the
diameters of the pulleys are given in inches, is
turns of F
Fig. 226.
151. General Example. — It is not necessary that all the separate
velocity ratios be expressed in the same terms as previously explained.
For example, let us take a train of six axes, and let
1° The first axis turn once per minute, and the second once in fifteen
seconds.
2° The second axis turn three times while the third turns five times.
3° The third axis carry a wheel of sixty teeth, driving a wheel of
twenty-four teeth on the fourth axis.
4° The fourth axis carry a pulley of twenty-four inches diameter, driv-
ing by means of a belt a pulley twelve inches in diameter on the fifth axis.
5° The fifth axis have an angular velocity two-thirds of that of the
sixth axis.
Then
_60 5 60 24 S_
e
~"l5
X X 24 X X 2~ 50 '
3 12
or the last axis will make fifty turns while the first turns once.
152. Directional Relation in Trains. —This depends on the number
and manner of connection of the different axes. When the train con-
154 WHEELS IN TRAINS.
tH5Lf =
turns A
^x§xMxg=
20
\(26
+ 33
37.84.
Fig. 229.
In the machine the lap of cotton passing under the roll A is much drawn
out in its passage through the machine, and it becomes necessary to solve
for the ratio of the surface speeds of the rolls B and A For this we have,
.
since the surface speed equals 2tt X turns X radius or turns XttX diameter,
surface speed B _ turns ffxdiam. B
(53)
surface speed A turns A X diam. A
surface speed B l
37.84 67.27.
surface speed A 2.25
EXAMPLES OF WHEELS IN TRAINS. 155
A train of spur gears is often used in machines for hoisting where the
problem would be to find the ratio of the weight lifted to the force applied.
In Fig. 230 the value of the train is fi
B 21 25 = J^.
turns
turns A
~ 100 X 84 ~ 16 ;
tP
?
p 25"t
F
then, if £> = 15" and R = 2± it.,
Lv.JP
1
~16 X 60~64 ;
F l.v. TF
= 1
w
•*'
F~l.v. F ~64'
Fig. 230.
or if f were 50 lbs., W would be 3200 lbs. if loss
Fig. 231.
emerging from the rolls C. This is termed the draft of the rolls.
156 WHEELS IN TRAINS.
The value of the train connecting the rolls A and E is
turns E 22x56 22
1.1.
turns A 56X20 20
or E turns 1.1 times while A turns once, the draft here being 1.1, since
the rolls are of the same diameter.
In order to arrange the rolls for different staples of cotton and dif-
ferent drafts we must be able to change the distance between the
axes of the rolls to suit the former, and the value of the train to suit the
latter. The front roll C revolves in fixed bearings; the bearings of
the remaining rolls are made adjustable, which necessitates making the
axes of the wheels 2 and 3, and 6 adjustable.
The value of the train connecting A and E is never changed, and it is
only necessary here to provide a slot for the adjustable stud M, which
furnishes the bearing for the wheel 6. The value of the train connect-
ing C and A, however, is changed to give the required draft, and this
is usually accomplished by arranging so that one of the wheels, as 3,
called a change gear, can be removed easily, and replaced by another.
The arrangement is as follows:
An arm B, centred on the shaft C, carries a stud N on which turn the
two wheels 2 and 3. The change gear 3 fits over the extended hub of
the wheel 2, and is made to turn with it by means of a pin in the hub,
a nut and washer on the end of the stud serving to keep the wheels in
place. The arm B is provided with a circular slot whose centre is in
the axis of C, this slot being supplied with a set-screw S in the standard
supplying the bearing of C. After once adjusting the stud in the N
arm B so that the wheels 2 and 1 are in proper relative position, and
placing the necessary change wheel upon the hub
S of 2, the set-screw
being loose, thearm and wheels can be turned on the shaft C until 3 and
4 come into gear then tightening the screw S will secure the whole, in
;
position. The slot is made long enough to allow for the largest and
smallest change gear 3. This principle of first adjusting a stud, carry-
ing one or two gears, on an arm turning about one of the shafts which
it is desired to connect, and then swinging this arm until the second
contact is made, is often made use of in placing change gears on lathes
and other machinery.
The standard D furnishes the bearings for the rolls C and A, and the
support for the arm B, and the standard F supplies bearings for all three
rolls and a support for the adjustable stud of the wheel 6. M
In a machine of this kind a so called draft factor is often determined,
assuming the change gear to have one tooth only. The draft factor
when divided by the draft desired will give the number of teeth in the
change gear; and conversely, the draft factor divided by the number
of teeth in the change gear will give the draft. In this case (Fig. 231)
ENGINE-LATHE TRAIN. 157
35 '
that is,
surface speed C
4.
surface speed A
—
Engine-lathe Train. Fig. 232 gives an elevation and end view Of
the headstock of an engine lathe, showing the method of connecting
Fig. 232.
the spindle or mandrel M
with the lead screw L. The " back gears G, 7
'
H
on the shaft NN
have been drawn in position above the mandrel,
instead of back of it where they are usually placed, so that one figure
will show the whole arrangement, a convention often adopted in draw-
ings of headstocks.
The step pulley C turns loose on the mandrel M, and carries the gear
F at its left-hand end; the gear wheels / and A are attached to the
mandrel, and turn with it. The gear-wheels G and H, connected by a
hollow shaft, turn upon an arbor whose axis is parallel to the axis of the
mandrel. This arbor is provided with two eccentric bearings NN, so
that by turning it slightly the gears G and H
with their hollow shaft,
commonly known as back gears, can be thrown in or out of gear with F
and / respectively. An adjustable catch is arranged between the step
pulley C and the wheel
I, so that the wheel can be connected directly
'o the pulley C by
throwing in the catch, the back gears being out of
gear, or indirectly through the back gears, which are now thrown in,
the catch being adjusted so that the pulley turns freely on the mandrel.
This catch consists of an adjustable pin, moving in a radial slot in the
gear wheel /, it being held in position by a spring or thumb-nut? When
158 WHEELS IN TRAINS.
the catch is at the inner end of the slot, it works in a circular groove in
the pulley C; but when it is at the outer end of the slot, it is located
in a radial notch cut from the groove, thus compelling C and I to move
together.
Thus, by combining a four-step pulley with back gears, a series of
eight speeds can be obtained for the mandrel four with the back —
gears in, and four with the cone only. The cone and back-gear train
should be so proportioned that the speeds are in geometric progression.
If it is desired to have a certain value for the train from F to I, it
becomes necessary to find suitable numbers of teeth for the four gears
F, G, H, and I. It is to be noticed that, since the axes and N are M
parallel, the F+
diam. of G will equal diam. of
diameter of + diam. H
of I; therefore, if the same pitch were to be on all four gears, we should
have teeth on F + teeth on(?= teeth on H
+ teeth on I. In a lathe the
pitch on H and I would usually be a little greater than on F and G, since
the teeth on H and 7 bear a greater stress.
For example, let the value of the train be
turns I _ 1
turns>~10 ;
this ratio may be separated into two ratios nearly alike; thus,
turns I _ 1 _ 3 1
F 10 10
A3 .
; K J
turns
and if we are to use not less than 24 teeth on any wheel, the train could
be as follows:
turns I F
teeth on teeth on H_ 3 1 24 24
turns F "teeth on G teeth on Z"10 3 80 72'
+ 80 = 26+78
s4-S x S where 24 -
Fig. 233.
A C 10 8 1 turns H
B XD 30 32 12 turns AT*
SCREW-CUTTING. 159
teeth for the gears C and E, and also to determine whether an odd or
an even number of idlers D would be needed to give the desired thread.
If A and B have respectively 24 and 36 teeth,
teeth on E_
_ 10 40
* '
teethonC ¥~36 ;
or the wheel on the stud could have 36 teeth and that on the lead screw
40 teeth. In this way a table may be calculated for any lathe and
the gears for each pitch of screw to be cut, arranged in tabular form,
as given below for the above case.
160 WHEELS IN TRAINS.
Threads per Inch Gear on Stud, Gear on Lead ScreWj
to be cut. C. E.
3 72 24
4 72 32
5 72 40
6 36 24
7 36 28
8 36 32
9 36 36
10 36 40
etc. etc. etc.
In arranging such a table the same gears are used as often as possible,
and so planned that both gears need not be changed any oftener than
is necessary.
be noticed that when the screws S and L revolve in the same
It will
direction, the threads will both be either right- or left-handed; while if
they revolve in opposite directions, as in the figure, one screw must
be right- and the other left-handed. In the figure, a right-handed screw
is being cut, the lead screw in this case being left-handed. To cut a left-
handed screw, another idle wheel should be inserted in the connecting
train. In many lathes it is arranged that either one or two idle wheels
can be thrown between A and B at pleasure, by simply moving an arm
placed near B in the headstock casting.
In gearing the stud with the lead screw, a vibrating slotted arm,
similar to that described in connection with the roll train, is made use
of. The wheel C is first placed on the stud, and then E is placed on
the lead screw; a wheel D is then selected from among the change
gears, and placed on the movable stud of the arm W, the stud being
adjusted so that C and D gear with each other; the arm is then swung
over until D and E gear with each other, and clamped in position by
means of the screw T.
155. Clockwork. —A familiar example of the employment of wheels
in trains is seen :'n clockwork. Fig. 234 represents the trains of a com-
mon clock; the numbers near the different wheels denote the number
on the wheels near which they are placed.
of teeth
The verge or anchor vibrates with the pendulum P, and if
we suppose the pendulum to vibrate once per second, it will let one
tooth of the escape- wheel pass for every double vibration, or every
two seconds (§ 144). Thus the shaft A will revolve once per minute,
and is suited to carry the second hand S.
turns
The value of the train between the axes A and C is
\
t =
turns A
8x8 1
"fkztw-a = ™, or the shaft C revolves once for sixty revolutions of A; it
60X64 60
CLOCKWORK. 161
is therefore suited to carry the minute hand M. The hour hand H is also
placed on this shaft C, but is at-
tached to the loose wheel F by
means of a hollow hub. This wheel
is connected to the shaft C by
turns F _ 28 X 8 _ 1
M X 64 ~ 12/
~~
turns 42
60 t
The drum D, on which the
weight-cord is wound, makes one
revolution for every twelve of the 8t
minute hand M, and thus revolves
twice each
day. Then, if the
clock run eight days, the
is to 64 t
64 t
drum must be large enough for
sixteen coils of the cord. The r
drum is connected to the wheel 2S t
and the same pair of teeth will be in contact after five turns of t or two
turns of T.
T 81 5
If we now change T to 81, then 7=^5 = ft, very nearly, the
the wear due to such imperfection should come always upon the same
tooth. This result is most completely obtained when the numbers of
teeth on the two gears are prime to each other, as above when T and
t were 81 and 32 respectively.
and further let the largest number of teeth allowed on any wheel be T
and the smallest number be t. Then one pair of wheels using teeth T
T
—
and t respectively would give an a.v. ratio to the axes thus connected.
m
=© ;
« = ^J
log
(57)
m =!2!*»
log 6
3.344;
or, three pairs is not sufficient, therefore four pairs of gears are required.
T
— .
the least number of pairs can be obtained without using equation (57).
T
7 = 6; 6X6X6 = 6 = 216, the result of
3
Thus, in the above example,
z
using three pairs, which is not enough; 6 = 1296 is much more than
4
enough, but four pairs are required, and the fact that four pairs would
give so much more than is desired means simply that we can use less
than 150 teeth on the large wheels.
After determining the least number of pairs of gears needed, one of
two methods may be used in solving for the desired train, the choice
depending largely on whether it is required that the desired value of
the train shall be exactly obtained, or whether some deviation is allow-
able.
T = 120 =
-
1° Let the value of the train be 360, and ~^7T 6. The least
360
= 2-2-2-3-3-5
1 " lll-l '
i . 20-20-20-20
The factors of the numerator are now to be combined into four numbers
which are to be the teeth for the large gears, and to obtain the best
result the twenties in the numera or should be factored as well as the
360. Two results are given below:
360
= 100 100 90 64
1 20 20 20 20'
or, better,
360^100 96 80 75
1 ~20 X 20 X 20 X 20'
however, it be required that the numbers of teeth on the wheels
If,
For example, let the value of the train be 400 and — = -^ =6. Four
For the other train, when the value was 360, with prime gears, and to
have the large gears as small as possible, the small gears will probably
need to be all different; thus,
-'
o«nnm
269 001
-
= 269001 = 81X81X41 269
.„ very nearly
.
'
81 81 41 47 13 nntrnAnn
x x x x 365 2436 -
io ro ro 45 ro= '
will be found that three pairs of gears are needed. Therefore take the
cvibe root of 60, which is 3.91+ , and write
— X^j-X—
3.91 3.91 3.91 nn nearly.
j— = 60,
Since the small gears are not to have less than 20 teeth, and since
20X3.91 = 78+, we may write as a first approximation
79 79 79
X 20'
20 20
which will be found to equal 61.63; if this result is too greatly in error,
a reduction of one or two teeth in the numerator or an increase in the
denominator may give a closer result, as
77 79 79
X X 60 07
20 =
- -
20 20
166 WHEELS IN TRAINS.
158. Mangle- wheels. —
Mangle- wheels are used to produce reciprocat-
ing motion from the uniform rotation of a pinion, and derive their
name from the first machine in which they were applied.
Figs. 236, 237, and 238 show three forms of mangle-wheels. In
Fig. 236 the teeth are drawn in on only a part of the pitch curve PP r
In Figs. 236 and 237 the cycle of motion of the wheel is divided into
two parts, each part having its own definite velocity ratio, which is here
constant except for a small space at each end of the motion, when the
pinion is being guided from one pitch circle P to the other, they being
joined at their ends by short circular arcs.
upon the edge of an annular groove in the
Fig. 236 has the teeth cut
disc A, these teeth being properly formed to gear with the pinion P, vhe
shaft of which is so supported as to allow the pinion to gear with both
the inner and outer sides of the groove. The pinion's shaft projects
below the pinion, and works in a groove, the width of the groove being
a little greater than the diameter of the pinion's shaft. This groove
serves to keep the pinion always in gear. If we suppose the pinion to
rotate right-handed, the wheel A will first make about f of a rotation
left-handed, and then about one rotation right-handed, and so on.
It will be noticed that the change of motion is gradual at each end when
the pinion is passing from one position to the other.
In Fig. 237 the wheel A (only one-half of which is shown) has teeth
cut upon the outside of an annular ring projecting from the face of A,
the pinion now travelling outside of the pitch circle PP, & groove being
supplied for the shaft as before. Here the between the veloc-
difference
ity ratios is less than in the previous case, and by making the two
MANGLE-WHEELS. 167
pitch lines PP to coincide, as has been done in Fig. 238, the velocity
ratios are made the same.
In Fig. 238 the wheel A is supplied with a series of pins P, the pin-
ion B working alternately on the inside and then on the outside of the
pins. One method of connecting
the pinion to a fixed shaft I is
rails up and down in "spoolers," used for winding warp yarn from
the bobbins on to the spools.
Figs. 239 and 240 show two forms of mangle-racks, which are let-
tered similarly to the wheels, the shafts of the pinions being constrained
to move in vertical lines.
In Fig. 240 the pinion B will gear correctly with the circular pins P,
and in both cases the velocity ratios will be the same.
V6S WHEELS IN TRAINS.
Sometimes the pinion is fixed and the rack shifts laterally, it being
arranged to move in suitable guides or to be governed by linkages
properly arranged.
Mangle-racks are used in some forms of cylinder printing-presses to
actuate the table.
—
CHAPTER XI.
AGGREGATE COMBINATIONS.
Motion by Linkwork.
160. Aggregate -Figs. 241 and 242 repre-
sent the arrangement of
usual Qa
such a combination. A rigid bar
ab has two points, as a and b,
each connected with one driver, •fOc
\ V
l.v. of a, and bb x the l.v. of b: \
x
\ I
to find the l.v. of c. Consider the
c
h
61^ tyb
motions to take place separately;
\ 1
\ 1
a velocity represented by cc v \\ \i
bb **, -o
Considering a as fixed, the l.v.
Fig. 241. Fig. 242.
bb t at b would give to c a velocity
cc 2 . The aggregate of these two would be the algebraic sum of cc t and
cc 2 . In Fig. 241 we have cc acting to the left, while cc 2 acts
x
to the
right; therefore the resulting l.v. of c will be cc^ = cc — cc
t 2
acting to the
left, since cc x >cc 2 . In Fig. 242, where both cc x and cc 2 act to the left,
w
Fig. 243. Fig. 244.
sheaves C and D turn on a fixed axis, while A and B turn on a bearing
from which the weight W
is suspended. Fig. 244 is in effect the same
as Fig. 243, but gives a clearer diagram for studying the l.v. ratio. As-
sume that the bar ab with the sheaves A and B and the weight W
has
an upward velocity represented by v. The effect of this at the sheave A,
since the point c at any instant is fixed, is equivalent to a wheel rolling
on a plane, and there would be an upward l.v. at d = 2v. At the sheave
B there is the aggregate motion due to the downward l.v. at e = 2v and
the upward l.v. of the axis b = v, giving for the l.v. of /, 4v upwards.
lv.F _4_W
*'•
}.v.W~l~ F'
.
One great advantage of this block is that it will retain the load. The
pull at d, having but little more leverage than the equal pull at e, in the
172 A GGREGA TE COM BIN A TIONS.
then allowing these to take place in succession, the motion of the arm
being considered first.
In Fig. 247 let A have 100 teeth and B 50; also let A make +5
turns about the fixed axis a while the arm D makes —6 turns; to find
the number of turns of B.
1° Suppose the mechanism locked so that
This will cause B to make -22 turns, since the value of the train
ul ns
-
= — 2. These motions are expressed by the second line of the
turns A
4
table.
3° Taking the algebraic sum of the above component motions will
give the resultant motions, as expressed by the third line of the table.
A B Arm
1° Train locked - 6 - 6 -6
2° Train unlocked, arm fixed +11 22
the value of the train assuming the arm fixed. It is absolutely essential
B= -28 turns.
With the dataas given in the second case under the tabuiar method,
where x represents the turns of the arm, and and the absolute B A
turns of B and A respectively,
2_ £-arm _ -28-a: t
-10+2z=-28-a;;
x= — 6 turns.
165. Problems of this kind may have the data so given that the
numbers of teeth on the gears or on some of
them may be required. Thus in Fig. 248 sup-
pose that A is to make +5 turns, and B —28,
while the arm turns —6; to find the number
of teeth needed on the wheel B if A has 100
teeth, and to determine whether or not an idle
Fig. 248. wheel is needed between them. By the general
equation,
relative turns B absolute turns B — turns arm — 28 +6
2,
relative turns A absolute turns A — turns arm 5 +6
or the value of the train relative to the arm must be —2 ; so B must have
50 teeth, and no idle wheel is required, since the value of the train is
negative.
C D ab
1° Train locked +1 +1 +1
2° Train unlocked, arm fixed —1 '
+
3° Resultant motions. . . +2 +1
Adding, we find that the wheel D makes 2 turns R.H.
In the three-wheeled train, Fig. 250, let A have 55 teeth, and C
Fig. 250.
have 50. A does not turn; find the turns of C while the arm D makes
+ 10 turns. By the tabular method we have:
A C Arm.
1° Train locked +10 +10 +10
2° Train unlocked, arm fixed -10 —10 (f J)
pins placed in the disc, connect the wheels B with a stationary wheel A,
on the axis a, having the same number of teeth as the wheel B for wire
rope. Then, on rotating the disc, the bobbins will be carried round
with the laying block, but the wires will not twist. This arrange-
ment, it will be noticed, gives the same result as that shown in Fig. 115,
and both are used for the same purpose.
Fig. 252 shows an epicyclic train which gives the same result as
above when the pulleys A and B, which are here connected by a belt,
1 '
are of the same size. This train has also been used in fibre rope-making
machinery, the pulleys B being often made slightly smaller in diameter
AA
^=^>
'*>-
^ "->
n
D.' >^
,
1
A
r
^i
\
60 t
K
XX
c
E
r
'!
....
01
60
1
"-•o;^ i
^P~G \^^
1
D
than A, when be found that they will turn slowly in the opposite
it will
direction to that of the arm D, giving a slight additional twist to the
strands of the rope as they are being laid, and making a rope less liable
to untwist.
If the wheel C in Fig. 250 has more teeth than A, it will turn in the
same direction as the arm. Fig. 253, called Ferguson's paradox, shows
an arrangement giving the three cases, the wheel E having the same
number of teeth as A, C one more than A, and F one less than A, B
being an idle wheel connecting A with the other three. The arm D turns
freely on the axis of the stand G, while A is fast to the stand. If D
makes +1 turn, we have for the other wheels, by the tabular method:
A D C E F
1° Train locked +1 +1 +1 +1 +1
2° Train unlocked, arm fixed. . . .
-1 — g-fr
-1 -gf
3° Resultant motions +1 +^ r -^
Pq F
1 ! !
rf=fi
1
!
1
Thus, C turns slowly R.H., and
till Ifll slowly L.H., in respect to the wheel E,
1 D 25 c 69 1 !i
1
may be a compound
,
1— ! !
23 t j
relative turns A
10
relative turns B
absolute turns A — turns D 50-x
absolute turns B — turns D -16-3'
10--
50-x
Fig. 255.
-16-x'
X — -10.
Therefore the arm D must make — 10 turns.
The Triplex Pulley-block, Fig. 256, is an example of the use of an
annular epicyclic train. Here the annular D is made fast to the casing
E so that it does not turn. The shaft H turns in bearings in the block
frame or casing E, its axis coinciding with that of the annular D. The
gears B and C (of which there are three equidistant sets to distribute the
Fig. 256.
stress evenly about the axis) connect A with D and turn loosely on
studs fast to the disc G, which in turn is made fast to the hollow shaft of
the chain wheel G turning in bearings as shown in the casing E. A
hand chain wheel K is attached to the end of the shaft H, turning loosely
in the hollow shaft of the chain wheel G, and serves to actuate the train.
178 AGGREGATE COMBINATIONS.
may then be unlocked and, while F remains fixed, such motion may be
given to either of them as the data require. For example, in Fig. 257
let A make +5 turns while B makes — 4; to find the resulting motion
of C. When the bevels are arranged as in Fig. 257 the wheels D and
E must have the same number of teeth. [It will be found clearer in
these problems to assume that the motion is positive when the nearer
side of the wheel moves upward, in which case a downward motion would
be negative or if a downward motion is assumed as positive, then up-
;
F
to D and + -| turn to F;
fronuot
25 t D
II
E
ft
-2-r
+3 turns of E will give —6 turns
to B, or B makes 6 turns in the
Fig. 258.
opposite direction to A.
The bevel train may be a compound train, as shown in Fig. 259, the
essential difference in this case
7 being that the value of the
bevel train relative to the arm
is no longer — 1. In Fig. 259
71 if B makes —10 turns, and A
+ 40, find the turns of C. With
the numbers of teeth as given
in the figure, we should have
V relative turns D _ 125 28
X
. . 50
Fig 259. relative turns E 42 15 9
;
140
Or, C willturn -—- turns in the same direction as B turns. To check
59
this we may use the tabular method:
180 AGGREGATE COMBINATIONS.
D E F
140 140 140
° Train locked
59 59 59
D-F ( 25)g + l
-1 =
E F E+l '
616
E= 67.*
The plus sign indicates that E must turn upward or opposite -to D,
and therefore an open belt is required. To find the ratio — equate the
m J
TJMmllJ::.
tt :]
Fig. 261.
D F
1° Train locked +1 +1 +1
2° Train unlocked, arm fixed —1
3° Resultant motion +1
+i
Fig. 262 shows an application of the sun and planet wheels, which will
give the same feed on a boring-
bar as the arrangement just de-
scribed. In this case the screw
S is attached to the collar in the
same way and the end
as before,
of the screw projects beyond the
end of the boring-bar and car-
riesa spur-wheel A. A pinion
B, supported by an adjustable
stud in the end of the bar,
gears with the wheel A. This
prevented from turn-
pinion is
^ relative turns
relative turns
A
£
We'
W
. .
m = °> a = + 1 '
and
,
e== ~ i; „
//
,,
then ^ ==
and the
+ 1^
,
- -
To reverse the feed in this machine, the stud of the wheel B is dropped
so that A and B are no longer in gear; then the idle wheel C is adjusted
so that it A and B, the stud of the wheel
gears with C moving in a T
slot concentricwith the screw S. Now m = 0, a= + 1, and e= + f ; then
n= + 1 and the nut turns + 1 therefore the feed is 1 Xi= TV'>
; ;
from the rolls L and carries the spindles T, arranged in a row and driven
by a long drum and cords, as shown. The cop is shown at K, and the
position of winding upon the
cop governed by a wire,
is
to stand still and swing the quadrant arm from D t to D 2 the drum ,
the proper one to start the copbottom: the motion of H will now be a
very gradually accelerating one. As the cop gradually builds up, the
travel of the faller wire being higher and higher, as shown by the suc-
cessive layers in Fig. 263, the screw S is turned by means of the bevel
gears at C, and the position of the nut E is so regulated that the proper
amount of yarn is wound upon the spindle for each run-in of the carriage.
The movement of the nut E, outward, is regulated by the counter-faller
wire V, which throws into gear a train of mechanism operating the
FUSEE. 185
CHAPTER XII.
GEARING.—CONSTRUCTION OF GEAR-TEETH.
as a v Fig. 266.
4° Pitch. — Diametral Pitch. —
The pitch is the distance measured on
the pitch line from a point on one tooth to the corresponding point on
the next tooth, as ca v Fig. 266, and is equal to the thickness of the tooth
plus the space between the teeth, afi t +b x c. In all cases the pitch must
be an aliquot part of the pitch line, and in order that two wheels may
gear with each other they must have the same pitch. Thus in Fig. 266
ca x must equal ca 2 .
Diametral Pitch. —
To lay out the teeth on a pair of wheels, it is
necessary to use the pitch; but if the pitch is arbitrarily assumed, it
186
DIAMETRAL PITCH. 187
or, circular pitch = diametral pitch Xx. Thus, a 3-P. gear has a diametral
Fig. 266.
ajj 2 — afi 1
will be the backlash. In most wheels the thickness of the
tooth is the same on both the wheels which are in gear, so that the back-
lash would be the difference between the space and the thickness of
the tooth, but for constructive reasons the thicknesses may not be
188 CONSTRUCTION OF GEAR-TEETH.
9° Length. — The
length of a tooth is the
distance between the ad-
dendum and root circles
measured on a radial line,
10°
Breadth. — The
breadth of a tooth is the
distance measured on an
element of the pitch sur-
face, between the two
bounding surfaces of the
tooth.
11° Parts of the
Teeth.— Face and Flank.
— The face of a tooth is
that part of the tooth
curve extending beyond
Fig. 267. the pitch circle, as ca lf
ca2 , Fig. 267, and the flank that part of the curve within the pitch
is
will be seen that the flank of the driver acts upon the face of the
follower during the approaching action, that is, while the teeth are
sliding toward each other, and that during the receding action the
face of the driver will drive the flank of the follower. The acting flank
is the part of the flank which comes into contact with the face of the
tooth of the other wheel, for it will be evident from Fig. 267 that the
entire flank cannot come into contact. Thus the acting flank Of the
tooth on A dx = cy, d being the first point on the flank of A to come
is
Fig. 268.
are the angles through which the wheels move while a pair of teeth
are in action, and if the diameters are not alike, these angles will be
190 CONSTRUCTION OF GEAR-TEETH.
inversely as the radii of the pitch circles, since the arcs which subtend
them are equal. For A (Fig. 268) the angle of action is a v and for
B, «,.
The arcs of approach are a1 c=a2 c, the arcs through which the pitch
lines move while the teeth are moving toward each other, which
action ends when the points a x and a2 the pitch points of the ,
The angles of approach and of recess for the wheel A are the angles sub-
tended by the arcs of approach and of recess respectively, /?x and yv
For the wheel B the angles of approach and of recess are /?2 and y2
respectively.
i
In order that one pair of teeth shall not cease their action until the
next pair are in contact, the arc of action must be at least equal to the
pitch, and in practice it should be considerably more if much force is
to be transmitted, so that usually two pair of teeth, or more, are always
in contact.
The approaching action is more injurious than the receding action,
for in approach the friction between the teeth adds to the pres-
sure on the bearings of the wheels, while in recess the reverse is the
case.
14° Line of Action or Line of Connection. —Obliquity of Action. —
The line of action, or line of connection, is a line normal to the tooth
curves at their point of contact, as always the case in pieces in sliding
is
In the case shown, pressure will result along the axes of the gears.
To neutralize this axial pressure, the twisting can be made to start at
the central plane of the wheel, and proceed the same on each side, as
shown at A.
5° Screw Gearing (Fig. 273). —Here the teeth also have a helicoidal
form, as in twisted gearing, and reduce to helical lines ; but these helices
lie upon cylinders whose axes are in different planes, the pitch surfaces
touching in a single point only. As illustrated by the "worm and
wheel/' the screw-like action alone of one wheel on the other which
it is
uwuuuuuuuu
=( fb
If now we draw the two circles shown dotted through the point c with
the centres o x and o 2 and assume the circles to
, move in rolling contact,
we should have
a.v. o t : a.v. o 2 =o 2
c : o x c.
Therefore the two pieces A and B, with their axes at o x and o 2 respect-
ively, have an a.v. ratio, due to their sliding contact, exactly the same
Fig. 275.
at this instant as that of two rolling cylinders on the same axes and in
contact at c. Thusa constant a.v. ratio is to be maintained, which is
if
the special function of gearing, it is only necessary that the tooth curves
shall be so shaped that at any point of contact the common normal to the
curves shall pass through the pitch point of the wheels. For if, on moving
the pieces A and B into some other position, and drawing the normal to
the acting curves at the new point of contact, it were found that this
normal passed through some other point than c on the line of centres,
it could be proved that the a.v. ratio was the same as that of some
other pair of rolling cylinders in contact at the point where the new
normal crosses the line of centres.
This Law, that the normal to the tooth curves at any point of contact
must pass through the pitch point of the gears, is fundamental to all types
of gearing if constant a.v. ratio is to be obtained.
Fig. 276 shows a pinion and annular wheel with one pair of teeth in
contact at d, nn being the common normal to the curves at d. o x a and
o 2 b are drawn perpendicular to nn. Then, bv the same reasoning as in
Fig. 275,
l.v. a = l.v. b;
l.v. a = a.v. o x Xo x a and l.v. 6 = a.v. o 2 Xo 2 b;
.*. a.v. o x : a.v. o 2 = o 2 b o x a = o2 c
: o x c; :
194 CONSTRUCTION OF GEAR-TEETH.
or, the teeth in contact at d would give to the axes o t and o 2 the same
a.v. ratio as that of the two cylinders in internal contact at c.
0i
-^-^tps m //Y
___,
"' at
n /
Fig. 276.
along the common normal and tangent are df and dg respectively. The
direction of the motion of d around o 2 is along the line dh. To find the
magnitude of its l.v. we have df as its component along the common
normal, since this normal is the line of connection between the two
sliding surfaces,and components along the line of connection must be
equal. This will give dh as thel.v. of d around o 2 and dk as its com- ,
ponent along the common tangent. The rate of sliding will be found to
be gk, equal to dg + dk, since the components along the tangent act in
opposite directions.
ac and bd normals to the flank from the points a and b respectively, and
then turning A backward until
the points c and d are at the
pitch point, we find positions a x
and which a and b respect-
bx
ively must occupy when they
can be points of contact with
the face of a tooth of the other
wheel. The point a x must be a
point on the desired face of a
tooth on the wheel B when the
pitch circles have been moved
backward an arc equal to c x c,
that is, so that c is at the
pitch point. To find this
point when the teeth are in
the original position, it is
necessary to move the wheels
forward, the wheel B carry-
ing with it the point a x and
the normal a x c x until the point
cx has moved through an arc
c x c2 equal to c x c; this will
carry the point a x to a2 and ,
the normal a x c x to a 2c 2
During .
the given flank with the desired face, is a point on this face when the
pitch circles of the wheels are moved backward an arc equal to c x d. Mov-
ing them forward the same distance, the point b x and normal b x c v moving
with the wheel B, will be found at b 2 and b 2 d 2 This process may be con-
.
A
smooth curve passed through the points of contact a b c x e f x will x x x
be the path of contact, the beginning and end of which will be deter-
mined by the addendum circles of B and of A respectively.
196 CONSTRUCTION OF GEAR-TEETH.
—
Conjugate Curves. Any two curves so related that, by their sliding
contact, motion will be transmitted with a constant a.v. ratio, as in roll-
ing cylinders, are called conjugate curves. The curves, in this case, are
often called odontoids.
178. After finding the proper shapes for the tooth curves and know-
ing the pitch, backlash, addendum, and clearance, the teeth may be
drawTn as in Fig. 279. A convenient method of laying off the pitch ab x
Fig. 279.
on the pitch circleis indicated in the figure; let ab be equal to the pitch,
laid off from the pitch point, on the tangent; starting from b space off
THE DRAWING OF ROLLED CURVES. 197
179. —
The Drawing of Rolled Curves. Any curve described by a
point carried by one line which rolls upon another may be called a rolled
curve.
The line which carries the tracing-point is called the generatrix, de-
scribing line, or describing circle, while the one in contact with which it
rolls is called the directrix or base line; either line may be straight, or
both may be curved.
1° —
The Cycloid. This curve is traced by a point in the circumfer-
ence of a circle which rolls upon a straight line as a directrix, as the
curve aa 2 a 3 (Fig. 280) traced by the point a in the circumference of the
circle which rolls on the straight tangent line ae.
b c $
Fig. 280.
sponding to the fourth division: Here the centre of the rolling circle is
at o 4 and the circle is tangent to the directrix at e (perpendicularly
,
under o 4), the point e t on the circle having rolled to the point e on the
directrix. Hence striking an arc from o 4 with a radius o 4 e, equal that
of the describing circle, and intersecting this with an arc struck from
the tangent point e with a radius equal to the cord ae lf we obtain the
point a 4 In the same way other points may be found. The instan-
.
gent to a series of arcs struck as above from the divisions of the directrix.
Another method of locating the point a 4 is to draw through the point
ex on the circle a line e t a 4 parallel to the directrix and noting where it
intersects the corresponding arc of the rolling circle.
2° The Epicycloid. —This curve is traced by a point in the circum-
Fig. 281.
Fig. 282.
circleand the small describing circle ab x c x the two describing circles will
,
by the small circle, and a v a 3 a 5 found by the large circle. This double
, ,
another circle, ae 2f2 whose diameter is equal to the difference between the
,
diameters of the directing circle and the describing circle ab^, as in Fig.
283, is rolled inside the directing circle, exactly the same hypocycloid
will be traced as that traced by the circle ab x c ly and these hypocycloids
r\
Fig. 283.
will coincide as shown in the figure, provided the describing circles roll
in opposite directions; thus in the figure the circle aej2 rolls to the left
To find one point, as a 2 , in the involute (Fig. 284) : Draw the radius
oc, and perpendicular to it draw the
tangent ca 2 . Make the tangent ca 2
equal in length to the arc ac, and a2 is
epitrochoid.
The above method of drawing the cycloidal curves may here be
used; but the tracing-point, now not being on the circumference of the
rolling circle, must be located in its different positions by a method of
triangulation from points whose positions are known.
In Fig. 285 the circle A with its centre at o rolls on the line B. The
point a, carried by A, will trace an epitrochoid. To draw the curve
first lay off equal spaces on A and B, pb 1 = pb, pc x = pc, such that b rolls
that the epi trochoid tangent internally to them, and the curve may
is
out the points which roll into each other, as b, b lf etc., with b x as a centre
and ab as a radius draw an arc a t with c t as a centre and ac as radius
;
draw arc a2 etc. then draw the curve E internally tangent to these arcs.
, ;
'
i 1 1
h-
i o2 /o 3 o4 os 6
Fig. 285.
and B, their pitch circles being in contact at the point a. Let the
smaller circles C and D, with centres at p 1 and p 2 be placed so that they ,
are tangent to the pitch circles at a. Assume the centres of these four
circles to be fixed and that they turn in rolling contact; then if the
point a on the circle A moves to a lt a 2 a 3 the , ,
same point on B will move
to 6„ b 2 , b3 ,
and on C to cv c 2 , c3 . Now if the point a on the circle C
carries a marking-point, in its motion to c t it will have traced from the
circle A the hypocycloid ajC lf and at the same time from the circle B
the epicycloid Vi- This can be seen to be true if the circles A and B
are now fixed; and if C rolls in A, the point c t will roll to a 1} tracing the
CYCLOIDAL SYSTEM. 203
Fig. 286.
sliding action, as they approach the line of centres, will give the same
type of motion to the circles as the circles had in generating the curves,
which was pure rolling contact. Therefore the two cycloidal curves
rolled simultaneously by the describing circle C will cause by their
sliding contact the same a. v. ratio of A and B as would be obtained by
A B
moving with pure rolling contact.
and
If now the circles A, B, and D are rolled in the opposite direction to
that taken for A, B, and C, and if the point a moves to a 4 b 4 and c? on , ,
t
The and face for the teeth on A and B, respectively, which were
flank
previously found have been added to the face and flank just found,
giving the complete outlines, in contact at d v
If now the wheel B is turned L.H., the tooth shown on it will drive
the tooth on A, giving a constant a. v. ratio between A and B until the
face of the tooth on B has come to the end of its action with the flank
which it is driving, at about the point c 2 .
ing circles for the face and flank of the teeth of one wheel need not be
alike. The path of contact is always on the describing circles; in Fig. 286
it is along the line d x ac v See also § 189.
181. Interchangeable —
Wheels. A set of wheels any two of which
will gear together are called interchangeable wheels. For these the
same describing circle must be used in generating all the faces and
flanks. The size of the describing circle depends on the properties of
the hypocycloid, which curve forms the flanks of the teeth (excepting
in an annular wheel). If the diameter of the describing circle is half
that of the pitch circle, the flanks will be radial (Fig. 287, A), which
Fig. 287.
From the above the practical conclusion would appear to be that the
diameter of the describing circle should not be more than one-half that
of the pitch circle of the smallest wheel of the set. It will be found,
however, that when the diameter of the describing circle is taken five-
eighths the diameter of the pitch circle, the curvature of the flanks will
not be so great, with the ordinary proportions of height to thickness of
teeth, that the spaces are any wider at the bottom than at the pitch
circle: this being the case, the teeth can be shaped by a milling-cutter.
In one set of wheels in common use the diameter of the describing
circle is taken such that it will give radial flanks on a 15-tooth pinion,
or five-eighths that of a 12-tooth pinion, the smallest wheel of the set.
This describing circle has been used with excellent results.
As an example, given an interchangeable set of cycloidal gears, 2-P.,
radial flanks on a 15-tooth pinion; a pinion having 24 teeth is to drive
one having 30 teeth. The diameter of a 2-P., 15-tooth pinion would be
1\ inches ; to give radial flanks on this pinion the diameter of the describ-
Fig. 288.
182. To draw the teeth for a pair of cycloidal wheels, and to deter-
—
mine the path of contact. In Fig. 289, given the pitch circles A and B
and the describing circles C and D, C to roll the faces for B and the
206 CONSTRUCTION OF GEAR-TEETH.
flanks for A, whileD is to roll the faces for A and the flanks for B. These
curves maybe rolled at any convenient place. In the figure, if the
wheel A is to be the driver and is to turn as shown, any point, as b, on A
may be chosen, and a point a on B at a distance from the pitch point
Fig. 289.
the pitch on the pitch circle, and is clearly indicated in Fig. 290.
Returning to Fig. 289, the circle D is to roll the faces for the teeth
on A and the flanks for the teeth on B. These curves may also be
rolled from any convenient points, as c and d equidistant from /. The
face thus found from A may be traced and then transferred to the flank
already found for the teeth on A at the point b, giving the curve b 2 bc'
the entire acting side of a tooth on A. Similarly by transferring the
flank dd s to the point a we have b2 ad' the shape of the teeth for the wheel
,
B. It will be seen that the face on A could have been rolled from b
as well as from c, so that the entire tooth curve could be rolled from b,
and similarly the other tooth curve could have been rolled from the
point a. After finding the tooth curves, and knowing the addendum,
clearance, and backlash, the teeth may be drawn. In Fig. 289 the teeth
are drawn without backlash, and in contact on their acting surfaces at
h and k. The path of contact is efg on the describing circles and is lim-
ited by the addendum circles.
the line parallel to the line of centres), and note the point d where this
line crosses the pitch line of the rack. If bd were just equal to one-half
the thickness of the tooth, the tooth would be pointed at c, and the
desired arc of approach would be just possible; if bd were less than one-
half the thickness of the tooth, the tooth would not become pointed
until some point beyond c was reached, so that the action would be
possible and the teeth not pointed, as shown by the figure.
If it is desired to have the arc of recess equal to the arc af, then the
path of contact must go to g, and the face of the pinion must remain in
contact with the flank of the rack until that point is reached, or the
face must be long enough to reach from / to g. Drawing a line from g
to the centre of the pinion A, we find that the distance fh is greater
ANNULAR WHEELS. 209
than one-half of fk, which is taken as the thickness of the tooth there- ;
fore the desired arc of recess is not possible even with pointed teeth.
• - (b
.Fig. 292.
in this case efg when the pinion turns R.H. If these wheels were of an
interchangeable set, the describing circles would be alike and found as
explained in § 181, and the annular would then gear with any wheel of
the set excepting for a limitation which is discussed in the following
paragraph.
Here if the three circles A, B, and (EF) turn in rolling contact, the
point k moving to g on A will move to h on B and to (mri) on the com-
mon intermediate circle. This means that the common intermediate
circle could simultaneously generate the two faces;
therefore the two
faces are in perfect contacton the intermediate circle. This contact
would continue until the addendum circle of one of the wheels crosses
the intermediate circle, the addendum circle crossing first necessarily
limiting the path of contact.
The above may be stated as follows: 7/ the intermediate describing
LIMITATION IN THE USE OF AN ANNULAR WHEEL. 211
Fig. 293.
be smaller than that of the annular; but if the exterior describing circle
is smaller, the face gm will have a greater curvature and Avill evidently
curve away from the face hn, so that no contact between the faces can
occur, as is shown in Fig. 295. Here no additional path of contact
212 CONSTRUCTION OF GEAR-TEETH.
occurs, and it is evident, if the arcs kg, km, kn, and kh are equal as they
must be, if the circles move in rolling contact, that the smaller D be-
Fig. 294.
Fig. 295.
comes (and consequently E) the greater will be the space between the
faces.
LIMITATION IN THE USE OF AN ANNULAR WHEEL. 213
Fig. 296.
show the path of contact if the pinion turns R.H. The successive steps
are shown in Fig. 297. The exterior and interior describing circles are
f" diameter, the gears being 8-P., with radial flanks on a
12-tooth pinion.
The diameter of the 20-tooth pinion is
2 =
/ 2y - and the diameter of the
;
equal to the difference between the diameters of the annular and of the
interior describing circle, or
h— -4 Ae
\ < / 3H
Fig. 297.
297 is abc, the usual path, and in addition the path bd on the common
intermediate.
approach, becoming zero at the pitch point, and then increases during
the recess. For wheels doing heavy work it has been found by experi-
ence that the maximum obliquity should not in general exceed 30°, giving
a mean of 15°. When more than one pair of teeth are in contact, a high
maximum is less objectionable.
As the numberof teeth in a wheel decreases, they necessarily become
longer to secure the proper path of contact, and both the obliquity of
action and the sliding increase. From the preceding considerations the
LOW-NUMBERED PINIONS, CYCLOID AL SYSTEM. 215
Fig. 298.
Fig. 299.
half the pitch. Fig. 300shows the diagram for this case, and the teeth
are apparently pointed, which would be the case if de were just one-half
the thickness of the tooth. To determine the possibility of the action
the angle dfe may be calculated. It should not be greater than 22|°
to allow the desired arc of approach. It will be found to be 22° 27' 19",
Fig. 300.
circle five-eighths the pitch circle would require. The results would
of course vary with the conditions imposed.
1 88. Arbitrary —
Proportions. The teeth of gear-wheels may be
designed by the preceding methods so as to fulfil any proposed conditions
of approaching and receding action. In the majority of cases the exact
lengths of the approaching and receding action are not important pro-
vided they are long enough. It is a very common practice to make the
whole length of a tooth a certain fraction of the pitch; the part which
projects outside of the pitch circle being made a little less than that
within to allow the proper clearance.
None of the arbitrary proportions can be considered absolute, as
the proper amounts of clearance and backlash depend on the precision
with which the tooth outlines are laid out to begin with, and then on the
accuracy with which the teeth are made to conform to these outlines.
In the best cut gears manufactured to-day the teeth barely clear
each other when the fronts are in contact, and in any case the allowance
made should depend on the accuracy of workmanship. In cast gears
more clearance is necessary to allow for irregular shrinkage and
rapping, or for slight derangements of the mould.
The following table gives some of the proportions in common use,
P representing the circular pitch.
1 3
ing curve that would roll on the pitch circles would fulfil the above
conditions just as well, the resulting curves having a common point
of tangency and a common normal at that point which passes through
the pitch point. Hence we may in general say that any proper tooth
outlines must be such as can be simultaneously traced upon the planes
two wheels, while in action, by a marking-point which
of rotation of the
is carried by a describing curve moving in rolling contact with both
pitch circles. And conversely, for any set of proper tooth curves there
is a corresponding describing curve.
—
Spur Gearing, Involute System. Generation of the Tooth
190.
Outline. —Let
o 1 and 0, be the centres of the two wheels A and B, Fig.
301, whose pitch circles are in contact at a. The angle of obliquity is
constant in a pair of involute wheels, which means that the path of con-
tact will lie on a straight line, which is called the line of obliquity. The
tooth curves are not rolled from the pitch circles, but from circles called
base circles, derived from the pitch circles as follows: Draw the line of
obliquity bac making the given angle of obliquity bae with the tangent
dae. From the centres of the wheels draw the circles C and D tangent
to the line of obliquity at the points b and c respectively; these circles
are the base circles. Draw the lines o t b and o 2 c from the respective
220 CONSTRUCTION OF GEAR-TEETH.
centres to the tangent points of the base circles and the line of obliquity.
Then
o xa : o 2a =o 1
b : o 2 c; (60)
or , in a pair of involute wheels the radii of the base circles are directly
proportional to the radii of the pitch circles. If the teeth can be rolled
from the base circles in such a way as to give a constant a. v. ratio in-
Fig. 301.
a.v. ratio inversely proportional to the radii of the pitch circles will be
obtained.
Imagine the base circles to be connected by inextensible bands be
and fg similar to a crossed belt connecting a pair of pulleys, and assume
that no slipping of the imaginary band occurs as the base circles are
turned; also let the line be carry a marking -point. The curves which
this marking-point would trace on the planes of the respective base
circles would be suitable for tooth curves. Thus, if we assume the
marking-point to start at b and move through a distance be, the point
b on the base circle C would have moved to /, where bf is equal to 6c,
and the marking-point will have traced the involute fc of the base circle
C. At the same time a point g on the base circle D, eg being equal to
cb, will have moved to c, and the marking-point b will have traced the
;
and from equation (60) this a.v. ratio is the same as that of the pitch
circles A and B in rolling contact. Therefore these involutes by their
sliding action will give to the wheels an a.v. ratio the same as the pitch
circles would give by their rolling contact.
It will also be seen in Fig. 301 that the fundamental law of gearing
is fulfilled, that is, the normal to the tooth curves at any point of con-
tact passes through the pitch point, this common normal being always
the line of obliquity.
The involutes thus found form both the face and flank of the tooth;
and although the face may be longer even until the teeth become pointed,
the acting flank (that is, the part of the flank which can be in proper
contact with the face of the other wheel) cannot pass inside the base
circle, the additional part of the flank necessary to carry the tooth
down to the root circle not being part of the involute.
Knowing the pitch and the backlash, both of which are laid off on
the pitch circles, the teeth may be drawn in as shown in Fig. 301, the
addendum being limited, however, as will be seen in the following para-
graph.
191. Path of Contact. —Relation between the Path of Contact and
the Arc of Action. —Limit of the Addendum. —As was seen the pre- in
vious paragraph, the path of contact is on the line of' obliquity. It is
limited, as in all systems, by the respective addendum circles, and the
addendum would be a maximum when the teeth are pointed. In the in-
volute system, however, the addendum circles are limited. Fig. 302
shows the acting side of a pair of teeth as they appear when in contact
at the point b, where the base circle C is tangent to the line of obliquity
at the pitch point a and at the point c, where the base circle D is tangent
;
would occur; -but if the wheels were turned further,. so that the point of
contact would tend to be beytfnd c, the additional involute face has no
longer an involute with which to be in gear, and the radial flank exten-
sion, as drawn in Fig. 302, would not be conjugate to the additional invo-
lute face. Conflict would then occur, for the curve conjugate to the
involute would lie within the radial flank. This conjugate of the involute
could be used, but one of the chief advantages of the involute system,
which will be noticed later, would thereby be destroyed.
Therefore, in Fig. 302, the contact cannot begin sooner than at the
point b with A driving R.H., and cannot go beyond c; or, in a pair of
222 CONSTRUCTION OF GEAR-TEETH.
external involute wheels the addendum is limited in each wheel by the tan-
gent point of the line of obliquity and the
base circle of the other wheel.
To insure perfect action the arc of action must be at least equal to
the pitch. In the involute system the path of contact is not equal to
the arc of action, but is equal to the arc through which the base circles
move while a pair of teeth are in contact, while the arc of action is the
arc through which the pitch circles move in the same time. Since the
pitch circles and base circles turn together, the arcs moved through
Fig. 302.
would subtend equal angles, and are proportional to the respective radii ;
therefore
The last term of the above equation is obtained by noticing that the
radius of the base circle from b and of the pitch circle from a are respect-
ively perpendicular to the line of obliquity and to the tangent.
The above relation is indicated in Fig. 302 for the arc of recess. The
two teeth in contact at a move through the arc of recess ae when they
will be in contact at c; the path of contact is ac equal to the arc fg,
NORMAL PITCH. 223
which the teeth move through on the base circle. Noticing that the
arcs ae and fg must subtend equal angles at the centre of the wheel A,
we have
ac fg radius of base circle
= cos cah.
ae ae radius of pitch circle
Thus for involute gearing the following law holds good: The path of con-
tact is to the arc of action as the cosine of the angle of obliquity.
By this relation we have a simple method for determining the beginning
or end of the path of contact for any desired arc of action. In Fig. 302
let itbe required to find the end of the path of contact for a given arc
of recess. Lay off from the pitch point a on the tangent a distance ah
equal to the arc of recess; draw from h & line he perpendicular to the
line of obliquity; the point c is the end of the path of contact, for, by
construction,
ac path of contact in recess
= cos cah =
7
ah arc of recess
note the point / where it cuts the pitch circle A. If ef is less than
one-half the thickness of the tooth,
the action can go as far as c and
the teeth will not be pointed. In
the figure, assuming no backlash, the
thickness of the tooth would be eg,
and ef is less than \eg; therefore the
action is possible, as is shown by
the two teeth drawn in contact
at c.
made as much as the pinion will allow, that is, so that the path of
Fig. 304.
contact will begin at a. The addendum of the pinion will give the end
of the path of contact at b.
INVOLUTE PINION AND ANNULAR WHEEL. 225
In Fig. 305, the diagram for a pinion and a rack, let it be required
to determine if the path of contact can begin at a and go as far as b;
to be solved without using the
tooth curves. The solution is
195. Involute Pinion and Annular Wheel. —Fig. 306 shows an involute
pinion driving an annular wheel. very similar to a pinion
This case is
may be redrawn using the same pitch circles and base circles, but separat-
ing them keeping the teeth in contact, as has been done in Fig.
slightly,
307. Connect the base circles by the tangent be. If now the line be
carries a marking-point, it will evidently trace the involutes of the two
base circles, as de and he, and these curves must be the same as the tooth
Fig. 306.
curves in Fig. 301. In Fig. 307 these curves de and he will give an a. v.
ratio to the base circles inversely as their radii,but the radii of these base
circles are directly as the radii of the original pitch circles (Fig. 301);
hence in Fig. 307 the tooth curves de and he would give an a. v. ratio to
the two wheels inversely as the radii of the original pitch circles, although
these circles do not touch. The path of contact is now from k to e,
which is considerably shorter than in Fig. 301 it is, however, greater than
;
the normal pitch, so that the action is still sufficient. The limit of the
separation will be when the path of contact is just equal to the normal
pitch. The angle of obliquity is bam, which is greater than in Fig. 301.
The backlash has also increased.
Theoretically the wheels have new pitch circles in contact at a, and
a new
angle of obliquity, also a greater circular pitch with a certain
amount of backlash; and if we had started with these latter data, we
should have obtained exactly the same wheels as in Fig. 301, only slightly
separated. It will be seen that the radii of the new pitch circles are to
each other as the radii of the respective base circles, and consequently as
POSSIBILITY OF SEPARATING TWO INVOLUTE WHEELS. 227
the respective original pitch circles. It will also be seen that the line of
obliquity, which is the common normal to the tooth curves, passes
through the new pitch point o so that the fundamental law of gearing
is still fulfilled.
Fig. 307.
beyond the centre found in the diagram. The addendum circle of the
smallest wheel will pass through c; this will give the root circle C for
INTERCHANGEABLE INVOLUTE GEARS. 229
the 36-tooth pinion, the clearance being known. We have thus the com-
plete diagram for the 36-tooth wheel and may proceed to roll the teeth.
Since the path of contact is not intended to go beyond c,the involutes
need not be extended to the base circle, and instead of using radial
extensions from the involutes to the root circle, straight lines tangent
to the involutes at the points where a
circle F, drawn through the point
c, cuts them, may be used.
a tooth were just ready to begin action
If
at c, as shown in Fig. 308, the line of obliquity would, at that position
of the tooth, be normal to the acting involute therefore if we draw the
;
line cf from c perpendicular to the line of obliquity, it will give the direc-
tion of the desired flank extension at that position. If a circle is now
drawn with o x as a centre and tangent to the line cf, the flank extensions
for all the teeth will be tangent to this circle, as shown in the figure for
one tooth. This will result in a stronger form of tooth than that obtained
with a radial extension.
When interchangeable gears are constructed with involute teeth, the
addendum is made the same for all wheels, and is usually taken, as in
the epicycloidal system, equal to the diametral pitch; but -when the
addendum is thus arbitrarily chosen, the teeth of the larger wheels,
particularly of the rack, would be liable to conflict with the flank exten-
sions of the smaller wheels; to avoid such interference the ends of the
teeth must be rounded off.
cycloidal or any others, even for heavy work; in addition to other advan-
tages that have been mentioned, it is to be observed that the form of
the tooth is a strong one.
equal to the thickness of the tooth, the radius being, therefore, about J
the pitch arc. This rule is, however, not imperative, as the pins are
often made considerably smaller.
Clearance for the pin is provided by forming the root of the tooth
with a semicircle of a radius equal to that of the pin, the centre being
inside of the pitch circle an amount equal to the clearance required.
The pins are ordinarily supported at each end, two discs being fixed
upon the shaft for the purpose, as shown in Fig. 274, thus making what is
called a lantern wheel or pinion.
—
Mode of Action. In wheel work of this kind the action is almost
wholly confined to one side of the line of centres. In the elementary
form (Fig. 309) the action is wholly on one side, and receding, since
it cannot begin until the pin reaches c (if o 2 drives), and ceases at e;
in Fig. 311, cp being the given epicycloid. The curve may be found by
drawing a series of arcs ss with a radius equal
to the normal distance between the curves, and
with the centres on cp. The parallel curve first
passes below the pitch curve cm and then rises,
after forming a cusp, and cuts away the first
part drawn : this is more clearly shown somewhat
exaggerated at mno. Hence the part which Fig. 311
would act on the tooth when its centre is at c is
cut away, and, for the same epicycloid, the greater the diameter of the
pin the more this cutting away. In Fig. 310 the pin e is just quitting
contact with the tooth at i while c is at the pitch point, and, according to
the above property of the parallel to the epicycloid, is not yet in contact
with the tooth m. Strictly speaking, then, the case shown is not a
possible one, as the tooth should not cease contact at i until m begins its
action. The above error is practically so small that it has been disre-
garded, especially for rough work.
The following method may be used in determining a limiting case
in pin gearing:
If we assume the pitch arc = eg (Fig. 312), the greatest possible
height of tooth is determined by the intersection of the front and back
of the tooth at p; and if this height is
taken, action will begin at c and end
at h, the point in the upper pitch circle
through which p passes. Now if p falls
upon the pitch circle ceh, we should have
a limiting case for a pin of no sensible
diameter. If the pin has a sensible
diameter and the pitch arc cg = ce is
assigned, bisect eg with the line o 2 p and
draw ce intersecting o 2 p in k; assume a
radius for the pin less than ek and draw
the derived curve to cut o 2 p in j which }
reach before the tooth will be in contact with the pin, or is the point that
n must reach before the common normal to the pin and tooth curve
passes through the pitch point.
Now action begins when the axis of the pin is at r and ends at t; if
rt = ce, we have an exact limiting case and the assumed radius of the pin
is a maximum; if rt<ce, the radius is too great; but if rt>ce, the case is
practical. To get the exact limit a process of trial and error should be
resorted to. When the pin is a point the methods used in cycloidal
gearing may
be applied; the correction for a pin of sensible diameter
can then be made by applying the method of Fig. 312.
—
Wheel and Rack. As the pins are always given to the follower,
we have two cases.
1° Rack drives, giving the pin-wheel and rack, Fig. 313. Here the
2° Wheel drives, giving the pin-rack and wheel. Here (Fig. 314) the
original tooth outline is the involute of the wheel's pitch circle.
the hypocycloid traced by rolling the pinion's pitch circle in the wheel's
circle.
—
Path of Contact. In the elementary form of tooth (Fig. 309) the
Fig. 318.
a number of these common normals, all of which must pass through the
pitch point c, and laying off the radius of the pin ei on each, we have
the path of contact ci known as the limagon.
sidered the driver, action begins at d, the point c of o x sliding down the
face cf while c travels from d to c. In the receding action the point c of
This shrouding strengthens the teeth and is usually applied to the pinion,
where the wear is greater; it may
extend the whole depth of the teeth
of the pinion, or both pinion and wheel may be shrouded to half the
length of the teeth. The latter arrangement is seldom adopted on
account of the difficulty of casting the wheels.
202. Unsymmetrical Teeth. —In all the figures hitherto given the
teeth are symmetrical, so that they will act equally well whether the
wheels are turned one way or the other. In cases where the action
;
Fig. 320.
minished. The upper figure shows a sec-
tion on the pitch line A A. The action for
each pair of plates is the same as that for spur-wheels having the same
outlines. In practice there is a limit to the reduction in the thickness of
the plates, depending on the material of the teeth and the pressure to be
transmitted, since too thin plates would abrade. The number of divi-
sions not often taken more than two or three, and the teeth are thus
is
quite broad. These wheels give a very smooth and quiet action.
—
Hooke's Twisted Gearing. If the number of plates be taken infinite,
the effect is the same as that explained in § 174, 4°. The twisting being
uniform, the elements of the teeth become helices, all having the same
pitch. The line of contact between two teeth will have a helical form,
but will not be a true helix; the projection of this helix on a plane per-
pendicular to the axis will be the ordinary path of contact. It can easily
be seen that the common normal at any point of contact can in no case
lie in the plane of rotation, but will make an angle with it. The line of
action then can in general have three components: 1° A component
producing rotation, perpendicular to the plane of the axes; 2° A com-
ponent of side pressure, parallel to the line of centres; 3° A component of
—
end pressure parallel to the axes. When the point of contact is in the
plane of the axes the second component is zero; advantage may betaken
of this, as will be shown, so that there may be no sliding action between
the teeth. The end pressure is neutralized as explained in § 174, 4°.
Sliding Friction Eliminated. —
In this case the angle of twist is at
least equal to the pitch angle and should be a little more. In Fig. 321,
which represents a transverse section of a pair of twisted wheels, sup-
pose the original tooth outlines to have been
those shown dotted. Then cut away the faces
as shown by full lines having the new faces tan-
gent to the old ones at the pitch point c; we
now have lost proper contact except that at c
for the section shown, but by twisting the
wheels this contact can be made to travel along
the common element of the pitch cylinders
through c from one side of the wheel to the
Fig. 321. other. A simple construction to use in this
case is to make the flanks of the wheels radial and the faces semicircles
tangent to the flanks. The action here is purely rolling and is very
smooth and noiseless; but for heavy work it is best to use the common
forms of teeth with sliding action, so that the pressure may be distrib-
uted over a line instead of acting at a point.
204. Approximate Forms of Teeth. —
To secure perfect smoothness of
action in toothed wheels, it is necessary that the tooth outlines should
be accurately laid out, as explained in the preceding pages, and that the
teeth exactly with the outlines found.
when constructed should conform
If the teeth are to be cut, the exact curves should be used, as when the
cutter is once made it will cut the accurate shape -as well as any other.
When, however, the teeth are to be cast, or for some other reason perfect
accuracy is not required, the exact curves may be replaced by others
which approximate to them more or less closely, but which are simpler
to construct. This is possible as, the teeth being short, only a small
part of the theoretical curve is used. In these approximations the pro-
portions of the teeth are usually
governed by one of the sets of
arbitrary proportions given in
with the line of centres, and through c draw the line ck perpendicular
to qq t On ck assume any point, as k,
. and through this point draw
the lines ko and ko x q intersecting qq x at p and q respectively. These
points may now be taken as limiting the length of the connecting-rod of
a four-bar linkage opqo v the links op and o t q turning about o and o t
respectively, k being the instantaneous axis of pq v For the a. v. ratio
we have
a.v. op _o x c
a.v. o x q oc'
which is the same as that for the rolling pitch circles. This angular
velocity ratio is also momentarily constant, as ck is perpendicular to pq
(§98, page 75) and for a slight angular movement
; of the links either way
from their present position pq would still pass through c. If now through
any point, as m, on pq we draw two circular arcs, as mn and mt, with p
and q as centres respectively, they will do for tooth curves, since they
will retain p and q at a distance = pm + mq=pq apart, thus replacing the
link, and will also have, for a limited motion, their common normal at
the point of contact passing through the pitch point c. In the figure mn
might be considered the face of o, and mt the flank of o v Had the
point m been taken outside of pq, both arcs would have been convex the
same way. If o x be placed so that the angle ko x c is acute, as, for example,
at o 2 then q will fall at q on the same side of c as p, and this will make
,
x
Fig. 324.
o l that of a wheel with which it is to gear, and c the pitch point. Draw
qcq x making an angle 6 with oo v and through
,
c draw the perpendicular
kck v making kc = k x c and less than either oc or o x c. Draw ok and o k, cutting
x
qc at p and q t
respectively. Lay off cm = ^ pitch on the pitch circle AA 1
on
the side of c opposite p and q x ; then p is the centre and pm the radius of
the face of odrawn through m, which face will work with a flank of o with x
the radius of the faces of o XJ and qn, the radius of the flanks of o. Circles
pf and qs drawn through p and q about o will locate the face and flank
centres respectively for the wheel o, and circles through p and q x about o x 1
APPROXIMATE FORMS OF TEETH. 239
will locate the faceand flank centres for the wheel o v If now the points
k and k t remain fixed, changing the radius o x c will not affect p and q,
the centres of the tooth curves for o hence any number of wheels may
;
be designed, using different values for o x c, that will work with the wheel
o. To find the limit of ck 1 for a given value of oc, we see from the figure
that when o approaches c, cq increases, becoming infinite when ok x is
parallel to cq, thus giving flanks perpendicular to cq through n. If
o approach still nearer c, the flanks become convex {q then appearing
above c), which would give an awkward tooth form. The greatest
value given to ck t is then that which makes ok t parallel to cq, and the
smallest wheel of the set will have straight flanks. If the radius of
this smallest wheel is represented by R and if D represents the distance
,
pc, and d the distance qc, then, by assuming values for R and in a set
of wheels, the corresponding values of D and d for different pitches and
numbers of teeth may be calculated and arranged in tabular form.
Professor Willis assumed 6 = 75°, and took twelve as the least number of
teeth to be given to any wheel, the flanks of this wheel being radial.
The Willis Odontograph consists of two thin strips T (Fig. 325)
making an angle of 75° with each other; the edge nr corresponds to
oc, Sindnq to cq (Fig. 324). The edge nq is graduated with equal divisions
beginning at n and going both ways. The graduations to the right of n
are for face centres, and to the left of n for flank centres; these gradua-
tions are made to suit the tables calculated by the method suggested
above.
Fig. 325 illustrates the method of applying the instrument. The pitch
and number of teeth being known, the
radius of the pitch circle oc can be
found ; make mn equal to the pitch arc
and bisect it from the tables
in c; find
the values D = mp
and d = nq, which
locate the centres p and q respectively
for the face ca and the flanks cb.
The method of using the instrument
can easily be seen from the figure.
Wheels laid out with the odonto-
graph resemble the cycloidal wheels
with a constant describing circle, of
a diameter one-half that for a twelve- Fig. 325.
toothed pinion. The outlines of the
teeth show an angle at the pitch points of the teeth.
The approximate radii of the face and flank curves for teeth, with
the radii of their centre circles pf and qs, Fig. 324, may be calculated
from the values of D and d tabulating these, we may get along without
;
the odontograph. This has been done by Mr. George B. Grant, who
;
has arranged a table which gives the radii of tooth curves and the radial
distances between the pitch circle and the face, and the flank centre-
circles.
Mr. Grant has also arranged a table, known as " Grant's odonto-
graph table," in which the approximate circular arcs are made to con-
form more nearly to the theoretical shape than by the Willis method.
The Willis arc lies wholly within the true curve, while the Grant arc inter-
sects the tooth face in three points; viz., at the pitch line, at the addendum
line, and at a point midway between. The above tables may be found
a
in A Handbook on the Teeth of Gears," by George B. Grant.
—
Robinson's Template Odontograph. This ingenious instrument, the
invention of Prof. S. W.
Robinson, gives the outline of the tooth direct,
and may be used in the pattern-shop for laying out gear patterns. It
was found that the curve, to satisfy the mathematical conditions in
what precedes, 1° must be one of rapidly changing curvature, approxi-
mating very closely to the epicycloid 2° it must be very nearly perpen-
;
dicular to the pitch circle at the middle point of the tooth outline; and
3° it must intersect the addendum circle at the same point as the epic}^-
cloid; in short, it must coincide with the epicycloidal face. The curve
most completely satisfying these conditions was found to be a logarithmic
spiral.
The odontograph consists of a thin brass plate fgh (Fig. 326), grad-
uated on the edge gh, the figure showing the instrument about one-sixth
k size. Accompanying the instru-
y/^\ ment are tables varying according
4f~~ s V to the kind of tooth desired. Fig.
\ \.326 shows the method of using the
^r^^-^^X odontograph to lay out a wheel
/ ^^v\ ) belonging to an interchangeable
/ ^ )r^a series. The table is here arranged
/ in four columns, giving: 1° Diam-
'
eter in inches ;
2° Number of teeth
3° 4° Flank set-
Face settings;
tings. Let lc\ be the pitch which is known when the pitch an 1
circle,
number of teeth are given; assume c the middle point of a tooth, and
lay off the arc ce = its half- thickness. Draw tangents ct and es to the
pitch circle at c and e. Set the instrument in the position fgh, the
proper division on the scale, found from the column of face settings,
being brought to d while at the same time the curved edge fg is tangent
to ct, and e is on the edge gh; now draw the face ea. To draw the
flank the instrument is placed in the position f^Jh, the proper flank
three cones, being in contact on oc, will have their axes in a plane pass-
ing through oc. Suppose the bases
of the cones to be circular portions
of a spherical surface whose centre is
at o and whose radius is oc, and let
the three cones turn in rolling con-
tact on oc, their axes being fixed then
;
their sliding contact the same a.v. ratio as the pitch cones would maintain
by rolling contact. Since the above method of drawing the shapes of
bevel gears on a true spherical surface involves much labor, the following
approximate method, given by Tredgold, is extensively used where
absolute accuracy is not required.
Fig. 329.
N>
Fig. 330.
The method of finding the tooth outline upon the normal cone
graphically is shown in Fig. 330, where A is an end view, B a side view,
The teeth are limited at their smaller ends by another normal cone
on which the outline have the same form as on the large end. Since
will
all elements of the teeth run to the vertex o, this second outline may
a wheel to work with the one shown. Both wheels have radial flanks,
and the development is conveniently located for drawing both wheels at
the same time; one may be shown in gear with the other.
Construction of the Correct Tooth Outline. Let doc (Fig. 331) —
be the pitch cone, fae the normal cone indefinitely extended; and let
oh be the axis of a describing cone cob, tangent to the pitch cone on
the line co, and intersecting the normal cone on the curve crstb. The
right-hand figure is a projection on a plane at right angles to ao, and
the circle cgd is shown in its true size cxqx dx the curve of intersection
, ;
clearly shown.
Suppose the axes of the pitch and describing cones to be fixed, and
suppose the cones to turn in rolling contact in the directions shown by
the arrows; then the element co of the describing cone will sweep up
the outline for the tooth face, and will always pierce the normal cone
in some point of the curve ctb, the normal cone being fixed as far as
its relation to the curve is concerned. Knowing the ratio of the bases
of the pitch and describing cones, the angular motion of one can be
found from that of the other, either graphically as shown in the figure,
or better by calculation. If the pitch cone turns through an angle
cla l l = ??ipl,
the describing cone will turn through an angle mn\, the
element will be found at or, giving us the point r t and the small portion
of the projected tooth outline lr v To find another point, suppose the
turning to go on to giving the point s u r t having now gone to u, a point
2,
found on the arc r ± u about a x by making the angle r 1 a 1 u=lal2. In
BEVEL GEARING. 245
the same way other points may be found, giving the projected outline
which is to be developed, as shown at D, before it can be applied
Svivt l
to the normal cone to fix the tooth outlines. In order to accurately
fix the outline, great care must be used and several points should be
found intermediate to those shown in the figure.
In laying out the teeth of internal bevel wheels by Tredgold's process,
it is evident that the size of the describing circles must be fixed with
Fig. 331.
—
Involute Wheels. Tredgold's process is here applied to the devel-
oped base circles of the normal cones. The exact outline of the teeth on
the normal cone would be found by noting on it the intersecting path
of a line carried by a plane, in rolling contact with two base cones, and
turning on an axis passing through the apexes of the pitch cones per-
pendicular to the plane.
Method of Cutting the Teeth. —The tooth surfaces being conical,
their outlines are constantly changing; it isthen impossible to cut them
accurately with an ordinary milling- cutter. This method, however, is
often used for small bevel gears. To distribute the unavoidable errors
as uniformly as possible, it is make the cutter conform
the practice to
to the middle section of the tooth, and to make it travel on the element
of the tooth on the pitch cone, where the face and flank join, and at the
same time along the root cone. The cutter is made narrower than the
smallest space, and only one side of the tooth is cut at a time. With this
method the flank of the tooth at the large end is too full and the face
not full enough; at the small end the errors are reversed; the surfaces
also are cylindrical and not conical as they should be. Messrs. Brown
and Sharpe make the clearance the same at both ends of the teeth; the
cutting angle is thus the complement of the face angle of the gear with
which the one being cut is to work; they also shape the cutter to be
correct for a point on the tooth one- third of its breadth from the large end.
The system of diametral pitch is also applied to small bevel gears,
the same rules holding, it being always understood that by the pitch
circle is meant the largest, or that of the base of the rolling pitch cone.
There are, however, machines which will cut true bevel gears.
—
Twisted Bevel-wheels. It is to be noticed that bevel gears may
be stepped in the same way as spur gears, and the advantages aris-
ing would be the same but there are practical reasons why this arrange-
;
ment is not employed. The wheels may have the process of twisting
applied to them as in twisted gearing; in such case the only objection is
the difficulty of forming the teeth: as far as outline goes, any outline that
is suitable before twisting will also be after twisting.
— —
Screw Gearing. Worm and Wheel. The most familiar example
206.
is Worm and Wheel, where the axes are situated in planes at
that of the
right angles to each other, as shown in Fig. 332. Here let be the centre
of a pitch circle through c, and tt the pitch line of a rack. In the plane
of the paper construct teeth on these pitch lines of any proper form for
spur gearing. If now the rack outline be taken as the meridian section
of a screw whose pitch is equal to that of the rack, one turn of the screw
or worm will advance the wheel one tooth, just as though we considered
the screw to act as a rack, and to be moved along its axis a distance equal
to the pitch; the wheel being made very thin, the screw action of the
successive equal meridian sections as they come into the plane of the
SCREW GEARING. 247
paper the same as that of a uniformly moving rack tooth driving the
is
Fig. 332.
m
the helix on the wheel's pitch cylinder as a
directrix for the wheel section, shown in Fig. Fig. 333.
332, the pitch point c moving along the helix;
then the section will, in its motion, form a twisted wheel which will
work with the worm. Here the teeth only touch on points in the cen-
tral transverse plane and thus the wear is excessive. The thick-
ness of the wheel depends upon its material and the pressure to be
transmitted. The teeth of these wheels are sometimes cut straight
across the wheel with an ordinary milling-cutter, at an angle with the
elements of the pitch cylinder equal to that between ab and ee.
248 CONSTRUCTION OF GEAR-TEETH.
—
207. Close-fitting Worm and Wheel. To make such a wheel, an
exact copy of the screw is made of steel, and then it is fluted and hardened,
similar to a tap, so as to become a cutting-tool, which may be used to
finish the teeth, usually roughed out by the method of Fig. 333. Placing
this cutting- tool in proper position in reference to the axis of the wheel,
and in the notches previously made, it can be made to cut out the wheel
by its rotation, the axes being pressed nearer together as the cutting
goes on. Worm-wheel cutting -machines are now made where the wheel
can be given the proper rotation in relation to the worm by independent
mechanism. When the worm is allowed to cut all of the material away,
no guiding notches being made, the wheel will have more teeth than
wanted, as the cutting begins on a cylinder larger than the pitch cylinder;
the tooth form is also unsatisfactory.
The involute form of tooth is usually applied in worm gearing, as it
gives a straight-sided screw, and a change in the. distance between the
axes does not affect the velocity ratio.
For a close-fitting worm-wheel the blank is usually of the form shown
at the right in Fig. 332, where the lines oj and o x e through the axis
of the worm describe cones on the axis oe, which limit the teeth.
Since all sections of a screw on planes parallel to and equidistant
from its axis are alike, they will act the same as the meridian section
of Fig. 332. This enables us to draw the outline for the teeth of a close-
fitting worm, as shown in Fig. 334, where the view at the left corresponds
to the section at the right of Fig. 332. The teeth of the wheel follow the
circle of the worm through an angle 2a, which ought not to exceed 60°.
The pitch point 0, to secure the strongest tooth on the wheel, should
be located half-way between / and h, in which case the teeth of the wheel
will be cut away much less at their points than those shown. Xow
pass a plane through cd parallel to ab; it will cut from the screw the
outline of a rack as shown at B, Fig. 334; the conjugate of this rack
tooth will give the shape of the wheel's tooth on the plane cd. In the
same way, other planes may be passed parallel to cd. The contour of
the teeth on the conical sides of the wheel may be found by developing
the cones and applying a method similar to Tredgold's, used in drawing
bevel gears. The several sections found must be properly located rel-
atively to each other, and a sufficient number of outlines will enable the
wheel pattern to be made.
It has been found in practice that the worm-wheel, to give good
results, should not have less than 25 teeth; the obliquity of action for
an involute wheel tooth may be taken about 15°.
—
Hindley Worm. Fig. 335 shows the close-fitting Hindley worm and
wheel. Here the contour of the worm corresponds with that of the
root circle of the wheel at its central plane. The worm is cut with a
tool shaped to the contour of its thread (in this case straight-sided), but,
CLOSE-FITTING WORM AND WHEEL. 249
250 CONSTRUCTION OF GEAR-TEETH.
instead of being advanced uniformly parallel to the axis of the worm, the
tool is here made to turn uni-
formly about an axis having
the same position relative to the
axis of the worm as the wheel
to be driven. This angular
motion for one rotation of the
worm is the same as that
desired in the wheel. After
turning the worm it may be
made to cut a close-fitting
wheel in the manner previously
described for the ordinary close-
fitting worm and wheel. This
worm when properly made has
a greater bearing surface than
the ordinary form, and hence
the pressure and wear on the
teeth of the wheel are both
distributed and thereby re-
duced. It is extensively used
in driving elevator drums.
Close-fitting worms should
Fig. 335.
always be well lubricated, and
are for that reason usually placed under their wheels, so that they may
run in a bath of oil, the worm and wheel being enclosed in a suitable
tight casing.
—
Multiple-threaded Screw-wheels. So far the screw has been sup-
posed to be single- threaded, its pitch being that of the fundamental
rack tooth. If now we double the helical pitch, the angular velocity of
the thin wheel (Fig. 332) will be doubled, and only alternate teeth will
come into action. To bring the remaining teeth into action, the screw
can be made double- threaded, and this will at the same time reduce the
pressure upon each tooth. In the same manner the helical pitch may
be made any number of times as great as the tooth pitch, the number
of threads being increased accordingly; the diameter of the screw in
such case should be made great enough to avoid excessive obliquity of
action. The screw may then have as many threads as there are teeth
upon the wheel, or more; the combination will then appear as shown in
Fig. 273. When the number of teeth on the wheel becomes infinite, the
wheel becomes a rack, and its teeth will have an outline like a portion
of an ordinary nut.
—
208. Oblique Screw Gearing. The axis of the screw may cross the
plane of the wheel obliquely, and give motion to the wheel by its end
OBLIQUE SCREW GEARING. 251
thrust the fundamental principle is here the same, the screw being still
;
The twist of the wheel is here found by the same method as that
shown in Fig. 333. Developing the helical line through p x (the pitch
point), as shown at pko (pk being equal to the circumference of A and
perpendicular to po), we have the angle pok that the common tangent
tt of the helices in contact at p makes with po. The normal sections
r'and o' of the wheel, on the planes through r and o, would be the same
as p' and the wheel would thus be a simple twisted one if made from a
cylindrical blank. The length of the pitch arc on the wheel is pe, cor-
responding to ce (Fig. 336), and this must be an aliquot part of the
pitch circumference.
Action on Wheel. — It may be seen in Fig. 337 that one turn of the
worm will drive the wheel through more than the original pitch angle,
although the pitch of the screw is equal to
the diagonal pitch of the rack in Fig. 336.
In that case the rack tooth always acted
against a surface with rectilinear elements
perpendicular to the plane of rotation; but
here the worm acts against helices of the
same pitch, crossing the plane of rotation
obliquely. The velocity ratio being con-
stant, we may confine our attention to the
helices upon the pitch cylinders, and study
their action as represented in their devel-
opments on the common tangent p?ane to
the pitch surfaces. In Fig. 338 let cc and
dd be elements of the pitch cylinders of the
wheel and worm respectively, intersecting at
p and fixing the tangent plane; also let po
be the pitch of the worm, pk its pitch circumference, and ok the developed
helix, as in Fig. 337. tt, parallel to ok, is the common tangent to the two
making pf=2pe, and drawing kfn. t x x is then the common tangent to the
t
two helices, and ph the common normal component. Now in Fig. 338 both
ho and kn will form right-handed helices upon the pitch
cylinder of the screw; but on wrapping the tangent
plane down upon the pitch cylinder of the wheel, kn
will become a right-handed and ko a left-handed helix.
Hence there must be an intermediate position in which
the developed worm helix will be parallel to cc and will
therefore become a rectilinear element of the wheel's
pitch cylinder. Such a case is obtained by the pro-
portions shown in Fig. 339 lettered the same as Fig. 338.
If pe and the obliquity cpo are given, the pitch and
circumference of the screw are found by drawing through
e a perpendicular to pe, cutting po at o, and pk (a per-
Fig. 339.
pendicular to po) at k. If pe and pk are given, draw
an arc about p with a radius pe and also draw po perpendicular to pk;
then ke tangent to the arc fixes the pitch po and the obliquity cpo. The
wheel in this case becomes a common spur-wheel, as shown in Fig. 340.
PAGE
Accelerated motion , 4
Addendum 188
Addendum, limit of, in involute gearing 221
Addendum line or circle 188
Aggregate combinations 169-185
Aggregate motion by linkwork t 169
Anchor escapement 147
Angle of action 189
Angle of obliquity 190, 219
Angles of approach and recess 189
Angular velocity 4
Annular wheels, cycloidal system 209-214
Annular wheels, involute system 225
Anti-parallel crank linkage 81-83
Anti-parallel crank linkage as quick-return motion 82, 83
Anti-parallel crank linkage, centroids of 82
Approach, arcs and angles of 189
Approximate forms of teeth 236-241
Arc of action 189
Arcs of approach and recess 189
Axoid 12
Back-gears 157
Backlash 187
Base circles 219
Bearings 15
Bell-crank lever 59,60
Belt, effective pull in a 47
Belt, quarter turn 48-50
Belts 40
Belts and pulleys connecting non-parallel axes 47-5^
Belts, length of crossed -
42
Belts, length of open 43
Bevel gearing 191, 241-246
255
256 INDEX.
PAGE
Bevel gearing; Tredgold's approximation 242, 243
Bevel gearing, twisted 246
Binder pulleys 52
Boring-bars 181, 182
Cam 61
Cam and slotted sliding-bar 144
Cam, cylindrical 70-72
Cam, design of, for giving motion on straight line not passing through the
axis of cam 65
Cam, design of, for giving motion on straight line passing through the axis
of cam 62
Cam diagram for harmonic motion 64
Cam diagram for uniformly-accelerated and uniformly-retarded motion ... 64
Cam diagrams 61
Cam diagrams for giving rapid motions 63
Cam; general case 66, 67
Cam, heart 64
Cam, involute 65
Cam, positive-motion 68
Cam, use of roller in a 62
Centre, instantaneous 9-11
Centre of motion, periodic 12
Centroid 12
Centroids in anti-parallel crank linkage 81, 82
Chain, Morse rocker-joint 58
Chain, Reynold silent 57
Chains 40
Chains, geared 54-58
Chains, high-speed 57, 58
Chronometer escapement 149
Clearance 188
Clearing curve 197, 202
Click or pawl 128
Clockwork 160
Closed pair 14
Closed pair, inversion of 22
Close-fitting worm and wheel 248
Cone pulleys 44-47
Cone pulleys, equal 46
Cone pulleys solved for crossed belt 44
Cone pulleys solved for open belt 44, 45
Cones, Evans friction 29
Cones, rolling 25-27
Conic four-bar linkage 109-1 13
Conjugate curves 194-196
Cords 40
Cords and ropes, driving by 52, 53
INDEX. 257
PAGE
Cords, parallel motion by 126
Cords, small, connecting non-parallel axes 53
Counter, mechanism of 139, 142
Crank and rocker 76
Crossed belt, length of 42
Crossed belt, solution of cone pulleys using 44
Crowning of pulleys 41
Crown-wheel escapement. 146
Curves, conjugate 194-196
Curves, rolled 197-202
Cycloid 197
Cycloidal gearing 202-219
Cycloidal gearing; annular wheels 209-214
Cycloidal gearing; arbitrary proportions 188
Cycloidal gearing; interchangeable wheels 204
Cycloidal gearing; low-numbered pinions 214-217
Cycloidal gearing, path of contact in. . . 204, 205, 207
Cylinder and sphere, rolling 28
Cylinder escapement 149
Cylinders, rolling 23-25
Cylindrical cam 70-72
Eccentric 98
Effective pull in a belt 47
Ellipses, linkage for drawing (elliptic trammel) 105, 106
Ellipses, linkage for turning (elliptic chuck) 107
Ellipses, lobed wheels from 37
Ellipses, rolling 36, 37
258 INDEX.
PAGE
Ellipses, rolling, as quick-return motion 32, 83
Elliptic chuck 107
Elliptic trammel 105, 106
Engine-lathe train 157
Engine, oscillating 92, 93
Epicyclic bevel trains. . 178-180
Epicyclic trains 172-182
Epicyclic trains used in rope-making 175
Epicycloid 198
Epicycloid, double generation of. . . 199
Epitrochoid, curtate and prolate 201
Escapement, anchor 147
Escapement, chronometer .'
149
Escapement, crown-wheel 146
Escapement, dead-beat 148
Escapement, Graham cylinder 149
Evans friction cones 29
Expansion of elements in linkwork 97-102
Exterior describing circle 209
Gearing 186-253
Gearing, bevel 191, 241-246
Gearing-chains 54-58
Gearing-chains, high-speed 57, 58
Gearing, friction 29-31
Gearing, pin. 191, 229-233
Gearing, screw 192, 246-253
Gearing, skew 191
Gearing, spur 190, 202-241
Gearing, twisted 191 , 235
Geneva stop 141
Graham cylinder escapement . 149
Grant's odontograph 240
Gravity, motion following law of 64
Guide-pulleys 48-
INDEX. 259
PAGE
Harmonic motion, diagram for. . 64
Harmonic motion, linkwork giving 102, 103
Heart cam 64
Hindley worm 248
Hooke's joint 110-113
Hooke's joint, angular velocity ratio in. . Ill
Hooke's joint, double Ill
Hooke's stepped wheels. 235
Hooke's twisted gearing 235
Hyperbolas, rolling 38
Hypocyloid 199, 200
Hypocycloid, double generation of 200
PAGE
Linkage, diagrams to show a. v. or l.v. ratio in a 75
Linkage, four-bar . 73-86
Linkage, isosceles sliding-biock 96, 97
Linkage, sliding-block 87-91
Linkage, swinging-block 92-94
Linkage, turning-block 95
Linkwork, aggregate motion by 169
Linkwork, double oscillation by 86
Linkwork, expansion of elements in 97-102
Linkwork, forces transmitted by. 84, 85
Linkwork giving harmonic motion : 102, 103
Linkwork, intermittent 128-150
Linkwork, slow motion by 84
Linkwork with one sliding pair 86-102
Linkwork with two sliding pairs 102-107
Lobed wheels from ellipses 36, 37
Lobed wheels from logarithmic spirals 34, 35
Locking devices 144, 145
Logarithmic spirals, lobed wheels from 34, 35
Logarithmic spirals, rolling 32-35
Machine 1,2
Mangle-racks . 166
Mangle-wheels 167
Masked wheels 137
Mechanism 2
Morse rocker-joint chain 58
Motion, accelerated 4
Motion, composition and resolution of 7, 8
Motion, continuous 3
Motion, intermittent 3
Motion of translation 12
Motion, parallelogram of 7, 8
Motion, parallelopiped of 8
Motion, periodic centre of 1.2
Motion, reciprocating 3
Motion, retarded 4
Motion, uniformly accelerated and retarded 64
Mule-pulleys 51
PAGE
Obliquity of action. . , 190
Odontograph, Grant's 240
Odontography Klein's 241
Odontograph, Robinson's 240
Odontograph, Willis' . . . 239
Odontoids 196
Oldham's coupling 105
Open belt, length of 43
Open belt, solution of cone pulleys using 44, 45
Oscillating engine 92, 93
Pairs of elements 14
Pairs of elements, incomplete. 22
Pantograph 120-123
Parabolas, rolling 37
Parallel cranks 79, 80
Parallel rod 80
Parallel motion by cords 126
Parallel motion by four-bar linkage 125
Parallel motion; pantograph. 120-123
Parallel motion, Scott-Russell's 116, 117
Parallel motion, Watt's 123
Parallelogram of motion 7, 8
Parallelopiped of motion 8
Path of contact 188
Path of contact and arc of action, relation between, in involute gearing 221-223
Path of contact in cycloidal gearing 204, 205
Path of contact in involute gearing 221
Path of contact, limits of, in cycloidal gearing 207
Pawl 128
Pawl, double-acting 132
Pawl, reversible 130
Peaucellier's straight-line motion 114
Periodic centre of motion 12
Pin gearing 191, 229-233
Pitch circle or line 151, 186
Pitch, diametral . . 186
Pitch-line of a pulley 40
Pitch, normal 223
Pitch of a gear-wheel 151, 186
Pitch of a screw 17
Pitch point 186
Pitch surface 186
Positive-motion cam 68
Primary and secondary pieces 15
Pulley-block, differential 171
Pulley-block, triplex 177
Pulleys ; angular velocity ratio 41
262 INDEX.
PAGE
Pulleys, belts and, to connect non-parallel axes 47-52
Pulleys, binder y> 52
Pulleys, cone 44-47
Pulleys, crowning of 41
Pulleys, guide 48
Pulleys, line of connection of 40
Pulleys, mule 51
Pulleys, pitch surface of 40
Pulleys, stepped 44-47
Pulleys, tight and loose 42
PAGE
Sang's theory 234
Scott-Russell's parallel motion 116, 117
Screw and nut 16
Screw-cutting train 159
Screw gearing 192, 246-253
Screw gearing, oblique 250-253
Screw, pitch of 17
Screw, power of 21
Screws, compound 18, 19
Screws, differential 18, 19
Screws, methods of cutting 20
Screws, multiple-threaded 17
Screws, right-handed and left-handed 17
Screws, various forms of section of 16
Sellers feed-discs 30
Shrouded wheel 233
Skew gearing 191
Sliding-block linkage 87-91
Sliding-block linkage, expansion of elements in 97-101
Sliding-block linkage, isosceles 96, 97
Slotted cross-head 102
Slow motion by linkwork. . 84
Speed-cones 44-47
Spiral of Archimedes 65
Spiral, logarithmic 32-35
Spiral, logarithmic, lobed wheels from 34, 35
Spline 16
Spur gearing 190, 202-241
Spur gearing; approximate forms of teeth 236-241
Spur gearing; cycloidal system 202-219
Spur gearing; involute system 219-229
Spur gearing; Sang's theory 234
Spur gearing, twisted 191, 235
Spur gearing; unsymmetrical teeth ! 234
Star-wheel 143
Stepped pulleys 44-47
Stop-motion, Geneva 141
Straight-line motion, Peaucellier's 114
Straight-line motion, Roberts's 124
Straight-line motion, Scott-Russell's 116, 117
Straight-line motion, Tchebicheff's 125
Straight-line motion, Watt's 118, 119, 123
Sun-and-planet wheels .-
174
Swash-plate 103
Swinging-block linkage 92-94
Swinging-block linkage; quick-return motion 93, 94
PAGET
Toggle-joint 85
Tooth-curves, law governing the shapes of 192
Train, engine-lathe 1 57
Velocity 4
Velocity, angular 4
Velocity, linear 4
Velocity ratio of rigidly-connected points 8, 9, 11
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Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology , with Special Reference
to Sanitary Water Analysis nmo, 1 25
* Price's Handbook on Sanitation nmo, 1 50
Richards's Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries nmo, 1 00
Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science nmo, 1 00
Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand-
point 8vo, 2 00
* Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer 8vo, x 50
Rideal'sSewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo, 3 50
Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 00
Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 3 50
Woodhull's Notes and Military Hygiene x6mo, 1 50
MISCELLANEOUS.
Barker's Deep-sea Soundings 8vo, 2 00
Emmons's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the
International Congress of Geologists Large 8vo x 50
Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds , 8vo 4 00
Haines's American Railway Management nmo, 2 50
Mott's Composition, Digestibility, and Nutritive Value of Food. Mounted chart. 1 25
Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound i6mo 1 00
Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1824-1894. Small 8vo, 3 00
Rotherham's Empnasized New Testament Large 8vo, 2 00
Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog 8vo, 3 50
Totten's Important Question in Metrology 8vo 2 50
The World's Columbian Exposition ot 1893 4to, x 00
Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.) (In press.)
Worcester and Atkinson. Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance,
and Suggestions for Hospital Architecture, with Plans for a Small
Hospital nmo, t 25