Ofserv Nigeria Limited

01 Introduction

1. Purpose of the package

2. An overview of the package
3. Function and types of foundations
4. Settlement of foundations
5. Bearing capacity and pressure
6. Distribution of bearing pressure
7. Stability use of foundation types
8. Concrete specification and cover
9. Summary
 01 Introduction

1. Purpose of the package

The purpose of this package is to explain the design and use of retaining walls and
the various types of foundation - footings, rafts and piles. The package concentrates
on the design of the concrete elements, and only discusses briefly the essentials
and terminology of soil mechanics.
Although much of the theory is fundamental, detailed design must invariably
conform to the requirements of a code of practice.
In this case it is to,

published by the British Standards Institution, and which is referred to throughout

this package as The Code. This includes the appropriate National Annex which
contains all nationally determined parameters to be used for the design of
buildings to be constructed in the UK.
 01 Introduction

2. An Overview of this Package

This package starts by introducing the types of foundations and their use
depending on the bearing capacity of the soil, and the need to check for stability. It
then moves on to discuss the design and detailing of foundations which are built
directly on the soil; single and combined pad footings, strip footings supporting
walls and columns, and rafts.
This package then discusses the types and design of piles and pile caps. Finally the
the use, design, and detailing of retaining walls.
 01 Introduction

3. Function and Types of Foundations

The substructure or foundation is the part of a structure that is usually placed
below the surface of the ground to transmit the load from the superstructure to
the underlying soil or rock.
 01 Introduction

3. Function and Types of Foundations

The substructure or foundation is the part of a structure that is usually placed
below the surface of the ground to transmit the load from the superstructure to the
underlying soil or rock.

All soils compress noticeably when loaded and cause the

supported structure to settle.to s
 01 Introduction

3. Function and Types of Foundations

To limit settlement it is necessary to –

• transmit the load of the structure to a soil stratum of
sufficient strength, and
 01 Introduction

3. Function and Types of Foundations

To limit settlement it is necessary to –

• transmit the load of the structure to a soil stratum of sufficient
strength, and
• spread the load over a sufficiently large area of that stratum
to minimize the bearing pressure.
 01 Introduction

3. Function and Types of Foundations

The substructure or foundation is the part of a structure that is usually placed
below the surface of the ground to transmit the load from the superstructure to
the underlying soil or rock.

If soil of sufficient bearing capacity lies immediately below the

structure then the load can be spread by footings, as shown.to s
 01 Introduction

3. Function and Types of Foundations

The substructure or foundation is the part of a structure that is usually placed
below the surface of the ground to transmit the load from the superstructure to
the underlying soil or rock.

If soil of sufficient bearing capacity lies immediately below the

structure then the load can be spread by footings, as shown.to s
 01 Introduction

3. Function and Types of Foundations

The substructure or foundation is the part of a structure that is usually placed
below the surface of the ground to transmit the load from the superstructure to
the underlying soil or rock.

If soil of sufficient bearing capacity lies immediately below the

structure then the load can be spread by footings, as shown.to s

Footings range from isolated pads supporting individual

columns, through strips supporting walls or closely spaced
columns, to a raft footing supporting the whole structure.
01 Introduction

3. Function and Types of Foundations

However, if the soil has insufficient bearing capacity
then it is necessary to use deep foundations, such as piles, to
transmit the load to deeper, firmer strata.
 01 Introduction

4. Settlement of Foundations
The two essential requirements in the design of foundations are –
• that the total settlement of the structure be limited to a relatively small amount,
and
• that differential settlement of the various parts of the structure be kept to a
minimum.

Restricting differential settlement, A is more important than limiting uniform

overall settlement, because it is far more likely to cause structural damage due to
the additional moments and forces that it applies to the structure.

The actual amount of distortion that a structure can

undergo without damage is clearly dependent on the
strength and rigidity of the structure.

The effects of settlement on the structure and its

occupants dictate the limits of settlement to be used in
the design of the foundations, thus -
 01 Introduction

4. Settlement of Foundations
Usual appearance. A tilt rotation or a deflection ratio greater than 1/250 is likely to
be noticed by, and may cause concern to, the occupants.

Serviceability. Cracking of load

bearing walls or partitions is
unsightly and remedial action may
be required.
Cracking of external walls can
result in a loss of weather-
tightness and thermal/sound
insulation. The effect of
settlement on underground
services and machinery must also
be considered.
 01 Introduction

4. Settlement of Foundations
Limiting values. of distortion and deflection of structures have been proposed by
numerous researchers. These recommendations are based upon experience and
should be regarded as rules of thumb.
• Terzaghi and Peck suggested a maximum settlement of 25mm for ordinary
structures with isolated foundations and 50mm for raft foundations. The 25mm is
based on the assumption that the corresponding differential settlement between
adjacent columns is unlikely to be more than 20mm, close to the limit that ordinary
structures can tolerate without damage.
• For a limiting angle of distortion of 1/500, Skempton and MacDonald suggested a
maximum settlement of 40mm for isolated foundations and up to 65mm for raft
foundations.
The designer must either design the foundations to limit the total settlement in
accordance with these empirical rules, or carry out a rigorous analysis of the soil-
structure interaction.
 01 Introduction

5. Bearing Capacity and Pressure

The ultimate bearing capacity of the soil, qult is the maximum bearing pressure that
the soil can withstand. Values are established from principles of soil mechanics on
the basis of load tests and other experimental determinations.

The allowable bearing capacity or pressure, qa under service loads is

generally based on a safety factor of 3 against exceeding the ultimate
bearing capacity of the soil and to keep settlements within acceptable
limits.

For initial design suitable presumed values of allowable bearing pressure are used.

Since the allowable bearing pressure acts at the base of the footing, the applied
loads must also be calculated at this level. Thus, the weight of the footing
and any load on top of the footing not included in the column load (e.g. the
fill, any water pressure, a ground floor slab) must be added.
 01 Introduction

5. Bearing Capacity and Pressure

Allowable Bearing Pressure

 01 Introduction

5. Bearing Capacity and Pressure

 01 Introduction

6. Distribution of Bearing Pressure

Soils are divided into two groups - cohesive (sticky - clays) and cohesionless
(granular - gravels).

For a concentrically loaded pad footing the bearing pressure distribution

for a cohesive soil is –

The pressures are higher near the edge because the load produces a shear
resistance around the perimeter which adds to the upward pressure.

For a cohesionless soil the pressures are higher at the centre because
the individual grains of soil at the perimeter can shift very slightly
outwards to where the soil stresses are less.
 01 Introduction

6. Distribution of Bearing Pressure

For design purposes, provided the load is symmetrical with respect to
the bearing area, it is usual to disregard these variations and assume a
uniform bearing pressure because –

• the actual numerical pressure distribution is uncertain and varies

between similar soils,
• the effect on the magnitude of bending moments and shear forces in the
footing is relatively small.
 01 Introduction

7. Stability
Foundations and retaining walls must be designed at the ultimate limit state to resist both
overturning and sliding . The principles are described here for isolated pad footings. Retaining walls are
covered fully in a later topic.
To prevent overturning the restoring moment due to the vertical
load must be greater than the overturning moment, thus –

Under this loading condition the bearing pressure is not uniform, and on
compressible soils this can result in the footing 'tilting' if the pressure under one
side is significantly larger than the pressure under the opposite side.

To prevent the footing from sliding the resistance of the footing on

the soil must exceed the applied horizontal load, thus
 01 Introduction

7. Stability
To prevent the footing from sliding the resistance of the footing on
the soil must exceed the applied horizontal load, thus –
is the frictional resistance under the base
Where is the friction angle between concrete and soil
is the passive resistance due to horizontal movement
is the active pressure due to horizontal movement

Note: because Fp and Fa are dependent on the allowable horizontal movement of

the footing, which is often uncertain, it is good practice to ignore Fp and Fa , thus
Ff > F H
 01 Introduction

7. Stability
To prevent the footing from sliding the resistance of the footing on
the soil must exceed the applied horizontal load, thus –
is the frictional resistance under the base
Where is the friction angle between concrete and soil
is the passive resistance due to horizontal movement
is the active pressure due to horizontal movement

Note: because Fp and Fa are dependent on the allowable horizontal movement of

the footing, which is often uncertain, it is good practice to ignore Fp and Fa , thus
Ff > F H
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 01 Introduction

CLASSIFICATIONS OF FOUNDATIONS
Foundations are classified into two major groups
1 Shallow foundations
These are foundations where the breath of the foundation is greater than the depth of the
foundation.
i.e. B>D . Shallow foundations are usually constructed where soil layer at shallow depth (upto
1.5m) is able
to support the structural loads. Examples of shallow foundation are
1. Strip footing
2. Pad foundation/spread footings/isolated footing and all its variations
3. Raft/Mat foundations and all its variations
2 Deep foundations
These are foundations where the breath of the foundation is less than the depth of the foundation.
i.e. B<D. Examples of deep foundation are
1. Pile foundation
2. Pier
3. caisson
4. coffer dam
 02 strip footing

STRIP FOUNDATION

Strip footings are provided for masonry and reinforced concrete load-bearing wall. Strip footings are
also provided for a row of columns ( usually over 3 columns) which are
1. so closely spaced that their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other In such a case, it is
more
economical to provide a strip footing than to provide a number of spread footings in one line with
little or
no space between them or
2. all columns are connected to gain more foundation area.. A strip footing is also known as
continuous footing.

Strip footings to support masonry are often are not reinforced.

02 strip footing

A reinforced strip foundation with upstand beam

02 strip footing

Pictures on strip foundation

 02 strip footing

Pictures on strip foundation

 02 strip footing

Pictures on strip foundation

 02 strip footing

Pictures on strip foundation

 03 Pad foundation

PAD FOUNDATION

A spread footing also called as isolated footing, pad footing and individual footing is provided to support an
individual column. A spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness. Sometimes,
it is stepped or hunched to spread the load over a large area.

Typical Pad foundation Rebar placement.

 03 Pad foundation

Pictures on pad foundations

 03 Pad foundation

Pictures on pad foundations

 03 Pad foundation

Pictures on pad foundations

 03 Pad foundation

Pictures on pad foundations

 03 Pad foundation

Pictures on pad foundations

 04 combined footing

COMBINED FOOTING
A combined footing supports two columns. It is used when the two columns are so close to each other that
their individual footings would overlap. A combined footing is also provided when the property line is so
close to one column that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within the
property line. By combining it with that of an interior column, the load is evenly distributed. A combined
footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.

Combined Footing
 04 combined footing

Pictures of Combined Footing

 04 combined footing

Pictures of Combined Footing

 05 Raft/Mat foundation

RAFT FOUNDATION

Raft foundation is a thick reinforced concrete slab which spreads over a

large area of soil and provides support for several columns and load
bearing walls. It is also called mat foundation which are widely used
foundation system.
It is mostly used when the soil is weaker and more compressible
Since large area is needed from a spread footing, mat foundation is
more economic.
Some advantages of raft foundation are it spreads the load in a larger
area-Increase bearing pressure. Provides more structural rigidity-
Reduce settlement. Heavier-More resistant to uplift. Distributes loads
more evenly
 05 Raft/Mat foundation

Types of Raft Foundation

Following are different types of raft foundations,

1. Crust Raft Foundation

2. Blanket Raft Foundation
3. Slip-Plane Raft Foundation
4. Beam-Strip Raft Foundation
5. Cellular Raft Foundation
6. Jack Raft Foundation
 05 Raft/Mat foundation

1. Crust Raft Foundation

A crust raft can be compared to a ground-bearing reinforced concrete floor slab with thickenings
under the columns and walls. Differential settlement can occur due to, either variations in the
imposed surface loading, or by disparity in sub-soil settlement. The slab of the raft acts as a surface
crust to the sub-strata and helps to level any differential settlement.

The size and depth of the thickenings are determined by the value of the bearing capacity of the soil.
The thickness of the slab is dictated by the overall raft design loading requirements, which generally
exceed the nominal slab requirements. Where the loads are relatively light and the depth of slab is
shallow (as shown), the raft is called a nominal crust raft.
 05 Raft/Mat foundation

2. Blanket Raft Foundation

The blanket raft is a crust raft constructed on a stone blanket,
which is built up in layers on the reduced sub-strata level.

The basis of the action and design of the foundation is a composite

action between the crust raft and the stone blanket.

In order to disperse and support loading, where there may be

localized disparity in the sub-strata, the crust raft and the blanket
interact to span over the weaker soil spots.

The stone blanket is an effective method of dispersing heavy

imposed surface loading, especially edge loads or where there is
an imbalance of load with soft spots in the sub-strata.
 05 Raft/Mat foundation

3. Slip-Plane Raft Foundation

A slip-plane raft can be used where the site
investigation reveals that the ground conditions are banded
with a weaker layer between the raft and the sub-strata.

Generally, this is a sand of known friction and shear resistance.

The slip-plane raft is a plain slab with no end thickenings, built
on a slip-plane layer.

The depth of the slip-plane should be adequate to ensure that a

straight failure plane could occur under excessive longitudinal
ground strain. The depth of penetration of the raft into the ground
is kept to a minimum to avoid picking up loading from ground strains.

A problem which must be considered in the design of a slip-plane raft is frost heave. This can be prevented
by providing sufficient depth below the finished ground level, in keeping with considerations for ground
strains.
 05 Raft/Mat foundation

4. Beam-Strip Foundation
The beam-strip raft incorporates ground-bearing beams in two or
more directions. The main structure loads are supported at the
intersecting points of the beams.

The beams are tied together by a ground-bearing slab. This restricts

any lateral distortions of the beams and can level any local
differential settlements. Like the cellular form, this type of raft is
used in areas of soft, weak soil, and areas of mining activity.

The beam-strip raft is more economical to construct than the cellular

raft and, therefore, is often used where ground conditions are not
as severe as to require a cellular raft.
 05 Raft/Mat foundation

5. Cellular Raft Foundation

Cellular rafts are used on sites where :
• poor ground must resist high bending moments,
• there is severe mining activity,
• deep foundation beams would otherwise be required.

This type of raft is constructed by an arrangement of beams and slabs.

Two-way interlocking foundation beams are used with a ground bearing slab
at the base and a suspended slab at the top. By combining the slabs with the
beams, I-sections are formed.

Through this action, the intersecting beams effectively divide the large slab
into two-way spanning continuous small panels.

The beams and ground bearing slab are generally poured on site, but it is common
practice to use precast soffits for the top slab.
 05 Raft/Mat foundation

6. Crust Raft Foundation

A buoyancy raft is quite similar in appearance to the cellular form since
it has a deep raft with large voids.

A buoyancy raft, also known as a 'floating' raft, is so named because the

earth removed leaves virtually
weightless or buoyant voids.

The raft is formed by combining

ground slabs with retaining walls.

Where a structure is quite heavily loaded and the ground-

bearing
capacity of the soil is low, but not sufficiently low to demand the
use of the more expensive cellular raft, a buoyancy raft is used.
With the availability of large open voids, this foundation is
popular when basement accommodation is required.
 05 Raft/Mat foundation

7. Jacking Raft Foundation

The jacking raft is a powerful but expensive option and is only used where
site conditions do not allow the use of any other raft form. Subsidence can
cause a structure to tilt and distort to an unsuitable degree. using a jacking
raft helps to re-level the structure. It is used in locations of excessive or
unpredictable subsidence, and areas subjected to brine or mineral
extraction. .
 05 Raft/Mat foundation

Pictures on raft foundation

 05 Raft/Mat foundation

Pictures on raft foundation

 05 Raft/Mat foundation

Pictures on raft foundation

 05 Raft/Mat foundation

Pictures on raft foundation

 05 Raft/Mat foundation

Pictures on raft foundation

 05 Raft/Mat foundation

Pictures on raft foundation

 05 Raft/Mat foundation

Pictures on raft foundation

06 Pile foundation

Introduction
06 Pile foundation

Single pile capacity

06 Pile foundation

Groups of piles
 06 Pile foundation

Types of piles

1. Driven pile
2. Driven cast in-situ
3. Bored cast in-situ
4. Screw
5. Jacked
6. Continues Flight Auger (cfa)
7. Anchor
8. Mini / Pin / micro piles
06 Pile foundation

1 Driven pile
06 Pile foundation

1 Driven pile
06 Pile foundation

1 Driven pile
06 Pile foundation

2 Driven cast in-situ

06 Pile foundation

2 Driven cast in-situ

06 Pile foundation

3 Bored in-situ
06 Pile foundation

4 Screw piles
06 Pile foundation

5 Jacked piles
06 Pile foundation

5 Continuous flight augar (CFA)

06 Pile foundation

6 cfa
06 Pile foundation

6 cfa
cal

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